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Chapter - 1
'IfecJUnoiogy
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Agri cultural Technology
I . P la n t and I r r i g a t i o n
The history of agriculture involves the study of
two different subjects: the plant and the tools. But it
is the p l a n t w h i c h m u s t c o m e fi r s t in the list of
priorities. The study of the origin of the two is also
of different nature. The plant first needs to be do m e s
ticated and this is only possible when the first domes-
ticator had witnessed them growing wild; hence they are
to be traced from their wild forms. The tools, however,
were to be invented- the remoter we go into the agri
c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y the l e s s e r and s i m p l e r are the
tools. And to begin with,there were no tools. Thfiscare
to be traced from the stage of their no n - e x i s t a n c e .
To d e c i d e the o r i g i n of d o m e s t i c a t i o n of any
plant, it is important to see its natural home- that is
the region where it grows wild. But as plants generally
grow wild in more than one place, the problem of origin
of domestication through this test alone, particularly
for a diffus i o n e s t , is far from over. Any region where
the plant grows wild has, of course, the potential to
domesticate but potential alone is neither a sufficient
reason nor proof for domestication. The problem of the
origin of the plant cultivation has been widely studied
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by the scholars of d i f ferent d i s c i p l e n s world over,
particularly archaeologists, historians and botanists
a n d h a v e put f o r w a r d d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s a b o u t the
origin of the dome s t i c a t i on of the pi ant but there
still remains a great deal of c o n t r o v e r s y about the
origin of different domesticated plants. In fact it is
yet to be established whether the plants had a single
source of origin or more.^-
The 19th century botanist, A l p h o n s e De C a n d o l l e
was the first to a t t e m p t to l o c a t e the r e g i o n s of
o r i g i n of v a r i o u s c u l t i v a t e d p l a n t s . In his 4, the
origin of cultivated plants" published in 1883 he says
" A g r i c u l t u r e came o r i g i n a l l y atleast so far as the
p r i n c i p a l s p e c i e s are c o n c e r n e d , f r o m t h r e e gr e a t
regions in which certain plants grew, regions which had
no communication with each other. These are china, the
S o u t h W e s t of A s i a (w i t h E g y p t ) and i n t e r t r o p i c a l
America. I do not mean to say that in Europe, in Africa
and elsewhere savage tribes may not have cultivated a
few species locally, at an early epoch, as an addition
to the r e s o u r c e s of h u n t i n g and f i s h i n g but g r e a t
civilizations based on agriculture began in the three
regions I have indicated".^
1. Joseph Nedham, "Science and Civilization in China", Vol. 6. (Biology and Biological Technology), Part II, P. 39.
2. Alphonse De Candolle, "Origin of Cultivated Plant (Reprinted in 1959), New York, Haffiner, I. P. 17.
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In 1926 Vavilov taking up De Candolle's notion of
agricultural centres of origin and using more advanced
b otanical t e c h n i q u e s p r o p o s e d that one could ea$2y
determine a crop's centre of origin by analysing its
pattern of variation; the origin of greatest diversityOr
being the centre of origin. In his book, O r i g i n ,Varia
tions , Inmuni ty and Breeding of Cultivated P l a n t s he
made use of World-wide surveys carried out by Soviet
Botanists and concluded that "it was possible to define
atleast eight inde p e n d e n t centres of origin of the
w o r l d’s most i m p ortant c u l t i v a t e d p l a n t s i n c l u d i n g
China, India, Central Asian, i/ear Eastesen, M e d i t e r r a
nean, Abyssinians/ South Mexican and Central American
and South American Centres". But he at the same time
says that "it is possible, of course, that areas of
domestication are not coincident with the centres of
origin".* Further it has since been pointed out that,
"although centres of diversity do exist and are very
useful in explaining genetic variation, they are not
necessarily centres of origin. Thus even from a botani
cal point of view there is as yet no clear cut criteri
on to determine the centre of origin".2 The archaeol-
1. Vavilo, N.I., 1949-50, "The origin, variation, immunity and breeding of cultivated plants", P.2 0 .
2. It has been suggested that a species infact so well adopted ecologically to its centre of origin that there is no stimulus there to the development of new forms. Only on the fringes of this region, where wild varieties dc*not floutish naturally do conscious tending and selecting by man, leading to domestication become necessary, Joseph Nedham, op.cit, P. 35.
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ogists, on the other hand, who are primarily concerned
with cultural evolution, feel that the crucial problem
was not where the domestication of various plants took
place, but where the idea of domestication was first
conceived and put into practice. "They saw the in v e n
tion of agriculture as part of economic and scientific
revolution that made the participants active partners
with nature instead of parasites on nature".^- Thus it
still remains debatable whether the plant cultivation
has s p r e a d f r o m a s i n g l e s o u r c e of o r i g i n t h r o u g h
diffusion of knowledge or people, or had independent
or i g i n s .
CEREALS
A: Wheat, Barley and Lentil
Whatever the actual state of origin of different
crops, one thing is inescapable that West Asia, Persia,
Central Asia, India and South East Asia hold important
positions in the origin of cereal cultivation.^ It is
1. Ibid, P. 41.
2. Distribution of wild relatives of wheat and genetic interaction of weed races and archaeological findings indicate that the Near East, comprising the early farm villages excavated in the area of hilly flanks from Deh Luran plain in Iran through South East Turkey to southern Jordan is the centre of origin and domestication of wheat as early as 7000 B.C., Harlay and Zohary,distribution of wild wheats and barley, 1966; PingTi-Ho. The Loess and the Origin of Chinese agriculture, in American Historical Review, Vol. LXXV, Number I, October, 1969, P . 2.
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also certain that of all the cultivated plants cereal
c r o p s h a v e h a d the m o s t i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n in the
supply of diet to humans as well as the stimuli to the
early cultural development and civilization. Of all the
cereals wheat and barley were domesticated first, the
moiit important cereal, rice was comparatively a late
comer. *
Wh e a t and barley were first c u l t i v a t e d on the
hilly flanks of Fertile crescent as early as 7000 B.C.
and then on the i r r i g a t e d fields of Tigris and E u
phrates valley some time after 5000 B.C.^ Archaeology
proves that wheat must have been grown in Persia before
5000 B.C. W h e a t and b a r l e y are b o t h i n d i g e n o u s to
Persia. The earliest c u l t i v a t i o n there was m a d e on
I r a n i a n p l a t e a u . 4 In India the earliest e x a mple of
wheat of (T.monoccum, T.dicoccum and T durum variety)
is from the n e o l i t h i c site at M e h r g a r h in P a k i s t a n
6000-5000 B.C.5
In Kashmir the earliest evidence of cereal culti
vation comes from the neolithic sites of Burzahom (2324
1. Joseph Needham, op.cit. P. 36.
2. Ping Ti-Ho, op.cit. P.2.
3. Ibid, P. 2
4. Hans E. Wulff, "Traditional Crafts of Persia,M.I.T. 1966, P. 242.
5. Jarriage, J. F. and R. H. Meadow, 1980. TheAntecedents of Civilization in the Indus Viley,Scientific America, 243 (2), PP.122-23.
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:ieTable: Chronology of soae oldest wheats frou India.
Site Species Estiiaated age Reference
Burzahom, Kashmir J. aestivm 2325 B.C. Butt, 5. M. and R J .K a w , "Flant Husbandry in
Neolithic Burnhom, Kashmir"; Current Trends
in Geology, Vol. VI (Climate and Geology of
Kashmir). 1335 PP .103-113.
Kohenjodaro T. sphacerococcum, T: compact™ 2250-1700 B.C. Stapf, 0 . 1931. Cogent on Cereals and Fruits
in J . M a r s h a l l ( e d . ) H o h e n j o d a r o and the
Indus Civilization, P. 586.
Harappa f, sphacerococcw 2250-1750 B.C. B u r t , B . C . 1 5 4 1 . Co m ent on C e r e a l s . a n d
Fruits, in U .S . Vat's Excavation at Harappa,
New Delhi, PP.465.
Chanudaro T. sphaecoccw, T. compactw 2250-1750 B.C. Shaw , F . J . F . 1 343 , V e g e t a t i o n rem ain s in
E .J .H . Macky, Chanhudaro Excavations, 1535-
36, PP. 205-51.
Banawali, Haryana T, aestivm c.2300 B.C. Lone, F .A .M .K han and G .H .B h a t , 1387 . Plant
rem ains from B a n a w a l i , H a r y a n a , C u r r e n t
Science, PP. 837-38.
Kalibangan, Rajasthan Tdticm spp. c . 2300-1750 B.C.
r~i
Vishnu Mithre and R. S a v ith ri /1375 . Supposed
rem ains of r i c e (O r y z a s p . ) in T e r r a c o t a
cakes and Fai at K a l i b a n g a n , R a j a s t h a n ,
Paiaeobotanist, FF 124-2o,
Gofkrai, Kashmir Triticw spp. 2100 B.C. Sharma, A. K, 1552 . Exvavation at G ufkral ,
1375-80. PuracatUa, F .l l .
Chirand, Bihar r. SpheiQCQCCM 1300 B.C. Vishnue Mithre , N eolith ic Plant remains at Chuana, Bihar, Falaeobotanist, PP .13-22. -
Navdatoli T. compact m,T. irulgace 1600-1440 B.C. V i s h n u M i t h r e , 1 3 6 1 .
P l a n t E co n o m y in A n c i e n t
H a h e s h w a r , in T e c h n i c a l
R e p o r t on A r c h a e c o l o g i c a l
Remains, PF 13-52.
Semthan, Kashmir f. aestim, f, sphaeiococcw 1500 B.C. taro o q A. L o u t , r a i a e o e l h n o D o t a n y , 1 3 ; 3 , PF .11-22.
Atranjikhera, CP f, compactm 1200-500 B.C. B u t t , G . K . and K . A . C h o w d h u r y , 1 3 7 1 F lan t
reiuains from Atranjikhera, Fhawse I I I , Palae*
cobotanist, FF, 280-37.
Inaitigaon, Maharashtra f, compaction 1300-700 B.C. Kajale, K .d . 1577, Plant Economy at Inaagoafi,
Maharashtra, P. 38-106.'
IV, Chronology of soi&e oldest wheats froa India
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B . C . ) 1 and Gufkral ( C.2100 B . C . ) . 2 P a l e o - b o t a n i c a l
i n vestigation, have e s t a b l i s h e d the c u l t i v a t i o n of
wheat, bar l e y lentil and pea in K a s h m i r during the
neolithic period.^
In order to find the sources from w h i c h K a s hmir
imported the technology of wheat and barley cultiva
tion, it is necessary to know the antiquity of these
cereals in different civilizations bordering Kashmir.
Wheat was introduced in North China, with which n e o
lithic Kashmir shows close similarities, around 1300
B.C., 4 which is obviously a much late date and the
possibility of Chinese, origin can be safely rejected.
In India the hexoploid naked wheat variety wes intro
d u c e d during the Indus valley c i v i l i z a t i o n (C. 2300
B.C.)5 , while in Kashmir our earliest information is
from the aceramic neolithic phase of Burzahom (C. 2324
B.C.). This shows that the antiquity of the cereals in
K a s h m i r is a t l e a s t as o l d as that of Ind u s v a l l e y
civilization, if not earlier so India too could not be
the source of these cereals in Kashmir. This is further
substantiated by the fact that hexoploid naked wheat
1. Farooq A. Lone, Maqsooda Khan and G. M. B h a t , "Palaeoethnobotany", P.8.
2. Indian Archaeology (A review), 1981-82, P. 26.
3. Ibid/ P. 24, also Palaeoethnobotany, o p .c i t ,P .122.
4. Ping Ti.Ho. op.cit., P . 2.
5. The earliest evidence from India is from Mohanjodaro (2250-1750 B.C.), Harappa, 2250 B.C. Palaeoethnobotany, op.cit, P. 118.
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(T. aestivum, T. compact uni) which was c u l t i v a t e d in
neolithic Kashmir (C. 2324 B.C.)1 presents the earliest
'evidence in the whole Indian subcontinent.2 Our argu
ment lends further weight by the fact that the n e o
lithic culture of Kashmir particularly the tools and
implements, present a contrast to that of H a r a p p a n
culture.^
Probably the technology of wheat and barley culti
vation e n t e r e d into K a s h m i r from Persia via Central
Asia, as wheat and barley was indigenous to Persia and
dates back to 5000 B . C . 4 Moreover, the c u l t i v a t i o n
pattern of these crops in Kashmir presents similarity
w i t h that of Persia. Like Persia wheat was (and is
still) cultivated on plateaus and dry lands.
This a s s u m p t i o n is further c o r r o b o r a t e d by the
third earliest crop cultivated in Kashmir i .e . cfclenti 1,
(lens esculenta). In fact the evidence of lentil culti
v a t i o n in K a s h m i r , w h i c h c o m e s f r o m the n e o l i t h i c
a c c r a m i c phase 2324-1700 B . C . 5 ia only of ita kind
1. B h a t , G.M. and R.N.Kaw, 1985. Plant Husbandry in Neolithic Burzahom, Kashmir, Current Trends in Geology, Vol. VI (Climate and Geology of Kashmir), PP.109-113; Sharma, A.K. 1982.
2. Palaeoethnobotany, op.cit, P. 121.
3. Indian Archaeology (A Review) 1961-62, the sickle,stone axe and pottery found from neolithic sites of kashmir is distinctly different from its southern counter-parts.
4. Hans E. Wulff, op.cit, P. 242.
5. Indian Archaeology (A review), 1982-83, P.20.
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from North/West Asia.* This explicitly suggests that
the earliest cultivators of Kashmir had their contacts
w i t h any such c i v i l i z a t i o n w h i c h was ahead of Indus
valley civilization in the domestication and cultiva
tion of cereals. In the context of Indian subcontinent
Kashmir can atleast claim equality if not the pioneer
in the field of these varieties of cereal cultivation.
Apart from wheat, barley and lentil another neo-
l icthic crop of K a s h m i r was pea. The e v i d e n c e comes
from the neolithic site at Burzahom.2 It were these
cereals which were first domesticated in the Near
East, whe^e agriculture first developed.3 This lends
further weight to the a s s u m p t i o n that the cereals of
Kashmir came from this area.
Thus having d i s c u s s e d the when and wh e r e of the
cereal cultivation an equally important question which
begs answer is the why of this new economic system what
m a d e e a r l y m a n to s h i f t f r o m h u n t i n g / g a t h e r i n g to
cultivation4 , was it the outcome of some compulsion or
1. Lentils were associated with the start of agriculture in the east, in India the earliest evidence of lentil is from chirand 1800 B.C. Navdatoli Maherhwar, 1550-1400 B.C. Palaeoethonobotany, op.cit, P. 138.
2. Ibid, P. 203.
3. Ibid, P. 203.
4. The animal remains, at the early periods of the neolithic sites of Gufkral, clearly demonstrate that people were predominantly dependent on wild game, Indian Archaeology (A Review), 1982-83,P . 20.
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did he choose it voluntarily) Apparantly all our specu
lation speak in favour of some c o m p u l s i o n like the
p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e or the s h o r t a g e of food, w h i c h
infact m e a n y o n e and the same thing. It is g e n e r a l l y
held that the shift to agriculture led to the permanent
settlement^ Eut its v i c e / v e r s a cannot be ruled out
particularly in a region like Kashmir^ Where the p o p u
lation having found itself c o n f i n e d w i t h i n the h i g h
m o u n t a i n s m i g h t h a v e f i n a l l y led t h e m to s h i f t to
ag riculture. It is not out of place to m e n t i o n that
according to the early literary sources of Kashmir, the
valley was in the remote antiquity occupied by people
seasonally.* But since coming into and going out of the
valley every year was by no means an easy task, besides
other problems involved. The best option was to stay in
the valley. The permanent stay might have led to culti
vation as the fishing, and hunting would not have proved
sufficient. The pit-dwel 1 ings also show that the n e o
lithic man started a settled life and for a long time
depended on wild game and then slowly shifted to agri-
cu l t u r e .^
Inspite of the tough state of early a g r i c u l t u r e
which forces one to see into the causes of compulsion
for the shift towards it, agriculture had its advantag
es also like the. p r i v i l e g e of settled life, satisfac
tion of accumulative instinct and,last but not least,
the prfvilege of occupying the private property. It is
1. Nilmate Purana, Anno n y m o u s (t r .by V e d .K u m a r ) ,V.235.
2. Indian Archaeology(A review), 1982-83, P. 20-24.
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true that man n o r m a l l y would have been reluctant to
le a v e his c a r e free h u n t e r / g a t h e r p a t t e r n of food
production but it still seems that the life would not
be that attractive as has been held by some scholars,
for e x a m p l J o s e p h N e e d h a m while p r a i s i n g the pre-
a g r i c u l t u r a l stage of human life says, "In be t w e e n
s e a r c h i n g for food, the h u n t e r g a t h e r e r h a d a m p l e
leisure to tell stories play games and elaborate m e t a
p h y s i c a l s t o r i e s , i n d e e d the w a y of l i f e s e e m s so
attractive that Marshal Sahhins had dubbed it as the
'original a f f l u e n t society."^ This may be true if the
supply of food is not much difficult but at the same
time the e c o n o m i c s y s t e m would always keep the man
under perpetual threat of future starvation. So inspite
of some a t t r a c t i v e features in the h u n t e r / g a t h e r e r
stage of human life there are strong reasons in favour
of settled life as a better alternative.
Wheat (tritucm vulgare-vi11, and triticum spaero-
coccum) b a r l e y ( H a rdeum vulg a r e linnen) and lentil
(lens esculenta) the earliest cereals domesticated and
c u l t i v a t e d in Kashmir did not m a k e the shift to an
agricultural society. People still predominantly d e
pended on game like fishing and hunting.^ The cereals
o n l y s u p p l e m e n t e d the d e f i c i e n c y w h i c h w o u l d h a v e
arisen because of increase in population and the re
sultant decrease in the animals of prey. It certainly
1. JosepkNeedham, op.cit, P. 31.
2. Indian Archaeology (A review), Excavation at G u l k r a l , 1981-82, PP.20-24.
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took a long time/ spread over thousands of years, from
the cultivation of the first plant to the full agricul
tural revolution. This period is known to us as N e o
l i t h i c p e r i o d t s p r e a d s over the p e r i o d b e t w e e n the
beginning of the cultivation to the full metal using
economy.
The earliest cereal cultivation in Kashmir began,
like Iran, on plateaus* before it developed on the low
lands. Infact the variety of cereals i n t r o d u c e d in
Kashmir are still mostly cultivated on alluvial land.
The only major change o c c ured in its c u l t i v a t i o n
that it is now cultivated as a Rabi (spring crop) while
during N e o l i t h i c period it might have been Kharif,
(autmn crop). This change certainly seems to have taken
place with the introduction of rice as the chief crop
occupying the main season of cultivation in the cold©
climate of Kashmir. This is fully corroborated by the
fact that the hilly regions around Kashmir valley where
r i c e c a n n o t be c u l t i v a t e d e i t h e r b e c a u s e of c o l d
climate or non-availability of irrigation facility,like
K i s h t w a r and Ladakh, the wheat and barley are still
raised as summer crops. The earliest neolithic sites
like B u r z a h o m and Gufkaral, where from we have the
information of these cereals,are all situated either on
foot h i l l s or on p l a t e a u lands. In fact the w h o l e
Field studies show that neolithic and early historic settlements have always taken place on the terrace surface developed on the late pleistocene formation. Indian Archaeology (A Review), 1979-80 (Excavation at Burzahom), P P . 32- 34.
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neolithic age of Kashmir is also known as the Karewa
(plateau) age and it were these K a r e w a lands wh i c h
could have been used for cultivation, particularly the
d r y - l a n d c u l t i v a t i o n like that of wheat and barley,
b e c a u s e the p l a i n s w e r e m o s t l y u n d e r w a t e r e i t h e r
t h r oughout' the year or atleast during the rainy season
(April-June) wh i c h corr e s p o n d s with the c u l t i v a t i o n
period. This was so because the bed of river Jehlum the
chief drain of the valley was a few meters higher than
its present level.*
The peculiar kind of barley cultivated till recent
past in K a s h m i r was c u l t i v a t e d at an a l l e v i a t i o n of
7000 feet. It was an important food staple among the
m o u n t a i n people. The grain has not the chaff scaler
adhering to it but is naked like wheat.3
The cultivation of these cereals, as can be still
o b s e r v e d in Kashmir, does not need m u c h labour and
manure. The need of implements is also minimum*£ven at
present one plough is given and after the seeds have
been sown the fields are again ploughed. The fields are
not wee d e d or manured. A c c o r d i n g to Lawarnce, "the
barley lands of Kashmir probably have not their match
1. River Jehlum and its tributaries were flowing couple of meters higher then, its present bed level during neolithic and early historical times. The river reached its present bed level in the eighth century A.D. Ibid, 1978-79, P. 70.
2. Walter R. Lawrence, "Valley of Kashmir", 1967,N P. 341.
3. Ibi$, P. 241.
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for bad and slovenly cultivation in the world"1 This
g i v e s an i n d i c a t i o n how s i m p l e the c u l t i v a t i o n of
barley in neolithic Kashmir would have been. Because in
the latter stage the rice cultivation totally dominated
all other cereals in Kashmir occupying the main season
and soil, and the cultivation pattern of other cereals
like wheat and barley went through but a little change.
It is not much difficult to imagine how the early man
would have been cultivating these cereals. If sowing is
done after the rainy season April-May, there is not
much need for the preparation of the field. In fact the
cultivating pattern can be to a great extent deduced
from what was in vogue in Central Asia and Iran, the
source of Kashmir wheat and barley. Besides a common
type of land was used for its c u l t i v a t i o n both in
Kashmir and I r a n . ^ It is not out of place to mention
that while in Indus and Egypt the cultivation was made
m irrigated fields, in Mesopotamia and Iran it was
done, like Kashmir, along foot hills or plateaus.4
W i t h the i n t r o d u c t i o n of rice the other cereals
li k e whe a t , b a r l e y and lentil w e r e r e l e g a t e d to a
secondary position and rice completely took over. These
cereals, even if cultivated, were cultivated as rabi
1. Ibid, P. 341.
2. Compare Hans. E. Wulff, op.cit. P . 242; IndianArchaeology (A Review) 1979-30 (Excavation at B u r z a h a m ) , PP.33-38.
3. Ping.Ti.Ho, op.cit., P . 2.
4. Ibid, P.2; Hans E. Wulff, op.cit, P. 242.
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(spring) crops or on that land where rice cultivation
was not possible.x Not surprisingly therefore in a n c i
ent and medieval period of kashmir history, there are
reference to their use and cultivation but they never
had the status of a staple food except during draught
and failure of rice crop.^ There is hardly any refer
ence to show that any attempt was made at any level to
improve their cultivation. What occupied the attention
of kashmirr cultivator as well as the state was always
rice.
B. Rice
The original home-land of rice (oryza sativa) is
still a mat t e r of debate, inspite of the fact that
among all the important cereals it was a late comer.
But one thing which can be said with certainty about
the origin of rice is that its origin is not the dry
Central Asia but rainy southern Asia.^ The most im
p o r tant cl a i m a n t s as h o m e - l a n d of rice, atleast in
Asian context, are: south East, India and China.4
1. In Kashmir the i'ri^gable land was since remote pastexclusively kept for rice cultivation while other crops were cultivated where irrigation was not p o s s i b l e .
2. Though there is no direct reference in this but it can be still observed while observing the traditional society that they only took to other cereals if they cannot obtain rice.
3. Ping-Ti-Ho, op.cit, P. 19.
4. Chang T.T. The origin, evolution, cultivation andbreeding of cultivated plants, P. 29.
Agricultural Technology / 4 0
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Botanically India seems the most possible region
of origin we find a number of wild rice species as well
as common rice growing wild as weeds and possessing a
character common to wild grasses namely shedding of the
grain at maturity, which insures self-sowing. There are
also intermediate forms connecting wild and cultivated
rices. India is. also richest in the world so far as the
varietal diversity of cultivated rice are concerned.
The coarse grained primitive varieties being especially
typical to India also differ from secondary regions of
r i c e - c u l t i v a t i o n in Asia, by p r e v a l e n c e of dominant
genes in its rice varieties.*
In India the wild variety of rice is reported from
p r o t o n e o l i t h i c l e v e l s at c h o p a n e M a n d o ( 9 0 0 0 - 8 0 0 0
B.C.).^ The oldest records of cultivated rice are from
M a h a g a r a and K o l d i l w a (7000-6000 B . C ) . 3 The dates
tend to support the view that the As i a n culti
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TabI ̂ Chronology of soste oldest rice remains fro§ Asia .
Site Type of plant remains Estimated age Reference
Koldihwa and Mahagara Rice grains embedded in earthern 6570-4530 B.C.
U .P . , India potsherds and husks in cow dung
Chirand, Bihar,India Charred grains 2500-1800 B.C.
Attanjikhera,DP,India Charred grains 2,000-60 B.C.
Rangpur, Saurashtra, Impressions 2,000-1500 B.C.
India
Lothal,Gujarat,India Impressions 2300-1700 B.C.
Ahar, Rajasthan,India Impressions 1835-1070 B.C.
K.Semthan, Kashmir,India Carted grains c. 1500 B.C.
Ben Chiang, Thai land Husk remains in potsherds 3500 B.C.
Ban Ha Di , Thailand Hulled rice kernels 1500-900 B.C.
(Ilu Leang, S.Sulawesi, Carbonized grains and glume c.4000 B.C.
Indonesha
Solana, N. Luzon, Gluine imprints on potsherds c. 1400 B.C.
Philippines
Eru-Jai Jiao,Zhejiana, Carbonized grains and broken c.5000 B.C.
China husks
Ho-mu-tu,Zhejiang,China Carbonised'grains, husks straw 5000 B.C.
Heng Chiun, Taiwan Glume imprints on potsherds 1385 B.C.
Xoiri Trai Cave, Vietnam 4000-2000 B.C.
Sharma G.R, and D. Mandal, 1980. Excavation
at Mahagara Allahabad, Allahabad University,
Sahara, H, and T, Satto, 1584. The earliest
Rice culture in In d ia . Archaeology Journal
(Japan), PP. 31-34.
Chowdhury, K .A . 1977 . Anicient agriculture
and forestry in North India, Sew Delhi.
Vishnu Mithre and R. Savithri, 1982, Food
economy of harappans in L, Possechi, Karappan
civilization, a contemporary perspective, PP.
205-221.
Vishnu Mithre. 1361. Plant economy in Ancient
KaLeswar, in Technical Report on archaeolog
ical-remains, PF .13-52.
Vashnu JSitre, 1382, op.cit. PP. 205-221.
K . D . S a n k a l i a , S . B . Deo and Z . D . A n s a r i ,
Excavation at Ahar, PF. 229-235,
Farooq A, Lone, Falaeoethnobotany, PP. 105-
1 1 0 .Yen, D.E. 1332, Ban Chiang Pottery and Rice,
Expedition, PP. 51-64.
Higham, C, and A. Kijngam, 1984. The excava
tion of Ban Na di Bang Huang Phruk and Von
Kao S a i in p r e h i s t o r i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n in
Northern Thailand, PP. 22-56. .
Glover,r ft
77. The late stone Age in
Eastern Indonesia, World Archaeology, PP. 42-
61,
Chang, T .T . 1SS6. The etkobotany of rice in
insular Southeast A s ia ,- A s ia n Perspectives
(In press).
Team of Luo-Jai-Jiao site 1331. Excavation at
Luo-Jia-Jiao s ite in Tong Xiang country of
Zhejiang, pp. 144,
Hu-K
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South West and South China. * The chronology of rice
cultivated in different parts of Asia as revealed by
archaeological finds is given in t a b l e ^ L ^
t
Keeping in view the antiquity and varietal div e r s
ity of rice in India there hardly remains any doubt
about it being the original home of rice cultivation,
but the p r o b l e m with India, to be c o n s i d e r e d as the
original home of rice cultivation, is that the archaeo
logical and literary evidence of rice culture is very
late. The e v i d e n c e * from H a r a p a n culture (2100-1750
B.C)^ is the earliest. The Rig-veda compiled in around
1*000 B.C nowhere mentions rice.^ It is not simply the
d o m e s t i c a t i o n of rice plant but f l o u r i s h i n g of rice
culture which is responsible for its diffusion. On the
other hand both written and archaeological records from
China show a much earlier date. The approximate date of
rice culture in yang shai village is probably close to
the dawning of Hunghsoid culture around 3000 B.C.^ From
1. Chang T.T. op.cit, P. 425-40.
2. Palaeoethnobotany, op.cit, P. 112.
3. Sir Mortimer Wheeler, Civilization of the Indus Valley and beyond, P. 90, rice husks reported during the later stage of Harappan civilization. See "the birth of Indian Civilization, Bridget and Raymond All chin, P. 2 64.
4. Rig-veda the earliest sacred book in Sanskritcompiled around 1000 B.C. or slightly earliernever mentions rice but often alludes to wheat and barley. The Sanskrit name for rice, vrihi, only appear in Atharva-veda written after 1000 B.C. Ping.Ti.Ho, op.cit, P. 20.
5. Ibid, P. 19.
Agricultural Technology 142.'
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present evidence there is reason to believe that rice
may have been cultivated first in the lower Han river,
late in 4rth millennium B.C. before it was introduced
into neolithic nuclear area.^ The oracle records of
the shang (1520-1030 BC) and various works of Chgan
p e r i o d (1030-722) all testify to the rice culture.
Thus the aggregate evidence in China predates by im
mense time to that of India and even if India was the
original domest i c a t o r , China can well claim as one of
the earliest rice cultures.
Out of twenty three species of the swampy grasses
oryza recognized 1axinomical1y by the scientists only
two have been domesticated. Of the domesticated s p e
c i e s o r y z a g l a b e r r i m a is s t r i c t l y a r e g i o n a l c r o p
confined to Africa and only oryza Sativa has the world
wide significance.^ The regions where the species of
rice has been discovered are India, Indo-China, Indone
sia, Taiwan, Western Africa, Madagascar, Central and
South America and Australia.'’
In view of the world wide significance, part i c u
larly in this part of the world, we find with little
surprise that the earliest rice reported from Kashmir
1 . Ibid, P. 19.
2 . Ibid, P. 21.
3 . Ibid, P. 21.
4 . Ibid, P. 21.
5. Ibid, P.
HCM
Agricultural Technology / 4 3
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is the same species oryza Sativa (0. Sativa-P).^ The
n e o - l i t h i c sites of B u r z a h a m (2324 BC) and Gufkral
(2100 BC) in Kashmir did not reveal rice in the early
neolithic levels.^ Thus the rice findings at Semthan
(1500 BC) is the earliest. It appears at Grufkral
towards the end of second phase datable to 1000 B C 3 and
in the Megalithic period at Burzaham C. 1000 BC.^ This
shows that the rice was introduced in Kashmir somewhere
around 1500-1000 BC.
Like many other parts of the world rice is a late
c o m e r to K a s h m i r . H o w e v e r , t h e r e are s o m e o b v i o u s
reasons for this late arrival. The regions with whom
Kashmir shows closer contacts like Central Asia, Iran
and N o r t h C h i n a 1? all r e c e i v e d the c e r e a l late, so✓ ̂
Kashmir could not have it earlier. Secondly the early
settlers of Kashmir lived mostly on Karewas which were
1. Oryaza sativa has been usually classified into three sub species - India, Japonica and Javanica. The distinction between the sub-species is based on morphological characters and adaptation to temperature. Palaeothonobotany, op.cit, P. 104.
2. Sharma,A.K., 1982, Excavation at Gufkral (1979-80)
3. Indian Archaeology (A Review), 1981,82, P. 21-23.
4. Palaeoethnobotany, op.cit, P. 112.
5. It is not only the pit-dwel1ings and burialcustoms but also the tool complex like, stone axe, sickle and bone tools which take after the Central Asian and Chinese model. They are conspicuously different from their southern counterparts. See, Indian Archaeology (A review), (Excavation atBurzahom) 1961-62, P. 24.
Agricultural Technology / 4 4
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more suitable for cereals, like wheat and barley.^-
To know the region of origin, wh e r e from rice
travelled to Kashmir, we have to give due consideration
to the regions with w h o m Kashmir had close cultural
contacts and, of course, the state of rice cultivation
in that area. India which is a strong contender for the
place of h o m e - l a n d of rice and k e e p i n g in view the
g e o g r a p h i c a l p r o x i m i t y , it is d i f f i c u l t to
overlook it as a possible place where from rice trav
elled to Kashmir. But as already mentioned literary and
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e f r o m In d i a is too t h i n to
confirm that even as late as C.1000 BC rice culture was
flourishing in India. The rice culture in China on the
other hand was by then atleast one thousand years old.
So the needle of probability of the origin of Kashmir
rice tilts towards China. Another point of interest is
that Harappan culture had not strong contacts with the
neolithic Kashmir, atleast not comparable to the con
tacts w i t h China, wh i c h is clearly r e v ealed by the
neolithic finds of Kashmir."^
1. Because irrigation is a pre-requisite to rice cultivation and it was not possible on the plateau land on which the neolithic man dwelt.
2. P i n g . T i .Ho, Op.cit, P . 20.
3. Indian A r c h e o l o g y (A Review), Excavation at Burzahom 1961-62, P. 2-4. The bone tools and pit dwelling which were so characteristic of neolithic Kashmir have not been reported from Harappan India while they have been found in China.
Agricultural Technology / 4 5
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We do not exactly know when rice became the staple
food of Kashmir. The neolithic people seem more depend
ent on hunting-gathering rather than on agriculture.^-
It is possible that rice by then would have been used
on ceremonial occasions like China.^ On the basis of
plant remains and agricultural crops recovered from the
neolithic sites of Kashmir^ one can to a great extent
i m a g i n e the e v o l u t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r e as well as the
cropping system that were introduced-there. This will
also give an insight as what role did different spe
cies play in the food economy of K a s hmir and how a
change in their food habits took place. It will also
help to have an idea as when rice, the most important
cereal of K a s h m i r became the staple food. The crop
remains recovered from Burzaham and Simthan are given
in table J E ' S Q L
Apart from the p r o g r e s s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t in the
cereal c u l t i v a t i o n a good numb e r of pulses and weed
plants show an increasing trend with every new phase
which is why the cereal constituent of the agricultural
economy shows a decreasing trend as shown in the table.
A n o t h e r note worthy feature is that the wheat wh i c h
started as a major crop shows a constant decrease while
barley shows an increasing trend. It is not clear why
this Change occured but the i n f erence seems correct
1. Ibid, Excavation at G u f k r a l , 1982-83.
2. Ping. Ti.Ho, op.cit, P. 20.
3. Palaeoethnobotany, op.cit. P. 204-6.
Agricultural Technology / 4 6
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because even today in the hilly regions like Kishtwar
and Laddakh, it is barley which is mostly cultivated.
If the s t a tistical data represents the real pict u r e
then it can be d e d u c t e d that the new crop rice, r e
placed the cultivation of wheat and did not effect the
barley c u l t i v a t i o n much. However, it is not without
risks to generalise our argument on the basis of plant
remains only, ignoring the other evidences. The de v e l
opment of rice culture, for example, which has been the
m a i n f o o d of K a s h m i r s i n c e a n c i e n t t i m e s d o e s not
constitute much of the plant remains during the early
historical period. The introduction and development of
different crops and their progress or retrogression in
different phases of the early settlements gives a good
insight into the cropping pattern of early Kashmir. To
begin with the first crop introduced were wheat, b a r
ley, lentil and pea. These were all by then cultivated
as Kharif crops sown in spring and harvested in Autumn.
Thus during the 3rd milleninum BC only single cropping
system was prevailing in Kashmir. In the 2nd millenriiuirm
BC with the introduction of rice double cropping system
was introduced. Rice which is a kharif or summer crop
was introduced during the close of Neolithic period II
at Gufkral (C. 1000 EC) and period I at Semthan 1500-
600 B C . Towards the end of 2nd millennium BC and during
first m i l l e n n i u m BC the doub l e cropping was further
developed by the cultivation of horticultural fruits,
p u l s e s as well as s o m e f o d d e r c r o p s a n d t r e e s for
fuel.^- H e n c e from 1st m i l l e n n i u m BC onwards m i x e d
1. Ibid, P. 206-8.
Agricultural Technology 1 4 1
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Tabl ̂ Percentage o£ cereals in Agriculture ou the basis of crop remains recovered from Burza- hoin and Siinthan.
Site Period r'L _rtaecu Barley Rice Oat S
Totalpercentage of cereal
Burzahom Phase IAceramic neolithic
. 2350-1700 B.C.73.5% 21.5% X X
n * f i* 0/ J . 0 O 'O
Burzahom Phase IIMature Neolithic 1700-1000 B.C.
73.68% 26.32% X X 67.5%
Burzahom Phase III Megalithic 1000-600 B.C.
65.9% 25% 9.1% X 62.8%
Siiuthan Phase I Pre-HBFW 1500-600 B.C.
30.31 14.4% 55.8% X 35%
Burzahom PqjSt Megalithic Phase IV 600-200 B.C.
60% 25% 14.50% X 54.4%
Siinthan Period II NBP Phase 600-200 b.c.
25% 56.25% 17.5% 1.1% 73.3%
Siinthan Feriod III200 B.C. - GGi A.D. 4.4% 57.6% 23.5% 4.4% 30%
Simthan Period IV Kushan001-500 A.D. '
39.3% 27 .8% 23% 4.5% 72.3%
P e r c e n t a g e o f d i f f e r e n t c e r e a ! r e ma i n s from B u m h o i a and S i & t h a n , K a s h m i r .
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c r o p p i n g s y s t e m f l o u r i s h e d in the v a l l e y . T h u s it
b e c omes clear that agricultural economy a p p r o a c h e d
m a t u r i t y d u r i n g the p e r i o d . The rice c u l t i v a t i o n ,
however, does not seem to have beco m e p r e - d o m i n a n t
during the period. It was only in the ist millfinium AD
that rice culture completely took over which becomes
clear by the massive irrigation works undertaken during
the era.-*- It may however be noted that rice was on an
increasing trend ever since its introduction in Kashmir
in around 1500 BC.
One obvious question which strikes o n e’s mind is
that why the cultivator of Kashmir cultivating wheat
and barley shifted to rice cultivation on such a large
scale. There must have been some compulsions or att r a c
tions in the new crop, which motivated or compelled the
peasant to a b a ndon his age old cropping system. The
answer can come from the existing cropping system as
well as the physical geo g r a p h y of Kashmir. The dry
land cropping, to which the Karewa age people of K a s h
mir was used to, did not infact suit the overall g e o
graphical structure as well as the hydraulic situation
of Kashmir. The plateau land generally used for culti
vation of the early cereals was not fertile enough to
withstand permanent cultivation as there is no natural
system of enriching the soil. The land had to be en-
1. In the first millennium A.D. almost all the rulers of Kashmir are referred to have constructed one irrigated facility or the other, note-worthy among them are Lalitadytia and Avantivarmna (855-883 A.D.), R a jtarangini, op.cit,Book 4, P. 191-94;Book 5, No. 70-90.
Agricultural Technology / 4 8
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riched either by manuring or by the fallow system for
which we have no evidence as yet. But onething is clear
that in K a s h m i r a single crop is ■■ norm a l l y grown
which helps the land to regain some of its lost fertil
ity.^ The tradition still continues and the tradition
al Kashmiri cultivator is generally reluctant to go far
the winter crop in the rice fields as it will affect
the rice production.
But inspite of this seasonal fallowing the plateau
land cannot undergo continuous cultivation. This must
have compelled the earlyman to look for such a farm
land which had some natural system of enrichment. The
low land had this advantage as it was enriched every
year by the silt brought by inundation and can be used
for continuous cultivation. This must have prompted
the early man to shift to rice cultivation and the idea
was not far to come because the regions around Kashmirf
with whom neolithic man had close contacts,, was already
practising the type of cultivation in the same kind of
field, for m o r e than a m i l l l h U i m . C h a u chu fei a
twelfth century AD official while describing primitive
rice culture in Southern most China, says,
"In p r e p a r i n g the field for rice pi anting, the
peasant chose only the kind of land that is evenly
submerged under water all year round. If the land
is but a too high to be submerged constant 1y , they
would reject it. Even when they do cultivate, they
1. Lawrence, op.cit. P. 306.
Agricultural Technology / A S
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would barely, break up the ground. Without deep
p l o u g h i n g and hoei n g they simp l y br o a d c a s t the
(rice) seeds never transplant the shoots. After
the seeds are bioadcast they don't water the
fields dur i n g draught nor do they drain off the
surplus) water after excessive rain caring nothing
about manuring, ploughing and weeding they leave
everything to heaven".-*-
The low land rice cultivation in the valley, where
land remained submerged under water for most part of
the year,, the rice cultivation would not have been much
different from the one mentioned above except for the
fact that one or two ploughs would have been given
b e f o r e b r o a d c a s t i n g the s e e d s . ̂ ^ u t in n e o l i t h i c
period the hydraulic situation was certainly different.
Most of the land in the low lying areas would remain
submerged under water for whole year.3
This type of land had one more advantage. W h i l e
the dry land needed some sort of tools for working the
ground, be it only a digging stick, for this low land
rice cultivation no such tool was needed. Even today
there are localities in South East Asia, where the rice
1. P i n g , T i .H o . o p .cit , P . 2 5 .
2. Nilmata Purana, (Annonymas) tr. by Ved. K u m a i , V.567-68. \
3. Indian Archaeology (A Review), 1978-79, P. 70, because the river was flowing a few meters higher than its present bed level.
Agricultural Technology / 5 0
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field is neither ploughed, nor spaded nor hoed.-*- The
soil may be fairly puddled and all the weeds destroyed.
The farmer can a c c o m p l i s h this p u r p o s e by s p l a s h i n g
around in bare feet.^ The process of preparing rice
fields with bare feet is still a common operation in
Kashmir though today it is done in addition to p l o u g h
ing. Thus keeping in view the abundance and fertility
of the low lying land, the scarcity and non-productiv*-
"ty of p l a t e a u land and the early s y s t e m of wet-1'
cul t i v a t i o n , coupl ed with the idea from their easte*
cultural brothers, it seems little surprising that the
K a s hmiri n e o l i t h i c man s h i f t e d to rice c u l t i v a t i o n
which shaped not only the economic history of Kashmir
but its socio cultural history to a great extent-
The agricultural history of Kashmir, since the intro
duction of rice culture, has primarily been the history
of rice cultivation.
The rice c u l t i v a t i o n being ge n e r a l l y in the wet
lands faces two problems; the i r r i g a t i o n (supply of
water) and the drainage (the removal of excess water).
But in Kashmir where the land remainSal submerged under
w a t e r a n d d u r i n g ^ u n d a t i o n is o v e r f l o w n by it the
problem which the cultivator generally faced was not
the irrigation but the drainage. It is the floods that
h a v e o f t e n b r o u g h t c a t e s t r o p h y to the r i c e f i e l d s
rather than the draught. It has always been the lord of
floods which posed more horror than that of dry w e a t h
1. Ping, T i . Ho, op.cit, P. 25.
2. Ibid, P. 25.
Agricultural Technology / 5 1
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er.* This characteristic of the rice cultivation in
Kashmir is reflected throughout its history. The h i s
tory of development and diffusion of rice cultivation
in K a s h m i r is m a i n l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h this d r a i n a g e
s y s t e m . T h e g r e a t e r the w o r k of d r a i n a g e the m o r e
extensive became the cultivation of rice. So before
proceeding further in the system of rice cultivation it
is important to know about the irrigation system of
the valley.
In order to understand the irrigation pattern one
must bear in mind the geographical structure and h y
draulic situation of the valley. The valley of Kashmir
is distinctly basin shaped and it has a length of about
eighty four miles. The lowest point has an elevation of
5200 feet and the mean elevation is 6000 feet above the
sea. The lowest Banihal pass in the Pir Panjal range,
forming its outer boundary, is 3000 feet above the
level of the valley.3
In its c o u r s e r i v e r J e h l u m b e l o w the t o w n of
Is l a m a b a d flows through a plain of low level recent
alluvium. The width of this plain varies from two to
fifteen miles.^ It appears level to the eye. There is
1. Our sources are replete with the reference to different floods which often resulted in famines. See Rajtar a n g i n i , op.cit, Book 4, No. 1219, 1624; Book 8, No. 1422, 2449, 2786.
2. Ibid, Book No. 1, 159; Book 5, No. 68.
3. Lawrence, op.cit, P. 44.
4. Ibid, P. 44.
Agricultural Technology / 5 2
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no doubt that this a l l u v i u m has been formed by the
river floods and the formation may be still observed.
There is no evidence that any change of level has taken
p l a c e s i n c e the d e p o s i t i o n of this a l l u v i u m w h i c h
contains in many cass pgttery and other works of art,
of comparatively modern date. During neolithic times
this must have been mostly submerged under water. This
alluvium plain today forms the chief rice cultivating
area of the valley.
On the b o r d e r s of this g r e a t p l a i n of r e c e n t
alluvium, there occur extensive elevated plateaus of
alluvial or lacustrine material which occupy a great
portion of the valley to which the local name Karewa
(Udder)'^Trom their elevated position these karewas can
not generally be brought under irrigation. The Karewas
are separated from each other by ravines of 100 to 300
feet in depth. Occasionally they are surrounded alto
gether by lower ground but generally they are connected
to some m o u n t a i n that bound the valley. K a r e w a s and
their dividing ravines occupy a width varying from 8 to
16 miles along the south-western side of the valley.
For a length of about 50 miles from near Shupayan to
the river flat between Sopore and Baramulla, the K a r e
was a d j o i n i n g the m o u n t a i n s have their s u r faces i n
clined from the latter with decreasing slopes.
At pres e n t the Jeh l u m makes its exit from the
valley through a narrow rocky gorge below Baramulla. It
1. Ibid, P. 45.
Agricultural Technology / 5 3
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is yet to be finally established whether the valley of
Kashmnir i‘s true rock basin or a blocked river valley
but the latter seems more probable which is also m e n
tioned in almost all the ancient and early medieval
literary works of Kashmir.*
The plains suita b l e for rice c u l t i v a t i o n are of
two types - the ravines b e t w e e n the kare w a s and the
central plain of Kashmir along the two banks of river
Jehlum made by floods. The system of irrigation needed
for these two types of lands is quitc different While
the ravines are to be irrigated by artificial canals,
the central plain need drainage and dykes to protect it
from the flood and excess of water. The ravines between
the karewas or the "karewa valleys” which they should
be better called, are almost, all of them drained by
small s t r e a m s f l o w i n g in the m i d d l e . In fact the
" k a r e w a v a l l e y s " are the o u t c o m e of t h e s e s t r e a m s
cutting the karewas deeper during floods. Thanks to
the formation of the country irrigation is not diffi
cult and is some-what taught naturally. The villagers
of Kashmir always speaks of mountains as their treas
uries and in a year of good snow the t r easuries are
full. The snow melts into various mountain streams,
w h i c h lace the v a l l e y and r u s h d o w n to the J e h l u m
r i v e r . At c o n v e n i e n t points on the m o u n t a i n streams
temporary weirs or projecting snags are erected, and
1. Nilmata, op.cit, V. 227-290; Rajatar a n g i n i , op.cit, Book No. I, 25.
2. Lawrence, op.cit,
Agricultural Technology / 5 4
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the water is taken off in main channels, wh i c h pass
into a net—work of small ducts and eventually empty
themselves into the Jehlum.
In the low lying areas the i r r i g a t i o n is still
easier as the level of the streams coming from high
altitudes and the cultivating fields dce4iot vary much.
The streams can be easily damped and used for irriga
tion.
In the given geographical structure and hydraulic
situation the main task which beset the rice cultivator
was the drainage, to remove the access water, from
swamps and the c o n s t r u c t i o n of dykes to protect the
land from inundation. The history of rice cultivation
in K a s h m i r is e s s e n t i a l l y the h i s t o r y of s t r u g g l e
against this hydrological chaos.
We do not exactly know when the act i v i t i e s of
irrigation and drainage started in Kashmir. However,
one thing which is to be borne in mind before trying to
find out its origin is that such activities are only
possible through an organised effort, that is once an
organised community had come into existence. Because
archaeology does not help us much in this regard so we
h a v e to rely on o t h e r s o u r c e s of i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e
history works of Kashmir which have dealt with Kashmir
history since the very beginning of the human sett l e
ments do not survive to us. The earliest extant work
does not date earlier than 6th century AD. Tho u g h
these works are full of terms related to irrigation
Agricultural Technology / 5 5
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Y H T
.>•:
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and drainage like stream (Kula), embarkment (setu) or
dyke, and dam (Gund)* but their description about such
works in remote past need to be corroborated through
other tests. The physical verification and of course
the n o m e n c l a t u r e wh i c h luckily has m o s t l y remai n e d
unchanged. The first textual evidence to an irrigation
canal provided by Kalhana, is about King Suvarna, who
ruled Kashmir before Ashoka is said to have brought to
Karala the canal (Kulya) called s a v arnamani. Karala
has already been identified in modern Zainpor^ and a
l a r g e i r r i g a t i o n canal n a m e d S u n m a n Kul the e x a c t
derivative of Suvarnamani Kula still exists which flows
along the east scarp of the Zainpur P l a t e a u . 3 The
importance and usefulness of the canal can be easily
imagined by the fact that it has survived all the plus
two thousand years of our known history of irrigation.
Similarly Kalhana mentions construction of a long
dam called Gudda Setu by one king Damudra.^ Damudra is
name of an important plateau (Udder) known as Damudar
plateau. He is also said to have built a town on this
plateau and is thus named after him. At the south foot
of the plateau is situated a small village called Gud-
Suth. The name G u d - S u t h also means in K a s hmiri the
1. R a j t a r a n g i n i , op.cit, Book I; N o . 156; Book 2; 274;Book 3, No. 345; 383, Book5, No. 120.
2. Stein, M .A . "Rajatarangini of Kalhana, Vol. I, P. 1 7 n .
3. Ibid, P. 1 7 - 1 8 n .
4. Ibid, Book No. 1, 156.
Agricultural Technology / 5 6
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first d a m ^ G u d (First), S u t h ( E m b a r k m e n t ) * , but at
present no such arrangement survives. The same king is
a l s o s a i d to h a v e b u i l t long s t o n e l i n e d d y k e s in
K a s hmir to guard against inunda t i o n . ^ Thus we see
befo r e th b e g i n n i n g of C h r i s t i a n era, not only the
construction of dams and dykes introduced in Kashmir,
but they were made with all the refinements of modern
one's. The stone sets being used to protect the slopes
of the dykes. K e e p i n g in view the c o n s t r u c t i o n of
dykes in other parts around K a s hmir and their rich
t r a d i t i o n still s u r viving in Kashmir, it is almost
certain that fascines too would have been used to built
eathen weirs.3 In fact because of the simple mode of
construction and greater availability of raw material
in comparison to stones, fascines may have predated the
d y k e s .
The literary sources of Kashmir are replete with
the d e s c r i p t i o n of d i f f e r e n t i r r i g a t i o n w o r k s and
almost all the rulers are credited to have constructed
a canal or a dyke and what catches one's attention is
1. The small village of Gudsuth, is situated 70°,50long and 33°,58 lat. Stein, op.cit, Book I, P.2 8 n .
2. Ibid, Book 1, No. 159.
3. Fascines and stone were used to protect the dykesand built weirs since ancient times. We have evidence from China from 100 A .D . R. J. Forbes, studies in Ancient Technology, Vol. II, P.15. We do not know where from Kashmir received the technology but a simple technique like using tree branches to protect banks of the streams and used for construction of weirs, because of its simplicity, can be of local origin.
Agricultural Technology / 5 7
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that the virtue of constructing an irrigation facility
or a drainage system is held at par with the construc
tion of religious places like temples or images.^- It
will not be out of place to mention that the construc
tion of our capital city - Srinagar is also result of ac*.
grand embankment work of early Kashmir. The construc
tion of these irrigation works is often, if not always,
attributed to some super human being or atleast to the
support they provided to the political authority. This
was perhaps so because of the gigantic nature of these
w o r k s w h i c h the a n c i e n t or m e d i e v a l m a n c o u l d not
conceive to be possible of the humans. The construction cN
of the embankment made for the protection of the city
of Srinagar as n a r r a t e d by K a l h a n a is an exam p l e in
point. To quote Kalhana, "your desire, 0 ruler of the
Earth (Prava^a sena II) will be fulfilled; come to my
side after crossing this embankment. With these words
the Raksas stretched out his own knee from the other
bank and thus caused the water of the Mahasrit (stream.)
to be parted by an emba0cment". The identity of this
stream (Mahasarit ) has already been confirmed by M. A.
Stein and is presently known as Tsunt Kul (the apple
canal) To quote Stein, "it is bound along its right or
n o r t h bank by an old embankment one and a half mile
long which stretches from the rocky foot of Takith hill
in the east to the high lying banks of vitasta (Jehlum)
1. R a j t a r a n g i n i , op.cit, Book 3, No. 483. Kalhana says that three brothers of the king who were his ministers built a Matha, a temple and an embankment .
2. Ibid, l»ook 3, No. 343-44.
Agricultural Technology / 5 8
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in the west. There can be no doubt as to the antiquity
of this embankment, without it large p o r t i o n of the
city which are built along the low lying shores of the
Dal and the numerous canals stretching from the latter
to the west, would along with all the floating gardens
of the lake be exposed to annua] inundation from the
river. The embankment is still known by the name of
Suth obviously from Sanskrit Setu (dyke) " .*
However, the first famous ruler during whose reign
irrigation received great impetus, was Lalitadytra (8th
century AD). He is the first ruler r e f erred to have
used water wheels (aryhutta) to irrigate Ihu lundii
where ordinary mans of irrigation were not possible. To
quote Kalhana, "At Cakaradhara (Modern Taskhadar below
Vijbror) he ma d e an arra n g e m e n t for c o n d u c t i n g the
water of the Vitasta. (Jehlum) and distributing it to
various villages by the c o n s t r u c t i o n of series of
arghatta (water wheels).^ Kalhana simply mentions the
water wheel. He does not give any other detail about it
so to rediscover the type of water wheel used in K a s h
mir it is important to know the type of water wheels
used in other parts around Kashmir.
1. Stein, Vol. No. I, P. 101-2n.
2. The system of irrigation here referred to is explained by the configuration of the ground near Tasakhdar on account of the high alluvial plateau which stretches in a semicircle from Vijbror to below Taskadar, the land enclosed between them and the left bank of the river cannot be irrigated by the ordinary means of canals. At present the fields are irrigated by wells. Stein, Vol. I, P. 1 4 1 n .
Agricultural Technology / 5 9
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Broadly speak i n g two types ol water wheels lot
raising water were known in the ancient and medieval
period. One was the Arghatta (noria) and the other was
Saqiyq or the Persian wheel . The Araghatta was a rim
round which pots were attached. It was operated with
human energy and it collected water by the surface of
water pond or by the river side. The Saqiya on the
other hand with a bucket chain or potgarland and a pin
drum gear could draw water from the well and was moved
by b u l l o c k s . I n p r i n c i p l e both noria and Persian-
wheel can have a gearing system or can work without
it. This has led some to conclude that the water rais-9
ing device has a three rather than two stage history.
The first was the argha t t a - a rim round wh i c h pots
w e r e a t t a c h e d and was w o r k e d by h u m a n e n e r g y . The
sec o n d was a r g hatta with a bucket chain to m a k e it
applicable to wells and raise water to higher elevation
but this was without a gearing system. The third was
Saqiya that is with both pot-garland and gearing sys
tem.^ It however, looks doubtful if the h i s tory of
technology has moved on such a logical course. It can
be safely presumed that water wheel mentioned by K a l h a
na was not Saqiya, because in India and China we have
no reference of Saqiya before 13th century. In fact
Irfan Habib, (Medieval Technology exchange between India and Islamic World). "Aligarh Journal of Oriental Studies", Vol. II/ 1985, PP. 198-99.
Anii'uddha Roy, B a g c h i , S.K., "Technology in A n c i ent and Medieval India" (Harbans Mukfe^a A g r i c u l tural Technology) P. 116.
Ibid, P. 116.
Ayr icuJtural Technology / 6 0
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the first clear example about India comes through Babur
(1526-39) whose account makes it clear that it was not
by then known in Central Asia or Afghanistan.* Thus
there is no circumstantial evidence of such a device in
8th century Kashmir. The description of the apparatus
itself indicates that it was not a saqiya. K a l h a n a
makes mention of the apparatus at more than one place
but nowhere animal power is referred to. About Queen
Dida (*i*e-AD) he says that she "accomplished all kinds
of pious works by c o n s t r u c t i n g water-wheels, wells,
halls for the students and the like".^ The period
being contemporareous to Kalhan®,, the gearing system and
use of animal power would not have escaped K a l h a n ' s
keen eye. However, it is possible that the arghatta was
used with a pot-garland or a bucket chain because at
one place where the water wheels are m e n t i o n e d the
water was to be raised to the high plateau which seems
1. Babur writes in his autobiography, "(In Hindustan) they water certain crops in Lahore, Dipalpure Sirhind and other territories around, they i r rigate by the (Water) wheel (Charkh). They tie sticks to both the ropes and tie pitchers to the stick. This double rope to which they tie the pitchers is thrown over the wheel (Charkha) set up over the well. At the other end of the axle (Tir) of the wheel there is another w h e e l . But the side of the wheel there is yet another wheel whose anle stands upright. When the ox rotates this last wheel its spokes (Parha) getting into the spokes of the second wheel rotate the wheel carrying the pitchers. Where the water falls from the pitchers they fix a through (neu) and from the trough they take the water to where over they like", vide Irfan Habit, op.cit. PP. 199.
2. Rajatar a n g i n i , Book 8, No. 2416.
Agricultural Technology / 6 1
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The most outs t a n d i n g figure in the a a r i c u l t u ral
h ist o r y of Kash m i r is u n d o u b t e d l y Suya, the master
agriculturalist in the court of Avantivarman (855-883
A.D.). The contribution of Suya to the development of
agriculture in Kashmir, particularly the rice cultiva
tion was so great that on the basis of his hydraulic
E n g i n e e r i n g he was con s i d e r e d a s u p e r h u m a n being to
w h o m K a l h a n a c a l l s the lord of food ( A n a p a t i ) and
attributes him a legendary birth.'' In fact, while going
through his great works in hydraulic engineering one is
astonished to observe the astounding achievements of
the medieval mind. Before describing his great works,
it may not be irrelevant to point cut that the legend
ary position which Suya assumed (perhaps) proved h e l p
ful for him for accomplishing his works. Because of
this p o s i t i o n he could p e r f o r m some such acts which
would have been ot h e r w i s e difficult lo accomplish.
Mention may be made of changing the confluence of two
great rivers (Vitasta and Sindhu ) of K a s h m i r . ̂ Had
Suyya not assumed a super human position he would have
found it difficult because changing the natural course
of things p a r t i c u l a r l y the rivers, which were held
very much sacred by Hindus was not p o s s i b l e in the
impossible by a simple water wheel."'-
1. Ibid, Book 4, No. 19£?.
2. Ibis, Book 5, No. 72.
3. Ibid, Book 5, No. 97-98.
A g r ic u ltu ra l Technology / 6 2
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The p r o jects u n d e r t a k e n by Suya to improve the
productivity of land and bring more land under cultiva
tion reminds one of the modern techniques in the de v e l
opment of agriculture. The important projects undertak
en by him include the drainage of access water, irri
gating the hither to unirrigable land and testing the
water consumption of the soil.^ The most important
and massive project undertaken was to clear the bed of
the river Jehlum (Vitasta) and regulate the course of
water. K a l h a n a gives a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of this
grand Jehlum clearance plan. According to the author,
"He took many pots (full) of money (dinnara) from the
treasury and embarking on a boat, proceeded in haste to
M a d a v a r a j y a (modern Maraz South e r n Kashmir). After
d r o p p i n g here the pot (full) of mo n e y at a village
called N a u d a k a , which was submerged in the flood, he
h u r r i e d l y turned back --- on r e a ching K r a m a r a j y a
(present Kamraz, the northern Kashmir), the I oca lity
contemporary religious milieu.*
1. Even in other parts of the world, where riverswere not revered to the extent Hindus did, we see that people in general did not like to change the natural course of things. We know from prehistoric China that emperior Yan punished his Minister Kun because he wanted to change the natural course of things when he planned to build d y k e ^ t o retain the yellow river in its bed, Forbas, op.cit. P. 13.
2. Rajatar a n g i n i , op.cit, Book 5, No. 81-98.
3. The site of the Nandaka village is most probably,situated around Vijbror, with this name may po s s i ble be connected old Nandi canal, Stein, op.cit, Vol. I, P. 1 9 7 n .
*
Agricultural Technology / 6 3
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called Yaksadara* (near Khadnyar) he threw with both
hands money into the water. There where the rocks,
which had i d l e d down from the m o u n t a i n lining both
river banks, had compressed the vitasta (Jehlum) and
m a d e its waters turn backwards. The famine s t r i c k e n
villages then searched for the money dragged out the
rocks from the river and thus cleaied the bed of the
vitasta".^ Not only was the river cleared by Suyya he
even b l o c k e d the whole river for seven days by c o n
structing a stone dam.After clearing the river bed and
constructing stone walls to protect the river from the
rocks which might roll down, he removed the dam. New
beds were c o n s t r u c t e d for the river w h e r e v e r it was
felt that the inundation would make breaches.**
A n o t h e r g r a n d p l a n w h i c h S u y y a u n d e r t o o k was
c h a n g i n g the conf l u e n c e of two great rivers of the
valley - vitasta (Jehlum ) Sindhu (Sindh) which at
once served many purposes. It regulating the course of
the united rivers, brought more land under cultivation,
w h i c h p r e v i o u s l y r e m ained s u b m e r g e d under water and
s a v e d it to a g r e a t d e g r e e , f r o m the d e v a s t a t i n g
floods. This was indeed a great plan only a master of
hydraulic engineering and well versed with the hydrau-
1. Yaksadara lies about three miles below Baramulla.It is the last projection of the mountain rangewhich descends to the South east from the Kaj Nagpeaks, Ibid, Vol. I, P. 197n.
2. Ibid, Book 5, No. 90-91.
3. Ibid, V. 92, Book 5, No. 92.
4. Ibid, V. 95, BooOk 5, No. 95.
A g ric u ltu ra l Technology / 6 4
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lie situation of the valley could undertake. While the
novel method of clearing the river bed (dropping money
in the river) may seem funny but the change of the
c o n f l u e n c e of two rivers was a project ahead of its
times. To quote Kalhana, "The two great rivers the
Sin d h u and the V i t a s t a , which formerly met near the
t e m p l e s of V i s n u f l o w i n g to the left a n d rig h t of
Trigiami (respectively) have to this day in the vicini
ty of the city (Srinagar) their confluence which suyya
first p l a n n e d and which will last to the end of he
wor l d ".1
T h e old c o u r s e of the r i v e r has a l r e a d y b e e n
recognized by M.A. Stein lying immediately to the east
of Tirgam and Parspor ( ancient Parihasapura) around
the Panznor^ nambal . By forcing the river to pass to
the no r t h of T r i g a m instead of South, of it-j^became
possible to reclaim a great portion of land between the
1. Ibid, V. 97-98, Book 5, No. 97-98.
2. Trigami is the name given to a collection of small hamlets situated on a short distance from each other on the raised grounds stretching from the left bank of river Jehlum in the direction of Parespor plateau. Its modern name is Trigam,Stein, Vol. II. P. 329.
3. The name Parihasapura is preserved in that of the Pargana Paraspor. The identity of the name Pari- haspura and Paraspor is evident on phonetic grounds, It lies to t^ie South West of Shadpurj^ 740°.34 long. 34°.11 lat. Stein, Vol T ~ v T T v . 2 0 0 n.
4. Paz£ior lies to the east of Paraspor below the Parespore platea, Ibid, P. 301n.
A g r ic u ltu ra l Technology / 6 5
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v i t a s t a and the Sukhnay river on the south.* Apart
from this large tracks of land, lying to the south of
the V a l o u r lake, were to a great extent saved from
recurring floods^ by preventing the river Jehlum from
entering the very centre from the side of Parspor. This
also regulated the course of the river from the junc
tion to the Volur that is what Kalhana mentions imme
diately after referring to the confluence that stone
embarkments were constructed along the vitasta in its
course above the Valur.3
In order to f a c ilitate the c u l t i v a t i o n of newly
reclaimed . land Su#(ya founded various villages and in
order to save them from floods c o n s t r u c t e d circular
dykes around these v i l l a g e s . 4 This gave them the
shape of round bowls (Kundla) so these villages arewrz.
known with the same name like Mar-Kundal and 3 t s Kun-
dal.^ These villages still survive with the same names
s i t u a t e d c l o s e t o g e t h e r w i t h the left b a n k of the
Vitasta. Therefore, there remains no d i f f i c u l t y in
i d e n t i f y i n g them as the same villages m e n t i o n e d by
K a l a h a n a .
1. Ibid, V o l . I I , P. 331 n.
2. As suya forced the river to the north of Trigaminstead of South of it, it became possible to reclaim a great portion of land between the Vi t a s ta and the Sukhuag river on the south. Ibid. P.331.
3. Ra j a t a r n a g i n i , op.cit, Book 5, No. 105, 106.
4. Ibid, Book 5, No. 106.
5. Stein,op.cit, Vol I. P. 199n.
Agricultural Technology / 6 6
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Besides these grand drainage projects Suyya also
made great contribution in supplying water to the land
which was till then dependent on rain water. He con
structed new canals and distributed water to the new
fields as per the requirements of the land.* He con
ducted experiments to ascertain the quantity of water
needed for irrigation for each type of paddy land.
Th e s e tests of water c o n s u m p t i o n carried on by
Suyya find special mention in Rajtharangani which says,
"Af t e r w a t e r i n g all village (lands) he Look from
(each village some soil and ascertained, by (observing)
the time it took to dry-up the p e r i o d within which
irrigation would be required (for each soil respective
ly). H e a t h e n arranged accordingly on permanent basis
for the size and distribution of the water course for
each village".^
S u y y a’s categorisation of the lands on the basis
of the i r w a t e r c o n s u m p t i o n has f i n a l l y led to the
r e c o g n i t i o n of land on this very basis. Even today
soils are recognised in Kashmir according to the q u a l i
ty of their water consumption. These classes are known
as Grutu, B a h u l , Sekil and Dazanlad3 Gurtu soil con
tains largest portion of clay. It holds water and in
years of scanty rainfall is safest for rice. Bahil is a
1. Rajatar a n g i n i , op.cit, Book 5, No. 110-112.
2. Ibid, Book 5, No. 110-112.
3. Lawrence, op.cit, P. 320.
Agricultural Technology / 6 7
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rich loam of great natural strength, Sakil is a light
l o a m w i t h a s a n d s u b - s o i l and it n e e d s s u f f i c i e n t
irrigation. Dazanlad soil is chiefly found in lowlying
grou n d near swamps. But it s o m etimes occurs in the
higher villages also.-'- It seems very likely that the
recognition of land on the basis of water consumption
followed from the experiments conducted by Suyya.
During the reign of Avantivarman (855/6-883 A.D)
the rice culluie of Kashrui t reached almost its maturi
ty. Its production increased so much that the price of
one khari came down from 200 dinars to 36 dinars^- Soon
after Avantivarman we came to know about king Samkara-
varraan (893-902 A.D) who "himself cultivated the land
as if he was an agriculturist" , which simply shows the
importance which the kings gave to the agriculture.^
During the reign of King Abhimanya (958-972) the new
post of revenue officer was created^ and the agricul
ture flo u r i s h e d with all its acces s o r i e s and with a
nomenclature of its own and with a remarkable influence
on all other departments of the life. New words like
Catusa, Khal and Armica^ became the domestic words of
Kashmiri language. The catusa modern Kuth (granary) is
a four pillared paullion which is made above ground, an
1. Ibid, P. 320.
2. Rajatar n a g i n i , op.cit, Book 5, No. 116-17.
3. Ibid, Book 5, No. 170.
4. Ibid, Book 6, No. 264.
5. Ibid, Book 7, No. 1024; Book 8, No. 23, 1245.
A g r ic u ltu ra l Technology / 6 8
-
all w o o d hut to s t o r e the p a d d y a f t e r it has b e e n
thrashed in the autmn. The i m p ortance and r e v erence
with wh i c h the granary was held can be had from the
observation of Jonaraj, the 15h century court chroni
cler. "The granaries are indeed U f a ike* breasts of the
earth from which the people derive their nourishment”.^
Similarly Khal (the threshing floor) a track of land
kept by every peasant family, close by to the residence
to store the rice before threshing, was an important
i t e m of p e a s a n t c u l t u r e . The cr o p s s t o r e d in Khal
cannot be removed unless the state share had been taken
from it. We also come across terms like armika modern
aram° (market g a r dener or v e g e t a b l e gardener). This
clearly shows that the peasant o£ Kashmir was spec i a l
ising in raising different crops.
The food crops c u l t i v a t e d by kashmirr peasant,
apart from the above m e n t i o n e d cereals and pulses,
include pulses like black gram4 (Mango), acontifolius
(Moth), onions and saffron.Black gram (phaseolus mango)
mung in kashmir and mudga in Sanskrit, is one of the
earliest pulses cultivated in Kashmir. Seeds of this
c r o p h a v e b e e n r e c o v e r e d f r o m the s e c o n d p h a s e at
semthan (600-200 BC).^ It is also mentioned by Kalhana
1. Jaina Rajatarangini, P. 140
2. R a j tarangini, op.cit, Book 8, No. 1245-47.
3. Ibid, Book 7, No. 39-40.
4. Ibid, Book 7, No. 788.
5. Palaeoethonobotany, op.cit, P. 134.
Agricultural Technology / 6 9
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as an important cultivated crop.-1' Till recent past i^
was sown in rice fields which required rest*, phaseolus
a c o n i 1i f o l u i s (M o t h in K a s h m i r i ) has b e e n a n o t h e r
important pulse, now mostly cultivated for cattle and
s h e e p . c,ai a i es t e v i d e n c e is f r o m k u s h s n p h a s e at
. . . 4- 1„ . ( r\ r\ ■» e n r td e u i i u c u i ̂ v v x ~ >j u u
Saiii Oia v CiOCUS Sai 1VUS i xi*a J ( Zctcif i cia± Xu A i a 1 c ,
K asha co in GansKirxt and K o n o xn Kaslvuxvx ) • p l a n t
is a nati v e of south Europe^ and is c u l t i v a t e d in
Span, France. Greece, Turkey, Persia and China.5 In
kashmir the c u l t i v a t i o n is mos t l y confi n e d to table
lands of paivipui. . The plant is propagated veaetatively
by bulbs. In k a s hmir the bulbs are t r a n s p l a n t e d in
August-September in raised plots. The literary evidence
cOmes f l oru 5th-6th century A . D . ̂ There is no archaeo
logical evidence as yet. Because of the scanty informa
tion it is difficult to know the region wherefrom it
travelled to Kashmir. It had both religious as well as
domestic uses.
1. Ra j a t a r a n g i n i , op.cit, Book 7, No. 786.
2. Lawrence, op.cit, P. 339.
3. Pal utrotrthonobutany, op.cit, P. 135.
4. Wealth of India.(A dictionery of Agricultural Products), Vol X, P. 811.
r T U , * J - > * I Tsj . iDiu , c . Jxx i
6. Rajatarangini, op.cit, Book 1, No. 42, 220; Book6, No. 120; Book 8, No. 2 & 3J4-.
Agricultural Technology / 7 0
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Q z r . e i p u l s e s , b e a n s a n d v e g e t a b l e s m e n t i o n e d in
w r i t t e n s o u r c e s are k u 1 a 11 h a {D e l i c h o s B i l f l o r u s )i
G u p l a , c a n a ( C i c e r A r i e t i n u m ) a n d m a s u r a . 1 K a l h a n a
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p r a i s e s th e g r a p e s of K a s h m i r a n d s a y s , " L e a r n i n g ,
l o f t y h o u s e s , s a f f r o n , i c y w a t e r a n d g r a p e s , t h i n g s
that e v e n in h e a v e n are d i f f i c u l t to f i n d are c o m m o n
h e r e " . ^ H e e s p e c i a l l y m e n t i o n s g r a p e ju ice u s e d for
d r i n k and say s that the p r i c e of g r a p e ju ice i n c r e a s e d
a l o n g w i t h ric e b e c a u s e of f l oo ds ^ w h i c h i n d i c a t e s that
it h a d a v e r y c o m m o n use. The h o r t i c u l t u r a l f r ui t s m o s t
l i k e l y w e r e u s e d as an a l t e r n a t i v e food d u r i n g fa m i n e s
w h i c h w e r e f r e q u e n t in K a s h m i r b e c a u s e of -trad—w e a t h er
-altd floods.
Walnut, (juglans regia)
W a l n u t are n a t i v e to C en tr al Asia, Iran, C a u c a s u s ,
A n a t o l i a , B a l k h a n and s o u t h e r n Eur ope . T h e r e is no
r e f e r e n c e of w a l n u t f r o m I n d i a n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e x c a v a
t i o n . ^ H o w e v e r , the p l i o p l e i s t o c e n e and p o s t gl a c i a l
d e p o s i t s of K a s h m i r h a v e y i e l d e d c a r b o n i z e d wo ods , leaf
i m p r e s s i o n s and p o l l e n g r a i n s of j ug la ns s p p .v a r i e t y .5
T h e i r e v i d e n c e f r o m S i m t h a n a n d B u r z a h a m is of t h e
1. R a j a t a r a n g i n i of K a l h a n a , op. cit , B o o k 1, No. 42.
2. Ibid, B o o k 8, No. . The f am i n e p r i c e of twop a l e s of g r a p e s is g i v e n as one d i n n a r a w h i c h g i v e s a p r i c e of 360 D i n n a r pe r Khari, S t e i n o p. cit , Vol. II, P. 325.
3. H u d s o n , P. S. (Trans. 1962). C u l t i v a t e d p l a n t s an d t h e i r w i l d r e l a t i v e s . F a r n h a m Bu c ks ; C o m m o n w e a l t h A g r i c u l t u r a l Bureau.
4. P a l a e o e t h n o b o t a n y , op.cit, P. 140.
5 . V i s h n u M i t h r e ( 1 9 6 5 ) , F r o r i s t i c and ec o l o g i c a l r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of the p a l c i s t o c e n e pi ant im p r e s - si'Jii l r om K a s h mi r, iraiaeobotanist, 1 o ( 3 ) , 3 0 S - 3 2 7 .
Ayricul tural Technology 117-
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Juglan regia variety* which indicates that it might
have been brought from its c e n tre of origin in Central
A s i a . B u t its o c c u r r e n c e since plio pleistSfnce times
s u g g e s t s that it might have been domesticated locally
in Kashmir.
Walnut has been an important agricultural product
since early habitations in Kashmir. During early h i s
torical period it was used for oil for cookery and for
burning in lumps. However, during famine it was used
for food.3
Grapes ( vitis vinifera)
The se e d s o f the w i ld s p e c i e s have been recovered
from the N e o l i t h i c II phase o f the Burzahftm.* The
credit of the origin of V. vinifera i s p r e s e n t l y g iven
to an area extending from south west Europe to western
India. C u l t i v a t i o n of grapes was underway in the
North-East as early as 4th millennium, B.C.^ Grapes
have also been reported from Mehrgarh ( Bronze age )
1. Pa! hn o b o t a n v , op.cit, P . 140.
2. Padshah Nama (text) I Chap. II P. 30.
3. Ibid, P. 30.
4 . P a la eo et h n o b o t a n y . o p . c i t , P.144.
5 . I b i d , P. 1 4 6 .
6. Ibid, P. 146.
A g r i c u l t u r a l T e c h n o l o g y / 7 3
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and Naushara ( Indus levels ) . x 'the grapes of Kashmir
are a l s o b e l i e v e d to h a v e b e e n i n t r o d u c e d t h r o u g h
Central Asia from Middle East.
The grapes are the best and most cherished fruits
of the valley. All the ancient sources have proudly
referred to i t . It seems that it was mostly used for
juice but like other fr ui t s would become an important
food item during the famine.4 Grapes were one among
the important products exported to India after Mughal
occupation of the valley.5
Bitter cherry (Prunes c a r a s u s ) . The a n c e s t o r of
one of the delicious fruits of Kashmir.lt grows wild
there. Its original home is not know but it is possible
to have been collected locally by the ancient man of
K ash m ir . K a l h a n a m e n t i o n s K a p itha a fruit which he
says, that it grows only for a short time at the b e g in
ning of the summer and is rare in India. ® The fruit
has been aptly recognized by stein as cherry.^ Butas
1. Cost antimi L. 1 984. "The beginning of ag r ic ult ur e
ir\ Sibbi Kacchi p la in and evidence from
Meh\garh" . In Bridget and Raymond A;! '-V 'r. ' °outh Asian, Archaeology) , 1981.
2. Palaeoethnobotany, op.cit, P. 146.
3. R a j atarangini, op.cit, Book 1, No. 42.
4. Ibid, Book 8, N o . ^ ^ ^ ' .
5< Lawrence, op.cit, P.351.
6. R a j t a r a n g i n i , op.cit, Book 6, No. 219-37.
7. Stein,