Languages

  Eastern Japanese

o 1.1   Hokkaidō dialect

o 1.2   Tōhoku dialect

o 1.3   Kantō dialect

o 1.4   Tōkai-Tōsan dialect

2   Western Japanese

o 2.1   Hokuriku dialect

o 2.2   Kinki (Kansai) dialect

o 2.3   Chūgoku dialect

o 2.4   Umpaku dialect

o 2.5   Shikoku dialect

3   Kyūshū

o 3.1   Hōnichi dialect

o 3.2   Hichiku dialect

o 3.3   Satsugū dialect

4   Hachijō Island

o 4.1   Hachijō dialect

5   Ryūkyū

Paintings

Painting is one of the oldest and most highly refined of the Japanese arts, stemming from classic continental traditions of the early historical period (sixth-seventh centuries A.D.). Native

Japanese traditions reached their apex in the Heian period (A.D 794-1185), producing many artistic devices still in use. During periods of strong Chinese influence, new art forms were adapted, such as Buddhist works in Nara, ink painting in the Muromachi period, and landscape painting by literati in the Tokugawa era. When Western painting theories were introduced in the Meiji period, Japan already had a long history of adaptation of imported ideas and had established a copying process ranging from emulation to synthesis. But it was not until well into the twentieth century that the Japanese were able to assimilate the new medium of oil paints with new ideas of three-dimensional projections on flat surfaces.

Most contemporary Japanese artists could be divided into those who worked in a broadly international style and those who maintained Japanese artistic traditions, though usually within a modern idiom. After World War II, painters, calligraphers, and printmakers flourished in the big cities, particularly Tokyo, and became preoccupied with the mechanisms of urban life, reflected in the flickering lights, neon colors, and frenetic pace of their abstractions. All the "isms" of the New York-Paris art world were fervently embraced. After the abstractions of the 1960s, the 1970s saw a return to realism strongly flavored by the "op" and "pop" art movements, embodied in the 1980s in the explosive works of Shinohara Ushio. Many such outstanding avant-garde artists worked both in Japan and abroad, winning international prizes. These artists felt that there was "nothing Japanese" about their works, and indeed they belonged to the international school. By the late 1970s, the search for Japanese qualities and a national style caused many artists to reevaluate their artistic ideology and turn away from what some felt were the empty formulas of the West. Contemporary paintings within the modern idiom began to make conscious use of traditional Japanese art forms, devices, and ideologies. A number of mono-ha artists turned to painting to recapture traditional nuances in spatial arrangements, color harmonies, and lyricism.

Japanese-style painting (nihonga) had continued in a modern fashion, updating traditional expressions while retaining their intrinsic character. Some artists within this style still painted on silk or paper with traditional colors and ink, while others used new materials, such as acrylics. Many of the older schools of art, most notably those of the Tokugawa period, were still practiced. For example, the decorative naturalism of the rimpa school,

characterized by brilliant, pure colors and bleeding washes, was reflected in the work of many postwar artists and in the 1980s art of Hikosaka Naoyoshi. The realism of the Maruyama-Okyo school and the calligraphic and spontaneous Japanese style of the gentlemen-scholars were both widely practiced in the 1980s. Sometimes all of these schools, as well as older ones, such as the Kano ink traditions, were drawn on by contemporary artists in the Japanese style and in the modern idiom. Many Japanese-style painters were honored with awards and prizes as a result of renewed popular demand for Japanese-style art beginning in the 1970s. More and more, the international modern painters also drew on the Japanese schools as they turned away from Western styles in the 1980s. The tendency had been to synthesize East and West. But new artistic approaches were less in favor of a conscious blending than of recapturing the Japanese spirit within a modern idiom. Thus, the 100-year split between Japanese-style and Western-style art began to heal. Some artists had already leapt the gap between the two, as did the outstanding painter Shinoda Toko. Her bold sumi ink abstractions were inspired by traditional calligraphy but realized as lyrical expressions of modern abstraction.

Subjects

Japanese paintings may evoke an association with landscapes and natural scenes drawn with a few genial brush strokes. The impression may come from the majority of the scroll paintings that are to be found in galleries and museums. But it is only a part of the story.

Painting subjects were as diverse as we know it from Japanese prints. And of course each of the media used had its own preferred main focus. Some rather popular subjects were:

shiki-e - Landscapes during the four seasons.meisho-e - Views of famous places.

monogatari-e - Scenes from the life at the imperial court in Kyoto.

nanban-byobu - Images of Westerners on screens from the time of the landing of Portuguese and Dutch ships in the Southern parts of Japan.

rakuchu-rakugai-zu - Views from Kyoto.

kabuki-e - Images from the kabuki theater.

bijinga - Images of beautiful women, usually women from the pleasure quarters.

Japanese Painting Glossary

byobu - Japanese folding screens, usually made of 4 or 6 parts.e - The character "e" means "picture" or "painting" in the Japanese language.

emakimono - Horizontal picture scrolls.

fusuma - Japanese sliding paper doors.

fuzokuga - genre pictures of manners and customs.

hakubyo - Black and white ink painting.

kano - Name of a painting school, named after its founder, Kano Masanobu (1453-1490).

kara-e - Chinese style painting.

kakemono - Vertical scrolls.

meisho-e - Pictures of famous places.

nanban-byobu - Screens with pictures of Westerners from the late 17th and early 18th century.

nanga - Painting school from the early 19th century depicting mountains and valleys in Chinese style.

rakuchu-rakugai-zu - Views of Kyoto.

rin-pa - Painting school that practiced a decorative, lush style.

sansuiga - Landscape painting.

shijo-ha - Painting School in Kyoto.

shira-e - Image painted in black ink without or only minimal colors.

shoheiga - Paintings on walls.

suibokuga - Paintings in black ink of landscapes in Zen manner.

uchiwa - Japanese fans in round shape.

yamato-e - Japanese style painting.

Calligraphy

Japanese calligraphy, or sho, was first introduced into Japan in the 600s AD by Chinese Buddhist monks. They recorded Buddhist scriptures in florid brush strokes that approached art. As the style became more popular in Japan, calligraphy was used with secular poetry, such as the haiku. There are five types of Japanese calligraphy: tensho (seal), sosho(cursive), gyosho (semi-cursive),kaisho (block) and reisho (scribe). It is usually written in a combination ofkanji (chinese characters) and kanacharacters, which express sounds.

In addition to expressing writing, many works of calligraphy, especially those during the Kamakura period, include brush paintings beside them. These paintings are drawn in the same pen that the words are written in. This multiple use not only helps illustrate the scenes described in the calligraphy, but also unifies the work, defining it as a work of art. Calligraphy is similar to pre-Gutenberg bibles, except that calligraphy has survived the ages as a means of expression, not being made obsolete by technology.

Even the ink for calligraphy is still produced in the traditional manner. The ink is made from the carbon residue from burnt pine needles, and compressed into black sticks. To mix the ink, a wet stone is rubbed with the stick, forming a liquid ink. This ink can then be poured into a pan for dipping by a calligraphy brush.

Surprisingly enough, an excellent calligraphic haiku doesn’t take very long to produce; in a matter of seconds it is completed. One of the defining characteristics for good calligraphy is its rhythm and continuous nature; this can only be truly achieved in one brush stroke. However, before beginning, a calligrapher must take time to get a feel for the piece of writing Some even meditate before picking up the brush.

Murals

Mural painting, one of the oldest and most popular forms of painting in Japan, can be traced back to the earliest cave drawings of prehistoric man. In its present form, however, Japanese mural painting can be traced back to Horiyuji, in the eighth century. Evolving though the ages, the art form didn't reach its peak until the Edo period (1576-1867). This was a period of castles and warring lords battling for social status; each new castle required entire walls adorned with artistic creations.

One interesting development during this time period came out of necessity: gold foil paintings. The castles of this era were built primarily as defensive structures; most had high walls and tiny windows, blocking out almost all natural light. To brighten the castle interior, many murals of the period were painted on a background of gold leaf, or liquid gold applied with a brush. What appeared in the foreground was up to the artist; lions, dragons, tigers, seasons, boats, bridges, gardens and flowers were all subjects of murals in ancient castles.

Often, a lord would employ a group of artists to decorate his castle, usually a master artist and his "school." Most of the murals they created were left unsigned, and it is difficult to tell whether an individual piece was painted by the master or a skilled apprentice. The subject of a mural didn't have to be complicated; one of the most revered mural series included only life-size pine trees on gold foil.

Another art form done by muralists was screen painting. These paintings sometimes were black and white, but always highly evocative. One famous screen depicts only four groups of trees in heavy fog, with most of the screen being left blank; the image of space and the simplistic style combine to form a unified piece.

Ukiyo-e

With the emergence of a new middle class in Japan at the end of the seventeenth century, the need for a more affordable art form became more pressing than ever. Woodblock printing which permitted multiple copies became the ideal medium for Japanese artists of this time period.

The Japanese word for woodblock prints, "Ukiyo-e", means "pictures of the floating world." The surreality of woodblock prints, the vibrancy of their colors, and the immediate nature of their presentation, brings to mind a more sharply defined world. For example, Akasaka Kiribtake by Hiroshige [shown right], seems to transport the viewer into another world. The colors blend into each other in a sophisticated style.

Each woodblock print is actually the product of up to three processes: the design, the woodblock cut, and the print. An original design is drawn and then pasted down on a cherry block of wood. Next, the cutter chisels the design into the woodblock. The block is then inked and a sheet of dampened paper (called a key print) is rubbed until the impression is transferred on to it. The artist then chooses the colors he wants and a separate block is carved for every color to be used in the print. Finally, the blocks go to the printer, who, using mulberry paper, rubs the dyes onto the blocks and transfers each

impression. The resulting print was a more affordable piece of art, within the reach of middle class households throughout Japan and the world.

One interesting aspect of woodblock prints was the mulberry paper on which the final product emerges. The mulberry paper was custom-made for each woodblock print. The dyes used to produce the print sink into the paper, and their colors deepen as the print becomes older. Unfortunately, few of these prints survive precisely because of the fragile nature of this paper. However, the prints left behind give us a window into a fantastic "floating" world.

Kambara (from the series '53 Stations of the Tokaido Road', 1833~4) - Hiroshige

Sculpture

One of the art forms in Japan most appreciated in the Western world is sculpture. Sculptors throughout Japanese history have used an extensive variety of media for their work including clay, bronze, stone, dry lacquer, and most importantly wood. In league with the other forms of art, the sculptors showed respect for all of these mediums.

The earliest forms of sculpture appeared in the Joman period which began in 2200 BC. The Joman period is named for the twisted rope decorations which people made to cover clay pots. These primitive sculptures from this period were often figurines and were made of clay. The purpose of the Joman figurines is still in debate. Some people have suggested that the figurines were dolls for children and others have thought they were images of Japanese deities. All of the early sculptures, however, are both fascinating and puzzling. One example which characterizes the enigmatic figurines is a sculpture from the Joman period which was discovered near Tokyo. The eccentric body and feline-like face do not reveal a great deal about the sculpture’s subject. Currently, it is not known whether this sculpture depicts an animal or a human figure. Another strange sculpture from the Joman period is a small figure with a heart-shaped head and a small, circular mouth.

Hundreds of years later, the Japanese still continued a tradition of clay sculptures. A type of sculpture which became prominent approximately 1700 years ago was hollow clay cylinders called haniwa. These creations were placed around the stone burial chambers of Japanese emperors and other important officials. Because the chambers were covered with mounds of dirt, the haniwa kept the earth from washing away. The haniwa were of simple form, often taking the form of humans, animals, and sometimes even houses.

One particularly important influence which took shape during the sixth century was the introduction of Buddhism into Japanese society. The religion of Buddhism originated in India and spread to China and Japan. For this reason, much of the sculpture from this period has a distinct Chinese feel. A new variety of media was used including Seated Jizo Bosatsu

(Kstigarbha Bodhisattva). Kamakura Period.

Photo: Property of the Kyoto National Museum. All rights reserved. Used with permission.

wood, bronze, and gold. Early wooden statues were typically carved from a single tree trunk. Stone was not widely used in Japanese sculpture in this period nor other periods because of its scarcity throughout the country’s history.

Another innovative period in Japanese art was the time between 1185 and 1333, or the Kamakura period. A civil war in 1180 was fought between the two military clans, the Taira and the Minamoto. The Minamoto clan was victorious and they established their new government in the village of Kamakura. In order to please the new military rulers, artists took a new, realistic approach to their artwork. This art included the sculpture which was led by the Kei school of sculptors. This school was led by sculptor Unkei who created realistic masterpieces.

Much of early Japanese sculpture, especially from the Joman period is puzzling and difficult to interpret. But the sculpture from all periods of Japanese history is important as it helps to describe Japanese people and their culture.

Ceramics

Ceramics and pottery are one aspect of Japanese art that has always flourished. It is believed that the early Joman period pottery, some dating back to 10,000 B.C., may be the oldest in the world. The people from this period hunted, fished, and gathered and used the pots primarily for cooking uses. In the Joman period, as well as present day, the focus of beauty in ceramics is the natural clay used as well as their firing technique.

Several other periods of time in Japan invited changes to ceramics. Modernization of ceramics occurred as Buddhism was brought to Japan. Advanced techniques for pottery were developed, and the Japanese also adopted several new styles, including Chinese three-color lead glazes, and high-temperature Korean firing. Both additions to the school of ceramics in Japan created an influx of exciting new shapes. In later years, a major source of influence in ceramics was the tea ceremonies which took place in Japan. These ceremonies influenced potters to make creations simplistic in shape and design. The sets of dishes potters created for tea ceremonies or for other purposes often reflected their belief that art should be asymmetrical. Sets were made in odd numbers including, three, five, and seven rather than an even number.

The Edo period also provided a great deal of influence on potter’s creations. In this 268 year period (1600-1868), new, dramatic designs were created. New forms of ceramics appeared including porcelains bright with color. Japanese practices in pottery developed throughout the period would influence a great number of artists in European and American countries in the twentieth century. The opening of Japan to the West did not harm to the art of ceramics and practices were continued, as artists again used innovative techniques with different clays, firings, and glazes. Pottery is still an extremely vibrant part of Japanese art. Many exhibitions take place during the year, and thousands of potters in Japan are able to make a living from their art.

Netsuke

A class similar to that of the early sculpture was created much later in Japanese history. This form of sculpture, called netsuke (pronouncednet-skeh in Japanese), developed over a period of three hundred years and continues today. The netsuke was similar to the early Joman sculptures in that the two types of sculptures were both comprised of small

Bowl with Flowering Plants in Underglaze Blue and Iron Brown. Edo Period.

Photo: Property of the Kyoto National Museum. All rights reserved. Used with permission.

figurines. The original purpose of Netsuke was to act as a “pocket”. Kimonos, the traditional Japanese form of dress, do not contain pockets, and thus are not able to easily carry items. Small personal items were tucked by women in their sleeves but men tied personal items to their kimono sash. These personal items including tobacco purses, pipes, and writing utensils were placed inside a pouch called a sagemono which was tied using a silk cord. Netsuke was created in order to prevent the silk cord from slipping through the obi. Soon after its creation, netsuke began to function as an aesthetic object as well.

Artists, who often left their work unsigned, began carving elaborate objects using any and all materials available to them. Some used rare materials including ivory and stone, and others used extremely common materials such as narwhal, boar’s tusk, boar’s teeth, amber, and stag antler. Contemporary artists have also experimented with netsuke. These new carvers are from many countries around the world, including the United States, Canada, Africa, New Zealand, Australia, and some European countries. The different locations of the carvers has helped usher in new themes to this form of sculpture that are not generally evident in Japan.

ikebana

While flower arrangement for many people in the West consists of symmetrically arranging flowering plants in a vase, Japanese Ikebana(literally 'flowers kept alive') is a lot more complex. There are many schools, of which the most popular are Ikenobo, Sogetsu andOhara. There are also different styles depending on the school and the plants and vase used.

Ikenobo is the oldest school of ikebana, founded by Buddhist priest Ikenobo Senkei in the 15th century. He is thought to have created the rikka (standing flowers) style. This style was developed as a Buddhist expression of the beauty of nature, with seven branches representing hills, waterfalls, valleys and so on arranged in a formalised way. The present 45th-generation head of the school is Ikenobo Sen'ei. The school is based in the Rokkakudo temple in Kyoto, believed to have been started by Prince Shotoku. Among the priests and aristocrats, this style became more and more formalised until, in the late 17th century, the growing merchant class developed a simpler style, called seika or shoka. Shoka uses only three main branches, known as ten (heaven),chi (earth) and jin (man) and is designed to show the beauty of the plant itself. Another old form of ikebana is nageire, used in the tea ceremony.

The first of the modern schools was formed when Ohara Unshin broke from the Ikenobo school in the late 19th century. The Ohara school generally uses moribana (piled-up flowers) in a shallow, flat container. The school was started at a time when Western culture was heavily influential in Japan and the moribana style made good use of Western plants. But it was still a formal style. Influence from the artistic movements of the early 20th century led to the development of jiyuka (free-style) arrangement. Despite all the changes, ikebana was still only for the upper class.

In the 1930's and then more so in the postwar period, interest in ikebana became much more widespread. Ikebana schools opened which attracted people of all social classes. During the occupation, many wives of US servicemen took up the art and later helped it spread abroad. Led by Teshigahara Sofu, founder in 1927 of the Sogetsu school, zen-eibana or avant-garde ikebana introduced all kinds of new materials, such as plastic, plaster and steel.

Netsuke Diagram.

Photo: Michael Spindel

Today, there are about 3,000 ikebana schools in Japan and thousands more around the world. The Ikenobo school alone has some 60,000 teachers worldwide. Ikebana is practised by about 15 million people in Japan, mostly young women.

Ikebana can be roughly divided into two styles - the moribana shallow vase style and the nageire tall vase style. The

Sogetsu school uses a series of kakei (patterns) for each style so that even the beginner can quickly create their own arrangements. As an example, let's look at the moribana Basic Upright style.

Kakeizu for the arrangement shown on the left(copyright Sogetsukai Foundation). The photo shows

the frontal view as in the illustration.

The shushi are the three main branches - the shin (truth) branch, the soe(supporting) branch and the hikae (moderating) branch. The arrangement of these branches and the kenzan or spiked metal holder are drawn in a simple diagram, called a kakeizu. The kakeizu shows a frontal and overhead view of the arrangement. After examining the kakeizu, suitable branches or flowers are chosen for the shushi and trimmed if necessary. The stems are cut to correct lengths according to set formulae. The kenzan is placed in the vase and just covered with water. The sushi are fixed to the kenzan in order and according to the kakeizu. Jushior short supplementary stems are added to support the shushi and give depth to the arrangement. Finally, the composition is examined and any finishing touches applied.

Bonsai

The sculpted trunk and branches of the Japanese bonsai plants immediately capture one's eye; this is no typical potted plant. Similar to other types of art, the origin of bonsai was thought to have taken root in China and then transferred to Japan during the middle of the Heian period (794-1185). When the plant reached the Japanese island, however, regional gardening techniques influenced the development of bonsai in Japan, distinguishing it from the Chinese variety.

The term derived for this artistic practice became known as "bonsai" meaning "cultivation in a pot". The goal of bonsai is to create a plant, small in size, that would suggest a larger natural scene. The majority of cultivation techniques for bonsai were developed in the Endo period (1603-1868). These techniques are used by bonsai artists to shape the tree's branches and trunk. A variety of different trees are used for bonsai, including Japanese black pines, Japanese cedars, Japanese maples, and Japanese white pines. A bonsai also depends upon repotting for its survival. Some trees are repotted every two to three years, to ensure that old, dead roots are removed and the roots will be able to absorb air, water, and fertilizer more easily. If properly cared for, bonsai trees can live many years. Examples exist today of bonsai almost five hundred years old.

Bonsai is viewed according to a predetermined criteria of beauty. One important quality is root spread, or the amount the roots of a bonsai appear above the earth. Bonsai trees usually do not attain a good root spread until they are much older. Another factor is the "rise" of the trunk. The "rise" is the way the tree rises off its base and also the shape of the base. The last important element is the arrangement of the bonsai's branches.

A great number of trunk and planting styles appear within the art of bonsai. The most basic of these forms is the straight trunk style. Other varieties include the curved-trunk, triple-trunk, Literati style (a simple unsophisticated

style), "windswept" style, "raised roots" style, and cascade style (where bonsai grows outside and below the rim of the pot). The variety and complexity of bonsai underscores its position as a truely unique art form.

Origami

There can hardly be a western person who didn't, as a child, make a paper airplane using folded newspaper or a sheet from a notebook. The more adventurous might have made a hat or, if they were lucky, might have been introduced to the almost limitless possibilities that origami and a creative mind can conjour up. These days, while some people consider it a real art form that is very Zen-like in its simplicity and depth, origami is regarded mainly as an activity for children, who are taught just a few standard designs. Even in Japan, the most complicated design that most people master is the tsuru (crane), which has developed into a worldwide symbol of children's desire for peace. But origami has a long history and was originally not for children at all.

Like many things in Japanese culture, origami (from "oru" meaning to fold, and "kami" meaning paper) has its origins in China. It is believed that paper was first made, and folded, in China in the first or second century. The earliest records of origami in Japan date to the Heian Period (794-1185). It was during this period that Japan's nobility had its golden age and it was a time of great artistic and cultural advances. Paper was still a rare enough comodity that origami was a pastime for the elite. Paper was folded into set shapes for ceremonial occasions such as weddings. Serrated strips of white paper were used to mark sacred objects, a custom which can still be seen in every shrine to this day.

It was in the Edo Period (1600-1868) that much of today's popular traditional culture developed as forms of entertainment for the merchant classes and the common people. Kabuki and ukiyo-e are just two examples and origami also gained poularity. By the mid-19th century, 70 or more different designs had been created. But aside from its

ceremonial use, its popularity has been in decline since the Meiji Period(1886-1912) and the modernization of Japan.

White pine bonsai.

Photo: TQ Team 27458

Above: Thousands of origami tsuru hang in strings in a temple. Upper right: An elaborate origami by Aidan

Dysart. Right: Origami tsuru come in all sizes.

In the mid-1950s, 11-year old Sasaki Sadako developed leukemia as a result of her exposure to radiation as a baby during the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in 1945. Tradition held that if you made a senbazuru (a thousand paper cranes) and made a wish after completing each one, your wish would come true. Sadako set about making the tsuru, wishing for her own recovery. But as she continued, she began to wish instead for world peace. She died when she had made only 644 and her school friends completed the full number and dedicated them to her at her funeral. The story helped inspire the Children's Peace Memorial in Hiroshima and a statue of Sadako in Seattle. Each year on Peace Day (August 6th), thousands of origami tsuru are sent to Hiroshima by chidren all over the world. There are too many folding steps in making a tsuru for me to describe simply here and lots of sites already provide this and many other ideas (see the links below).

In more recent times, the Internet has helped spread the word about Japanese culture, both the long-hidden aspects and the things that western people had heard of but knew little about. Origami is one such facet that lends itself to the visual medium. Designs can be explained in line diagrams or photos and, with practice, can be mastered by anyone. The next step, as with any art form, is to find a topic or field that appeals and develop your own style. In the words of Yoshizawa Akira, the 'acknowledged grandmaster of origami, the father of modern creative origami':

Kimono

The Japanese kimono, which literally means "clothing", is one of the world's instantly recognizable traditional garments. Thanks to the popularity of ukiyo-ewoodblock prints in the West at the beginning of the last century, the kimono-clad maiden became one of the quintessential images of Japan. There are different types of kimono for different occasions and seasons, including those worn by men.

Kimono are a much less common sight these days and are usually only seen worn by older women or on special occasions. Part of the reason is the cost, as a decent silk kimono will set you back the best part of a million yen. But there is also the question of how to put on the kimono and tie the obi (decorative sash), a complicated procedure that is beyond the ability of many young women. They usually have to ask their mothers to help them or take course at a kimono school.

So how is a kimono put together?

Parts of a Kimono

yuki - sleeve length ushiromigoro - rear uraeri - inner collar doura - upper lining

main section

sodetsuke - armhole seam

fuki - hem guard sode - sleeve okumi - front panel below the collar

miyatsukuchi - opening below armhole

sodeguchi - sleeve opening

tamoto - sleeve pouch

maemigoro - front main section

furi - sleeve below armhole

tomoeri - overcollar eri - collar susomawashi - lower lining

The illustration to the left shows how kimono design has changed over the centuries. From around the Nara Period (710-94), a garment called a kosode (small sleeves) was worn, first as underclothes and later as an outer garment, by both women and men. The garment became known as a kimono from the 18th century. Although much less common today than they used to be, even the short-term visitor is likely to see at least one of these elegant garments during their stay.

Women wear kimono when they attend traditional arts, such as a tea ceremony orikebana class. Girls and young single women wear furisode, a colorful style of kimono with long sleeves and tied with a brightly-colored obi (sash). Kimono made from fabric with simple geometric patterns, called Edo komon, are more plain and casual.

At weddings, the bride and groom will often go through several costume changes. One of them will see the bride in a shiromuku, a heavy, embroidered white kimono and wearing an elaborate hairpiece. The groom wears a black kimono made from habutaesilk and carrying the family crest, hakama (a pleated skirt) and a half-length black coat called a haori. Western suits are more common for male guests.

For funerals, both men and women wear plain black kimono. With black suits being suitable for both, it's often difficult to tell whether a guy is going to a wedding or a funeral except that they wear a white tie for weddings and a black tie for funerals. In January every year, 20-year olds celebrate their coming of age. Most women wear an elaborately-colored komono, often with a tacky fur boa. Other kimono-wearing occasions include New Year, graduation ceremonies and Shichi-go-san for children.

Traditionally, the art of putting on a kimono was passed from mother to daughter but these days special schools can do brisk business imparting the necessary techniques. The first thing put on are the tabi(white cotton socks); next the undergarments, a top and a wraparound skirt; then the nagajuban, an under-kimono which is tied with a datemaki belt; finally the kimono, with the left side over the right (right over left is only used when dressing a corpse for burial) and tied with the obi. About an inch of the haneri (collar) of the nagajuban shows inside the collar of the kimono. The loose design of the collar is to give a glimpse of the neck, considered the most sensual part of the kimono-wearing lady. When outside, zori sandals are usually worn.

Lined (awase) kimono, traditionally made of silk but sometimes wool or synthetic fabrics, are worn during the cooler months. Light, cotton yukata are worn by men and women during the summer months and after bathing at onsen (hot spring resorts) and ryokan (traditional inns). Often they are worn with geta, informal wooden footwear. Originally worn to the bath house by the upper class and made of plain white cotton, yukata became popular among the common people and were often stencil-dyed. Today, brightly-colored yukata are common at summer festivals and fireworks displays, particularly for young women and children.

Footware

Traditional Japanese footwear is not seen that often these days as is usually only worn with other traditional clothing. Zori are sandals made from rice straw or lacquered wood and are worn with a kimono for formal occasions. Geta are raised wooden clogs that are worn with the informal yukata. Geta are most often seen these days on the feet of sumo wrestlers. You will most likely hear them before you see them as they make a distinctive clacking noise as the wearer walks. This is sometimes mentioned as one of the sounds that older Japanese miss most in modern life. You may see the occasional buddhist monk wearing wearing waraji, sandals made from straw rope that in the past were the standard footwear of the common people. All three designs allow for free circulation of air around the feet, a feature that probably came about because of Japan's humid climate.

Traditional Japanese footwear. From left to right: Geta, waraji and zori.

As in many other areas of life, the fashion of the early Japanese nobility was greatly influenced by Chinese culture and so they wore shoes or boots. Geta and zori originated in the Heian Period (794-1192) a time which saw the evolution of a more "native" culture. Geta are made from a flat piece of wood on two slats (called ha, or teeth) that raise the sole part 4-5cm off the ground. This is enough to keep a kimono from getting dirty, though ashida (rain shoes) have slats about 10cm high. Some sushi chefs even wear geta with ha that are up to 17cm high. These "platform" shoes were reincarnated in a brief late-90s fashion trend, where young girls could be seen staggering around on atsuzoku (thick heels).

Both geta and zori are held on the feet by a hanao (thong), which is usually black for men and red for women. Zori are usually worn with white, split-toe cotton socks called tabi. Tabi are the footwear of choice for people taking part in the many matsuri (festivals) across Japan. Construction workers, who can be seen in brightly colored overalls with very baggy trousers, often wear jika tabi, cotton tabi shoes or boots with rubber soles. This form of footwear is not only distinctive but extremely comfortable, lightweight and practical. The durability and unique design of jika tabi has made them a popular export and one of the most popular items in our Japan Store.

 Buy jika tabi or zori sandals in our Japan Store.

While traditional Japanese dress has been largely replaced with western clothing, some of its customs still survive intact. The most common is the practice of removing one's shoes when entering someone's home. The custom is a combination of cleanliness and the fact that traditional flooring is made from tatami, straw matting that is easily damaged by footwear. There is a story of the first American consul to Japan, Townsend Harris getting off to a bad start with his hosts by walking straight into the shogun's presence in Edo Castle without removing his shoes.

While geta have become pretty rare, the shoe cupboard in every home's genkan (entrance hallway) is still called a getabako (geta box). When you enter the genkan, you must remove your shoes and the formal etiquette is to leave them neatly aligned and to the side, facing inwards. The host turns them around and puts them in the center before you leave. Younger people tend not to worry about these finer details anymore. But when entering shrine or temple buildings and many Japanese-style restaurants, you will be expected to remove your shoes. Many restaurants and homes provide slippers for guests, though these should be removed when entering a room with tatami mat flooring. Also, there will be a separate pair of slippers to be changed into in the toilet.

The Japanese have a very deep-rooted though largely unspoken understanding of the difference between spaces. The genkan is a kind of border post post between the outside world and the inner sanctum of the home. Delivery men may quite casually step into your genkan but that's as far as they'll go without you inviting them in. There is almost always a step up into the home and the Japanese word for entering a home is literally to "step up". Even when entering your own home (uchi, meaning inside), the act of removing your shoes is symbolic of casting off the worries and troubles as well as the dirt of the outside world (soto). "Dosoku de agarikomu" (literally, go inside with soiled feet) is a metaphor for meddling thoughtlessly in someone else's affairs.

Food-the basics

The typical Japanese meal consists of a bowl of rice (gohan), a bowl of miso soup (miso shiru), pickled vegetables (tsukemono) and fish or meat. While rice is the staple food, several kinds of noodles (udon, soba and ramen) are cheap and very popular for light meals. As an island nation, the Japanese take great pride in their seafood. A wide variety of fish, squid, octopus, eel, and shellfish appear in all kinds of dishes from sushi to tempura.

Rice | Noodles | Soy products

A decorative sushi selection

RiceSticky, short-grained rice is the staple food in Japan. Uncooked rice is called kome. The cultivation of rice in paddy fields traditionally required great cooperation between villagers and this is said to have been central to the evolution of Japanese culture. Their are several thousand varieties grown in Japan, with Koshihikari and Akita Komachi being among the most popular. Rice is also used to make mochi (rice cakes), senbei (rice crackers) and sake (rice wine). Rice can also be cooked with red beans (sekihan), seafood and vegetables (Takikomi gohan) or as a kind of watery porridge seasoned with salt (kayu) which is very popular as a cold remedy.Onigiri are rice balls with seafood or vegetables in the middle, usually wrapped in a piece of dried seaweed (nori). They are traditionally part of a packed lunch or picnic. Individually wrapped onigiri, usually a trianular shape, make a good snack and are available at convenience stores.

Young girls (kogyaru) are Japan's true trend-setters these days, though their taste is often very questionable. Platform heels (atsuzoku) were one of the must-have items of the late 90s.

Noodles - Udon and sobaUdon noodles are made from wheat flour. They are boiled and served in a broth, usually hot but occasionally cold in summer, and topped with ingredients such as a raw egg to make tsukimi udon, and deep-fried tofu aburaage to make kitsune udon. Soba is buckwheat noodles, which are thinner and a darker color than udon. Soba is usually served cold (zaru soba) with a dipping sauce, sliced green onions and wasabi. When served in a hot broth, it is known as kake soba. Served with the same toppings as udon, you get tsukimi soba, kitsune soba and tempura soba.

Noodles - RamenWhile udon and soba are also believed to have come from China, only ramen retains its image as Chinese food. Ramen is thin egg noodles which are almost always served in a hot broth flavored with shoyu or miso. This is topped with a variety of ingredients such as slices of roast pork (chashu), bean sprouts (moyashi), sweetcorn and butter. Ramen is popular throughout Japan and different regions are known for their variations on the theme. Examples are Corn-butter Ramen in Sapporo and Tonkotsu Ramen in Kyushu. Instant ramen (the most famous brand is Pot Noodles), to which you just add hot water, has become very popular in recent years.

Soy productsThe humble soybean (daizu) is used to make a wide variety of foods and flavourings. Soybeans and rice are used to make miso, a paste used for flavouring soup and marinating fish. Together with soy sauce (shoyu), miso is a foundation of Japanese cuisine. Tofu is soybean curd and a popular source of protein, especially for vegetarians. These days,

even tofu donuts and tofu icecream are available. Natto, fermented soybeans, is one of the healthiest but also the most notorious item on the menu. With a pungent smell and sticky, stringy texture, natto is easy to hate straight away. Japanese people themselves tend to either love it or hate it. It is usually served with chopped onions and a raw egg and mixed into a bowl of rice.

dishes

The Japanese love their food. This can be seen by the number of people who eat out, even in a time of recession, and the number of food-related programs on TV. Tell someone that you're taking a trip to Hokkaido and the first thing they'll do is insist that you try the seafood while you're there or the Okonomiyaki in Osaka and so on. While sushi has become increasingly popular in the West, most Japanese food remains pretty much unknown. Japanese restaurants around the world have tended to cater for Japanese tourists and have been priced accordingly, ie. expensive. But in Japan there is a huge variety of food available at prices ranging from a month's salary to very reasonable.

Sashimi & sushi | Domburimono | Tempura | Sukiyaki | Shabu-shabu | Okonomiyaki| Yakitori

Katsudon Tempura

Sashimi and sushiThese two dishes are often thought to be one and the same. Sashimi consists of thin slices of raw fish or other seafood served with spicy Japanese horseradish (wasabi) and shoyu while sushi consists of the same, served on vinegared rice, but also includes cooked seafood, vegetables and egg. Another form of sushi isnorimaki, or sushi roll, in which the filling is rolled in rice with a covering of nori. Cheap sushi is available at supermarkets or at kaiten-zushi restaurants, where customers sit at a counter and choose what they want from a conveyor belt.

DomburimonoThese dishes consist of a bowl (domburi) of rice covered with one of a variety of toppings

such as boiled beef (gyudon), chicken and egg (oyakodon), deep-fried shrimp (tendon) or deep-fried pork cutlet and egg (katsudon). They are often eaten as part of a reasonably priced 'lunch set', with miso soup and pickles.

TempuraSeafood or vegetables dipped in batter and deep-fried, tempura is served with a dipping sauce and daikon. The word 'tempura' comes from the Portuguese 'tempero' (gravy or sauce) and this dish dates from the mid-16th century, when Portuguese and Spanish culture was first introduced to Japan. Tempura can be served with a side bowl of rice and soup or on a bowl of rice (tendon) or noodles (tempura udon, tempura soba).

SukiyakiThis is a savoury stew of vegetables and beef cooked in a large nabe and dipped in a bowl of beaten raw egg. The vegetables usually used are green onion, shiitake mushrooms and chrysanthemum leaves (shungiku). Also added are tofu and gelatinous noodles (shirataki) and the ingredients are cooked in a sauce made of soy sauce, sugar and sweet cooking sake (mirin).

ShabushabuFor this dish, diners dip paper-thin slices of beef in a pot of boiling water and stock for a few seconds and then dip the cooked beef in sesame sauce (goma dare) before eating. Later, vegetables such as enoki mushrooms and Chinese cabbage, tofu and shirataki are added.

When cooked, these are dipped in a soy and citrus sauce (ponzu). After the beef and vegetables have been finished, udon can be added to the pot and eaten with the broth. Other flavorings used include crushed garlic, chives and daikon. Economical (for those with a big appetite) all-you-can-eat meals are common in Shabushabu restaurants.

Ingredients for sukiyaki Okonomiyaki topped with sauce and ginger

OkonomiyakiThis can best be described as a savory Japanese pancake. Chopped vegetables and meat or seafood are mixed with batter and cooked on a griddle. Like a pancake, the okonomiyaki is flipped over and cooked on both sides. It is then topped with a special sauce and mayonnaise and sprinkled with nori and dried fish flakes (katsuobushi). Variations include adding a fried egg or soba.

YakitoriYakitori itself means broiled chicken. Various cuts of chicken, including heart, liver and cartilage are cooked on skewers over a charcoal grill. Also cooked this way at yakitori restaurants (yakitoriya) are an assortment of vegetables such as green peppers (piman), garlic cloves (ninniku) and onions (negi). They are flavored using either a tangy sauce (tare) or salt (shio). The menu will usually contain a variety of other foods as well. Yakitoriya are usually laid-back places where the food is a snack to accompany drinking.

Alcohol

Alcohol appears in the earliest historical records. 3rd-century Chinese records describe the inhabitants of Japan as being fond of their liquor and this remains little changed today. Consumption of sake was overtaken by that of beer around the beginning of the 20th century. In recent years, beer and its cheaper relations happoshu and so-called "third-category beer" account for over 75% of alcohol consumption. Overall, per capita alcohol consumption has been in decline from a peak of 80 liters - that's more than 21 gallons - a year in 1999 and was around 74 liters in 2006.

A generation of young Japanese had grown up in difficult economic times and were inclined to go for cheaper drinks or avoid alcohol altogether. But there are still a huge variety of different places to go out for a drink. Most are also places to eat as the western idea of the stand-up pub is relatively new to Japan.

When is a Beer Not a Beer?

Japanese major beer brands - the top two are Asahi and Kirin, followed by Suntoryand Sapporo with a quarter of the market between them - are known worldwide. The biggest breweries produce a range of top-selling beers, such as No.1 seller Asahi'sSuper Dry, Sapporo's Black Label and Ebisu, Kirin's Lager and Ichiban Shibori and Suntory's Malts. In addition, they sell dozens of 'seasonal' brands for a few months at a time. These are generally lagers and easily outsell other brands such as stout (black beer). Appealing to the increased health consciousness of the Japanese consumer, terms like "zero calorie" and "low alcohol" have become marketing buzzwords.

Happoshu (low-malt beer), has become more popular recently due mainly to the fact that it's significantly cheaper than regular beer. Happoshu typically retails for ¥30-40 less for a standard 350ml can because the low malt content puts it in a lower tax category. Sales of happoshu accounted for over a fifth of the beer market in recent years thanks also to heavy marketing. Taking a growing chunk of the market is "third-category beer." Made with malt substitutes like soybeans, corn and even peas, it has a taste close to that of regualr beer but at an even cheaper price thsan happoshu. Economic worries have led more Japanese consumers to consider price more carefully, and as the new alternatives are considerably cheaper, they have seen their share of the beer market grow to almost 30% in 2009. Korean-made third-category beers such as Muginosuke or Prime Draft can be had can be had for less than ¥100 a can. Meanwhile regular beer fell below the 50% market share level for the first time ever.

The bigger breweries also produce other alcoholic beverages such as whisky, wineand shochu as well as soft drinks.

Label for Mado no Ume sakefrom Saga Prefecture

Kirin Lager Beer350ml can

Asahi Super Dry'Steiny' bottle

Sake

In Japanese, the word sake is also used as a generic term for alcohol. The correct term for refined Japanese rice wine is seishu, or more commonly nihonshu. Like wine made from grapes, there are regional variations and good and bad years but sake is not usually stored for more than a year. Good sake is produced all over the country and with thousands of small breweries, finding one to suit your palate shouldn't be too hard. There are different grades of sake depending on the milling process used on the rice and what additives are used, if any. The production cycle takes about one year: Autumn rice is used in the brewing process, which starts in winter and ends the following spring. The sake matures during the summer and is finally bottled in the autumn. Sake has an alcohol content similar to wine,

around 16%. It can be served either warmed or chilled. The cheaper varieties are usually served hot (atsukan) straight into a glass in cheap drinking establishments like izakaya or yakitoriya. Otherwise it is served in an earthenware bottle (tokkuri) and poured into small cups (sakazuki).

Shochu

Shochu is a distilled liquor made from grain and averages around 50% proof, although there are large variations depending on the ingredients and region. It is most commonly drunk in a mixture with ice and things like oolong tea (oolon-hai) or citrus juices (lemon-hai). These drinks are available ready made in cans. Ready-made cocktails have also become popular recently. Whiskey and other distilled liquors tend to be popular among middle-aged men.

Japanese Whisky

In terms of worldwide reputation, Japanese whisky may struggle to compete with Scotland, Ireland, the U.S. and others. But in recent years, that has been changing as Japanese distillers have succeeded in creating world-beating whiskies. Major company Suntory has probably the highest profile in the market, thanks largely to its use of foreign celebrities to hock its wares. This was famously parodied by Bill Murray as a Hollywood actor promoting the brand in the movie "Lost in Translation." In 2007, Suntory Hibiki was recognized as the world's best blended whisky, a title it retained the following year. Another product of the northern island of Hokkaido is the whisky of the Yoichi distillery. In 2001, the Yoichi Single Malt Cask Strength 10 Year won the "Best-of-the-Best" award from Whisky Magazine, and Yoichi 20 Years Old (photo) was voted the best single malt at the World Whiskies Awards in 2008. The Yoichi distilery was established in 1934 and is one of two malt whisky distilleries run by Nikka Whisky Distilling Co.

Japanese Wine

Like its whisky, Japanese wine is not well known outside the country and the reason is simply that Japan is not ideally suited to viticulture. High humidity and rainfall during the growing season, acidic and fertile soil and simply a lack of flat land space mean that it has remained a small industry. And most of the local brands sold around the country are cheaper table or cooking wines. The main area for wine-making is Yamanashi prefecture, near Mt. Fuji. The area has relatively low rainfall, making it less suitable for growing the staple crop, rice. The country's first commercial winery was established in Katsunuma, Yamanashi in 1875, and it is still run by Mercian, the second largest winemaker in Japan.

Architecture

Distinctly Japanese architecture is considered to have begun around 57 BC. The majority of structures before this time period were pit dwellings. But as time progressed, so did Japan’s architecture. Early forms of Japanese architecture shared a close relationship with Korean architecture. Korean influence is evident in various buildings, which were originally created between 57 and 665 BC. Some of the earliest known examples, built from stone, include Iksan and Miruksa. Timber buildings were also present during the time period. Although they have long since been destroyed, they were depicted in murals found in underground caves including Samschlich-ong, Yodongsonach’ong, and Yaksuri.

Because the Japanese islands are of volcanic origin, structures of wooden timber have traditionally been the basis for architecture; there is little stone for building or carving in Japan. The architecture of wood was fully developed during the fifth century. Styles during this time period became more intricate. Architects added decorative gables, saddle roofs, and other details to their designs.

The rich tradition of Japanese architecture is best exemplified by the shrines of the Shinto. These shrines were customarily destroyed every 20 years and then rebuilt in an exact replica of the previous shrine. The Ise Shrine (55 x 127 yards) is the most well known of the Shinto shrines. Its columns made from cypress trees, four concentric fences, and the traditional thatched roof, convey a sense of purity, quality, and simplicity for the shrine.

Most modern and domestic architecture remain in accordance with the style of these shrines and the typical ceremonial tea houses. Often houses are complimented by a garden and bamboo fence, which intimately relates the architecture to the land. This style was and continues to be highly important to Japan, and has greatly influenced the practices of Western architecture.

Gardens

The art of Japanese gardens dates back to at least 592 AD, during the reign of Empress Suiko. There is documented evidence that suggests the art had actually been progressing long before then, because these early gardens were very well-developed. Early gardens contained artificial hills, ornamental pools, and many other features of Japanese gardens today.

The first major development in the history of Japanese gardens came in the Nara period (646-794 AD), when trade with China began in earnest. This brought many changes to Japanese culture, and even more elaborate gardens in the castles of Japanís elite class. These gardens included animals, birds and fish to provide movement, and were used as sites for feasts and parties given by noblemen.

As the fascination with other cultures began to wear off in the Heian period (794-1185 AD), those who could afford to build gardens had a renewed interest in traditional Japanese styles and customs. This change brought an elegant mix of Chinese customs and Japanese style to gardens, known as Shinden. The layout of these gardens was

dictated by myth and legend; for example, streams had to run from east to west because in ancient Chinese lore, the East was the source of purity and the West was the outlet of impurities.

Not many changes were made to the Shinden style until the middle of the Kamakura period (1185-1392) when Zen Buddhist priests began creating gardens for meditation instead of merely for entertainment. Decorativeness was played down in favor of meditative qualities; gardens in this era tended to include stones, water and evergreens, remaining constant throughout the year. This minimalist theory was carried to even greater extremes in the Muromachi and Higashiyama periods (1392-1573) when gardens contained only stones. Created in the style of the monochrome

Daigo-Ji Temple, the oldest wooden tower in Kyoto.

Photo: Leo Masuda

Japanese garden.

Photo: Devendra Narayan

landscape paintings popular during the time, these gardens used specially picked stones as metaphors for objects in nature. Also developed during this time was the flat garden, or the Hira-niwa.

During the Momoyama period, most likely as a reaction to the frugality of the Zen garden design, royal gardens once again became vibrant and lush. These gardens were full of hills, waterfalls, and a variety of plants. However, the old Zen tradition lived on in tea gardens. Walking gardens were invented, constructed so as to be pleasing to the eye from any angle, and paths had to be woven into the structure of the garden itself. The result, right up to the modern day, is a great variety in Japanese gardens. From Zen rock gardens to tea gardens to walking gardens, the art of Japanese gardens is still very much alive.

Flat gardens

Flat gardens, or Hira-niwa, are constructed without hills or water; the flat ground level symbolizes water. In fact, the ground is usually covered with pebbles, raked in circles and straight lines to give the impression of ripples. These gardens contain stones, trees, stone lanterns and wells and are representative of the seaside or of grand lakes. Carefully selected and placed groups of stones symbolize islands; sometimes a waterfall is suggested by upright oblong stones.

Hira-niwa reached their height of popularity during the Edo period, as described in history of Japanese gardens, and are most often found in Buddhist temples as objects of contemplation. The most austere contain only stones, carefully laid out to look pleasing but also to facilitate contemplation. The garden design is very subtle; stone placement oftentimes suggests far off lands and mystical locales.

Many modern flat gardens also contain wells and stone lanterns. The wells usually have a purpose in these gardens: purification of those who wish to observe the gardens. They are typically constructed with wood, and have either a pulley system or a large spoon for drawing out the water. Stone lanterns are not only ornamental, but serve to illuminate the gardens at night.

Hill gardens

The Japanese name for hill gardens, Tsukiyama-sansui, means hills and water: the foundations of a classic hill garden. This garden is like a three-dimensional picture. Whereas traditional gardens were viewed from only one point, modern gardens are designed with winding paths throughout them, to display the garden to its full advantage. Usually these paths are made of carefully selected flat stones.

Water plays a very important role, and nearly every garden contains a waterfall and a pond. Waterfalls are an essential part of hill gardens, as they not only help water flow down the hill, they also provide great symbolism. They are usually constructed with two large stones, giving the appearance of great distance and size. They are often shaded by several tasteful bushes or trees which form a partial screen. The ike, or pond, is meant to represent a sea, lake, or pond in nature. It is usually rimmed with stone-work piling, and always contains an island.

Islands have great symbolic significance in Japanese hill gardens. The islands are built with rocks as their base and dirt piled neatly on top, in order for plants to grow. Sometimes a garden designer will include a bridge to an island. If so, often there will be a stone lantern or other worshipping object.

The general layout of this type of garden is designed to give the appearance of great distance and expansiveness, as if the whole world were contained in this one garden.

Some have suggested that this is because there is so little space in Japan. A more philosophical viewpoint is that the creators of these gardens wish to present the essence of nature, or nature boiled down to its essential components.