Yesterday I dared to struggle. Today I dare to win.

An Oligarchy is a form of government in which power effectively rests with

a small elite segment of society

Oligarchy

Czar Barack Hussein Obama Reality BookStrategy Structure Society Separation Supremacy Intertwined Intimidation Inevitable Conflict

by Gregory Bodenhamer Mechanicsburg Pa All Rights Reserved 2009-2016 Copyright U.S.A.

Czar Barack Hussein Obama Reality BookStrategy Structure Society Separation Supremacy Intertwined Intimidation Inevitable Conflict

by Gregory Bodenhamer Mechanicsburg Pa All Rights Reserved 2009 Copyright U.S.A.

Totalitarianism Autocracy

Representative Democracy

QUESTION

ANSWER

Yesterday I dared to struggle. Today I dare to win.

An Oligarchy is a form of government in which power

effectively rests with a small elite segment of society

Questions to ask before Questions to ask before

the sun goes downthe sun goes down,,w h i l e y o u s t i l l h a v e f r e e d o m o f s p e e c hw h i l e y o u s t i l l h a v e f r e e d o m o f s p e e c h

T H E H A R D T O F I N D T O P S E C R E T S O F T H E T H E H A R D T O F I N D T O P S E C R E T S O F T H E

O B A M A O L I G A R C H Y G O V E R N M E N TO B A M A O L I G A R C H Y G O V E R N M E N T

OligarchyOligarchy

The United States of America (also referred to as the United

States, the U.S., the USA, the States, or America /əˈmɛrɪkə/) is a

federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal

district. The country is situated mostly in central North America,

where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D. C., the

capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans,

bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south.

Elitism is the belief or attitude that some individuals, who

supposedly form an elite — a select group of people with,

intellect, wealth, specialized training or experience, or other

distinctive attributes

Crony capitalism is a pejorative term describing an allegedly

capitalist economy in which success in business depends on close

relationships between businesspeople and government officials.

It may be exhibited by favoritism in the distribution of legal

permits, government grants, special tax breaks, and so forth.

Crony capitalism is believed to arise when political cronyism spills

over into the business world; self-serving friendships and family

ties between businessmen and the government influence the

economy and society to the extent that it corrupts public-serving

economic and political ideals

Cronyism is partiality to long-standing friends, especially byCronyism is partiality to long-standing friends, especially by

appointing them to positions of authority, regardless of their

qualifications. Hence, cronyism is contrary in practice and

principle to meritocracy. Cronyism exists when the appointer and

the beneficiary are in social contact; often, the appointer is

inadequate to hold his or her own job or position of authority,

and for this reason the appointer appoints individuals who will

not try to weaken him or her, or express views contrary to those

of the appointer. Politically, "cronyism" is derogatorily used.

Democracy is a political form of government carried out either

directly by the people (direct democracy) or by means of elected

representatives of the people (representative democracy).

A dictatorship is defined as an autocratic form of

government in which the government is ruled by an

individual, the dictator. It has three possible meanings:

A Roman dictator was the incumbent of a political office of

the Roman Republic. Roman dictators were allocated

absolute power during times of emergency. Their power

was originally neither arbitrary nor unaccountable, being

subject to law and requiring retrospective justification.

There were no such dictatorships after the beginning of the

2nd century BC, and later dictators such as Sulla and the

Roman Emperors exercised power much more personallyRoman Emperors exercised power much more personally

and arbitrarily.

A government controlled by one person or a small group of

people. In this form of government the power rests with

one person. Such power is often obtained forcibly. A

dictator usually takes away much of people's freedom.

In contemporary usage, dictatorship refers to an autocratic

form of absolute rule by leadership unrestricted by law,

constitutions, or other social and political factors within

the state.

Meritocracy is a system of a aristocratic or oligarchical

government or other organization wherein appointments are

made and responsibilities assigned to individuals based upon

demonstrated intelligence and ability (merit), evaluated using

(frequent) institutionalized examination.

This is opposed to other value systems, where reward and

legitimacy is based upon possession of wealth (plutocracy), origin

(aristocracy), family connections (oligarchy), property, friendship

(cronyism), technical expertise (technocracy), seniority

(gerontocracy), popularity (representative democracy), or other

historical determinants of social position and political power.

A political family is a family in which several members are

involved in politics, particularly electoral politics. Members may

be related by blood or marriage; often several generations or

multiple siblings may be involved.

Nepotism is favoritism granted to relatives or friends, without

regard to their merit. The word nepotism is from the Latin word

nepos (meaning "nephew" or "grandchild").

Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of

production are privately owned; supply, demand, price,

distribution, and investments are determined mainly by private

decisions in the free market, rather than through a planned

economy; and profit is distributed to owners who invest in

businesses. Capitalism also refers to the process of capital

accumulation

Mercantilism The period between the sixteenth and eighteenth

centuries is commonly described as mercantilism.This period was

associated with geographic exploration of the Age of Discovery

being exploited by merchant overseas traders, especially from

England and the Low Countries; the European colonization of the

Americas; and the rapid growth in overseas trade. Mercantilism

was a system of trade for profit, although commodities were still

largely produced by non-capitalist production methods

Industrialism A new group of economic theorists, led by David

Hume and Adam Smith, in the mid 18th century, challenged

fundamental mercantilist doctrines as the belief that the amount

of the world’s wealth remained constant and that a state could

only increase its wealth at the expense of another state.

During the Industrial Revolution, the industrialist replaced the

merchant as a dominant actor in the capitalist system and effected

the decline of the traditional handicraft skills of artisans, guilds,

and journeymen. Also during this period, the surplus generated by

the rise of commercial agriculture encouraged increased

mechanization of agriculture. Industrial capitalism marked the

development of the factory system of manufacturing,

characterized by a complex division of labor between and within

work process and the routinization of work tasks; and finally

established the global domination of the capitalist mode of

productionproduction

The Industrial Revolution was a period

from the 18th to the 19th century where

major changes in agriculture,

manufacturing, mining, and transport had

a profound effect on the socioeconomic

and cultural conditions starting in the

United Kingdom, then subsequently

spreading throughout Europe, North

America, and eventually the world. The

onset of the Industrial Revolution marked

a major turning point in human history;a major turning point in human history;

almost every aspect of daily life was

eventually influenced in some way.

Slavery (in the past, also called serfdom or thralldom) is a system

in which people are the property of others. Slaves can be held

against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth,

and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand

wages. In some societies it was legal for an owner to kill a slave; in

others it was a crime

The Transatlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century,

when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding

expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions

were typically carried out by African kingdoms, such as the Oyo

empire (Yoruba), the Ashanti Empire, the kingdom of Dahomey,[

and the Aro Confederacy. Europeans rarely entered the interior of

Africa, due to fierce African resistance. The slaves were brought to

coastal outposts where they were traded for goods.

Censorship is the suppression of speech or deletion of

communicative material which may be considered objectionable,

harmful, sensitive, or inconvenient to the government or media

organizations as determined by a censor.

Political censorship occurs when governments hold back

information from their citizens. This is often done to exert control

over the populace and prevent free expression that might foment

rebellion. Another version of censorship is the phenomenon of

disinformation which uses "red herrings" to distract people from

some other controversial issue

Religious censorship is the means by

which any material considered

objectionable by a certain faith isobjectionable by a certain faith is

removed. This often involves a dominant

religion forcing limitations on less

prevalent ones. Alternatively, one religion

may shun the works of another when they

believe the content is not appropriate for

their faith.

The content of school textbooks is often the issue of debate, since

their target audience is young people, and the term

"whitewashing" is the one commonly used to refer to removal of

critical or conflicting events. The reporting of military atrocities in

history is extremely controversial, as in the case of the Bombing of

Dresden, the Nanking Massacre as found with Japanese history

textbook controversies, the Armenian Genocide, The Holocaust (or

Holocaust denial), the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, and

the Winter Soldier Investigation of the Vietnam War.

Banned books are books to which free access is not permitted.

The practice of banning books is a form of censorship, and often

has political, religious or moral motivations.

Book burning, biblioclasm or libricide is the practice of destroying,

often ceremoniously, books or other written material. In modern

times, other forms of media, such as phonograph records, video

tapes, and CDs have also been ceremoniously burned, torched, or

shredded. The practice, usually carried out in public, is generally

motivated by moral, religious, or political objections to the

material.

Some particular cases of book burning are long and traumatically

remembered - because the books destroyed were irreplaceable

and their loss constituted a severe damage to cultural heritage,

and/or because this instance of book burning has become

emblematic of a harsh and oppressive regime. Such were theemblematic of a harsh and oppressive regime. Such were the

destruction of the Library of Alexandria, the obliteration of the

Library of Baghdad, the burning of books and burying of scholars

under China's Qin Dynasty, the destruction of Mayan codices by

Spanish conquistadors and priests, and in more recent times, Nazi

book burnings, the burning of Beatles records after a remark by

John Lennon concerning Jesus Christ, and the destruction of the

Sarajevo National Library.

A chilling effect is a term in law and communication which

describes a situation where speech or conduct is suppressed by

fear of penalization at the interests of an individual or group. It

may prompt self-censorship and therefore hamper free speech.

Since many attacks rely on libel law, the term libel chill is also often

used. This is the same concept as a Strategic Lawsuit Against Public

Participation, or "SLAPP" suit.

Academic freedom is the belief that the freedom of inquiry by

students and faculty members is essential to the mission of the

academy, and that scholars should have freedom to teach or

communicate ideas or facts (including those that are inconvenient

to external political groups or to authorities) without being

targeted for repression, job loss, or imprisonment.

Freedom of the press is the freedom of communication and

expression through vehicles including various electronic media and

published materials. While such freedom mostly implies the

absence of interference from an overreaching state, its

preservation may be sought through constitutional or other legal

protections.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states: "Everyone has

the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes

freedom to hold opinions without interference, and impart

information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers"

Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak without censorship or

limitation, or both. The synonymous term freedom of expression is

sometimes used to indicate not only freedom of verbal speech butsometimes used to indicate not only freedom of verbal speech but

any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information or ideas,

regardless of the medium used. In practice, the right to freedom of

speech is not absolute in any country and the right is commonly

subject to limitations, such as on "hate speech".

Today freedom of speech, or the freedom of expression, is

recognized in international and regional human rights law. The

right is enshrined in Article 19 of the International Covenant on

Civil and Political Rights, Article 10 of the European Convention on

Human Rights, Article 13 of the American Convention on Human

Rights and Article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples'

Rights.

Based on John Stuart Mill's arguments, freedom of speech is

understood as a multi-faceted right that includes not only the right

to express, or disseminate, information and ideas, but three

further distinct aspects:

the right to seek information and ideas;

the right to receive information and ideas;

the right to impart information and ideas.

International, regional and national standards also recognize that

freedom of speech, as the freedom of expression, includes any

medium, be it orally, in written, in print, through the Internet or

through art forms. This means that the protection of freedom of

speech as a right includes not only the content, but also the means

of expression

The notion of freedom of expression is intimately linked to

political debate and the concept of democracy. The norms on

limiting freedom of expression mean that public debate may not

be completely suppressed even in times of emergency.

One of the most notable proponents of the link between freedom

of speech and democracy is Alexander Meiklejohn. He argues that

the concept of democracy is that of self-government by the

people.

For such a system to work an informed electorate is necessary. In

order to be appropriately knowledgeable, there must be no

constraints on the free flow of information and ideas.

According to Meiklejohn, democracy will not be true to its

essential ideal if those in power are able to manipulate the

electorate by withholding information and stifling criticism.electorate by withholding information and stifling criticism.

Meiklejohn acknowledges that the desire to manipulate opinion

can stem from the motive of seeking to benefit society. However,

he argues, choosing manipulation negates, in its means, the

democratic ideal

Freedom of thought (also called the freedom of conscience or

ideas) is the freedom of an individual to hold or consider a fact,

viewpoint, or thought, independent of others' viewpoints. It is

different from and not to be confused with the concept of

freedom of expression.

The obvious impediment to censoring thought is that it is

impossible to know with certainty what another person is

thinking, and harder to regulate it. Many famous historical works

recognize this. The Bible summarizes in Ecclesiastes 8:8: "There is

no man that has power over the spirit, to retain it; neither has he

power in the day of death."

Political correctness (adjectivally, politically correct; both forms

commonly abbreviated to PC) is a term which denotes language,

ideas, policies, and behavior seen as seeking to minimize social

and institutional offense in occupational, gender, racial, cultural,

sexual orientation, disability, and age-related contexts

Free will is the purported ability of agents to make choices free

from constraints. Historically, the constraint of dominant concern

has been the metaphysical constraint of determinism.

Choice consists of the mental process of judging the merits of

multiple options and selecting one of them. While a choice can be

made between imagined options ("what would I do if ...?"), often

a choice is made between real options, and followed by the

corresponding action. For example, a route for a journey is

chosen based on the preference of arriving at a given destination

as soon as possible. The preferred (and therefore chosen) route is

then derived from information about how long each of the

possible routes take. This can be done by a route planner. If the

preference is more complex, such as involving the scenery of the

route, cognition and feeling are more intertwined, and the choice

is less easy to delegate to a computer program or assistant.is less easy to delegate to a computer program or assistant.

Self-determination is the free choice of one’s own acts without

external compulsion. In politics it is seen as the freedom of the

people of a given territory or national grouping to determine their

own political status and how they will be governed without undue

influence from any other country.

Political corruption is the use of legislated powers by government

officials for illegitimate private gain. Misuse of government power

for other purposes, such as repression of political opponents and

general police brutality, is not considered political corruption.

Neither are illegal acts by private persons or corporations not

directly involved with the government. An illegal act by an

officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is

directly related to their official duties.

Forms of corruption vary, but include bribery, extortion,

cronyism, nepotism, patronage, graft, and embezzlement. While

corruption may facilitate criminal enterprise such as drug

trafficking, money laundering, and human trafficking, it is not

restricted to these activities.

Bribery, a form of corruption, is an act implying money or gift

given that alters the behavior of the recipient. Bribery constitutes

a crime and is defined by Black's Law Dictionary as the offering,

giving, receiving, or soliciting of any item of value to influence the

actions of an official or other person in charge of a public or legal

duty. The bribe is the gift bestowed to influence the recipient's

conduct. It may be any money, good, right in action, property,

preferment, privilege, emolument, object of value, advantage, or

merely a promise or undertaking to induce or influence the action,

vote, or influence of a person in an official or public capacity.

Extortion, outwresting, and/or exaction is a criminal offense which

occurs when a person unlawfully obtains either money, property

or services from a person(s), entity, or institution, through

coercion. Refraining from doing harm is sometimes

euphemistically called protection. Extortion is commonly practiced

by organized crime groups. The actual obtainment of money or

property is not required to commit the offense. Making a threat of

violence which refers to a requirement of a payment of money or

property to halt future violence is sufficient to commit the offense.

Exaction refers not only to extortion or the unlawful demanding

and obtaining of something through force,but additionally, in its

formal definition, means the infliction of something such as pain

and suffering or making somebody endure something unpleasant

Cronyism is partiality to long-standing friends, especially by

appointing them to positions of authority, regardless of their

qualifications.

Nepotism is favoritism granted to relatives or friends, without

regard to their merit. The word nepotism is from the Latin word

nepos (meaning "nephew" or "grandchild").

Patronage is the support, encouragement, privilege, or financial

aid that an organization or individual bestows to another. In the

history of art, arts patronage refers to the support that kings or

popes have provided to musicians, painters, and sculptors.

Embezzlement is the act of dishonestly appropriating or secreting

assets, usually financial in nature, by one or more individuals to

whom such assets have been entrusted.

Embezzlement is a kind of financial fraud. For instance, a clerk or

cashier handling large sums of money could embezzle cash from

his or her employer, a lawyer could embezzle funds from clients'

trust accounts, a financial advisor could embezzle funds from

investors, or a spouse could embezzle funds from his or her

partner. Embezzlement may range from the very minor in nature,

involving only small amounts, to the immense, involving large

sums and sophisticated schemessums and sophisticated schemes

Organized crime or criminal organizations is a transnational

grouping of highly centralized enterprises run by criminals for the

purpose of engaging in illegal activity, most commonly for

monetary profit. The Organized Crime Control Act (U.S., 1970)

defines organized crime as "The unlawful activities of a highly

organized, disciplined association Such crime is commonly referred

to as the work of the Mob in the U.S.

In US law, money laundering is the practice of engaging in financial

transactions to conceal the identity, source, or destination of

illegally gained money. In UK law the common law definition is

wider. The act is defined as "taking any action with property of any

form which is either wholly or in part the proceeds of a crime that

will disguise the fact that that property is the proceeds of a crime

or obscure the beneficial ownership of said property."

Immigration is the introduction of new people into a habitat or

population. It is a biological concept and is important in population

ecology, differentiated from emigration and migration.

Human migration is physical movement by humans from one area

to another, sometimes over long distances or in large groups. The

movement of populations in modern times has continued under

the form of both voluntary migration within one's region, country,

or beyond, and involuntary migration (which includes the slave

trade, Human traffic in human beings and ethnic cleansing).

People who migrate are called migrants or more specifically,

emigrants, immigrants, or settlers, depending on historical setting,

circumstances and perspective.

The pressures of human migrations, whether as outright conquest

or by slow cultural infiltration and resettlement, have affected theor by slow cultural infiltration and resettlement, have affected the

grand epochs in history and in land (for example, the Decline of

the Roman Empire); under the form of colonization, migration has

transformed the world (such as the prehistoric and historic

settlements of Australia and the Americas).

The main problem with push-and-pull theories is three-fold: first,

they state the obvious (i.e., people from poorer places will seek to

go to richer ones); second, they are unable to explain the

emergence of migrant flows (if push and pull were the only things

in existence, people from the poorest countries would migrate to

the richest ones, when in reality such flows are well-nigh non-

existent); third, they are unable to explain the stability of the

emerging patterns of migration (i.e., once a flow from country A to

country B is established, it will stay on for a relatively long time,

even if the initial conditions that had given the push and pull to

the migration are not there

Seasonal human migration is very common in agricultural cycles.

It includes migrations such as moving sheep or cattle to higher

elevations during summer to escape heat and find more forage.

Human labor often moves with fruit harvest, or to other crops that

require manual picking.

While the culture of many crops (especially "dry" crops) has

become entirely mechanized, others, such as fruits and vegetables

still require manual labor, at least for harvest, and some, such as

tobacco, still need manual labor for its culture. Much of this work

was once provided by family members or boarding students, but

these workers are less available now, and farms are larger. Today

migratory workers provide much of the hand labor required in

agriculture in the US and some other countries. Labor contractors

arrange with farmers to provide the necessary help at the seasonal

time, often with foreign nationals whose employment

opportunities are more limited in their home areas.opportunities are more limited in their home areas.

Illegal immigration is the movement of people across national

borders in a way that violates the immigration laws of the

destination country. Illegal immigrants are also known as illegal

aliens to differentiate them from legal aliens. Conversely, illegal

emigration refers to unlawfully leaving a country.

In law, an alien is a person in a country who is not a citizen of that

country

Types of "alien" persons are:

An alien who is legally permitted to remain in a country which is

foreign to him or her. On specified terms, this kind of alien may

be called a legal alien of that country. This is a very broad

category which includes tourists, guest workers, legal permanent

residents and student visa resident aliens.

An alien who has temporary or permanent residence in a country

(which is foreign to him/her) may be called a resident alien of

that country. This is a subset of the aforementioned legal alien

category.

An alien who is visiting a country (which is foreign to him/her)

may be called a nonresident alien of that country. This is a

subset of the aforementioned legal alien category.

An alien who is present in a country (which is foreign to him/her)

unlawfully or without the country's authorization is known as an

illegal alien of that country.[ An illegal alien commonly refers to aillegal alien of that country.[ An illegal alien commonly refers to a

foreign national who resides in another country unlawfully,

either by entering that country at a place other than a

designated port-of-entry or as result of the expiration of a non-

immigrant visa.

An enemy alien is an alien who is designated as an enemy.

In U.S. law, an alien is "any person not a citizen or national of the

United States." The U.S. Government's use of alien dates back to

1798, when it was used in the Alien and Sedition Acts U.S. law

makes a clear distinction between aliens and immigrants by

defining immigrants as a subset of aliens.[

Although U.S. law provides no overarching explicit definition of

the term "illegal alien," the term is used in many statutes and

elsewhere (e.g., court cases, executive orders). U.S. law also uses

the term "unauthorized alien."[U.S. immigration laws do not refer

to illegal immigrants, but in common parlance the term "illegal

immigrant" is often used to refer to any illegal alien. Because at

law, a corporation is a person, the term alien is not limited to

natural humans because what are colloquially called foreign

corporations are technically called alien corporations. Because

corporations are creations of local state law, a foreign corporation

is an out of state corporation.is an out of state corporation.

Naturalization is the acquisition of citizenship and nationality by

somebody who was not a citizen or national of that country when

he or she was born.

In general, basic requirements for naturalization are that the

applicant hold a legal status as a full-time resident for a minimum

period of time and that the applicant promise to obey and uphold

that country's laws, to which an oath or pledge of allegiance is

sometimes added. Some countries also require that a naturalized

national must renounce any other citizenship that they currently

hold, forbidding dual citizenship, but whether this renunciation

actually causes loss of the person's original citizenship will again

depend on the laws of the countries involved.

The California Alien Land Law of 1913 prohibits "aliens ineligible

for citizenship" (i.e., all Asian immigrants) from owning land or

property, but permits three year leases. It affected the Chinese,

Indian, Japanese, and Korean immigrant farmers in California. It

passed thirty-five to two in the Senate and seventy-two to three in

the Assembly

The Alien and Sedition Acts were four bills passed in 1798 by the

Federalists in the 5th United States Congress during an undeclared

naval war with France, later known as the Quasi-War. They were

signed into law by President John Adams. Proponents claimed the

acts were designed to protect the Catholics from alien citizens of

enemy powers and to prevent seditious attacks from weakening

the government. The Democratic-Republicans, like later historians,

denominated them as being both unconstitutional and designed

to stifle criticism of the administration, and as infringing on theto stifle criticism of the administration, and as infringing on the

right of the states to act in these areas. They became a major

political issue in the elections of 1798 and 1800.

Politics is a process by which groups of people make collective

decisions. The term is generally applied to behavior within civil

governments, but politics has been observed in other group

interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious

institutions. It consists of "social relations involving authority or

power" and refers to the regulation of a political unit, and to the

methods and tactics used to formulate and apply policy.

Regardless of how civilized the world is, there are still large

numbers of people living in the most primitive conditions.

All patriarchal societies are known by certain characteristic

features:Male kinship is prevalent. Men are counted as kin because they are descended from

the same male ancestor.

Marriage is permanent. It is not until one woman is married to one man that certainty

of fatherhood appears in society but it is not a general rule of patriarchal society for

polygamy does exist in the earlier stages of social development.

Paternal authority is the ruling principle of the social order. In ancient Rome, the

patria potestas extended to all descendants of one living male ancestor; it comprised

control and punishment not to mention questions of life and death.

These features of the development of the patriarchal state of society are as common

among the Jews as among the Arabs, among the Aryans as among the Dravidians and

even among the Germanic and Celtic peoples.

The patriarchal state of society consists of two stages, tribe and clan. The tribe is a

large group of hundreds of members who descend from one common male ancestor,

sometimes from a fictitious character satisfying the etiquette that descent from the

male is the only basis of society. The clan, on the other hand, is a smaller group

reaching back into the past for only four generations or so to a common well-knownreaching back into the past for only four generations or so to a common well-known

male ancestor. The clan always breaks down into smaller units when its limit is

reached.

According to the Scottish historian W. F. Skene in volumen 3 of Celtic Scotland, the

tribe or larger unit is the oldest. When the tribe breaks down, clans are formed. When

the clan system breaks down, it leaves the households or families as independent

units. Finally, with the withering away of patriarchal society, the family is dissolved

and the individual comes into existence.

The origin of the State is to be found in the development of the

art of warfare. Historically speaking, there is not the slightest

difficulty in proving that all political communities of the modern

type owe their existence to successful warfare. As a result the new

states are forced to organize on military principles. The life of the

new community is military allegiance. The military by nature is

competitive.

No political institution is of greater importance than the

institution of property. Property is the right vested on the

individual or a group of people to enjoy the benefits of an object

be it material or intellectual. A right is a power enforced by public

trust. Sometimes it happens that the exercise of a right is opposed

to public trust. Nevertheless, a right is really the creation of public

trust, past, present or future. The growth of knowledge is the key

to the history of property as an institution. The more man

becomes knowledgeable of an object be it physical or intellectual,

the more it is appropriated. The appearance of the State brought

about the final stage in the evolution of property from wildlife to

husbandry. In the presence of the State, man can hold landed

property.

The State began granting lordships and ended up conferring

property and with it came inheritance. With landed property came

rent and in the exchange of goods, profit, so that in modern times,

the "lord of the land" of long ago becomes the landlord. If it is

wrongly assumed that the value of land is always the same, then

there is of course no evolution of property whatever. However, the

price of land goes up with every increase in population benefitting

the landlord. The landlordism of large land owners has been the

most rewarded of all political services. In industry, the position of

the landlord is less important but in towns which have grown out

of an industry, the fortunate landlord has reaped an enormous

profit. Towards the latter part of the Middle Ages in Europe, both

the State - the State would use the instrument of confiscation for

the first time to satisfy a debt - and the Church - the Church

succeeded in acquiring immense quantities of land - were allied

against the village community to displace the small landlord andagainst the village community to displace the small landlord and

they were successful to the extent that today, the village has

become the ideal of the individualist, a place in which every man

"does what he wills with his own."

Property is any physical or intangible entity that is owned by a

person or jointly by a group of persons. Depending on the nature

of the property, an owner of property has the right to consume,

sell, rent, mortgage, transfer, exchange or destroy their property,

and/or to exclude others from doing these things. Important

widely recognized types of property include real property (land),

personal property (physical possessions belonging to a person),

private property (property owned by legal persons or business

entities), public property (state owned or publicly owned and

available possessions) and intellectual property (exclusive rights

over artistic creations, inventions, etc.), although the latter is not

always as widely recognized or enforced.

Inheritance is the practice of passing on property, titles, debts, andInheritance is the practice of passing on property, titles, debts, and

obligations upon the death of an individual. It has long played an

important role in human societies. The rules of inheritance differ

between societies and have changed over time.

Confiscation, from the Latin confiscatio 'joining to the fiscus, i.e.

transfer to the treasury' is a legal seizure without compensation by

a government or other public authority. The word is also used,

popularly, of spoliation under legal forms, or of any seizure of

property without adequate compensation.

Crime is the breach of rules or laws for which some governing

authority (via mechanisms such as legal systems) can ultimately

prescribe a conviction. Individual human societies may each

define crime and crimes differently. While every crime violates

the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime; for

example: breaches of contract and of other civil law may rank as

"offences" or as "infractions". Modern societies generally regard

crimes as offenses against the public or the state, distinguished

from torts (offenses against private parties that can give rise to a

civil cause of action).civil cause of action).

In law, a sentence forms the final act of a judge-ruled process,

and also the symbolic principal act connected to his function. The

sentence generally involves a decree of imprisonment, a fine

and/or other punishments against a defendant convicted of a

crime. Those imprisoned for multiple crimes, will serve a

consecutive sentence (in which the period of imprisonment

equals the sum of all the sentences), a concurrent sentence (in

which the period of imprisonment equals the length of the

longest sentence), or somewhere in between, sometimes subject

to a cap.

Asset forfeiture is a term used to describe the confiscation of

assets, by the state, which are either (a) the proceeds of crime or

(b) the instrumentalities of crime, and more recently, terrorism.

Instrumentalities of crime are property that was used to facilitate

crime, for example cars used to transport illegal narcotics. The

terminology used in different jurisdictions varies. Some

jurisdictions use the term "confiscation" instead of forfeiture. In

recent years there has been a growing trend for countries to

introduce civil forfeiture

Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or

social outlook that stresses "the moral worth of the individual".

Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and

so independence and self-reliance while opposing most external

interference upon one's own interests, whether by society, or any

other group or institution.other group or institution.

Natural rights (also called moral rights or inalienable rights) are

rights which are not contingent upon the laws, customs, or beliefs

of a particular society or polity. Natural rights are thus necessarily

universal, whereas legal rights are culturally and politically relative.

Blurring the lines between natural and legal rights, U.S. statesman

James Madison believed that some rights, such as trial by jury, are

social rights, arising neither from natural law nor from positive law

but from the social contract from which a government derives its

authority

It is a mistake to imagine that slavery pervades a man's whole

being; the better part of him is exempt from it: the body indeed is

subjected and in the power of a master, but the mind is

independent, and indeed is so free and wild, that it cannot be

restrained even by this prison of the body, wherein it is confined

Furthermore, every man is responsible for his own faith, and he

must see it for himself that he believes rightly. As little as another

can go to hell or heaven for me, so little can he believe or

disbelieve for me; and as little as he can open or shut heaven or

hell for me, so little can he drive me to faith or unbelief. Since,

then, belief or unbelief is a matter of every one's conscience, and

since this is no lessening of the secular power, the latter should be

content and attend to its own affairs and permit men to believe

one thing or another, as they are able and willing, and constrain no

one by forceone by force

The right to what is in essence inalienable is imprescriptible, since

the act whereby I take possession of my personality, of my

substantive essence, and make myself a responsible being, capable

of possessing rights and with a moral and religious life, takes away

from these characteristics of mine just that externality which alone

made them capable of passing into the possession of someone

else. When I have thus annulled their externality, I cannot lose

them through lapse of time or from any other reason drawn from

my prior consent or willingness to alienate them

"inalienable rights" were said to be those rights that could not be

surrendered by citizens to the sovereign. Such rights were thought

to be natural rights, independent of positive law

Social contract describes a broad class of theories that try to

explain the ways in which people form states to maintain social

order. The notion of the social contract implies that the people

give up sovereignty to a government or other authority in order to

receive or maintain social order through the rule of law. It can also

be thought of as an agreement by the governed on a set of rules

by which they are governed.

Civil society is composed of the totality of voluntary civic and

social organizations and institutions that form the basis of a

functioning society as opposed to the force-backed structures of a

state (regardless of that state's political system) and commercial

institutions of the market.

Civil and political rights are a class of rights and freedoms that

protect individuals from unwarranted action by government and

private organizations and individuals and ensure one's ability to

participate in the civil and political life of the state without

discrimination or repression.

Civil rights include the ensuring of peoples' physical integrity and

safety; protection from discrimination on grounds such as physical

or mental disability, gender, religion, race, sexual orientation,

national origin, age, and individual rights such as the freedoms of

thought and conscience, speech and expression, religion, the

press, and movement.

Political rights include natural justice (procedural fairness) in law,

such as the rights of the accused, including the right to a fair trial;

due process; the right to seek redress or a legal remedy; and rights

of participation in civil society and politics such as freedom of

association, the right to assemble, the right to petition, and the

right to vote.

Civil and political rights comprise the first portion of the Universal

Declaration of Human Rights (with economic, social and cultural

rights comprising the second portion). The theory of three

generations of human rights considers this group of rights to be

"first-generation rights", and the theory of negative and positive

rights considers them to be generally negative rights.

Civil and political rights were among the first to be recognized and

codified. In many countries, they are constitutional rights and are

included in a bill of rights or similar document. They are also

defined in international human rights instruments, such as the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights and International Covenant

on Civil and Political Rights.

Unenumerated rights are sometimes defined as legal rights

inferred from other legal rights that are officiated in a retrievable

form codified by law institutions, such as in written constitutions,

but are not themselves expressly coded or "enumerated" among

the explicit writ of the law. Alternative terminology sometimes

used are: natural rights, background rights, and fundamental

rights.

Unenumerated rights may alternatively refer to a situation when

an individual or group of people delegate limited powers to a

government. "If a line can be drawn between the powers granted

and the rights retained, it would seem to be the same thing,

whether the latter be secured by declaring that they shall not be

abridged, or that the former shall not be extended."

The Equal Protection Clause, part of the Fourteenth Amendment

to the United States Constitution, provides that "no state shall ...

deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of

the laws". The Equal Protection Clause can be seen as an attempt

to secure the promise of the United States' professed commitment

to the proposition that "all men are created equal" by empowering

the judiciary to enforce that principle against the states. As written

it applied only to state governments, but it has since been

interpreted to apply to the Federal Government of the United

States as well

The Constitution creates the three branches of the national

government: a legislature, the bicameral Congress; an executive

branch led by the President; and a judicial branch headed by the

Supreme Court. The Constitution specifies the powers and duties

of each branch. The Constitution reserves all unenumerated

powers to the respective states and the people, thereby

establishing the federal system of government.

The Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787, by the

Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and

ratified by conventions in each U.S. state in the name of "The

People". The Constitution has been amended twenty-seven times;

the first ten amendments are known as the Bill of Rights.

The United States Constitution is the oldest written constitution

still in use by any nation in the world

The First Amendment (Amendment I) to the United

States Constitution is part of the Bill of Rights. The amendment

prohibits the making of any law "respecting an establishment of

religion", impeding the free exercise of religion, infringing on the

freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press,

interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the

petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances.

The Establishment Clause of the First Amendment refers to the

first of several pronouncements in the First Amendment to the

United States Constitution, stating that "Congress shall make no

law respecting an establishment of religion". Together with the

Free Exercise Clause ("... or prohibiting the free exercise thereof"),

these two clauses make up what are commonly said as the

"religion clauses" of the First Amendment.

The establishment clause has generally been interpreted to

prohibit 1) the establishment of a national religion by Congress, or

2) the preference of one religion over another. The first approach

is called the "separation" or "no aid" interpretation, while the

second approach is called the "non-preferential" or

"accommodation" interpretation. The accommodation

interpretation prohibits Congress from preferring one religion over

another, but does not prohibit the government's entry into

religious domain to make accommodations in order to achieve the

purposes of the Free Exercise Clause.purposes of the Free Exercise Clause.

In 1878, the Supreme Court was first called to interpret the extent

of the Free Exercise Clause in Reynolds v. United States, as related

to the prosecution of polygamy under federal law. The Supreme

Court upheld Mr. Reynolds' conviction for bigamy, deciding that to

do otherwise would provide constitutional protection for a gamut

of religious beliefs, including those as extreme as human sacrifice.

The Court said (at page 162): "Congress cannot pass a law for the

government of the Territory which shall prohibit the free exercise

of religion. The first amendment to the Constitution expressly

forbids such legislation." Of federal territorial laws, the Court said:

"Laws are made for the government of actions, and while they

cannot interfere with mere religious beliefs and opinions, they

may with practices."

The right to freedom of speech is recognized as a human right

under Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and

recognized in international human rights law in the International

Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). The ICCPR

recognizes the right to freedom of speech as "the right to hold

opinions without interference. Everyone shall have the right to

freedom of expression".Furthermore freedom of speech is

recognized in European, inter-American and African regional

human rights law.

Freedom of the press is the freedom of communication and

expression through vehicles including various electronic media and

published materials. While such freedom mostly implies the

absence of interference from an overreaching state, its

preservation may be sought through constitutional or other legal

protections.

Freedom of assembly, sometimes used interchangeably with the

freedom of association, is the individual right to come together

and collectively express, promote, pursue and defend common

interests. The right to freedom of association is recognized as a

human right, a political freedom and a civil liberty.

In the United States the right to petition is guaranteed by the First

Amendment to the federal constitution, which specifically

prohibits Congress from abridging "the right of the people...to

petition the Government for a redress of grievances."

Although often overlooked in favor of other more famous

freedoms, and sometimes taken for granted,many other civil

liberties are enforceable against the government only by exercising

this basic right. The right to petition is a fundamental in a

representative democracy, such as the United States, as a means

of protecting public participation in government.

The Second Amendment (Amendment II) to the

United States Constitution is the part of the United States Bill of

Rights that protects a right to keep and bear arms. The Second

Amendment was adopted on December 15, 1791, along with the

rest of the Bill of Rights. The American Bar Association has

observed that there is more disagreement and less understanding

about this right than of any other current issue regarding the

Constitution

The militia of the United States consists of all able-bodied males

at least 17 years of age and, except as provided in section 313 of

title 32, under 45 years of age who are, or who have made a

declaration of intention to become, citizens of the United States

and of female citizens of the United States who are members of

the National Guard.

A sovereign state (commonly simply referred to as a state) is a

political association with effective internal and external

sovereignty over a geographic area and population which is not

dependent on, or subject to any other power or state

The right to keep and bear arms, often referred as the right to

bear arms or the right to have arms, is the assertion that people

have a personal right to "weapon(s)" for individual use, or a

collective right to bear arms in a militia, or both. In this context,

"arms" refers to a variety of weapons and armor and to "bear

arms" meant to wage war

The Third Amendment (Amendment III) to the

United States Constitution is a part of the United States Bill of

Rights. It was introduced on September 5, 1789, and then three

quarters of the states ratified this as well as 9 other amendments

on December 15, 1791. It prohibits, in peacetime, the quartering

of soldiers in private homes without the owner's consent.

Quartering Act is the name of at least two 18th-century acts of the

Parliament of Great Britain. These Quartering Acts were used by

the British forces in the American colonies to ensure that British

soldiers had adequate housing and provisions. These acts were

amendments to the Mutiny Act, which had to be renewed

annually by Parliament. Originally intended as a response to

problems that arose during Britain's victory in the Seven Years War

they later became a source of tension between inhabitants of the

Thirteen Colonies and the government in London.

The Fourth Amendment (Amendment IV) to the

United States Constitution is the part of the Bill of Rights which

guards against unreasonable searches and seizures. The

amendment specifically also requires search and arrest warrants

be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause. It was

adopted as a response to the abuse of the writ of assistance,

which is a type of general search warrant, in the American

Revolution. Search and arrest should be limited in scope

according to specific information supplied to the issuing court,

usually by a law enforcement officer, who has sworn by it.

Search and seizure is a legal procedure used in many civil law and

common law legal systems whereby police or other authorities

and their agents, who suspect that a crime has been committed,

do a search of a person's property and confiscate any relevant

evidence to the crime.

The Fifth Amendment (Amendment V) to the United

States Constitution, which is part of the Bill of Rights, protects

against abuse of government authority in a legal procedure. Its

guarantees stem from English common law which traces back to

the Magna Carta in 1215. For instance, grand juries and the phrase

"due process" both trace their origin to the Magna Carta.

Due process is the principle that the government must respect all

of the legal rights that are owed to a person according to the law.

Due process holds the government subservient to the law of the

land, protecting individual persons from the state.

Due process has also been frequently interpreted as limiting laws

and legal proceedings (see substantive due process), so judges

instead of legislators may define and guarantee fundamental

fairness, justice, and liberty.

Double jeopardy is a procedural defense that forbids a defendant

from being tried twice for the same crime on the same set of facts.

At common law a defendant may plead autrefois acquit or

autrefois convict (a peremptory plea), meaning the defendant has

been acquitted or convicted of the same offense

Self-incrimination is the act of accusing oneself of a crime for

which a person can then be prosecuted. Self-incrimination can

occur either directly or indirectly: directly, by means of

interrogation where information of a self-incriminatory nature is

disclosed; indirectly, when information of a self-incriminatory

nature is disclosed voluntarily without pressure from another

person.

The Sixth Amendment (Amendment VI) to the

United States Constitution is the part of the United States Bill of

Rights which sets forth rights related to criminal prosecutions. The

Supreme Court has applied the protections of this amendment to

the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth

Amendment.

A jury trial (or trial by jury) is a legal proceeding in which a jury

either makes a decision or makes findings of fact which are then

applied by a judge. It is distinguished from a bench trial, in which a

judge or panel of judges make all decisions.

The rights of the accused is a "class" of civil and political rights

that apply to a person accused of a crime, from when he or she is

arrested and charged to when he or she is either convicted or

acquitted. Rights of the accused are generally based on the maxim

of "innocent until proven guilty" and are embodied in due process.

The Confrontation Clause of the Sixth Amendment to the United

States Constitution provides that "in all criminal prosecutions, the

accused shall enjoy the right...to be confronted with the witnesses

against him."

Speedy trial refers to one of the rights guaranteed by the United

States Constitution to defendants in criminal proceedings. The

right to a speedy trial, guaranteed by the Sixth Amendment, is

intended to ensure that defendants are not subjected to

unreasonably lengthy incarceration prior to a fair trial.

The Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution

establishes the right of the accused to a public trial.

The right to a public trial is strictly enforced, but is not absolute.

Trials may in exceptional cases be regulated. Closures are decided

case-by-case by the judge evaluating a claimed danger to a

substantial or legitimate public interest. But whatever the interest

at stake, the likelihood of danger to that interest must meet a

“‘substantial probability’ test

Right to counsel is currently generally regarded as a constituent of

the right to a fair trial, allowing for the defendant to be assisted by

counsel (i.e. lawyers), and if he cannot afford his own lawyer,

requiring that the government should appoint one for him, or pay

his legal expenses. However, this has not historically always been

the case in all countries.

The Seventh Amendment (Amendment VII) to the

United States Constitution, which is part of the Bill of Rights,

codifies the right to a jury trial in certain civil trials. Unlike most of

the Bill of Rights, the Supreme Court has not incorporated the

amendment's requirements to the states under the Fourteenth

Amendment.

Civil law, as opposed to criminal law, is the branch of law dealing

with disputes between individuals and/or organizations, in which

compensation may be awarded to the victim. For instance, if a car

crash victim claims damages against the driver for loss or injury

sustained in an accident, this will be a civil law case

The Eighth Amendment (Amendment VIII) to the

United States Constitution is the part of the United States Bill of

Rights which prohibits the federal government from imposing

excessive bail, excessive fines or cruel and unusual punishments.

The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that this amendment's Cruel

and Unusual Punishment Clause applies to the states. The phrases

employed originated in the English Bill of Rights of 1689.

The Excessive bail provision of the Eighth Amendment to the

United States Constitution is based on an old English common law

right of Englishmen and the British Bill of Rights. It is considered a

fundamental right by the Supreme Court of the United States.

Generally defined, excessive bail means "an amount of bail

ordered posted by an accused defendant which is much more than

necessary or usual to assure he/she will make court appearances,

particularly in relation to minor crimes."

Cruel and unusual punishment is a phrase describing criminal

punishment which is considered unacceptable due to the

suffering or humiliation it inflicts on the condemned person.

These exact words were first used in the English Bill of Rights in

1689, and later were also adopted by the Eighth Amendment to

the United States Constitution (1787) and the British Slavery

Amelioration Act (1798).

The Ninth Amendment (Amendment IX) to the

United States Constitution, which is part of the Bill of Rights,

addresses rights of the people that are not specifically enumerated

in the Constitution.

The Tenth Amendment (Amendment X) to the

United States Constitution, which is part of the Bill of Rights, was

ratified on December 15, 1791. The Tenth Amendment restates

the Constitution's principle of federalism by providing that powers

not granted to the national government nor prohibited to the

states by the Constitution of the United States are reserved to the

states or the people.

The Founding Fathers of the United States were the political

leaders who signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776 or

otherwise took part in the American Revolution in winning

American independence from Great Britain, or who participated in

framing and adopting the United States Constitution in 1787-1788,

or in putting the new government under the Constitution into

effect.

The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, customarily

referred to as the Articles of Confederation, was the first

constitution of the United States of America and legally

established the union of the states. The Second Continental

Congress appointed a committee to draft the Articles in June 1776

and sent the draft to the states for ratification in November 1777.

The ratification process was completed in March 1781, legally

federating the sovereign and independent states, already

cooperating through the Continental Congress, into a new

federation styled the "The United States of America". Under the

Articles the states retained sovereignty over all governmental

functions not specifically relinquished to the central government.

The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement

adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which

announced that the thirteen American colonies then at war with

Great Britain were now independent states, and thus no longer a

part of the British Empire. Written primarily by Thomas Jefferson,

the Declaration is a formal explanation of why Congress had voted

on July 2 to declare independence from Great Britain, more than a

year after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War.

The Thirteen Colonies were British colonies on the Atlantic coast

of North America, which declared their independence in the

American Revolution and formed the United States of America.

The colonies, whose territory ranged from what is now Maine

(then part of the Province of Massachusetts Bay) to the north and

Georgia to the south, were Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey,

Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South Carolina,

New Hampshire, Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode

Island.

Benjamin Franklin (January 17, 1706 [ January 6, 1705[] – April 17,

1790) was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. A

noted polymath, Franklin was a leading author and printer, satirist,

political theorist, politician, postmaster, scientist, inventor, civic

activist, statesman, and diplomat. As a scientist, he was a major

figure in the American Enlightenment and the history of physics for

his discoveries and theories regarding electricity. He invented the

lightning rod, bifocals, the Franklin stove a carriage odometer, and

the glass 'armonica'. He formed both the first public lending library

in America and the first fire department in Pennsylvania.

George Washington (February 22, 1732 February 11, 1731]–

December 14, 1799) served as the first constitutional President of

the United States from 1789 to 1797, preceded by 14 other

Presidents who were elected by Congress, known as the "Forgotten

Presidents", and as the commander of the Continental Army in the

American Revolutionary War from 1775 to 1783. His role in the

revolution and subsequent independence and formation of the

United States was significant, and is seen by Americans as the

"Father of Our Country

John Adams (October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826) was an American

politician and political philosopher and the second President of

the United States (1797–1801), after being the first Vice President

of the United States (1789–1797) for two terms. He was one of the

most influential Founding Fathers of the United States.

Adams came to prominence in the early stages of the American

Revolution. As a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental

Congress, he played a leading role in persuading Congress to

declare independence, and assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting

the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776.

Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 – July 4, 1826) was the third

President of the United States (1801–1809), and the principal

author of the Declaration of Independence (1776). Jefferson was

one of the most influential Founding Fathers, known for his

promotion of the ideals of republicanism in the United States.

Jefferson envisioned America as the force behind a great "Empire

of Liberty“ that would promote republicanism and counter the

imperialism of the British Empire.

John Jay (December 12, 1745 – May 17, 1829) was an American

politician, statesman, revolutionary, diplomat, a Founding Father

of the United States, President of the Continental Congress from

1778 to 1779 and, from 1789 to 1795, the first Chief Justice of the

United States. During and after the American Revolution, he was a

minister (ambassador) to Spain and France, helping to fashion

United States foreign policy and to secure favorable peace terms

from the British (the Jay Treaty) and French. He co-wrote the

Federalist Papers with Alexander Hamilton and James Madison.

James Madison (March 16, 1751 – June 28, 1836) was an

American politician and political philosopher who served as the

fourth President of the United States (1809–1817) and is

considered one of the Founding Fathers of the United States.

He was the principal author of the US Constitution, and is often

called the "Father of the Constitution". In 1788, he wrote over a

third of the Federalist Papers, an influential commentary on the

Constitution. The first president to have served in the United

States Congress, he was a leader in the 1st United States

Congress, drafting many basic laws, and was responsible for the

first ten amendments to the Constitution (said to be based on the

Virginia Declaration of Rights) and thus is also known as the

"Father of the Bill of Rights“. As a political theorist, Madison's

most distinctive belief was that the new republic needed checks

and balances to protect individual rights from the tyranny of the

majority.majority.

Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755 or 1757 – July 12, 1804)

was the first United States Secretary of the Treasury, a Founding

Father, economist, and political philosopher. Aide-de-camp to

General George Washington during the American Revolutionary

War, he was a leader of nationalist forces calling for a new

Constitution; he was one of America's first Constitutional lawyers,

and wrote most of the Federalist Papers, a primary source for

Constitutional interpretation. He was the financial expert of

Washington's administration; the Federalist Party formed to

support his policies.

The American Revolution was the political upheaval during the

last half of the 18th century in which thirteen colonies in North

America joined together to break free from the British Empire,

combining to become the United States of America. They first

rejected the authority of the Parliament of Great Britain to govern

them from overseas without representation, and then expelled all

royal officials.

Patriots (also known as American Whigs, Revolutionaries,

Congress-Men or Rebels) was the name the colonists of the British

Thirteen United Colonies, who rebelled against British control

during the American Revolution, called themselves. It was their

leading figures who, in July 1776, declared the United States of

America an independent nation. Their rebellion was based on the

political philosophy of republicanism, as expressed by

pamphleteers such as Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, and

Thomas Paine.

They called themselves Whigs after 1768, identifying with

members of the British Whig Party, i.e., Radical Whigs and Patriot

Whigs, who favored similar colonial policies.

As a group, Patriots represented an array of social, economic,

ethnic and racial backgrounds. They included college students like

Alexander Hamilton, planters like Thomas Jefferson, merchants

like Alexander McDougall, and plain farmers like Daniel Shays and

Joseph Plumb Martin.Joseph Plumb Martin.

The Declaration and Resolves of the First Continental Congress

(also known as the Declaration of Colonial Rights, the Declaration

of Rights, or the Declaration of Rights and Grievances) was a

statement adopted by the First Continental Congress on October

14, 1774, in response to the Intolerable Acts passed by the British

Parliament. The Declaration outlined colonial objections to the

Intolerable Acts, listed a colonial bill of rights, and provided a

detailed list of grievances.

The Declaration concluded with an outline of Congress's future

plans: to enter into a boycott of British trade (the Continental

Association) until their grievances were redressed, to publish

addresses to the people of Great Britain and British America, and

to send a petition to the King.

The Intolerable Acts or the Coercive Acts are names used to

describe a series of five laws passed by the British Parliament in

1774 relating to Britain's colonies in North America. The acts

triggered outrage and resistance in the Thirteen Colonies that later

became the United States, and were important developments in

the growth of the American Revolution.

Four of the acts were issued in direct response to the Boston Tea

Party of December 1773; the British Parliament hoped these

punitive measures would, by making an example of

Massachusetts, reverse the trend of colonial resistance to

parliamentary authority that had begun with the 1765 Stamp Act.

The Sons of Liberty was a political group made up of American

Patriots that originated in the pre-independence North American

British colonies. The group was designed to incite change in the

British government's treatment of the Colonies in the years

following the end of the French and Indian War. These patriots

attacked the apparatus and symbols of British authority and power

through both words and deeds.

The Tea Party was the culmination of a resistance movement

throughout British America against the Tea Act, which had been

passed by the British Parliament in 1773. Colonists objected to

the Tea Act for a variety of reasons, especially because they

believed that it violated their right to be taxed only by their own

elected representatives. Protesters had successfully prevented

the unloading of taxed tea in three other colonies, but in Boston,

embattled Royal Governor Thomas Hutchinson refused to allow

the tea to be returned to Britain. He apparently did not expect

that the protestors would choose to destroy the tea rather than

concede the authority of a legislature in which they were not

directly represented.

The Boston Tea Party was a key event in the growth of the

American Revolution. Parliament responded in 1774 with the

Coercive Acts, which, among other provisions, closed Boston's

commerce until the British East India Company had been repaidcommerce until the British East India Company had been repaid

for the destroyed tea. Colonists in turn responded to the Coercive

Acts with additional acts of protest, and by convening the First

Continental Congress, which petitioned the British monarch for

repeal of the acts and coordinated colonial resistance to them.

The crisis escalated, and the American Revolutionary War began

near Boston in 1775.

The Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms

was a document issued by the Second Continental Congress on

July 6, 1775, to explain why the Thirteen Colonies had taken up

arms in what had become the American Revolutionary War, and

represents an important development in the political thought

that went into the American Revolution. The final draft of the

Declaration was written by John Dickinson, who incorporated

language from an earlier draft by Thomas Jefferson.

Black nationalism (BN) advocates a racial definition (or

redefinition) of black national identity, as opposed to

multiculturalism. There are different black nationalist philosophies

but the principles of all black nationalist ideologies are 1) black

unity, and 2) black self-determination/ independence from white

society. Martin Delany is considered to be the grandfather of black

nationalism

Inspired by the apparent success of the Haitian Revolution, the

origins of black nationalism in political thought lie in the 19th

century with people like Marcus Garvey, Elijah Muhammad, Henry

McNeal Turner, Martin Delany, Henry Highland Garnet, Edward

Wilmot Blyden, Paul Cuffe, etc. The repatriation of black American

slaves to Liberia or Sierra Leone was a common black nationalist

theme in the 19th century. Marcus Garvey's Universal Negro

Improvement Association of the 1910s and 1920s was the most

powerful black nationalist movement to date, claiming 11 million

members. Although the future of Africa is seen as being central to

black nationalist ambitions, some adherents to black nationalism

are intent on the eventual creation of a separate black American

nation in the U.S. or Western hemisphere.

The first being pre-Classical black nationalism beginning from the

time the Africans were brought ashore in the Americas to the

Revolutionary period. After the Revolutionary War, a sizable

number of Africans in the colonies, particularly in New England

and Pennsylvania, were literate and had become disgusted with

their social conditions that had spawned from Enlightenment

ideas.

We find in such historical personalities as Prince Hall, Richard

Allen, and Absalom Jones a need to found certain organizations as

the Free African Society, African Masonic lodges and Church

Institutions. These institutions would serve as early foundations to

developing independent and separate organizations. By the time

of Post-Reconstruction Era a new form of black nationalism was

emerging among various African-American clergy circles.

Separate circles had already been established and were accepted

by African-Americans because of the overt oppression that had

been in existence since the inception of the United States. This

phenomenon led to the birth of modern black nationalism which

stressed the need to separate and build separate communities

that promote strong racial pride and also to collectivize resources.

This ideology had become the philosophy of groups like the

Moorish Science Temple and the Nation of Islam. Although, the

Sixties brought on a heightened period of religious, cultural and

political nationalism, black nationalism would later influence

afrocentricity .

The Moorish Science Temple of America is an American religious

organization founded in the early 20th-century by Timothy Drew.

He claimed it was a sect of Islam but he drew as well from

Buddhism, Christianity, Freemasonry, Gnosticism and Taoism. Its

primary tenet was the belief that African Americans had

descended from the Moors (rather than sub-Saharan Africans) and

thus were originally Islamic. The organization combined elements

of major religious traditions to develop a message of personal

transformation, racial pride and uplift. Adherents to the religion

are called Moors

The Nation of Islam is a religious organization founded in Detroit,

Michigan, by Wallace D. Fard Muhammad in July 1930. He set out

with the goal of resurrecting the spiritual, mental, social, and

economic condition of the African American men and women of

America. The N.O.I. also promotes the belief that God will bring

about a universal government of peace.[1] Mainstream Muslims

consider the group to be a non-Islamic independent religion that

has adopted Islamic terminology rather than an Islamic sect due to

differing beliefs about God, race, and prophecy, among others.

Since 1978, Louis Farrakhan has been the leader of a reconstituted

N.O.I., the original organization having been renamed and

dissolved by Warith Deen Muhammad. The N.O.I.'s national center

and headquarters are located in Chicago, Illinois, which is also

home to its flagship Mosque No. 2, Mosque Maryam. A meeting in

2000 gathered about 20,000 members.2000 gathered about 20,000 members.

As of 2005, the N.O.I. has been included in the Southern Poverty

Law Center's list of active hate groups in the United States

According to the Nation of Islam the Tribe of Shabazz was an

ancient Black nation that migrated into central Africa, led by a

scientist named Shabazz. The concept is found primarily in the

writings of Wallace Fard Muhammad and Elijah Muhammad.

According to the Autobiography of Malcolm X, all the races except

the black race were by-products of the Tribe of Shabazz

Black Power was a political movement expressing a new racial

consciousness among black people in the United States in the

1960s and 1970s. Black Power represented both a conclusion to

the decade's civil rights movement and an alternative means of

combating the racism that persisted despite the efforts of black

activists during the early 1960s. The meaning of Black Power was

debated vigorously while the movement was in progress. To some

it represented African-Americans' insistence on racial dignity and

self-reliance, which was usually interpreted as economic and

political independence, as well as freedom from European

American authority.

The Uhuru Movement is the largest contemporary black

movement advocating black nationalism and was founded in the

1980s in St. Petersburg, Florida. Composed mainly of the African

People's Socialist Party, the Uhuru Movement also includes other

organizations based in both Africa and the United States. These

organizations are in the process of establishing a broader

organization called the African Socialist International. "Uhuru" is

the Swahili word for freedom.

The African Peoples Socialist Party (APSP) is a revolutionary

organisation whose goal is to improve the living conditions of

Black people in the United States and around the world. The Party

was formed in May 1972 by the merger of three Black power

organisations based in the US states of Florida and Kentucky. Omali

Yeshitela, one of the original cofounders, leads the APSP as of

2010.

“The African People’s Socialist Party calls on all African

revolutionaries in all countries to unite with us into one all-African

international socialist association which would enhance our

ability to realize our historic mission to free and unite our people

and motherland, and to defeat imperialism and issue in a new day

of peace, freedom, and world socialism.

“The African People’s Socialist Party calls on all African

revolutionaries in all countries to unite with us into one all-African

international association, which would assume the tasks of:

“1. Liberating and uniting all of Africa under a single, all-African

socialist state;

“2. Uniting, coordinating, and giving general assistance and

direction for the revolutionary struggles of all African people

wherever they occur and whenever the aims of such struggles are

consistent with the aims of the international association;

“3. Achieving the objective consolidation of African nationality“3. Achieving the objective consolidation of African nationality

for all African people wherever we are oppressed and exploited

throughout the world due to the machinations of imperialism.

“Africans of the world, take history into your own hands!

“Africans of the world, unite to build the African Socialist

International!”

Petit-bourgeois (sometimes Anglicized petty bourgeois) is a French

term that originally referred to the members of the lower middle

social classes in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Starting from

the mid-19th century, the term was used by Karl Marx and Marxist

theorists to refer to a social class that included shop-keepers and

professionals.

Though distinct from the ordinary working class and the

lumpenproletariat, who rely entirely on the sale of their labor-

power for survival, the petty is different from the haute

bourgeoisie, (high bourgeoisie) or capitalist class, who own the

means of production and buy the labor-power of others to work it.

Though the petite bourgeois may buy the labor power of others, in

contrast to the haute bourgeoisie, they typically work alongside

their own employees; and although they generally own their own

businesses, they do not own a controlling share of the means of

production.production.

More important, the means of production in the hands of the

petite bourgeoisie do not generate enough surplus to be

reinvested in production; as such, they cannot be reproduced in an

amplified scale, or accumulated, and do not constitute capital

properly.

The term black supremacy is a blanket term for various ideologies

which hold that black people are superior to other races, most

commonly the white race. Common manifestation is bigotry

towards persons not of African ancestry, particularly white and

Jewish people.

The basic aim of Black Muslim theology -- with its distinct Black

supremacist account of the origins of white people -- was to

counter white supremacy. Yet this preoccupation with white

supremacy still allowed white people to serve as the principal

point of reference. That which fundamentally motivates one still

dictates the terms of what one thinks and does — so the

motivation of a Black supremacist doctrine reveals how obsessed

one is with white supremacy

Also, the idea of white nationalism is considered racist, while

black nationalism is promoted by the same people who criticize

white nationalism.

Norm R. Allen, Jr., executive director of Council for Secular

Humanism, calls black nationalism a "strange mixture of

profound thought and patent nonsense".

On the one hand, Reactionary Black Nationalists (RBNs) advocate

self-love, self-respect, self-acceptance, self-help, pride, unity, and

so forth - much like the right-wingers who promote "traditional

family values." But - also like the holier-than-thou right-wingers -

RBNs promote bigotry, intolerance, hatred, sexism, homophobia,

anti-Semitism, pseudo-science, irrationality, dogmatic historical

revisionism, violence, and so forth

Black nationalists strong "attraction for hardened prisoners and

ex-cons", their encouragement of black-on-black violence when

black individuals or groups are branded as "Toms" , traitors, or

"sellouts", the blatantly sexist stance and the similarities to white

supremacist ideologies:

Many RBNs routinely preach hate. Just as white supremacists have

referred to blacks as "devils," so have many RBNs referred to whites.

White supremacists have verbally attacked gays, as have RBNs.

White supremacists embrace paranoid conspiracy theories, as do

their black counterparts. Many white supremacists and RBNs

consistently deny that they are preaching hate and blame the

mainstream media for misrepresenting them.

(A striking exception is the NOI's Khallid Muhammad, who,

according to Gates, admitted in a taped speech titled "No Love for

the Other Side," "Never will I say I am not anti-Semitic. I pray thatthe Other Side," "Never will I say I am not anti-Semitic. I pray that

God will kill my enemy and take him off the face of the planet.")

Rather, they claim they are teaching "truth" and advocating the love

of their own people, as though love of self and hatred of others are

mutually exclusive positions. On the contrary, RBNs preach love of

self and hatred of their enemies. (Indeed, it often seems that these

groups are motivated more by hatred of their enemies than love of

their people.)

Afrocentrism, Afrocentricity, or Africentrism is a world view which

emphasizes the importance of African people, taken as a single

group and often equated with "Black people", in culture,

philosophy, and history.

The roots of Afrocentrism lay in a reaction to the repression of

Black people throughout the Western world in the 19th century

and as a backlash against the scientific racism of the period, which

tended to attribute any advanced civilization to the immigration of

Proto-Indo-Europeans and their descendants.

Part of this reaction involved reviewing history to document the

contributions that Black people made to world civilization

The Back-to-Africa movement, also known as the Colonization

movement, originated in the United States in the nineteeth

century, and encouraged those of African descent to return to the

African homelands of their ancestors. This movement would

eventually inspire other movements ranging from the Nation of

Islam to the Rastafari movement.

Black anarchism opposes the existence of the state and the

subjugation and domination of people of color, and favors a non-

hierarchical organization of society. Black anarchists seek to

abolish white supremacy, patriarchy, capitalism, and the state.

Theorists include Ashanti Alston, Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin, Kuwasi

Balagoon, Kai Lumumba Barrow, Greg Jackson, Roger White,

Martin Sostre and many former members of the Black Panther

Party. Anarchist people of color is a network of non-white

anarchists.

Anarchist People of Color is an American anarchist/anti-

authoritarian group created to address issues of race, anti-

authoritarianism and people of color struggle politics within the

context of anarchism, and to increase/create political (safe) space

for people of color.

Initially started as an e-mail list and website by Ernesto Aguilar,

APOC is inspired and influenced by such historical anarchists of

color as Lucy Parsons, Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin, Ricardo Flores

Magón, Práxedis Guerrero, Martin Sostre, and Luisa Capetillo.

The Anarchist Black Cross Network is a worldwide decentralized

and egalitarian network of organizations committed to the

original ideals of the Anarchist Black Cross movement -- of seeing

prisons and the poverty, racism and genocide that accompanies

them to be symptoms of a social order whose last days are near.

Anarchist Black Cross Network differs significantly with Anarchist

Black Cross Federation, since it has no official joining procedure or

strict requirements. So even a group that does not name oneself

as Anarchist Black Cross may join as long as it does work in

bettering prison conditions or working to abolish prisons all

together. Anarchist Black Cross Network refers to that as defensive

work (bettering prison conditions) and offensive work (abolishing

prison system).

The Black Liberation Army (BLA) was an underground, black

nationalist-Marxist militant organization that operated in the

United States from 1970 to 1981. Composed largely of former

Black Panthers (BPP), the organization's program was one of

"armed struggle" and its stated goal was to "take up arms for the

liberation and self-determination of black people in the United

States." The BLA carried out a series of bombings, robberies (what

participants termed "expropriations"), and prison breaks.

The Black Panther Party (originally the Black Panther Party for

Self-Defense) was an African-American revolutionary left-wing

organization working for the self-defense for black people. It was

active in the United States from the mid-1960s into the 1970s. The

Black Panther Party achieved national and international impact

through their deep involvement in the Black Power movement and

in US politics of the 1960s and 70s, as the intense anti-racism of

the time is today considered one of the most significant social,

political and cultural currents in US history. The group's

"provocative rhetoric, militant posture, and cultural and political

flourishes permanently altered the contours of American Identity

Founded in Oakland, California, by Bobby Seale and Huey P.

Newton on October 15, 1966, the organization initially set forth a

doctrine calling primarily for the protection of African American

neighborhoods from police brutality.neighborhoods from police brutality.

But the Black Panther Party's objectives and philosophy

expanded and evolved rapidly during the party's existence. The

organization's leaders passionately espoused socialist and

communist (largely Maoist) doctrines, but the Party's black

nationalist reputation attracted an ideologically diverse

membership.

Ideological consensus within the party was difficult to achieve,

and some prominent members openly disagreed with the views

of the leaders.

Weatherman, known colloquially as the Weathermen and later

the Weather Underground Organization (abbreviated WUO),

was an American radical left organization. It originated in 1969 as

a faction of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) composed

for the most part of the national office leadership of SDS and

their supporters. Their goal was to create a clandestine

revolutionary party for the violent overthrow of the US

government and the establishment of a dictatorship of the

proletariat.

With leadership whose revolutionary positions were

characterized by Black separatist rhetoric, the group conducted

a campaign of bombings through the mid-1970s, including aiding

the jailbreak and escape of Timothy Leary.

The "Days of Rage", their first public demonstration on October

8, 1969, was a riot in Chicago timed to coincide with the trial of8, 1969, was a riot in Chicago timed to coincide with the trial of

the Chicago Seven. In 1970 the group issued a "Declaration of a

State of War" against the United States government, under the

name "Weather Underground

"Weather Underground Organization" (WUO). The bombing

attacks mostly targeted government buildings, along with

several banks. Most were preceded by evacuation warnings,

along with communiqués identifying the particular matter that

the attack was intended to protest. For the bombing of the

United States Capitol on March 1, 1971, they issued a

communiqué saying it was "in protest of the US invasion of

Laos." For the bombing of the Pentagon on May 19, 1972, they

stated it was "in retaliation for the US bombing raid in Hanoi."

For the January 29, 1975 bombing of the United States

Department of State Building, they stated it was "in response to

escalation in Vietnam."

Widely-known members of the Weather Underground include Kathy Boudin, Mark

Rudd, Terry Robbins, Ted Gold, Naomi Jaffe, Cathy Wilkerson, Jeff Jones, Eleanor

Raskin, David Gilbert, Susan Stern, Bob Tomashevsky, Sam Karp, Russell Neufeld, Joe

Kelly, Laura Whitehorn and the still-married couple Bernardine Dohrn and Bill Ayers.

Most former Weathermen have successfully re-integrated into mainstream society,

without necessarily repudiating their original intent.

Weatherman was referred to in its own time and afterwards as "terrorist."The group

fell under the auspices of FBI-New York City Police Anti Terrorist Task Force, a

forerunner of the FBI's Joint Terrorism Task Forces. The FBI, on its website, describes

the organization as having been a "domestic terrorist group," but no longer an active

concern.[ Others either dispute or clarify the categorization, or justify the group's

violence as an appropriate response to the Vietnam war. In his 2001 book about his

Weatherman experiences, Bill Ayers stated his objection to describing the WUO

(Weather Underground Organization) as "terrorist."

Ayers wrote: "Terrorists terrorize, they kill innocent civilians, while we organized and

agitated. Terrorists destroy randomly, while our actions bore, we hoped, the precise

stamp of a cut diamond. Terrorists intimidate, while we aimed only to educate. No,

we're not terrorists."[Dan Berger, in his book about the Weatherman, "Outlaws in

America," comments that the group "purposefully and successfully avoided injuring

anyone... Its war against property by definition means that the WUO was not aanyone... Its war against property by definition means that the WUO was not a

terrorist organization.“

Bill Ayers, now a professor of education at the University of Illinois at Chicago, was

quoted in an interview to say "I don't regret setting bombs" but has since claimed he

was misquoted.[During the presidential election campaign of 2008, several candidates

questioned Barack Obama's contacts with Ayers, including Hillary Clinton, John

McCain and Sarah Palin. Ayers responded in December 2008, after Obama's election

victory, in an op-ed piece in

The New York Times

We did carry out symbolic acts of extreme vandalism directed at monuments to war

and racism, and the attacks on property, never on people, were meant to respect

human life and convey outrage and determination to end the Vietnam war The

responsibility for the risks we posed to others in some of our most extreme actions in

those underground years never leaves my thoughts for long. The antiwar movement in

all its commitment, all its sacrifice and determination, could not stop the violence

unleashed against Vietnam

And therein lies cause for real regret.

African-American history is the portion of American history that

specifically discusses the African American or Black American

ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are the

descendants of captive Africans held in the United States from

1619 to 1865. Blacks from the Caribbean whose ancestors

immigrated, or who immigrated to the U.S., also traditionally have

been considered African American, as they share a common

history of predominantly West African or Central African roots, the

Middle Passage and slavery. It is these peoples, who in the past

were referred to and self-identified collectively as the American

Negro, who now generally consider themselves African Americans.

Between 1886 and 1898 Black farmers, sharecroppers, and

agrarian laborers organized their communities to combat the rising

tide of Jim Crow laws. As Black Populism asserted itself and grew

into a regional force, it met fierce resistance from the whiteinto a regional force, it met fierce resistance from the white

planter and business elite that, through the Democratic Party and

its affiliated network of courts, militias, sheriffs, and newspapers,

maintained tight control of the region. Violence against Black

Populism was organized through the Ku Klux Klan, among other

terrorist organizations designed to halt or reverse the advance of

black civil and political rights.

The majority of African Americans descend from slaves, most of

whom were sold into slavery as prisoners of war by African states

or kidnapped by African, European or American slave traders. The

existing market for slaves in Africa was exploited and expanded by

European powers in need of labor for New World plantations.

The American slave population was made up of the various ethnic

groups from western and central Africa, including the Bakongo,

Igbo, Mandé, Wolof, Akan, Fon and Makua amongst others. Over

time in most areas of the Americas, these different peoples did

away with tribal differences and forged a new history and culture

that was a creolization of their common pasts and present

The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws in the United

States enacted between 1876 and 1965.

They mandated de jure racial segregation in all public facilities,

with a supposedly "separate but equal" status for black

Americans. In reality, this led to treatment and accommodations

that were usually inferior to those provided for white Americans,

systematizing a number of economic, educational and social

disadvantages.

Some examples of Jim Crow laws are the segregation of public

schools, public places and public transportation, and the

segregation of restrooms, restaurants and drinking fountains for

whites and blacks. The U.S. military was also segregated. These

Jim Crow Laws were separate from the 1800-66 Black Codes,

which had also restricted the civil rights and civil liberties ofwhich had also restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of

African Americans. State-sponsored school segregation was

declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United

States in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education. Generally, the

remaining Jim Crow laws were overruled by the Civil Rights Act of

1964[1] and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Separate but equal was a legal doctrine in United States

Constitutional law that justified systems of segregation. Under this

doctrine, services, facilities and public accommodations were

allowed to be separated by race, on the condition that the quality

of each group's public facilities were (supposedly) to remain equal.

The phrase was derived from a Louisiana law of 1890.

It was also the title of an anonymous article written in 1869,

detailing how people had equal rights but were separated because

of race

The Black Codes were laws passed on the state and local level in

the United States, but mostly in the south, to limit the basic

human rights and civil liberties of African Americans. Even

though the U.S. constitution originally discriminated against

African Americans (as "other persons") and both Northern and

Southern states had passed discriminatory legislation from the

early 19th century, the term Black Codes is used most often to

refer to legislation passed by Southern states at the end of the

Civil War to control the labor, movements and activities of newly-

freed slaves.

In Texas, the Eleventh Legislature produced these codes in 1866.

The intent of the legislation was to reaffirm the inferior position

that slaves and free blacks had held in antebellum Texas and to

regulate black labor. The codes reflected the unwillingness of

white Texans to accept blacks as equals and also their fears that

freedmen would not work unless coerced.freedmen would not work unless coerced.

Thus the codes continued legal discrimination between whites

and blacks. The legislature, when it amended the 1856 penal

code, emphasized the continuing line between whites and blacks

by defining all individuals with one-eighth or more African blood

as persons of color, subject to special provisions in the law

The Democratic Party is one of two major contemporary political

parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The

party's modern liberal platform is largely considered center-left in

the U.S. political spectrum

Ku Klux Klan, often abbreviated KKK and informally known as The

Klan, is the name of three distinct past and present right-wing

organizations in the United States, which advocates extremist

reactionary currents such as white supremacy and nationalism.

The current manifestation is splintered into several chapters and

is widely considered a hate group.

The first KKK flourished in the South in the 1860s, then died out

by the early 1870s. The second KKK flourished nationwide in the

early and mid 1920s, and adopted the costumes andearly and mid 1920s, and adopted the costumes and

paraphernalia of the first Klan.

The third Klan emerged after World War II. Their iconic white

costumes consisted of robes, masks, and conical hats. The first and

third KKK had a well-established record of using terrorism, but

historians debate how central that tactic was to the second KKK.

The first Klan was founded in 1865 in Pulaski, Tennessee by

veterans of the Confederate Army. Although it never had an

organizational structure above the local level, similar groups

across the South adopted the name and methods. Klan groups

spread throughout the South as an insurgent movement after

the war. As a secret vigilante group, the Klan reacted against

Radical Republican control of Reconstruction by attempting to

restore white supremacy by threats and violence, including

murder, against black and white Republicans. In 1870 and 1871

the federal government passed the Force Acts, which were used

to prosecute Klan crimes. Prosecution of Klan crimes and

enforcement of the Force Acts suppressed Klan activity. In 1874

and later, however, newly organized and openly active

paramilitary organizations, such as the White League and the

Red Shirts, started a fresh round of violence aimed at

suppressing Republican voting and running Republicans out ofsuppressing Republican voting and running Republicans out of

office. These contributed to white conservative Democrats'

regaining political power in all the Southern states by 1877.

In 1915, the second Klan was founded. It grew rapidly

nationwide after 1921 in response to a period of postwar social

tensions, where industrialization in the North had attracted

numerous waves of immigrants from southern and eastern

Europe and the Great Migration of Southern blacks and whites.

The second KKK preached racism, anti-Catholicism, anti-

Communism, nativism, and antisemitism. Some local groups

took part in attacks on private houses, and carried out other

violent activities. The violent episodes were generally in the

South

The second Klan was a formal fraternal organization, with a

national and state structure. At its peak in the mid-1920s, the

organization claimed to include about 15% of the nation's

eligible population, approximately 4–5 million men. Internal

divisions, criminal behavior by leaders, and external opposition

brought about a collapse in membership, which had dropped to

about 30,000 by 1930. It finally faded away in the 1940s.about 30,000 by 1930. It finally faded away in the 1940s.

Lifting the Klan mask revealed a chaotic multitude of antiblack

vigilante groups, disgruntled poor white farmers, wartime

guerrilla bands, displaced Democratic politicians, illegal whiskey

distillers, coercive moral reformers, sadists, rapists, white

workmen fearful of black competition, employers trying to

enforce labor discipline, common thieves, neighbors with

decades-old grudges, and even a few freedmen and white

Republicans who allied with Democratic whites or had criminal

agendas of their own. Indeed, all they had in common, besides

being overwhelmingly white, southern, and Democratic, was that

they called themselves, or were called, Klansmen

A free Negro or free black is the term used prior to the abolition

of slavery in the United States to describe African Americans who

were not slaves. Almost all African Americans came to the United

States as slaves, but from the earliest days of American slavery,

slaveholders set men and women free for various reasons.

Sometimes an owner died and the heirs did not want slaves, or a

slave was freed as reward for his or her good service, or the slave

was able to pay in order to be freed.

Free blacks in the antebellum period—those years from the

formation of the Union until the Civil War—were quite outspoken

about the injustice of slavery

Reparations for slavery is a proposal that some type of

compensation should be provided to the descendants of enslaved

people in the United States, in consideration of the coerced and

uncompensated labor their ancestors performed over several

centuries. This compensation has been proposed in a variety of

forms, from individual monetary payments to land-based

compensation schemes related to independence. The idea

remains highly controversial and no broad consensus exists as to

how it could be implemented. There have been similar calls for

reparations from some Caribbean countries, and some African

countries have called for reparations to their states for the loss of

their population

The arguments surrounding reparations are based on the formal

discussion about reparations and actual land reparations received

by African-Americans which were later taken away. In 1865, after

the Confederate States of America were defeated in the American

Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field

Orders, No. 15 to both "assure the harmony of action in the area

of operations" and to solve problems caused by the masses of

freed slaves, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty

acres of tillable land in the sea islands and around Charleston,

South Carolina for the exclusive use of black people who had been

enslaved. The army also had a number of unneeded mules which

were given to settlers. Around 40,000 freed slaves were settled on

400,000 acres (1,600 km²) in Georgia and South Carolina.

Reconstruction came to an end in 1877 without the issue of

reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate

movement of regression and oppression arose in southern states.

Jim Crow laws passed in some southeastern states to reinforce the

existing inequality that slavery had produced. In addition white

extremist organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan engaged in a

massive campaign of intimidation throughout the Southeast in

order to keep African-Americans in their prescribed social place.

For decades this assumed inequality and injustice was ruled on in

court decisions and debated in public discourse.

Reparation for slavery in what is now the United States is a

complicated issue. Any proposal for reparations must take into

account the role of the, then relatively newly formed, United

States Government in the importation and enslavement of

Africans and that of the older and established European countries

that created the colonies in which slavery was legal; as well as

their efforts to stop the trade in slaves. It must also consider if and

how much modern Americans have benefited from the

importation and enslavement of Africans since the end of the slave

trade in 1865. Profit from slavery was not limited to a particular

region: New England merchants profited from the importation of

slaves, while Southern planters profited from the continued

enslavement of Africans.

Social justice is also a concept that some use to describe the

movement towards a socially just world. In this context, social

justice is based on the concepts of human rights and equality and

involves a greater degree of economic egalitarianism through

progressive taxation, income redistribution, or even property

redistribution. These policies aim to achieve what developmental

economists refer to as more equality of opportunity than may

currently exist in some societies, and to manufacture equality of

outcome in cases where incidental inequalities appear in a

procedurally just system.

A progressive tax is a tax by which the tax rate increases as the

taxable base amount increases. "Progressive" describes a

distribution effect on income or expenditure, referring to the way

the rate progresses from low to high, where the average tax rate is

less than the marginal tax rate. It can be applied to individual taxes

or to a tax system as a whole; a year, multi-year, or lifetime.

Progressive taxes attempt to reduce the tax incidence of people

with a lower ability-to-pay, as they shift the incidence increasingly

to those with a higher ability-to-pay.

In economics, redistribution is the transfer of income, wealth or

property from some individuals to others. Most often it refers to

progressive redistribution, from the rich to the poor, although it

may also refer to regressive redistribution, from the poor to the

rich. The desirability and effects of redistribution are actively

debated on ethical and economic grounds.

Distributive justice concerns what some consider to be socially

just with respect to the allocation of goods in a society. Thus, a

community in which incidental inequalities in outcome do not

arise would be considered a society guided by the principles of

distributive justice. Allocation of goods takes into thought the total

amount of goods to be handed out, the process on how they in

the civilization are going to dispense, and the pattern of division.

Civilizations have a narrow amount of resources and capital; the

problem arises on how the goods should be divided.

Equal Opportunity, sometimes known as Equality of opportunity,

is a term which has differing definitions and there is no consensus

as to the precise meaning. In the classical sense, equality of

opportunity is closely aligned with the concept of equality before

the law, and ideas of meritocracy.

Equality of opportunity is in philosophical contrast against the

concept of equality of outcome.

Equality of outcome, equality of condition, or Equality of results is

a form of social justice rhetoric which seeks to reduce or eliminate

incidental inequalities in material condition between individuals or

households in a society. This usually means equalizing income

and/or total wealth to a certain degree by, for example, granting a

greater amount of income and/or total wealth to poorer

individuals or households at the expense of relatively wealthy

individuals or households.

Liberalism (from the Latin liberalis, "of freedom") is the belief in

the importance of liberty and equality. Liberals espouse a wide

array of views depending on their understanding of these

principles, but most liberals support such fundamental ideas as

constitutions, liberal democracy, free and fair elections, human

rights, capitalism, free trade, and the separation of church and

state. These ideas are widely accepted, even by political groups

that do not openly profess a liberal ideological orientation.

Liberalism encompasses several intellectual trends and traditions,

but the dominant variants are classical liberalism, which became

popular in the 18th century, and social liberalism, which became

popular in the 20th century.popular in the 20th century.

Left-libertarianism (sometimes synonymous with libertarism, left-

wing libertarianism, egalitarian-libertarianism and libertarian

socialism) is a term that has been used to describe several

different libertarian political movements and theorists.

Left-libertarianism, as defended by contemporary theorists such as

Peter Vallentyne, Hillel Steiner, and Michael Otsuka, is a doctrine

that has a strong commitment to personal liberty and has an

egalitarian view concerning natural resources, believing that it is

illegitimate for anyone to claim private ownership of resources to

the detriment of others.

Some left-libertarians of this type support some form of income

redistribution on the grounds of a claim by each individual to be

entitled to an equal share of natural resources.

The left–right political spectrum is a common way of classifying

political positions, political ideologies, or political parties along a

one-dimensional political spectrum. The perspective of Left vs.

Right is a broad, dialectical interpretation of complex questions.

Left-wing politics and right-wing politics are often presented as

polar opposites, and although a particular individual or party may

take a left-wing stance on one matter and a right-wing stance on

another, the terms left and right are commonly used as if they

described two globally opposed political families. In France, where

the terms originated, the Left is called "the party of movement"

and the Right "the party of order".

Progressivism is a political attitude favoring or advocating

changes or reform. Progressivism is often viewed in opposition to

conservative or reactionary ideologies. The Progressive Movement

began in cities with settlement workers and reformers who were

interested in helping those facing harsh conditions at home and at

work. The reformers spoke out about the need for laws regulating

tenement housing and child labor. They also called for better

working conditions for women.

In the United States, the term progressivism emerged in the late

19th century into the 20th century in reference to a more general

response to the vast changes brought by industrialization: an

alternative to both the traditional conservative response to social

and economic issues and to the various more radical streams of

socialism and anarchism which opposed them. Political parties,

such as the Progressive Party, organized at the start of the 20th

century, and progressivism made great strides under American

presidents Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Franklin Delano

Roosevelt, and Lyndon Baines Johnson

In the United States there have been several periods where

progressive political parties have developed. The first of these

was around the turn of the 20th century. This period notably

included the emergence of the Progressive Party, founded in 1912

by President Theodore Roosevelt. This progressive party was the

most successful third party in modern American history. The

Progressive Party founded in 1924 and the Progressive Party

founded in 1948 were less successful than the 1912 version. There

are also two notable state progressive parties: the Wisconsin

Progressive Party and the Vermont Progressive Party. The latter is

still in operation and currently has several high ranking positions in

state government.

Today, most progressive politicians in the United States associate

with the Democratic Party or the Green Party US. In the US

Congress there exists the Congressional Progressive Caucus, which

is often in opposition to the more conservative Democrats, who

form the Blue Dogs caucus. Some of the more notable progressive

members of Congress have included Barack Obama, Dennis

Kucinich, Barney Frank, Bernie Sanders, Sherrod Brown, Maxine

Waters, John Lewis, and Paul Wellstone.

The Green Party of the United States (GPUS) is a political party

in the United States, and similar in mission to many of the

worldwide Green Parties. The Green Party of the United States, a

voluntary association of state parties, has been active as a

nationally recognized political party since 2001. Prior to national

formation, many state affiliates had already formed and were

recognized by their corresponding states. The Association of

State Green Parties (ASGP), a forerunner organization, first

gained widespread public attention during Ralph Nader's

presidential runs in 1996 and 2000. With the founding of the

Green Party of the United States, the party established a national

political presence becoming the primary national Green

organization in the U.S. eclipsing the earlier Greens/Green Party

USA which emphasized non-electoral movement building.

The Congressional Progressive Caucus (CPC) was established in

1991 by six members of the United States House of

Representatives: Representatives Ron Dellums (D-CA), Lane Evans

(D-IL), Thomas Andrews (D-ME), Peter DeFazio (D-OR), Maxine

Waters (D-CA), and Bernie Sanders (I-VT). Then-Representative

Bernie Sanders was the convener and first. The founding members

were concerned about the economic hardship imposed by the

deepening recession, and the growing inequality brought about by

the timidity of the Democratic Party response at the time.

Additional House representatives joined soon, including Major

Owens (D-NY), Nydia Velázquez (D-NY), David Bonior (D-MI), Bob

Filner (D-CA), Barney Frank (D-MA), Maurice Hinchey (D-NY), Jim

McDermott (D-WA), Jerrold Nadler (D-NY), Patsy Mink (D-HI),

George Miller (D-CA), Pete Stark (D-CA), John Olver (D-MA), Lynn

Woolsey (D-CA), and Nancy Pelosi (D-CA).

The Caucus describes its goals as "positively influencing the

course of events pertinent to African-Americans and others of

similar experience and situation," and "achieving greater equity

for persons of African descent in the design and content of

domestic and international programs and services."

The CBC encapsulates these goals in the following priorities:

Closing the achievement and opportunity gaps in education,

assuring quality health care for every American, focusing on

employment and economic security, ensuring justice for all,

retirement security for all Americans, increasing welfare funds and

increasing equity in foreign policy

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored

People, usually abbreviated as NAACP and pronounced N-double-

A-C-P, is one of the oldest and most influential civil rights

organizations in the United States Its mission is "to ensure the

political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all

persons and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination".

Its name, retained in accordance with tradition, is one of the last

surviving uses of the term colored people.

Czar Barack Hussein Obama Reality BookStrategy Structure Society Separation Supremacy Intertwined Intimidation Inevitable Conflict

by Gregory Bodenhamer Mechanicsburg Pa All Rights Reserved 2009 Copyright U.S.A.

Totalitarianism Autocracy

Representative Democracy

QUESTION

ANSWER

Yesterday I dared to struggle. Today I dare to win.

An Oligarchy is a form of government in which power

effectively rests with a small elite segment of society

Questions to ask before Questions to ask before

the sun goes downthe sun goes down,,w h i l e y o u s t i l l h a v e f r e e d o m o f s p e e c hw h i l e y o u s t i l l h a v e f r e e d o m o f s p e e c h

T H E H A R D T O F I N D T O P S E C R E T S O F T H E T H E H A R D T O F I N D T O P S E C R E T S O F T H E

O B A M A O L I G A R C H Y G O V E R N M E N TO B A M A O L I G A R C H Y G O V E R N M E N T

OligarchyOligarchy