N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report on archaeological Investigations at Site 34 in the...

Project Code: NWB 03 Client: Waterford Co. Council Date: May 2009

N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report on Archaeological Investigations at Site 34 in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny Volume 2 Appendix 8: Integrated wood report for Site 34, Newrath Townland, Co. Kilkenny

By: Susan Lyons & Lorna O’Donnell Excavated under Licence: 04E0319 Director: Brendon Wilkins Chainage: 670 NGR: 25921 11446

Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34, Volume 2

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Table of Contents Page 1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. SCOPE OF WOOD ANALYSIS 2

3. SAMPLING STRATEGY 3

3.1 On‐site strategy 3

3.2 Wood analysis strategy 3

4. METHODOLOGY 4

4.1 Wood identification 4

4.2 Wood size 4

4.3 Growth ring count & ring width analysis 5

4.4 Preservation & evidence of decay 5

4.5 Toolmarks 6

4.5.1 Background to the analysis of worked wood and the tools used 6

4.5.2 Toolmarks from metalworking implements 7

5. RESULTS 8

5.1 Results of the wood identification and analysis 8

5.2 Wood size 9

5.3 Ring count analysis 10

6. CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD SPECIES 11

7. WOOD RESULTS AND THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL CHRONOLOGY 15

7.1 Early/Middle Bronze Age period 15

7.2 Later Bronze Age period 16

7.3 Iron Age period 16

7.4 Medieval period 17

7.5 Overview of the wood assemblage from the Bronze Age to the medieval period 18

8. WORKED WOOD ANALYSIS 22

8.1 Individual structures 22

8.2 Worked ends 25

8.3 Jam curves 26

8.4 Facets 30

8.5 Toolmarks and the archaeological chronology 32

8.6 Differences in spit levels 34

8.7 Analysis of signatures 36

8.8 Tree felling 38

8.9 Cleft timbers 39

8.10 Woodcarving and fine woodworking 40


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8.11 Notched or holed timbers 41

9. AGE PROFILE OF THE TIMBERS/WOODLAND MANAGEMENT 42

10. COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE WOOD AND POLLEN RECORD 45

11. DISCUSSION 46

12. SUMMARY 50

13. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 50

14. REFERENCES 51


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List of Figures Page

Fig. 1 Percentage of wood species identified from Site 34 9

Fig. 2 Percentage of the general wood sizes recorded from Site 34 10

Fig. 3 Age profiles of wood recorded from Site 34 10

Fig. 4 Distribution of wood species from EBA/MBA dated structure 16

Fig. 5 Distribution of wood species from Iron Age dated structures 17

Fig. 6 Distribution of wood species from Medieval dated structures 18

Fig. 7 Wood species identified from dated structures 20

Fig. 8 Wood sizes identified from dated structures 21

Fig. 9 Total worked ends from Site 34 25

Fig. 10 End types and diameters from Site 34 26

Fig. 11 Jam curves from Site 34 28/29

Fig. 12 Total facet characters from Site 34 30

Fig. 13 Total facet dimensions from Site 34 31

Fig. 14 Features of a facet (After Sands 1997, 12) 31

Fig. 15 Worked ends per time period 33

Fig. 16 Facet profiles per time period 33

Fig. 17 Facet dimensions per time period 34

Fig. 18 Conversion processes from Site 34 39

Fig. 19 Cleft timbers; tangential, radial and half‐split (After O’Sullivan 1996, 305). 39

Fig. 20 Age profiles of the wood taxa from Site 34 42

Fig. 21 Age profiles of wood identified from dated structures 44


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List of Plates Page

Plate 1 Medieval jam curve on 34W3524 27

Plate 2 Blade signature on 34W047 36

Plate 3 Oak trunk 34W001 38

Plate 4 Notched radially split ash 34W2010 41

Plate 5 Probable coppiced alder heels from Site 34 43


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1. INTRODUCTION

This report presents the results of the wood analysis carried out on a number of wooden structures

excavated at Site 34 in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny. Archaeological excavations were

undertaken at the site under excavation licence number 04E0319 by Brendon Wilkins of Headland

Archaeology Ltd on behalf of Waterford City Council and the National Road Authority (NRA) in

2004, as part of the archaeological mitigation program associated with the N25 Waterford Bypass. A

total of 22 structures were identified at the site dating from the Bronze Age to the medieval period

and potentially into Early Modern times. The structures themselves ranged in form from large

trackways and platforms, primarily constructed of timbers and large roundwood elements, to lighter

brushwood scatters of small and medium roundwoods.

The analysis of the wood from Site 34 was undertaken by Susan Lyons and Lorna O’Donnell from

2005 to 2006. The wood identification and analysis of bulk wood samples was carried out by Susan

Lyons, formerly of Headland Archaeology Ltd, while the wood identification and tool technology

analysis of the individual worked wood elements was recorded by Lorna O’Donnell of Margaret

Gowen & Co. Ltd. Both authors have combined their results for the purpose of this report, to create

one wood report which would incorporate the results from all wood identifications and worked

wood analysis.

The report will discuss the wood assemblage chronologically according to time periods based on

known radiocarbon dates obtained for the site. It will be structured to outline the scope of wood

identification analysis, the sampling strategies and methodologies employed, along with a series of

discussion points, which will include the total results of wood identifications from sampled elements,

the characteristics of the wood species identified at Site 34, results of the wood analysis with reference

to the archaeological chronology for the site and comparisons with the results from the pollen study

undertaken by Dr. Scott Timpany (2006). The discussion will also incorporate the results of the

worked wood assemblage, carried out by Lorna O’Donnell and will detail the evidence for possible

woodland management and selection at the site.

Due to the large volume of raw data collated during this project, a more detailed description of the

wood results of the individual structures and a table of all wood identifications recorded will be

available to view on a CD disc with will accompany this report.


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2. SCOPE OF WOOD ANALYSIS

The overall aim of the wood study from Site 34 was to provide a sufficient record of the wood species

selected for the construction of the structures recorded at the site along with a record of the types of

tools used. The wood results would also give information on the species composition of the marginal

woodland and perhaps some indication of the wider wooded landscape. By comparing these results

with those from the pollen analysis, it is envisaged that changes or trends in how the local woodland

was utilised from the Bronze Age to the medieval period may be highlighted. The wood analysis

would also serve to identify if woodland management or a selection process was employed at the site

by studying the size (diameter), age ranges and growth ring patterns of the material.


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3. SAMPLING STRATEGY

3.1 On‐site strategy

A comprehensive wood sampling strategy was devised in consultation with a number of

environmental and wood specialists. The sampling strategy was also formulated to accommodate

inevitable project constraints and the seasonal flooding experienced at the site, which made for

difficult working conditions. It was recommended that at least one third (30%) of the exposed wood

assemblage at Site 34 be sampled. This strategy is commonplace on wetland sites that produce a large

number of wooden elements and follows a similar strategy that was employed at Derryville Bog in

Co. Tipperary (Stuijts, 2005) and by the wetland excavations undertaken by the Irish Archaeological

Wetland Unit (IAWU) between1998 to 2005.

On‐site sampling of the wood assemblage from Site 34 was carried out two ways:

1) individual worked wood pieces were recorded and sampled as single entities, each getting a

separate sample and find number. The worked wood sampling strategy evolved during the course of

the excavation. Initially all worked wood elements were sampled but this strategy was subsequently

followed by a representative portion of the worked elements being sampled.

2) bulk wood samples, where each sample contained multiple wood elements, were randomly

sampled from each known structure and recorded as one whole sample, with each sample allocated a

bulk sample number.

Each sample was packed in a peat matrix to aid preservation and appropriately wrapped for ease of

storage and transportation.

3.2 Wood analysis strategy

The sampling procedure used in the analysis of the bulk samples was developed in consultation with

Dr. Tim Holden and Mhairi Hastie of Headland Archaeology Ltd, whereby a representative number

of the bulk wood samples from each sampled structure would undergo species identification and

analysis. It was agreed that where there were several hundred wood elements associated with any

one structure, between 30% and 50% of the assemblage would be studied which would reflect a good

representation of the wood used within each structure. The only exception was from Structure 34505

in Area 2 Cutting G, where a small number of wood elements were sampled on site. As a result all

wood from bulk sample numbers 59 and 60 were identified and analysed. All of the individual wood


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pieces present in Headland Archaeology’s post excavation facility were selected for identification and

analysed for wood working techniques by Lorna O’Donnell.

4. METHODOLOGY

The wood samples were washed and prepared for analysis at the Headland Archaeology Ltd post‐

excavation facility located in the Europa Business Park, Midleton Co. Cork between May 2005 and

October 2005.

The individual worked wood and each wood element from the bulk wood samples were unwrapped,

washed and visually examined for the presence of bark, bubs and any other obvious external features

which would aid identification. The individual worked wood elements were analysed and recorded

separately (Lorna O’Donnell), while the multiple wood fragments from the bulk samples were

categorised according to size (diameter width), colour and texture (knottiness) by Susan Lyons.

Where worked wood was recorded from bulk samples, these were merged with the worked wood

assemblage and analysed for wood working technology.

4.1 Wood identification

Wood species identifications were undertaken in accordance with Section 25 of the National

Monuments Act 1930, as amended by Section 20 of the National Monuments Amendment Act 1994, to

alter an archaeological object. A portion of each wooden element was sawn off to reveal an

unexposed surface. Exposing a fresh surface would rid the wood of any degradation or possible

fungal attack which may hinder species identification. Thin slivers were cut with a razor blade to

obtain the three sectional planes (transverse, radial and tangential sections) necessary for microscopic

wood identification. The thin sections were mounted onto a glass slide with a temporary water

medium and sealed with a cover slip. Identifications were conducted under a transcident light

microscope at magnifications of 40x to 400x where applicable. Wood species identifications were

made using wood keys devised by Franklin and Brazier (1961), Schweingruber (1978) and the

International Association of Wood Anatomists (IAWA) wood identification manuals by Wheeler, Bass

and Gasson (1989).

4.2 Wood size

Each wood piece chosen for analysis was also measured along the cross section (mm) to determine

the size of the element, which would be useful with interpreting if a selection process based on


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physical size was being used at the site. The wood elements were categorised into those that were

identified as timbers (split radially or tangentially), roundwoods and root material. Due to the large

number of roundwood elements from the assemblage, this category was further divided into sub

categories of small roundwoods (<25mm), medium roundwoods (26mm‐60mm) and large

roundwoods (61mm‐100mm). Irregular fragments which did not fit into any of the aforementioned

categories are grouped as miscellaneous.

4.3 Growth ring count & ring width analysis

Where possible each of the wood pieces selected for species identification were also studied for

growth ring count and ring width analysis in order to determine an age profile for the wood and

evidence for possible woodland management, in the form of coppicing. This was undertaken by using

a calibrated stereoscopic microscope.

4.4 Preservation & evidence of decay

The study of wood can also reveal evidence of decay which can help to determine the environmental

conditions to which the various components of the structures had been exposed. Fungi are

responsible for most wood degradation, while bacteria accounts for a limited amount of decay under

specialized conditions.

White rot is when the wood appears white, is very soft and fibrous, while brown rot, where the wood

is brown, causes the wood to become powdery and cracks cubically when dry. These are both

produced by Basidiomycetes (eg toadstools) and are not found in waterlogged conditions or

environments devoid of oxygen, which indicates that the wood was exposed to the air when they

invaded it (Carruthers, 1978). Wood which has been in very wet conditions experience soft rot, which

is when the outer layer of wood becomes very soft. Here the rate of decay is much slower and is

caused by Ascomycetes and Hyphomycetes (eg cup fungi) (Carruthers 1978). Where wood is attacked

by bacteria the cell walls become thin, and in extreme cases give the wood the pliability of plasticine.

This type of decay is also found in very wet anaerobic conditions and usually observed in extremely

old wood (Carruthers, 1978).

In the case of the wood assemblage from Site 34, the majority of the material was in a relatively good

state of preservation, where wood could be easily sectioned for identification. The only evidence for

poor degradation was noted in some of the roundwoods and root material from Structures 34005,

34007, 34015 and 34017 from Area 1, Structure 34507 from Area 2 and Structure 341513 from Area 4.


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The wood recorded here was very soft and in some cases hindered full species identification or ring

counts. This could indicate a degree of soft rot in the material, which would be consistent with the

waterlogged environment from which the wood was subjected to.

4.5 Toolmarks

Toolmark analysis followed methods employed by O’Sullivan (1996), O’Neill (2005) and Coles and

Orme (1985). Facet measurements were taken using calipers. Each piece of wood was also examined

for blade signatures. Worked ends were classified in three different ways; chisel, wedge and pencil

ended. Chisel ends are worked on one side, wedge‐ends worked on both sides and pencil ends are

worked on three sides or more. Facets were recorded in millimeters.

4.5.1 Background to the analysis of worked wood and the tools used

The excavation and publication of wooden trackways and platforms from the Somerset levels have

provided the background to current worked wood analysis (e.g. Orme and Coles, 1983; Coles and

Orme 1985). Other British work includes the wood assemblage from Caldicot, South Wales (Brunning

and O’Sullivan 1997). A considerable amount of woodworking evidence has been published from a

Late Bronze Age platform at Flag Fen in Cambridgeshire (Pryor et al 1986; Taylor and Pryor 1990),

and individual issues such as blade signatures have been addressed in Sands (1997). Recent Irish

work comes from excavations along the Mountdillon trackways (O’Sullivan 1996), Mount Gabriel

mines (Mc Keown 1994), Derryville Bog (O’Neill 2005) and various excavations by the Irish

Archaeological Wetland unit (Maloney 1993a and b; 1995).

By analysing the conversion process, facets and worked ends from Site 34, the woodworking evidence

can be compared to the existing body of data form Irish archaeological sites. Many important changes

occurred from the Bronze Age to the medieval period, such as hafting mechanisms, blade edge

diameters and the evolution of specialist tools. These changes are reflected in the shape of the facets,

and the diversity of timber joinery. For this reason a brief overview of the published corpus of Bronze,

Iron and Medieval woodworking tools is presented below.

Early Bronze Age

The earliest Irish metal axes were made from copper and were flat, trapezoidal axes with thick butts

and straight sides. These developed into thick‐butted axes with a slightly curving edge. The last truly

copper axe had curved sides and thin butts (Burgess 1979). When the technology to make harder

bronze was introduced, the first widespread bronze axes in Ireland were broad and approximately


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triangular in shape, with a shallow crescent shaped cutting edge. Most are flat with thin butts and

some are decorated. Important changes occur with the development of axes when low raised edges

were put on the faces, creating slight flanges and a transverse bevel which appears on the middle of

the axe (O’Sullivan 1996, 313). One of the last axe types in the Early Bronze Age are fairly small, with

straight and more or less parallel sides which curve out abruptly to an expanded crescentic cutting

edge. Butts are usually flat, low hammered flanges are present in many cases, and a median

thickening or ridge often occurs (Harbison, 1969).

Middle Bronze Age

There is a large range of palstaves and flanged axes in the Middle Bronze Age however the cutting

edges remain very similar in terms of width, cross‐section and curvature (Herity and Eogan 1977).

Flanged axes and palstaves are characterised by the height of flanges and nature of the stop. The

flanges and stops introduced increase the weight of the axehead (O’Sullivan 1996).

Late Bronze Age

Possible wood working tools from the Late Bronze Age include socketed axes and gouges, knives and

tanged chisels (Herity and Eogan 1977; O’Sullivan 1996, 321). The weight and the cutting edge width

of socketed axes were smaller than previously. As these flanged, socketed and looped axes and

palstaves were smaller, they probably would not have suited purposes such as tree felling, but would

have been suitable for chopping smaller roundwoods (Edlin 1973; O’Sullivan 1996, 321).

Iron Age

A small number of looped, socketed axeheads and shaft‐hole axeheads are known from Ireland in the

Iron Age (Herity and Eogan 1977). These shaft‐hole axes had a wider cutting edge than the looped

and socketed axes, being up to 9cm in width. Iron Age adzes have also been identified, for example

the small socketed adze from Newgrange, Co. Meath (O’Sullivan 1996, 331). Dedicated chisels also

emerge in the Late Bronze Age (O’Neill 2005, 335).

Medieval period

During the Medieval period, woodworking tools would have consisted of axes, billhooks, adzes,

knives, chisels, saws and augers (Wallace 1982).

4.5.2 Toolmarks from metal woodworking implements


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Metal axes can produce flat, slightly concave or concave facets. The facet junctions are normally clean

or stepped, as the metal can cut far more cleanly through the wood than stone axes. Roundwoods are

cut at quite shallow angles, and are generally not snapped or torn.

5. RESULTS

The results of the wood analysis from Site 34 will be outlined and discussed under a) results of the

wood identifications and analysis and b) results of the worked wood analysis.

Approximately 30% of the wood assemblage from Site 34 was chosen for full identification and

analysis. Of the 22 structures identified at the site, fourteen structures contained a workable number

of wood samples suitable for wood identification and analysis. Eleven wood taxa totalling 2,191

identifications were recorded from structures 34005, 34006, 34007, 34014, 34015, 34017, 34504, 34505,

34507, 341501, 341507, 341509, 341512 and 341513. The majority of the wood samples still had the bark

or traces of still attached, and in some cases, elements from the bulk wood samples were noted as

being knarled and/or knotty. Most of the wood was free of any obvious insect damage and suggests

that the wood used in the construction of these structures may have been chopped down just before

deposition. Approximately 5% of the wood assemblage analysed had insect damage, which may

indicate that some woods were lying exposed or used for other purposes prior to being utilised in the

structures.

5.1 Results of the wood identification and analysis (Fig. 1)

The majority of the wood elements were in a relatively good state of preservation and identifications

could be made to genus level for the most part, i.e. Quercus (oak), Betula (birch), Salix (willow),

Sambucus (elder), Taxus baccata (yew), Cornus (dogwood) and Carpinus (hornbeam). In cases where the

species was considered to be the most likely represented, these included Alnus glutinous (alder/black

alder), Fraxinus excelsior (ash) and Corylus avellana (hazel). The identification of the Pomoideae group

proved more difficult to separate. The pomaceous fruit wood species includes the genera Malus

(apple), Pyrus (pear), Sorbus (rowan or whitebeam) and Crataegus (hawthorn). They are anatomically

very similar and in the absence of bark, buds and leaves cannot be differentiated between each other

very often.


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Alder (Alnus glutinous) was by far the most dominant wood species recorded from the study,

accounting for 72% of the identifiable material. Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) was the second most

significant wood type making up 10% of the assemblage. Almost equal quantities of oak (Quercus sp.)

and willow (Salix sp.) were recorded at 6% each, while just 2% of birch (Betula sp.), and 1% or less of

hazel (Corylus avellana), pomaceous woods (Pomoideae spp.), elder (Sambucus sp.), yew (Taxus baccata),

dogwood (Cornus sp.) and hornbeam (Carpinus sp.) were identified. The preservation quality of some

wood fragments hindered further identification in some cases and this material was labelled as

indeterminate wood (wood indet.) and accounted for 2% of the analysed material.

72%

2%<1%

<1%

2%6%

6%

10%

<1%1%

<1% <1%

Alder

Ash

Willow

Oak

Birch

Hazel

Pomaceous spp

Elder

Dogwood

Yew

Hornbeam

Wood Indet72%

2%<1%

<1%

2%6%

6%

10%

<1%1%

<1% <1%

Alder

Ash

Willow

Oak

Birch

Hazel

Pomaceous spp

Elder

Dogwood

Yew

Hornbeam

Wood Indet

Fig. 1 Percentage of wood species identified from Site 34

5.2 Wood size (Fig. 2)

The majority of the wood analysed from Site 34 was made up of small roundwoods (<25mm diameter

width), which accounted for 48% of the assemblage. Medium roundwoods (26mm‐60mm) made up

14% of the assemblage, while just 5% of the wood analysed was categorised as larger roundwoods

(61mm‐100mm). Split timbers and root material each accounted for just 3% of the assemblage. Up to


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27% of the wood samples were noted as irregular fragments and therefore categorised as

miscellaneous wood. While all the miscellaneous wood fragments underwent wood species

identification, they were deemed unsuitable for growth ring count analysis or ring width analysis and

will therefore not be included in these sections. Structures 34006, 34007, 34014, 34017, 34504 and

341512 contained the majority of the small and medium roundwoods recorded, while the only

structures to contain a notable number of larger roundwoods and timbers were Structures 34007,

34015, 34505 and 341507.

Fig. 2 Percentage of the general wood sizes recorded from Site 34

5.3 Ring count analysis (Fig. 3)

Where possible, the number of growth rings was recorded from each of the roundwood elements. A

total of 1518 roundwoods were sectioned and the growth rings counted. The majority of the analysed

wood elements (51%) were aged to between 11 and 20 years, with 40% of the assemblage aged to

between 1 and 10 years. More mature trees were recorded in much lesser numbers, where 6% were

aged to between 21 and 30 years with just 3% accounting for elements aged over 30 years.

3% 5%

14%

48%

3%

27%

Timbers

Lrg rwds

Med rwds

Sm rwds

Root

Misc

3% 5%

14%

48%

3%

27%

Timbers

Lrg rwds

Med rwds

Sm rwds

Root

Misc


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40%

51%

6% 3%

1‐10 yrs

11‐20 yrs

21‐30 yrs

30+ yrs

40%

51%

6% 3%

1‐10 yrs

11‐20 yrs

21‐30 yrs

30+ yrs

Fig. 3 Age profiles of wood recorded from Site 34

6. CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD SPECIES

Alnus glutinous L. Gärtner (alder or black alder)

Alder is usually found growing close to running water, rivers or in damp woodland, in the latter

often with oak (Orme and Coles, 1985; Rackham, 1995). In marshland alder grows as a shrub

frequently mixed with willow and alder buckthorn to form alder carr (Cutler and Gale, 2000). It can

also grow well in and on fen peat. Germination and early growth of alders requires a constant supply

of water, however once the tree reaches maturity its root system makes the tree less dependent on

high water levels (Stuijts, 2005). Alders commonly produce root nodules which contain nitrogen‐

fixing bacteria, known as Schinzia alni which enables alder to enrich soils through its fallen leaves

hence allowing the tree to survive in poorer soil conditions (Milner cited in Culter and Gale, 2000; van

der Meiden cited in Stuijts, 2005). In suitable conditions alder growth is fast, usually reaching a height

of 25m with a maximum girth of 1m and can grow to an age of sixty to one hundred years (Strotelder

cited in Stuijts, 2005). While alder makes for poor fuel, it produces good quality charcoal (Edlin, 1951).

The wood can quickly turn a reddish colour after cutting and once dry it is water resistant and does

not split easily. Once in a waterlogged state, alder is very durable and is often used in the

construction of underwater bridge piles, houses and scaffolding (Culter and Gale, 2000). Alder is

traditionally used in the making of smaller objects such as bowls, handles and broomsticks and its

bark can be used in the tanning of leather (Rackham, 1980).


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Fraxinus excelsior L. (ash)

Ash is a wood that thrives well on nutrient‐rich soils but is also a common woodland species and

grows in mixed woodland with oak on damp, slightly acidic soils (Gale & Culter, 2000). It generally

avoids very wet environments although where soils are mineral‐rich, it can sometimes be found in

marginal forests and on stream beds. While ash is a light‐loving species, the seedlings prefer shaded

areas to grow. It can grow up to 45m in height and can reach an age of 150 years. It produces very

good firewood and its timber is valued for its durability and elasticity and is commonly used in

making furniture, shafts, spears, handles and agricultural equipment. Upon exposure, ash is prone to

rotting.

Pollen analysis indicates that ash became more common in the pollen record from the Neolithic

period onwards (Mitchell, 1953/4). This could be as a result of more clearance due to agricultural

practices at the time, where ash was able to germinate and grow more vigorously as secondary

woodland and in marginal areas and hedges (Kelly, 1976).

Quercus spp. L. (oaks)

Oak is a tall deciduous woodland tree, often growing in association with hazel and ash. Most species

prefer damp, non‐calcareous soils on lowland or montane sites. Of the 27 European species,

pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) and sessile oak (Quercus petraea) are native to Ireland. Pedunculate

oak is common on heavy clay lowland soils whereas sessile oak thrives on the lighter loams

characteristic of higher ground (Culter & Gale, 2000). The two native Irish oaks are usually

distinguished by their acorns: the sessile oak has acorns with no stalks, while the pedunculate oak has

acorns with long stalks (peduncles). Sessile oak can be found on less fertile, acidic soils than the

pedunculate oak. The latter is usually found growing on heavy, lowland soils where it can also

tolerate flooding. Oaks can reach a height of 40 metres and live for 1,000 years or more (Hickie, 2002,

60). It makes excellent firewood. It splits and works well, which combined with durable heartwood

makes it a preferred species for all larger structural timbers.

Salix spp. (willows).

There are a number of different species of willow which cannot be differentiated through wood

anatomy. They grow rapidly, and can be easily propagated from cuttings. General comments only

about the genus can be made, as there are different varieties of it. They are not naturally a woodland

species, although shrubby growth may occur under light woodland cover. All willows appear to

favour wet conditions, and it may be a pioneer species on wet soils. The use of willow depends on the


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species concerned, for some grow as shrubs and others as trees, and a species may be particularly

suited to some purpose. In general, the flexibility of willow shoots has led to coppicing or pollarding

to produce the raw materials for baskets, frames, hurdling etc. (Orme & Coles, 1985). The main Irish

native willows are grey willow (Salix cinera), goat willow (Salix caprea) and eared willow (Salix aurita).

Betula spp. (birches)

Birch was one of the first tress to arrive to Ireland after the end of the last glaciation. It grows as trees

or shrubs with a preference for light and thrives on non‐calcareous soils. It is often associated with

heathland and successional oak woods, but can rapidly form secondary woodland in cleared areas

and on abandoned peat cuttings. Birch species are generally short‐lived, although some examples

have known to reach ages of up to 70 and 80 years. Through most of its woodland history, birch

played a minor role since its timber was too weak for structural purposes and rots easily outdoors

and therefore not greatly valued. Birch wood however, makes a hot but short‐lived fuel and produces

high quality charcoal (Lines cited in Gale & Culter, 2000). It is best suited in the manufacturing of fine

objects, such as furniture, bowls and tool handles. Birch bark has also been used in making shoes and

roofs.

Corylus avellana L. (hazel)

Hazel woodlands replaced birch in the early post‐glacial forests and remains on some shallow

limestone soils to the present day (Pilcher & Hall, 2001). The species can tolerate most soil types, but

not waterlogged conditions and forms a small deciduous tree or shrub. It commonly occurs in the

understorey of oak and/or ash woodlands, where it may grow to a height of 10m or more. In open

areas or woodland glades hazel grows as a shrub. Hazel is a common species recorded from Irish

archaeological sites and its widespread presence is highlighted in pollen diagrams from the Neolithic

to the medieval period (Caseldine, 1996). It produces good firewood and is a suitable wood for

kindling. The wood is soft enough to be split yet flexible and strong enough to be used in rope

making and basketry. It has also proved a useful resource in the construction of hurdles, wattling,

palisades and trackways from prehistoric times (Pilcher & Hall, 2001).

Pomoideae spp. (pomaceous fruit woods)

The pomaceous fruit wood species includes the genera Malus (apple), Pyrus (pear), Sorbus (rowan or

whitebeam) and Crataegus (hawthorn). They are anatomically very similar and in the absence of bark,

buds and leaves cannot be differentiated between each other very often. The pomaceous wood types

are small deciduous spiny trees or shrubs and are common to the scrub margins of woodlands and


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hedgerows (Gale & Culter, 2000). The apple species, often crab apple (Malus sylvertris) in woodlands,

is a light‐demanding tree and is often found in open oak woods. When dry, crab apple makes for

good firewood. While its wood is durable and tough, its crooked trunks and small branches make this

species unsuitable for most construction works and instead it is used in making small implements,

such as tool handles, bodkins and screws.

Pear, grown as wild pear (Pyrus pyraster), is good as fuel. Its wood is hard and fine grained and used

in high‐quality turning and making instruments. Rowan and whitebeam grow well in light soils and

avoids clays and limestone. Their timber is durable yet not of any economic value, since large trees

are scarce. The wood is smooth, fine‐grained and suitable for turnery, household utensils and small

decorative woodwork. Hawthorn is shade‐tolerant and forms understorey in ash and hazel

woodland. Both hawthorn and apple‐type (Malus sp.) produce edible fruits which would have been

gathered as a foodstuff from the prehistoric period (Greig, 1991). These wood types burn slow and

steady and provide excellent heat with minimal smoke (Culter & Gale, 2000).

Sambucus nigra L. (elder)

This is a small tree or shrub of fertile soils in a wide range of habitats, including woodland,

hedgerows, grassland, scrub and waste ground (Preston et al 2002, 597). Elder is normally shrubby, it

can become arborescent with a trunk up to 25m in diameter. It is synathropic, thriving on the

nitrogen‐rich soils associated with human habitation. The trunk wood is extremely hard (Gale &

Cutler, 2000). It burns quickly and with little heat.

Taxus baccata (yew)

Yew has been a component of the Irish native woodland since the post‐glacial period, although not as

prominent as scots pine or the deciduous species of oak, elm, ash, hazel and birch. It grows on many

soil types, usually under the shade of other trees and often as a solitary tree. Its timber is of great

strength and elasticity and resists decay when exposed. It makes for very good firewood and is

traditionally used in the manufacturing of bows, turned domestic objects, furniture and fence posts

(Cutler and Gale 2000). Just four wood elements were identified as yew and confined to Early/Middle

Bronze Age structures 34017 and 341512.

Cornus sp. (dogwood)


15

This shrub can be found in woodlands, scrub and hedgerows, on limestone soils or base rich clays,

sometimes dominant in hedges and scrub on chalk (Preston et al 2002, 422).

Carpinus sp. (hornbeam)

This is a long lived deciduous tree, found in pure and mixed woodland on base‐poor sandy or loamy

clays, or clay‐with‐flints (Preston et al 2002, 135).

7. WOOD RESULTS AND THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL CHRONOLOGY

Of the fifteen structures studied as part of this wood analysis report, eleven dates from the following

structures were obtained from single wood elements by AMS dating:

Early/Middle Bronze Age (EBA/MBA)

Structure 34005: 1680‐1500 cal BC





Later Bronze Age (LBA)


Iron Age


Structure 34007: 173 cal BC‐cal AD 4

Structure 34015: 256 cal BC‐cal AD 414

Medieval period

Structure 34504: 1324‐1441 cal AD

Structure 34507: 1316‐1436 cal AD


16

From this point forward it will be these dated structures [34005, 34006, 34007, 34015, 34017, 34504,

34505, 34507, 341501, 341512 and 341514], which will be discussed in relation to the archaeological

chronology recorded at the site.

7.1 Early/Middle Bronze Age period

Five structures were dated to the Early/Middle Bronze Age [34005, 34017, 341501, 341512 and 341514].

The structures were primarily constructed of alder, with much lesser evidence for ash, willow and

birch (Fig 4). Oak, hazel and dogwood were only recorded from Structure 34005 and this seems to be

the most substantial structure dating to this period. The only evidence for yew was recorded from

Structures 34017 and 341512. Structures 34017 and 341501 contained very few wood elements (<100

elements each) and therefore may not be a viable assemblage from which to draw any interpretations

from. It is possible that these structures are more scatters of wood which may

be a) the remnants of an existing structure, b) have been deposited to facilitate the maintenance or

repair of an existing structure or c) may represent the dislodged remains of another structure.

Fig. 4 Distribution of wood species from Early/Middle Bronze Age dated structures

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

34005 34017 341501 341512 341514Structures

No. of wood pieces

Alder

Ash

Willow

Birch

Oak

Hazel

Dogwood

Yew

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

34005 34017 341501 341512 341514Structures

No. of wood pieces

Alder

Ash

Willow

Birch

Oak

Hazel

Dogwood

Yew


17

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

34006 34007 34015

Structures

No. of wood pieces Alder

Ash

Willow

Oak

Hazel

Pomaceous

Elder

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

34006 34007 34015

Structures


Ash

Willow

Oak

Hazel

Pomaceous

Elder

7.2 Later Bronze Age period

Structure 34505 was dated to the early later Bronze Age period and represents the only structure to

date to this period. All woods were recorded as brushwood elements. Just forty five wood samples

were identified from one bulk sample associated with 34505 and as a result very little can be

postulated about this particular feature. Alder, oak and ash were recorded from here, but with values

of less than twenty for each species, it is difficult to ascertain the composition of wood species used in

constructing this feature or indeed how this reflects on the local woodland during this period. Once

again it is possible that 34505 represents the remains of a once larger structure, or may be a scatter of

wood deposited for repair, or as part of a foundational layer.

7.3 Iron Age period

Three structures were dated to the Iron Age [34006, 34007 and 34015]. Alder is the dominant wood

species identified within these structures, however there is obviously more ash and willow recorded

from this assemblage (Fig. 5). Oak too is present, but values for hazel still remains low. The slight

emphasis on more ash and willow here may just reflect the nature of the wood composition in this

structure rather than an increase in the use of these wood types or a change in local woodland

resources during the Iron Age. The use of alder, ash and oak together in more notable quantities may

also reflect the construction of more durable structures in the Iron Age period. All three species are

renowned for their timber strength and sustainability when deposited in waterlogged conditions.


18

Fig. 5 Distribution of wood species from Iron Age dated structures

7.4 Medieval period

The structures dating to the medieval period [34505 and 34507] were predominantly constructed of

alder, while less than 10 identifications of ash, willow, birch, pomaceous fruit woods and hornbeam

were also recorded (Fig 6). Structure 34504 was possibly the more substantial structure since it

contained almost 600 wooden elements. The majority of the wood was brushwood, with

approximately 15 timbers identified as oak from Structure 34504.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

34504 34507Structures

No. of wood pieces

Alder

Ash

Willow

Birch

Oak

Pomaceous

Dogwood

Wood indet

Hornbeam

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

34504 34507Structures

No. of wood pieces

Alder

Ash

Willow

Birch

Oak

Pomaceous

Dogwood

Wood indet

Hornbeam

Fig. 6 Distribution of wood species from Medieval dated structures


19

7.5 Overview of the wood assemblage from the Bronze Age to the medieval period

The wood species identified from the structures associated with each of these time frames are

presented in Fig. 7 and help to highlight the composition of wood types that were present from the

Bronze Age to the medieval dated structures.

Alder is the dominant wood species recorded at Site 34 from the Early Bronze Age to the medieval

period, while values for all other wood species identified from the assemblage were recorded in much

lower incidences. Accounting for just 220 identifications, ash is the second most used wood at the site

during the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age and Iron Age periods. Since the ash counts from the

Late Bronze Age structure 34505 were based on such a small number of wood identifications, it may

be too ambitious to discuss the low incidences of this species here. During the medieval period

however, the use of ash has noticeably declined at the site.

Oak has been a popular choice of wood used in construction from the prehistoric period, but plays

but a minor role in the construction of the structures at Site 34. Oak values, while low, remain

relatively consistent from the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age to the Late Bronze Age and

into the Iron Age. A slight rise in the use of oak is evident during the medieval dated phase at the site

and it becomes the second to alder in the construction of these features.

While values for willow are also low throughout the construction phases at the site, it too remains

consistent during the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age, Iron Age and medieval periods. The use

of birch at the site is noted during the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age phase of the site, but fails

to make an appearance in the structures again until the medieval phase of construction and at that is

not used in the same capacity as in the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age phase. Birch is not

favoured for the structural quality of its wood and may have proved useful elsewhere.

The scrubby wood species of the pomaceous woods are absent from the earlier construction phases at

the site and instead make an appearance in the Iron Age and medieval dated structures along with

dogwood and hornbeam. Similarly, elder is recorded in the Iron Age structures only, but was not in

use beyond this. In later prehistoric periods, pomaceous woods are more prevalent in the landscape,

perhaps as a result of more opening up of larger areas of land or the fencing off of certain areas

(Stuijts, 2003/4, 20).


20

An interesting observation is the low values for hazel at the site during all four phases of

construction. Hazel is identified in very low numbers from the Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age

dated structures and again in the Iron Age structures, but fails to become a prominent wood species

used in these construction phases. Although not a water tolerant species, hazel is a hardy shrub that is

quick to colonise marginal areas, growing close to oak and ash especially in areas exposed to light.

Traditionally it is the wood of choice for making brushwood or hurdles and would have been most

suitable in the construction of the structures recorded at Site 34.

Fig. 7 Wood species identified from dated structures

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

600

650

700

750

800

EBA/MBA LBA Iron Age Medieval

Periods


Ash

Willow

Oak

Birch

Hazel

Pomaceous spp

Dogwood

Elder

Hornbeam

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

600

650

700

750

800


Periods


Ash

Willow

Oak

Birch

Hazel

Pomaceous spp

Dogwood

Elder

Hornbeam


21

While there are slight shifts in some woods used in the structures at Site 34, the composition of the

wood species generally stays relatively uniform from period to period and suggests that the local

vegetation did not alter too much during this time. The similarity of wood results from each structure

in each phase indicates that the local woodland was primarily used in the construction of these

features. The use of alder at the site certainly highlights that this species was growing in plentiful

supply in and around the site and as such would have been frequently exploited. Since all categories

of woods (timbers, large, medium and small roundwoods and roots) were represented by alder, it

reaffirms the availability of this wood species in and around the site as all parts of the tree were

potentially used in constructing or maintaining the structures at the site.

The measurements taken from the diameter of the roundwood samples revealed that smaller

roundwood material (<25mm diameter) was commonly used in the construction of the structures

specifically from the Early/ Middle Bronze Age and in particularly the medieval period. This would

support the on‐site interpretation of brushwood elements being commonplace at the site and as Fig. 8

below shows, very little in the way of larger roundwoods or timbers being present within these

structures. Based on the wood size alone, if a selection process was in place to collect woods of a

certain size, then perhaps the people constructing these structures were in need of small but compact

and durable wooden structures to allow for easy access or increase stability across pockets of wetter

areas of the site that would have become more waterlogged during times of flash flooding.

Fig. 8 Wood sizes identified from dated structures

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

EBA/MBA LBA Iron Age MedievalPeriods

No. of wood counts Timbers

Lrg rwds

Med rwds

Sm rwds

Root

Misc

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

EBA/MBA LBA Iron Age MedievalPeriods

No. of wood counts Timbers

Lrg rwds

Med rwds

Sm rwds

Root

Misc


22

A degree of organisation and effort would have been needed if larger roundwoods and timbers were

used at the site. These elements would need to have been felled, perhaps stripped of branches and

twigs and, if timbers, split and possibly worked around the edges. Perhaps then the present of bark

from the many of the samples analysed and little in the way of smoothing out the wood surface

suggests that very little preparation was used in dressing the wood for use in such structures. Where

timbers of oak and ash and larger roundwoods of alder, ash, oak and willow are used, it is possible

that they were brought to the site for other constructive purposes and re‐used in the structures

themselves from time to time.

8. WORKED WOOD ANALYSIS

8.1 Individual structures

Early/Middle Bronze Age

[34005]

This structure was roughly linear, and mainly made of brushwood, secured by upright posts and

stakes. The material was primarily composed of alder, followed by ash and birch. Hazel, willow oak

and dogwood were also identified. Three end types were recorded, the main one was chisel, followed

by wedge and pencil, all cut at very shallow angles. The largest facet was 55m long and 50mm wide.

An ash pencil ended stake from here was blunted at one end, showing where it was hammered into

the ground.

[34017]

This was a small arrangement of stakes. Alder, ash and yew were present. Three worked pieces only

were recorded, with mixed end types, the largest facet was flat measuring 40mm wide, 53mm long

and blunted at one end, showing where it was hammered into the ground.

[341512]

This was either a small trackway or platform. It was dominated by alder with some pomaceous

fruitwood, ash, oak and yew. The end types were wedge and chisel. Flat facets were present, the

largest of which was 60mm wide and 75mm long.


23

Later Bronze Age

[34505]

This was made from upright vertical posts and pegs, brushwood and lesser amounts of larger

roundwood elements. Alder, oak and ash were mainly used for construction, although hazel, willow

and pomaceous fruitwood were also identified. The predominant end type was chisel, all cut at

shallow angles. Facets were flat, the largest of which was 35mm wide and 76mm long.

Iron Age

[34006]

This was rough platform or dump, composed mainly of brushwood with some larger roundwoods.

Alder, ash and willow were the main woods used for this structure. The worked ends were chisel,

and two flat facets were recorded, the largest of which was 25mm wide and 35mm long.

[34007]

This was a north/south running liner arrangement of brushwood and roundwoods. A number of

individual worked pieces were recorded from here and comprised of alder, oak and pomaceous

fruitwood. The pieces were pencil, chisel and wedge ended. Cutting angles were shallow. Flat and

slightly concave facets were recorded, the largest of which was 62mm wide and 71mm long. Willow,

ash, oak, elder and hazel were also identified from here.

[34015]

This structure was defined as a spread of brushwood. Alder, ash, oak, pomaceous fruitwood and

willow were identified from here. No worked ends were evident. Worked wood was composed of

mainly half split ashes and oaks. A radially cleft ash with a rectangular shaped notch was excavated

from here.

Medieval

[34504]

This was the main part of a continuous linear spread of brushwood. It has been dated to the medieval

period. Alder was the main component, while other wood such as oak, pomaceous fruitwood,

willow, ash, dogwood and birch were also used. A high number of chisel ended pieces (46) were

recorded from this structure, with a small percentage of wedge and pencil ends. Facets were


24

predominantly flat, the largest of which was 71 x 62mm. A large rectangular shaped jam curve was

lifted from an oak roundwood, which was 83mm in width.

[34507]

This structure was mostly composed of brushwood branches laid parallel and adjacent to each other.

Again, alder was the dominant wood selected, with lesser amounts of hazel, willow and pomaceous

fruitwood. The worked ends were mainly chisel, cut at shallow angles. Three flat facets were

recorded, the largest of which was 50mm long and 48mm wide.

Undated

[34014]

This was a linear arrangement of brushwood and roundwood. A large amount of worked wood was

analysed from here. Alder, willow and ash were the main wood types identified. Hazel, yew,

pomaceous fruitwood and oak were also present. The roundwoods were mainly chisel ended, with

flat facets. Nineteen facets were recorded, the largest of which was 36mm wide and 75mm long. An

alder half split with a notch was identified.

[34519]

This was located underneath structure [34505] and may be part of its substructure. Alder was the

main wood used, with some hazel. A variety of facet types were recorded, these were concave,

slightly concave and flat. Some of these were quite long, one being 82mm long by 21mm in width.

One of the wood pieces from this structure has been dated to the Early Bronze Age.

[341501]

Alder, hazel and ash were identified from here. Worked ends were wedge, pencil and chisel. Facets

ranged in length from 93 to 37mm. Concave, slightly concave and flat facets were evident. An

interesting aspect of this site was an alder roundwood log (34W4595), which had a very well

preserved concave shaped void profile of an axe preserved in it. It was difficult to measure this

accurately however the base of the axe would have been at least 79mm in width. A positive silicone

gel mould will be made of this, which will provide details of the width of the axe blade.


25


26

8.2 Worked ends

Three types of worked ends were represented in the Site 34 material, these were chisel, wedge and

pencil ends. The main roundwood species used was alder. This can be chopped cleanly, the bark does

not strip or tear but there is a tendency for the roundwood to split (Orme and Coles 1985, 32). The

predominant end type was clearly chisel (Fig. 9) which may be a reflection of the diameters of the

roundwoods, which tended to range between 11 and 55mm. It appears that it was simply unnecessary

to chop many of the roundwoods more than once to fell them, and demonstrates the efficiency of the

axe blades. The cutting angles of the material were all very similar, tending to be very shallow (0‐20°)

and shallow (20‐40°). This strongly suggests the use of metal axes, with sharp blades, which could cut

the wood fibres at acute angles (O’Sullivan 1996, 314). The similar cutting angles were dispersed

throughout Areas 1, 2 and 4, an indication that metal axes were used across the site.

When the end types were plotted against the diameter, pieces of smaller diameter tended to be cut on

one side, while pencil and wedge ends were used throughout (Fig. 10). In the Derryville bog

excavations, a simple but definite pattern emerged, that of wedge ends displacing chisel‐ends as the

predominant type, with a concurrent increase in diameters. Pencil ends would then displace wedge

ends for large diameters (O’Neill 2005, 333). Split and axed ends as evidenced in the Neolithic period

from the Mountdillon trackways (O’Sullivan 1996) were totally absent in the Site 34 material, which

suggests that splitting techniques were no longer necessary and that larger trees could now be felled

exclusively by means of an axe.

020406080

100120140160180

chisel wedge pencil

end type

amt.

of p

iece

s

020406080

100120140160180

chisel wedge pencil

end type

amt.

of p

iece

s

Fig. 9 Total worked ends from Site 34


27

F

i

g

Fig. 10 End types and diameters from Site 34

8.3 Jam curves

These occur when the blade gets jammed in the wood and had to be withdrawn, effectively leaving a

clear imprint of the axe blade. It is the most effective method for accurately recording blade

dimensions. Jam curves were recorded from six structures in Site 34; 34504, 34519, 34005 and 34017

from Area 2 and 341501 and 341512 from Area 4 (Fig. 11). Three of the structures with clear jam

curves were dated‐ Structures 34519 and 341501 were dated to the Early Bronze Age, while Structure

34504 yielded a medieval date.

Broad jam curves were recorded from the Early Bronze Age structures, reflecting wide, convex edged

blades. The jam curves from 34W3026 (Structure 34519) and 34W4602 (Structure 341501) were both

very similar in dimensions and curve profile, broad and widely curved, 58mm and 68mm in width

respectively. However, in contrast to this, from Structure 34519, two tightly curved jam curves were

lifted from 34W3029 and 34W3019, of dimensions 23 and 30mm in width. While some of the larger

jam curves are comparable within the Early Bronze Age material, clearly different axes were used on

the same structure.

The Medieval axe mark was extremely different to those from the earlier periods. This jam curve was

83mm in width, and was very rectangular shaped, with a straight cutting edge (34W3524, Structure

0

5

10

15

20

25

1-5 11-15

21-25

31-35

41-45

51-55

61-65

71-75

81-85

91-95

diameter (mm)

amt.

of p

iece

s

chisel

pencil

w edge

0

5

10

15

20

25

1-5 11-15

21-25

31-35

41-45

51-55

61-65

71-75

81-85

91-95

diameter (mm)

amt.

of p

iece

s

chisel

pencil

w edge


28

34504). This straight edge was very different to the curved edges of the earlier material. It was

obviously a heavy axe, capable of cutting deeply into oak heartwood (Plate 1).

Similar jam curves were also identified from the same structure, for example from 341512 in Area 4,

where four broad, convex shaped jam curves were recorded (ca. 60mm in length).

Therefore, distinctly different axe shapes can be discerned from the jam curves. Some of the curves

showed the use of broad, heavy blades with curved edges, for example in Structure 341512. In

contrast, smaller, more tightly curved convex edged blades were recorded from Structure 34519. A

flat, broad, almost rectangular edged blade with almost straight cutting edges was used on Structure

34504 (Fig. 7).

9

10

11

Plate 1. Rectangular edged jam curve from 34W3524


29

12

13 Fig. 11 Jam curves from Site 34

14


30

15

Fig. 11 Jam curves from Site 34 (cont’d) 16


31

8.4 Facets

In all events, one should measure the most complete facet (O’Sullivan 1996) but when working with

roundwoods as small as 20mm in diameter, the full facet will not always be preserved. This is why

the comparability of the larger facets probably reflects more accurately the dimensions of the axes

used to fell and shape the trees. The facet junction, where the blade has not gone straight through the

wood but has come out across a previous facet (Coles and Orme 1985, 27) was clean or stepped in all

cases, which suggests the use of metal axes . Stone axes tend to leave ‘ragged’ facet junctions, as they

are not as capable of cutting the wood cleanly as metal axes. Facets were recorded from fifty six pieces

of wood from Site 34. The predominant profile from the site was clearly flat (Fig. 12), although

slightly concave and concave were also represented. The facet dimensions can be seen in Fig. 13. The

facet study from Site 34 demonstrated that metal axes with blade widths of at least 62mm were used

to chop the wood. The various features of a facet can be seen in Fig. 14.

05

101520253035404550

flat slightly concave concave

Facet profile

amt.

of s

ampl

es

05

101520253035404550

flat slightly concave concave

Facet profile

amt.

of s

ampl

es

Fig. 12 Total facet characters from Site 34


32

0102030405060708090

100

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

length (mm)

wid

th (m

m)

0102030405060708090

100

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

length (mm)

wid

th (m

m)

Fig. 13 Total facet dimensions from Site 34

Fig. 14 Features of a facet (After Sands 1997, 12)


33

8.5 Toolmarks and the archaeological chronology

Worked wood was examined from Early/Middle Bronze Age structures [34005, 34017 and 341512],

Later Bronze Age [34505], Iron Age [34006, 34007 and 34015] and from the Medieval period [34504,

34507]. The main end types present during all periods is chisel (Fig. 15), which probably reflects the

limited diameter of the material (Fig. 10). In comparison the character of the facets are mainly flat

throughout the different time periods (Fig. 16). The Early/Middle Bronze Age facet widths cluster

mainly between 27 and 45mm, although there is one example at 60mm (Fig. 17). The Late Bronze Age

facets are slightly smaller, clustering mainly between 20 and 34mm in width. The Iron Age facets

range from 27 to 62mm in width, while the medieval facets are widely spread, from 22 to 71mm in

size.

There are no statistical criteria established for dating structures from their toolmarks, indeed two of

the major Irish publications (O’Sullivan 1996; O’Neill 2005) which address this issue had quite

different results. Bronze Age sequences from the Mountdillon trackways exhibited mainly flat facets,

with a small proportion being concave and slightly concave (O’Sullivan 1996). In contrast, in the

Lisheen Mine excavations, the Early and Middle Bronze Age facets were concave, with a variation in

the depth of the concavity. In the Late Bronze Age, profiles were also concave, although facets were

generally smaller and the concavity more pronounced. On structures from the end of the seventh

century, the profile changed to being dished, with a wide flat base and very short, curved sides. On

structures dating from around 460‐450BC the profiles were very flat. This also includes the Medieval

structures (O’Neill 2005). On Iron Age structures at the Mountdillon bogs, the facets were always flat,

with very distinct or clean facet junctions. There is some variance in the size of the facets from

different time periods, for example O’Sullivan (1996) found that the Early Bronze Age ones were

slightly wider than later Bronze Age, and that Iron Age facets were longer. The results from Site 34

show that flat facets predominated on the site from the Early/Middle Bronze Age through to the

medieval period.


34

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Early/MiddleBronze Age

Late Bronze Age Iron Age Medieval

time period

amt.

of s

ampl

es

chisel

w edge

pencil

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14


Late Bronze Age Iron Age Medieval

time period

amt.

of s

ampl

es

chisel

w edge

pencil

Fig. 15 Worked ends per time period

Fig. 16 Facet profiles per time period

0

1

2

34

5

6

7

8


Late BronzeAge

Iron Age Medieval

time period

amt.

of s

ampl

es

f lat

slightlyconcave

0

1

2

34

5

6

7

8


Late BronzeAge

Iron Age Medieval

time period

amt.

of s

ampl

es

f lat

slightlyconcave


35

Fig. 17 Facet dimensions per time period

8.6 Differences in spit levels

It was considered whether differences in the wood composition would be noted between the different

spit levels in structures. Due to the nature of the environment, it may be possible that different

structures were repaired, reused or relocated, and sometimes due to adverse excavation conditions,

this may not have become immediately apparent. Therefore, the spit results within structures will be

compared. This is not applicable to the individual worked wood samples, as it was not generally

recorded which spit they were from, but it is applicable to the bulk sample results. As a result of the

study, some differences were noted between spit levels in the same structure. In Structure 34005, Spits

2 & 3 and Spit 4 are dominated by roots, whereas in Spit 1 the wood pieces were between 10‐35mm.

In Structure 34007, there are more worked pieces in Spit 5 than in Spit 1 and 2. Willow was also

identified in Spit 5, while it is not present in Spit 1. In Structure 34015, there are distinctly larger

timbers and a greater variety of species in Spit 2 than in Spit 1. In Structure 34507, there are more

worked pieces in Spit 1 than in Spit 3 and 5. Therefore, it does appear that there are some definite

differences, both in species, level of working and dimensions between spits of the same structure.

The most definite of these is in Structure 34007 and Structure 34015. It is likely that the different spit

levels in these structures were constructed at different times, or re‐used timbers were used from other

constructions.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

0 20 40 60 80 100

length (mm)

wid

th (m

m)

Early MiddleBronze AgeLate Bronze Age

Iron Age

Medieval

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

0 20 40 60 80 100

length (mm)

wid

th (m

m)

Early MiddleBronze AgeLate Bronze Age

Iron Age

Medieval


36

It was possible that some of the structures were related to each other, particularly Structures 34015

and 34006 in Area 1 (Wilkins 2005). While the wood types used in the two structures was similar,

most worked wood from Structure 34006 were chisel ends with flat facets, while no worked ends or

facets were recorded from Structure 34015, any worked wood was in the form of radially split

ash. Therefore, there is no worked wood evidence to link the two structures. The excavator noted that

many of the structures in Area 1 may be related to each other. Based on the worked wood and species

analysis, this is a very real possibility, as similar results were found from many of the structures.


37

8.7 Analysis of signatures

Facet marks may record the individual details of a tools edge. Points of damage on a blade, such as a

break or a bend, can be registered on the wood surface as either a ridge or groove running down the

long axis of the facet produced. The sequence of ridges or grooves created can act like a signature for the

use of that particular tool. When the same sequence is found on toolmarks from different timbers, then

those timbers may be associated through the single tool used in their working (Sands 1997, 6).

As the majority of the wood from Site 34 was in very good condition and mainly composed of alder, it

posed a good basis for a signature study. It is more likely that signatures would survive on alder

roundwoods as opposed to harder trees such as oak. Every piece of wood that had a preserved

signature, however faint, was noted and put aside for further analysis.

Thirty‐one pieces were identified in this manner, primarily roundwoods. All of the wood was laid out

together in natural light. The majority of the pieces had depressed, in some cases rather faint lines,

caused by a bulge on the axe blade (Plate 2). Approximately 4 to 5 pieces had a raised groove, caused

by a nick in the axe blade. The signatures were grouped together based on the six point scale

developed by Sands (1997, 19). This basically helps group the signatures together by common

patterns. A number of observations were made. 34W4502, Area 4 Structure 341512 had three chop

marks, with a distinctive raised ridge. 34W008, Structure 34005, Area 1 also had a very distinctive

Plate 2 Blade signature on 34W047


38

raised ridge. There was a positive match of signatures from Structure 34504 [Area 2, Spit 1, Bulk

Sample number 62], between

three pieces. There was also a positive match between two pieces from Structure 34507 [Spit 5, Bulk

Sample number 53].

This work shows that the same axe was used on two different wood pieces in Structure 34504, and on

Structure 34507. The use of the same axe on the same structure is not in itself surprising, and it would

have been more rewarding to link separate structures through signatures, but this was not possible.

The fact that thirty‐one separate signatures were identified does not necessarily man that this amount

of separate axes were used, it just indicates thirty‐one separate episodes of use.

When metal and stone axes were sharpened before use in experimental work from the Somerset

levels, various irregularities were noted on the blades, which would lead to signatures. By the end of

the work, when many hundred blows had been delivered to each tool, almost all of the signatures

were smoothed out (Orme and Coles 1985, 30). This suggests that only a matter of days, if not hours

passed between the creation of imperfections on the axe blade, and their eradication through work.

This contrasts by work from Derryville, where O’Neill (2005) found the same signature on wood cut

in the summer and winter. Could this suggest that the wood was felled in its relevant seasons, but

worked at the one time?


39

8.8 Tree felling

One of the elements (34W4001) (Plate 3) from Area 2 showed excellent evidence of felling techniques.

This oak trunk had been felled at least 40cm above the ground. The tree was felled in quite a specific

manner, mainly to control the direction that it would fall in. Two opposing notches were used. A

steeply angled notch was cut deep into one side of the trunk, across the pitch, in the direction of

where it was to fall. Another notch was then cut higher up into the opposing side of the trunk. The

trunk was then axed the whole way through before it fell, as there is no surviving fibrous ridge

remaining where the tree fell over. The oak itself was very fast growing, and extremely knotty,

showing that it had a lot of branches trimmed off. It is not the ideal choice when prospecting, as the

felled roundwood would have been difficult to split, due the fact that the knots would interfere with

the cleaving process. However, its rate of fast growth may be what made it desirable, as fast grown

oak is more dense and useful than slow grown (Damian Goodburn, pers comm.). The felling and

presumably use of such a knotty, oak log indicates that (a) there wasn’t a high availability of straight

grown oak trees in the vicinity and (b) the tree grew in fairly optimum conditions, i.e. in an open,

non‐woodland, with space to branch out.

Plate 3 Felled oak log 34W001


40

8.9 Cleft timbers

The majority of the wood remains from Site 34 were in the form of roundwoods. However, some of

the alder, oak, ash and willow stakes and planks were converted radially, tangentially and half‐ split

(Fig. 18). Converting wood radially takes advantage of the natural planes of weakness of the wood.

These splitting techniques could have been achieved using heavy mallets, wooden or bone wedges as

well as axes (Fig. 19). Seasoned oak chips could have been used as wedges. Radials can be produced

by splitting a trunk in quarters, and then by splitting “slices” off each quarter. In experimental work

oak has been shown to split easily and cleanly (Orme & Coles, 1983). The side branches, which

contained knots showing where the branches would have been, were cleaned off.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

half split radial tangential

conversion process

amt.

of s

ampl

es

Fig. 18 Conversion processes from Site 34


41

Fig. 19 Cleft timbers; tangential, radial and half‐split (After O’Sullivan 1996, 305).

8.10 Woodcarving and fine woodworking

One chisel ended piece, 34W1057 was split on one side, and hollowed out. Its minimum and

maximum external diameters were 30 and 42mm, while the internal diameters were 20 and 28mm. It

is unclear how this piece was hollowed out, as there were no chisel marks present. It is likely that it

was half the remains of a hollowed out pipe, which would have joined at the sides. It had striations

inside which were similar to the Charlesland pipes, a probable Early Bronze Age musical instrument

(O’Donnell 2004).


42

8.11 Notched or holed timbers

Two of the elements (34W1595 and 34W2010) (Plate 4) had rectangular to semi‐circular notches

carved out of them. 34W1595 was a half‐split alder piece, and its notch was 65 x 30mm. 34W2010 was

a radially cleft, fast grown ash. The remains of the notch measured 95mm x 160mm. The plank was

insect ridden; probably indicating that it was exposed for a time before use. Both of the pieces were

excavated from Area 1, 34W1595 from Structure 34014 and 34W2010 was from Structure 34015. The

notches did not serve any function within the structures (Mick Drumm, pers. comm.), so they must

have been re‐used from other structures. The notches were quite rectangular in plan, similar to those

identified from the Middle and Later Bronze Age levels of the Mountdillon trackways (O’Sullivan

1996). The notches in both cases were cut at right angles to the grain. They were either the remains of

full mortices and some of the timber broke away, or they were intentionally carved into half‐ notches.

Plate 4 Notched ash piece (34W2010)


43

9. AGE PROFILE OF THE TIMBERS/WOODLAND MANAGEMENT

Woodmanship involves the management of woodlands for the production of timber, firewood and

rods for assorted uses (Tierney 1998). Evidence of this type of management in Ireland has been found

from the Early Bronze Age in Lisheen (Stuijts 2005). Coppicing is a traditional method of woodland

management, where young stems are cut down to a low level, or sometimes right down to the

ground. In subsequent growth years, many new shoots will grow up, and after a number of years the

cycle begins again and the coppiced tree or stool is ready to be harvested again. When let grow for

some years, the sucker or shoot produces a long pole, which is straighter and better for working than

naturally grown trees which have bends and forks. Frequently there may be remains of heels, i.e. the

join between the stump or stool and the rod. When trees are coppiced, often their first one to three

rings are fast, probably as a result of increased space for growth. Subsequent extreme regularity in the

growth ring pattern is another indicator of the uniform conditions of coppiced growth. Pollarding is

similar to coppicing, but the trunk is cut some 2 to 3m above the ground to prevent browsing

(Moloney 1993a). The main tree species identified from Site 34 was alder, which is suitable for

coppicing, and can be cut about every ten years in the winter. Where possible, the age of each piece

was counted. When the results were plotted (Fig. 20), it is clear that there is a very distinct peak in

ages between 6‐10 and 11‐15 years old, in fact over 87% of the aged alder roundwoods fall into this

category.

050

100150

200250300

350400

450500

0-5

6-10

11-15

16-20

21-25

26-30

31-35

36-40

41-45

46-50

51-55

years

amt.

of p

iece

s

alder

ash

hazel

pomaceous

birch

w illow

oak

Fig. 20 Age profiles of the main wood taxa from Site 34


44

Most of the material from Site 34 can be classified as brushwood, i.e. less than 60mm in diameter

(Moloney 1993a). Therefore, one may expect the wood to have fairly low ages. However, when the

ages of the material are compared to the diameters of the bulk samples, age appears to be the

discriminatory factor, i.e. there are pieces of ten to fifteen years that measure up to seventy mm in

diameter. There is a general trend that larger pieces tend to be older, but in all, it seems that most of

the alder selected for construction at Site 34 was based more on age than on size. The concentration of

wood between 5 and 15 years of age, combined with the regular spread may indicate a managed as

opposed to natural situation. Some of the alder pieces also showed evidence of probable coppiced

heels (Plate 5).

Plate 5 Probable coppiced alder heels from Site 34

Where the age patterns of the material were grouped according to time period, the majority of the

brushwood elements were commonly recorded from the structures dating to the medieval period (Fig

21). During the Medieval period, it appears that there was a good supply of young roundwoods

growing in the vicinity of the site.


45

Fig. 21 Age profiles of wood identified from dated structures

10. COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE WOOD AND POLLEN RECORD

Since a pollen record was established for Site 34, this offered a unique opportunity for the wood and

pollen results to be compared and to establish any trends or changes that may have occurred in the

local woodland. It is important to mention however that pollen dispersal is a natural occurrence that

is dependent on wind, water or insects for transportation, while wood recorded from archaeological

sites, as at Site 34, represents a bias selection of materials brought to a site by human activity. It is also

important to note that certain species such as willow and crab apple are insect‐pollinated and

therefore can be under‐represented in the pollen rain, while species such as alder and hazel are wind

pollinated and can be over‐represented in the pollen record so this should be taken into account when

comparing both results.

On the pollen diagram, Units III to IV correspond with the Bronze Age wooden structures. Oak with

a probable understory of hazel was present throughout this time. This contrasts with the wood

results, where the values for oak are consistently low. Betula pubescens (hairy/downy birch) was also

identified. It is not possible to discriminate between the two species of birch (hairy and silver)

through wood anatomy, but the pollen indicates that it may represent the downy variety. Alder and

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450


Periods

No. of wood counts

1‐10 yrs

11‐20 yrs

21‐30 yrs

30+ yrs


46

willow were also important during this time, and may signify an alder‐ sedge carr woodland as

indicated in the pollen results (Timpany 2006, 11).

The Iron Age structures are represented in the pollen diagram by Units VI to VII. At this stage there is

a significant decline in oak, followed by hazel and alder declines. They recover towards the end of the

zone. Carr – woodland dominated by alder, with birch and willow are still present (Timpany 2006,

13). The wood identifications from the Iron Age are dominated by alder, followed by ash. In general,

the pollen and wood remains correlate well as both point to the presence of alder carr woodland.

11. DISCUSSION

The estuarine setting of Site 34 facilitated the growth alder carr. A variety of primarily native Irish

species were also used to construct the trackways, platforms and structures across the

alluvial/estuarine wetland. The main wood used was alder, which would have been freely available

in the surrounding environment.

Alder also has the added advantage of resisting decay in a wet environment almost indefinitely, a

property which would have made it very suitable and long lasting in the wetland environment of Site

34. One of the premise of wood analysis from archaeological sites is the theory that structural wood

and firewood will probably be gathered from as near to the site as possible, for convenience. The

weight and density of large trees would have prohibited them being carried long distances, and there

is no need to go further to gather firewood, presuming there is suitable material in the vicinity.

Therefore, it is most likely that the people building the brushwood trackways and platforms at Site 34

had easy access to alder forest or carr. The people building their trackways and platforms at Site 34,

Newrath didn’t feel it necessary to bring wood in from the nearby marginal and dryland areas, which

the pollen evidence shows had ample oak and hazel growing.

The smaller roundwood nature of the material from Site 34 indicates that larger, well built trackways

or platforms were simply not necessary to go across the estuarine area. This may have some reflection

on the use of the site if animals were being herded across the area then more substantial plank built

trackways would be necessary, while the more insubstantial structures at the site were more likely for

human use. The estuarine area would have provided resources, such as fish, birds, tubers, reeds for

weaving, sedges which could be used for bedding etc.


47

Where bark was present on the roundwoods, in a number of cases it was noted that the pieces had a

full outer ring. This means they were cut at the end of the growth season, in winter or early spring.

This was probably the season when the greatest need was for platforms or trackways, for example

when the water‐table would be high and the area liable to flooding. Interestingly, while under

excavation, the area completely flooded in winter 2004.

Much of the wood was also quite crudely prepared, with bark still present and some of the material

was knarled or twisted. This could signify that little was done to dress the wood for construction of

these structures and perhaps they were viewed as necessary but temporary features which only

served a short‐term practical purpose. The relatively haphazard nature of the construction also

indicates that it

was simply unnecessary to carefully lay down carefully built, dressed trackways, of the calibre found

at Mountdillon (Raftery 1996) , that dumps of alder brushwood would suffice perfectly well.

The dynamic landscape in which the site was situated would have inevitably been unpredictable

from time to time and so maybe these wooden structures needed to be of a more make‐shift design.

This too may explain the use of brushwood elements within the structures, where there would have

been low‐level felling and gathering involved. The tool mark evidence is dominated by worked ends,

indicating the alder roundwoods were probably simply chopped down where they grew.

Alder is frequently used for building in wetland settings. This is presumably because of easy access

due to its common presence in the local environment. Another lactustrine site at Clowanstown, Co.

Meath contained wood from Mesolithic and Neolithic levels dominated by alder, followed by hazel,

while the charcoal results were dominated by hazel (O’Donnell 2008). At a probable Late Bronze Age

fulacht fiadh trough at Coonagh West, Co. Limerick, alder was gathered from the surrounding area, as

it would have grown well in the wetland area which surrounded the site. These trees grew in a

natural situation, and were between thirty and sixty years old. Growth was slow, indicating marginal

conditions (O’Donnell 2005). At Inchagreenoge, Co. Limerick, wood from an Early Bronze Age fulacht

fiadh was identified as mainly alder, with some hazel and ash also recorded (Taylor 2007, 281‐284).

At Derryville bog, Co. Tipperary hazel, followed by alder, ash and willow was the most commonly

used wood on archaeological sites. The marginal forest was composed primarily of alder (Stuijts


48

2005). At the Mountdillon trackway, Co. Longford, again hazel dominated the brushwood and lighter

woods, while oak was the main species for larger split timbers (Moloney 1996). In comparison, at the

Mount Gabriel mines, Co. Cork, hazel again was the dominant species, followed by oak (Mc Keown

1994). At Clonfinlough, Co. Offaly ash was the dominant species (Moloney et al 1993b), while in the

Blackwater survey, Co. Mayo, birch, followed by ash and hazel were the dominant wood types

(Moloney et al 1995).

At a Late Bronze Age fulacht fiadh at Cahiracon, Co. Clare, oak was used to line the trough, while

alder, hazel and holly stakes were used to peg it into position (Dennehy 2007, 188‐189).

The high values for alder from the estuarine site at Site 34 highlights the key difference between

alluvial and bog land archaeological results. Few trees will generally grow in raised bogs, with the

exception of trees such as birch and yew. Therefore, trees are generally brought in from the nearby

marginal woodlands for construction (for example Stuijts 2005). In the estuarine site of Site 34, and

similarly at Clowanstown, people used the trees which were growing naturally on the lake edge, in

each case alder, for building.

There was no evidence for stone axes being used anywhere on the site. Across the three areas, the

worked end type was typically chisel, cut at shallow or very shallow angles. The size of most of the

roundwoods (typically smaller than 60mm in diameter) probably influenced this worked end pattern.

Flat facets with clean or stepped junctions predominate, demonstrating that axes with a blade width

of at least 60mm were used in all areas, the size of which does not vary greatly between areas. Jam

curves demonstrated that during the Early Bronze Age, tools with tightly curved blades of widths

from 23 30mm were used, along with broader curved convex shaped blades of up to 68mm in width.

However, a jam curve recorded from the medieval contexts was markedly different, it was longer

(83mm), and more rectangular shaped. The study of signatures from various wood pieces showed

that there were at least thirty one episodes of tool use, with some very distinct signatures. Signatures

were positively matched between roundwoods from Structures 34507 and 34504. Split planks were

quite rare, but were generally radial or half‐splits. The remains of notched holes or possible mortices

were identified from two split pieces. Most of the alder roundwoods were between five and fifteen

years old, which, coupled with even growth rates indicates that some form of management was

probably being practiced in the area.


49

Adzing was not recorded from the Site 34 material. This is sometimes a difficult toolmark to

recognize, and as the whole point of adzing is to finish the timber, as generally a skilled adze person

will leave no marks. Good examples of adzing an oak plank have been found by the author from a

fulacht fiadh site in Clare (Dennehy 2007) and also by O’Sullivan at the Iron Age trackway site of

Corlea 1, Co. Longford (1996). There is also no evidence for sawing from the Site 34 material. The first

conclusive evidence for the use of a saw in Dublin comes from Dublin Castle excavations, from the

16th century, where the marks were found on timber framed house‐beams. Evidence for sawing

includes a distinctive type of tool mark of closely parallel, straight ridges across the width of the

timber (O’Sullivan, 2000).

In the worked wood from the Mountdillon trackways, O’Sullivan (1996) examined wood from

Neolithic through to Iron Age contexts. He realized that the Neolithic facets were characterised by

relatively narrow, short concave shaped facets, with ragged facet junctions. The dominant end type

was wedge, while split and split‐and‐axed ends were also common. Cutting angles tended to be

shallow. When axe marks from the Early Bronze Age were compared to the Neolithic results, it

became apparent that the facets were broader and longer, with clean junctions. The cutting angles

were reduced on the worked ends, and split and split‐and‐axed ends disappeared from the

archaeological record. In their place, chisel and wedge ends were the main end type. These were also

the predominant end type in the Middle and Later Bronze Age, and minimum cutting angles were

also similar. During the Middle and Late Bronze Age, facets tended to be typically flat and of medium

size, less wide than the Early Bronze Age examples. Planks with mortices were used in the Late

Bronze Age. During the Iron Age, the facets tended to be longer and thinner, with an almost complete

dominance of very shallow cutting angles. The worked ends were typically chisel or wedge ends

(O’Sullivan 1996).

The wood from Site 34 compares to that of the Mountdillon trackways in a number of ways. The most

common end types in the Bronze Age/Iron Age material was chisel, followed by wedge, although

there is more of a definite bias towards chisel ends in the Site 34 material than in the Mountdillon

trackways. All facets from metal toolmarks had clean or stepped junctions. While the dimensions of

the Site 34 Early Bronze Age facets and the jam curves are very similar to those from the Mountdillon

trackways, the facet profile is not predominantly flat as it is during that time period at Mountdillon.

In the Site 34 Iron Age wood, the facets are mainly, flat, similar to those from the Iron Age material in

Mountdillon. However, while some of the Iron Age facets from Site 34 were as long as those from


50

Iron Age worked ends in Mountdillon, many were not. Comparative results were encountered by

Sands, in his analysis of Iron Age toolmarks from the Oakbank Crannóg excavations. Here he found

that the facets appeared to be generally shorter than those established for Iron Age material by

O’Sullivan, but longer than those characterised by the Middle to Bronze Age in his work (Sands 1997).

Interestingly, the jam curve from the medieval structure in Site 34 (34504) was very comparable to

those from an Iron Age structure at Derraghan More (O’Sullivan 1996).

12. SUMMARY

The structures recorded at Site 34 were composed mainly of alder roundwoods, which could have

been chopped easily at the lakes edge, and would have survived well in a waterlogged environment.

Alder was the main tree used from all time periods identified on the site. Pollen results indicate that

during the Bronze Age and Iron Age, an alder‐sedge carr was present near the site, which correlates

well with the wood results. The wood is dominated by roundwoods, with a focus on young stems of

limited diameter, between 20mm and 50mm. The roundwoods were predominantly chisel ended,

with shallow to very shallow cutting angles. This, coupled with the clean or stepped facet junctions,

indicates that metal axes were used on all the timbers examined. When the material between different

areas and structures were compared, the results were very similar, with chisel ended, flat facetted

alder roundwoods used frequently. Jam curves lifted from Early Bronze Age and medieval dated

wood demonstrated different cutting edges. The Bronze Age axes tended to have broad, convex edges

or smaller tightly curved ones, while the Medieval jam curve showed the use of an axe which had a

wider blade, and was more rectangular. A pattern was noted within the Early Bronze Age material, of

mixed facet profiles and end types, compared to the Iron Age and Medieval material, which tended to

have flat facets and chisel ends. Few of the timbers were split, but when they were the main

converting processes were half‐split and radially. When comparisons were made between signatures

from different pieces of wood, they were both from the same structure. The age profile of the alder

roundwoods was concentrated between five and fifteen years, there was also evidence of coppiced

heels within the material. Most of the material examined was cut at the end of the growth season, in

winter or early spring. This may have been a time of increased wetness on the site and therefore a

greater need to build such structures across these alluvial sediments.


51

13. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks to Dr. Tim Holden and Mhairi Hastie of Headland Archaeology Ltd for their thoughts and

advice on the sampling strategies and to Dr. Scott Timpany for his help with interpreting the

palaeoenvironmental results from the site. Thanks also to Brendon Wilkins and Mick Drumm for their

help with the on‐site interpretations of the material and finally a special thanks to Clodagh Carroll,

Ian Dorgan and Noirín Gleeson who helped with the post‐excavation works.


52

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