MSD - 17, (E), BL - 4 FINAL...SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi UNIT WRITERS Unit 1...
Transcript of MSD - 17, (E), BL - 4 FINAL...SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi UNIT WRITERS Unit 1...
MSD-017Challenges to Sustainable
Development
THREATS
UNIT 1
Land Degradation 5
UNIT 2
Desertification 21
UNIT 3
Disasters 41
UNIT 4
Biopiracy 56
Block
4
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
School of Interdisciplinary and
Trans-disciplinary Studies
PROGRAMME DESIGN COMMITTEE
ADVISORS
Prof. V. N. Rajasekharan Pillai Prof. M.S. Swaminathan Dr. (Mrs.) Latha Pillai
Former Vice-Chancellor Honorary Chair, Chair for Former Pro-Vice Chancellor
IGNOU, New Delhi Sustainable Development and Executive Director, CSD
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
EXPERTS
Prof. P.C. Kesavan Dr. A.K. Shiva Kumar Prof. M.K. Salooja
Emeritus Professor Advisor, UNICEF CSD & SOA
CSD, IGNOU, New Delhi New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. P.S. Ramakrishnan Dr. Swarna S. Vepa Prof. K.S. Rao
JNU, New Delhi Madras School of Economics Dept. of Botany
Chennai University of Delhi
Dr. P. A. Azeez
Sálim Ali Center for Ornithology and Dr. Nehal A. Farooque Dr. Subhakanta Mohapatra
Natural History (SACON) SOEDS, IGNOU SOS, IGNOU
Coimbatore New Delhi New Delhi
Dr. Tanushree Bhattacharaya Dr. Bibhu Prasad Nayak Dr. Anjan Prusty
Institute of Science and Technology The Energy Research Institute Sálim Ali Center for
for Advance Studies and Research New Delhi Ornithology and Natural
(ISTAR), Gujarat History (SACON), Coimbatore
Dr. Jagdamba Prasad Dr. Oinam Hemlata Devi Dr. Narendra Kumar Sahoo,
ARD, Regional Service Division School of Human Ecology Civil Engineering Department
IGNOU Ambedkar University Maharishi Markandeshwar
New Delhi University, Ambala
Dr. Naresh Chandra Sahu Dr. Y. S. Chandra Khuman
Department of Humanities, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Social Sciences, and Management
Indian Institute of Technology
Bhubaneswar, Odisha
PROGRAMME CO-ORDINATOR
Dr. Y. S. Chandra Khuman
SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi
COURSE EDITOR COURSE CO-ORDINATOR BLOCK CO-ORDINATOR
Prof. P.C. Kesavan Dr. Y. S. Chandra Khuman Dr. Y.S. Chandra Khuman
Chair for Sustainable Development SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi
FORMAT EDITOR
Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Dr. Y. S. Chandra Khuman
SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi
UNIT WRITERS
Unit 1 Land Degradation :
Unit 2 Desertification :
Unit 3 Disasters :
Unit 4 Biopiracy :
PRINT PRODUCTION
Sh. S. Burman Sh. Y.N. Sharma Sh. Sudhir Kumar
DR(P), MPDD AR(P), MPDD SO(P), MPDD
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
April, 2017
Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2017
ISBN-978-93-86607-20-1
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means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
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http://www.ignou.ac.in
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Dr. Anjan Prusty & Ms. Rachna Chandra, SACON
Dr. Anjan Prusty & Ms. Rachna Chandra, SACON
Dr. Reena Singh, University of Cologne, Germany
Dr. Anjan Prusty & Ms. Rachna Chandra, SACON
BLOCK 4 INTRODUCTION
The major objective of block 4 is to study the threats. It has four units. Unit 1
describes the concept and causes of land degradation, impacts of land degradation,
scale and magnitude of the problem in India. It also highlights the existing and
proposed responses by the different departments of Govt. of India to stop further
land degradation. In unit 2 Desertification, factors responsible for desertification
and approaches in combating desertification has been discussed. In unit 3 an
attempt has been made to understand natural and man-made disasters, their effects
and the components of disaster management has been explained. Also the
strategies for disaster reduction, preparedness and resilience building for working
of a sustainable system are detailed. Unit 4 discusses various aspects of biothreats,
invasive alien species, its threat to India’s biodiversity and sustainable
development. The unit also discusses biological weapons, their ecological impacts
and the importance of Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL).
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Threats
5
Land Degradation
UNIT 1 LAND DEGRADATION
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 The Concept of Land Degradation
1.3 Causes of Land Degradation
1.4 Pressures
1.4.1 Direct Pressures
1.4.2 Indirect Pressures
1.5 Problems and Impacts of Land Degradation
1.6 Magnitude of the Problem in India and Some Examples
1.7 Responses, Policy Gaps and Recommendations
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Key Words
1.10 References and Suggested Further Readings
1.11 Key to Check Your Progress
1.0 INTRODUCTION
India supports approximately 16% of the world’s human population and 20% of
the world’s livestock population on merely 2.5% of the world’s geographical
area. The steady growth of human as well as livestock population, the widespread
incidence of poverty, and the current phase of economic and trade liberalization
are exerting heavy pressure on India’s limited land resources for competing uses
in forestry, agriculture, pastures, human settlements and industries. This has led
to significant land degradation. Among the different categories, the lands that
face degradation include: grazing land and pastures, forests, barren lands, and
uncultivable lands. Land being a shrinking resource, the detrimental consequences
of diverting fertile agricultural land for non-farming purposes would adversely
affect sustainable development. The negative effects of land degradation are taking
a heavy toll on India’s environment and economy, which are causes of serious
concern.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• explain the concept and causes of land degradation;
• describe different types of land degradation: direct and indirect or underlying
pressures;
• analyze the impacts of land degradation, scale and magnitude of the problem
in India; and
• highlight existing and proposed responses by the different departments of
Govt. of India to stop further land degradation.
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Threats1.2 THE CONCEPT OF LAND DEGRADATION
Land degradation refers to an appreciable loss of productivity of land. The process
of lowering of the current and/or potential capability of land to produce goods or
ecological services is known as land degradation. The lowering of land capability
may be both quantitative and/or qualitative in nature. The rate of this process
may be 1) slow and continuous, or 2) short-lived between various states of
ecological equilibrium. Although the terms land degradation and soil degradation
is synonymous, the difference between them is mostly of academic interest. Soil
is an integral part of land, hence, any deterioration quantitatively or qualitatively
(in its quality, mass or volume, either singly or in combination), is also a
deterioration of land. Soil degradation refers to removal/erosion of the top most
layer of the land. This top soil contains organic matter and beneficial organisms
which contribute to soil health. The term soil degradation is more specific and is
directly related to agro productivity and is preferably used among researchers
from agriculture discipline as compared to the more comprehensive term land
degradation.
1.3 CAUSES OF LAND DEGRADATION
On a global basis, among the several factors causing land degradation, four major
ones have been identified by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO):
deforestation, overgrazing, agriculture and industries with corresponding
contribution of 34.5%, 36.2%, 28.1% and 1.2%, respectively. Some more specific
causes and effects are given below:
• Mining, industrial and urban development causes deforestation and leads to
the exposure of the land to wind and rains causing soil erosion. Some of the
major effects of soil erosion are wasteland formation, floods, landslides
and ground subsidence.
• Industrial and modern agricultural practices (use of chemical fertilizers,
pesticides, weedicides, etc.) release toxic substances, which contaminate
soils by changing the chemical properties of the soil and kill all
microorganisms. There is always a consequential loss in fertility of soil,
and in due course groundwater recharge is impeded. Toxic soils result in
contamination of ground water, which has further environmental and health
implications.
1.4 PRESSURES
Land in India suffers from varying degrees and the types of degradation stems
mainly from unsustainable and inappropriate management practices. Loss of
vegetation occurs due to deforestation, cutting beyond the silviculturally
permissible limit, unsustainable fuel wood and fodder extraction, shifting
cultivation, encroachment into forest lands, forest fires and over grazing all of
which subject the land to degradation forces. Other important factors responsible
for large-scale degradation are the extension of cultivation to lands of low potential
or high natural hazards, non-adoption of adequate soil conservation measures,
improper crop rotation, indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals such as fertilizers
and pesticides, improper planning and management of irrigation systems and
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Land Degradationextraction of ground water in excess of the recharge capacity. In addition, there
are a few underlying or indirect pressures such as land shortage, short-term or
insecure land tenancy, open access resource, economic status and poverty of the
agriculture dependent people, which are also instrumental to a significant extent,
in the degradation of the land. Land degradation manifest itself chiefly in the
form of water erosion, followed by wind erosion, biophysical, and chemical
deterioration.
1.4.1 Direct Pressures
• Deforestation is both, a type of degradation by itself, and a cause for other
types of degradation, principally, water erosion. Deforestation causes
degradation primarily, when the land cleared is steeply sloping, or has shallow
or easily erodible soils; and secondly, where the clearance is not followed
by good land management. Between 1980 and 1990, forests were depleted
at the rate of about 0.34 mha annually while; afforestation efforts covered
about 1.0 mha annually (MoEF 1999). Forests in India have also been
shrinking owing to pressures from user groups.
• Impoverishment of the natural woody cover of trees and shrubs is a major
factor responsible for wind and water erosion, which occurs because the
per capita forest land in the country is only 0.08 ha against the requirement
of 0.47 ha to meet basic needs, creating excessive pressure on forest lands.
This gap has resulted in impermissible levels of timber, firewood, and fodder
extraction from the forests. The demand for commercial timber comes from
industries including pulp and paper, plywood, packaging, housing,
matchwood, sports goods, furniture, agricultural implements and railway-
coaches (FSI 1987). The total demand for timber, including small timber,
was estimated at 64.4 million cum for 1996 with a growth rate of 5% per
annum (FSI 1995).
• Although, officially, extraction from the forests is organized so as to maintain
a sustainable yield yet, in practice, the extraction far exceeds the limit
resulting in a rapid depletion of forest stock. According to the State of Forest
Report (FSI 1987), against the demand of more than 27 million cubic metre,
the permissible felling of timber was only 12 million cubic metre creating
an excess felling of about 15 million cubic metre over the permissible limit
with a consequent loss of vegetative cover so essential for the health of the
land.
• Firewood extraction from forests has been exceeding the silviculturally
permissible limit resulting in a rapid depletion of the forests. Extraction of
wood from forests for fuel is believed to be one of the most important causes
of forest degradation in India. Fuelwood consumption was estimated at 260
million cubic metre in 1997 as against the sustainable supply of 52.6 million
cubic metre and has grown at a rate of about 2.4% per annum between 1980
and 1994 (Pachauri and Sridharan, 1998). This has been happening especially
in the semi-arid and arid environments of India where fuelwood shortages
are often severe and recurrent.
• A livestock population of 467 million grazes on 11 mha of pastures. This
implies an average of 42 animals grazing in a hectare of land against the
threshold level of 5 animals per hectare (Sahay, 2000). In the absence of
adequate grazing land, nearly a third of the fodder requirement is met from
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Threats forests in the form of grazing and cut fodder for stall-feeding (MoEF, 1999).
An estimated 100 million cow units graze in forests against a sustainable
level of 31 million per annum. A sample survey by the FSI estimates that
the impact of grazing affects approximately 78% of India’s forests.
Overgrazing and over extraction of green fodder, both lead to forest and
land degradation through a loss of vegetation and physical deterioration in
the form of compaction and reduced infiltration, and increase in soil
erodibility.
• Shifting cultivation is traditionally practiced in 13 states of the country and
more extensively in the northeastern hill states, Orissa and the Eastern Ghats
on an estimated forest area of about 4.35 mha. This contributes significantly
towards forestland degradation. With the progressive reduction in the land
to population ratio, the fallow period between cultivations has fallen from
30 years to about 2 to 3 years. This in turn does not permit the natural
processes of recuperation to repair the disturbed ecosystem resulting in
erosion and a decline of soil fertility.
• An estimated 0.7 mha of forestlands are encroached upon for agriculture by
the people who live in their vicinity, such lands are mostly of a marginal
nature, susceptible to degradation. The occurrence of frequent forest fires
has been a major cause of degradation of forestland in many parts of India.
Apart from the destruction of vegetation, high intensity forest fires alter the
physico-chemical and biological properties of the surface soil and leave the
land prone to erosion and with a lowering of soil quality.
• The extension of cultivation to land of lower potential and fertility, with
greater natural degradation hazards such as steep slopes areas of shallow or
sandy soils, or with laterite crusts, arid or semi-arid land bordering to deserts,
which are called fragile or marginal lands, in many parts of the country has
resulted in their degradation. The use of agrochemicals has become essential
for modern agriculture, but they, together with sewage sludge and composted
municipal wastes are used improperly and indiscriminately, leading to the
contamination of soil and water with toxic substances and heavy metals.
This problem is widespread over the country although there is no exact
estimate of the area affected.
• The expansion of canal irrigation has been associated with widespread water-
logging and salinity problems in command areas. Disturbances of the
hydrological equilibrium resulting from excessive recharge because of
inefficient use of irrigation water, poor land development, seepage from
unlined water courses, non-conjunctive use of surface and ground water
resources and poor drainage have all resulted in a rise of the water table in
most canal command areas. In regions, where the water table approaches
the surface, waterlogging occurs, associated with salinisation and/or
sodification. Such phenomena have occurred on a large scale in several
parts of canal command areas such as the Indo-Gangetic plains and the
Indira Gandhi Nahar Project. In arid, semi-arid and sub-humid tracts of the
country, large areas have been rendered barren due to the development of
saline-sodic soils because of unhealthy land management in respect of
irrigation, drainage and crop husbandry. An estimated 11 mha of land has
thus, been affected by varying degrees of salinity and sodicity in different
parts of the country.
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Land Degradation• An increase in industrialization, urbanization and infrastructural development
is progressively taking away considerable areas of land from agriculture,
forestry, grasslands and pastures, and unused lands with wild vegetation,
resulting in environmental disturbances. Regional plans do not build in
environmental components to provide zones for the above compatible with
surrounding land uses. This process has resulted in the degradation of land
directly through changed land use and also through the negative impacts of
waste disposal.
• Land degradation is the inevitable result of any form of mining, particularly
opencast mining, which thoroughly disturbs the physical, chemical, and
biological features of the soil and alters the socio-economic features of the
area. Although there are no data available for the area actually affected by
mining and quarrying, mining lease area, may be taken as degraded directly
due to mining activities in addition to the areas affected indirectly.
• Water erosion across the country is the major cause of topsoil loss (in 132
mha) and terrain deformation (in 16.4 mha). Wind erosion is dominant in
the western part of the country causing a loss of top soil and terrain
deformation in 13 mha (Sehgal and Abrol 1994). Land management practices
are often not geared to check water erosion on slopes and wind erosion on
level lands of dry regions leading to considerable deterioration. Often, it is
neither the environment nor the type of land use that necessarily leads to
degradation, but the standard of land management.
1.4.2 Indirect or Underlying Pressures
Together with an increase in population land shortage in India has also increased
in the already small per capita agricultural lands. As a result of fragmentation,
the numbers of land holdings has increased from 48 million in 1960 to 105
million in 1990 and is still on a continuous rise. Most holdings (> 75%) are less
than 2 ha (small and marginal). While there is virtually no culturable unused
land in the country, the population to be supported from this finite land resource
is growing fast. The direct and indirect causes of land degradation are linked by
a chain of cause and effect, or the causal nexus. The external or driving forces
are: i) limited land resources, and ii) an increase in rural population. They combine
to produce land shortages, resulting in small farms, low production per person
and increasing landlessness whose consequence in term, is poverty. Land shortage
and poverty, taken together, lead to non-sustainable land management practices,
the direct causes of degradation. This has the effect of increasing land shortage,
a vicious cycle of cause and effect.
1.5 PROBLEMS AND IMPACTS OF LAND
DEGRADATION
The major problems that contribute to soil degradation in India include 1) soil
erosion 2) loss of fertility 3) salinity and alkalinity 4) acidity 5) water logging
and 6) deterioration of soil structure. Akin to these, floods and droughts also
contribute to soil degradation. All the major problems are discussed in the
following paragraphs.
1) Soil Erosion: A process by which top soil is detached from land and either
washed away by water, ice or sea waves or blown away by wind. Several
10
Threats factors, which affect soil erosion, can be listed as a) rainfall b) topography
c) vegetation cover d) tillage e) nature of soil f) soil moisture and g) wind
velocity.
a) Rainfall: The quantum, duration, intensity and frequency of rainfall influence
the soil erosion. By the action of falling rain drops on soil, soil granules are
loosened, detached and separated into fine particles. Erosion is particularly
greater, where the rainfall is not only heavy, but concentrated over short
periods.
b) Topography: The topographical features of a particular site decide the extent
of soil erosion. The slope accelerates erosion as it increases the velocity of
the flowing water.
c) Vegetation: The vegetation cover due to its canopy over the soil surface
protects the soil from beating and dispersing action of raindrops. It also acts
as a mechanical obstruction to flowing water, thus reducing its erosive
potential. Plant roots (i) help in building a better structure and (ii) aid in
opening the soil and thereby accelerating water absorption and reducing
surface runoff.
d) Tillage: Proper tillage is known to improve infiltration and permeability of
the soil and reduce the chances of erosion. However, excess tillage is known
for its damaging effects, i.e. it exposes the soil to erosion especially by
wind.
e) Nature of soil: Both physical and chemical nature of soil such as texture,
structure, organic matter, type and level of salts present and presence of
high water table influence erodability of soil.
f) Soil moisture: This has been one of the important factors which induce soil
erosion, when it is in excess and also during scarce periods. Presence of
high water table checks infiltration and permeability, thus allows more flow
of water on the surface and greater erosion. On the other hand, long
continuous dry periods loosen the soil and make it susceptible to wind
erosion.
g) Wind speed: Wind speed is directly proportional to the intensity of erosion
as stronger winds have greater erosive potential.
Erosion by water and wind
Water and wind are two most important factors causing soil erosion. On the
basis of the type and nature of destruction and or loss of soil from surface by
water there are different types of soil erosion by water; i) splash erosion ii) sheet
erosion iii) rill erosion iv) gully erosion v) slip erosion vi) stream bank erosion
and vii) sea shore erosion. Different types of soil erosion by wind can be listed as
i) saltation ii) suspension and iii) surface creep.
Causes of soil erosion
The causes of soil erosion are directly related to anthropogenic activities such as
improper land use and include the following:
• Deforestation: Removal of vegetation cover causes widespread erosion and
some of the affected areas in India are Western Ghats, Uttar Pradesh and
Himachal Pradesh.
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Land Degradation• Faulty cultivation methods: The opening of land for monoculture plantation
or single crop plantation without undertaking anti-erosion measures like
terracing of slopes result in erosion of land (e.g. cultivation of tuber crops
such as potatoes and ginger in Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu). The resultant landslides
become recurring are frequent events at such places.
• Shifting cultivation: This is otherwise known as slash and burn cultivation.
It is an ecologically destructive and uneconomic cultivation method which
is generally practiced in hilly areas of North-eastern states, Chottanagpur,
Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. Vast areas in north eastern
states have suffered erosion of soil due to this practice.
• Overgrazing: Overgrazing of grasses and fodder plants by surplus livestock
population is a serious threat for maintaining the physical integrity of soil.
It hardens the soil and prevents new shoots from emerging. This has been a
problem in certain stretches of Aravallis, Punjab, Himachal hills, and
Kachchh region of Gujarat.
• Diversion of natural drainage by railway embankments and roads: Contrary
to the proper way of construction, often road and rail embankments come in
the way of natural channels, which causes water logging on one side and
water loss on the other side of embankment, and these in totality contribute
to erosion in one way or the other.
• Improper surface drainage: lack of proper drainage results in water logging
in low lying areas which loosens the top-soil and makes it prone to erosion.
• Forest fire: They are sometimes natural but often man-made. Forest fires
are very destructive and result in loss of forest cover exposing the soil to
erosion.
Effects of soil erosion
Erosion of soil adversely affects the quality of land qualitatively as well as
quantitatively. Some of the prominent effects are listed as below:
• Loss of soil: Different agents of soil erosion often result in loss of top fertile
soil, formed over millions of soil forming processes. Valuable agricultural
lands are lost due to formation of gullies and ravines.
• Organic matter and soil structure: Loss of top soil, as a result of soil erosion,
decreases the content of organic matter as well as other valuable nutrients
and minerals. Loss of organic matter results in impoverishment in soil
structure, as soil organic matter is known to maintain soil structure.
• Soil capacity and productivity: As a result of loss of top soil, both potential
and plant available minerals and nutrients are lost. In due course of time, as
erosion progresses, the soil gets compacted with reduced infiltration capacity,
and hence the ability of land to supply moisture and essential minerals for
plant growth is curtailed. Moreover, microbial activities are also reduced
resulting in lower yield.
• Loss of agricultural lands: Due to wind erosion, arable and fertile lands get
covered by wind borne sand deposits and hence the land becomes unfertile
and crops are damaged.
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Threats • Flood: The increasing frequency of floods in India is largely due to
deforestation in the catchment areas, destruction of surface vegetation,
changes in land-use, increased urbanisation, and other developmental
activities. Processes leading to flooding are becoming more common due
to increased sedimentation and reduced capacity of streams and rivers to
carry large volume of water. The intensity of flood is more or less dependent
on the volume of water to be discharged and extent of siltation due to erosion.
Increased gully erosion and ravine formation result in increased run-off and
peak discharge for any given rainfall from watersheds. Increased
sedimentation in streams, canals and rivers reduces their capacity but
increases their width. Satellite imagery of Himalayan torrent shows that
between 1990 and 1997 the width of torrents has increased by 106% and
that of rivers by 36%. Consequently, streams and rivers overflow their banks,
flooding the downstream areas (e.g. Brahmaputra valley in Assam). Most
of the other rivers in India flowing though large hill tracts are also facing
similar problems.
Figure 1.1: Habitat conversions of forests and grasslands globally
Source: Farming: Habitat conversion & loss http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/footprint/
agriculture/impacts/habitat_loss/
1.6 MAGNITUDE OF THE PROBLEM IN INDIA
AND SOME EXAMPLES
Of India’s total geographical area of 328.73 million hectare (mha), 304.89 mha
comprise the reporting area and 264.5 mha only is under use for agriculture,
forestry, pasture and other biomass production. Since 1970 / 1971, the net area
sown has remained around 140 mha (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation
1992) and was 142.22 mha during 1998/99. Of 328.73 mha, about 187.8 mha
(57% approximately) of land area has been degraded in one way or the other
(Sehgal and Abrol 1994). It appears therefore, that either most of our land is
degraded or is undergoing degradation or is at the risk of getting degraded.
13
Land DegradationAn area of around 80 mha is exposed to the threat of soil erosion in India, while
43 mha is actually affected. Around 15% of the total land suffers from soil erosion
in states like Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Punjab. Soil erosion
results in loss of soil fertility 20 times higher than that due to intensive cropping
systems. In India around 145 mha is in need of conservation measures.
Some examples of Soil erosion in India
• Rajasthan and Gujarat: Wind erosion coupled with loss of surface cover in
Aravalis in Rajasthan and Kachchh region in Gujarat is a prime reason for
desertification, one of the most significant ecological problems in India.
• Low and uncertain rainfall areas: Parts of Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka experience low, ill-distributed and uncertain rainfall;
sometimes highly erosive rains, undulating topography, high wind velocity
and shallow soils.
• Coastal erosion: Soil erosion is also seen in coastal areas, where sand
movement from the coast could be observed. For e.g. Saurashtra region of
Gujarat, where, once flourishing ports are now covered with advancing sand
dunes.
• Gullies or Ravines: Being one of the most destructive types of soil erosion
by water, Gullies or ravines affect nearly 10 mha. These gullies are known
by different names in different regions in India, e.g. “Khars” in Gujarat,
Maharashtra and Karnataka, “Ravines” in MP, UP and Rajasthan along
Yamaha and Shamble, “Kotar lands” in Gujarat, and “Chos” and landslides
in Hoshiarpur in the Shivaliks.
• Nilgiris: Potato cultivation on steep slopes without proper terracing has
caused widespread erosion in Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu.
1.7 RESPONSES, POLICY GAPS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Responses
Reclamation of the nearly 187 mha of existing degraded land in the country and
concurrent efforts to arrest further degradation, as estimated, are of utmost
importance. Combating further land degradation and investing in conservation
of land for the present as well as future generations will be a major task involving
the promotion of sustainable development and nature conservation. This will be
a major challenge in the coming decades that will involve a paradigm shift from
the purely technical to a more holistic sustainable land management system that
will be environmentally responsible, socially beneficial and economically viable.
Existing response
• Watershed management programmes have been taken up extensively in the
recent past. The Soil and Water Conservation Division in the Ministry of
Agriculture has been playing a key role in implementing integrated watershed
management programmes with a plan to cover 86 mha. 26 mha (27 river
valley catchments and 8 in flood prone rivers) are considered highly critical
and have been given a priority under 35 centrally- sponsored projects. Over
30,000 hectares of shifting and semi-stable sand dunes have been treated
with shelter belts and strip cropping (ESCAP, 1995).
14
Threats • The National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (NBSS & LUP)
and the Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute
(CSWCRTI), ICAR, have jointly initiated the preparation of soil erosion
maps of different states using the components of Universal Soil Loss
Equation. A similar assessment needs to be carried out for other degradational
processes also. Akin to these, the All-India Soil and Land Use Survey, MoA,
is engaged in generating spatial and non-spatial information on the soils of
India and preparing thematic maps like land capability classification,
hydrological soil grouping, etc. The state governments have also been
working on various aspects of soil conservation following the guidelines of
the centre.
Policy gaps
Land management has been largely unsystematic, arbitrary and, by no means,
sustainable. So far the country has not implemented a well-defined integrated
land use policy. This lacuna has largely been responsible for the current phase of
land degradation. To make things worse, there is no rural fuelwood as well as
grazing and fodder policy at the national level with the result, that grazing is far
beyond the carrying capacity and extraction of fuel and fodder from forests is
also far beyond the sustainable limits, creating enormous negative impacts on
the forests and land.
Policy recommendations
• A well-defined integrated land use policy should be developed at the earliest
which can be implemented well with active participation of all potential
stakeholders. Rural fuel wood and grazing, and fodder policies can also be
framed and implemented to guide management of land and forest
scientifically and sustainably.
• A National Land Use Commission entrusted with the responsibility of laying
down such policies, implementing strategies and monitoring guidelines with
support from the existing All-India Soil and Land Use Survey, National
Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning and the Forest Survey of
India under the stewardship of the Planning Commission will go a long
way to address most of the land related issues.
• To ensure that land is put under right kind of use guarding against any
deleterious effects, it is imperative that it is put to use according to its
capability. For this purpose, guidance from the USDA Land Capability
Classification with modifications to suit Indian conditions may be taken,
which along with scientifically sound land management practices would
address land degradation problems and maintain land quality for sustainable
use.
• Land management in conjunction with water management needs to be the
core of any agenda for national development as the two resources are
absolutely inter-dependent. As far as possible, land should be managed on a
natural watershed basis as it presents an ideal unit for most effective
management and rational utilisation of land and water resources for optimum
production with minimum hazard to the resources.
• Increasing the utilisation of irrigation potential, promoting water conservation
and efficient water management along with expansion of irrigation facilities,
15
Land Degradationespecially in drought-prone areas, need urgent attention to enhance
production without harming land and soil. To ensure sustainability of
production in rainfed areas, in situ soil and moisture conservation on mini-
watershed basis, irrespective of whether they belong to forest department,
private bodies or local communities, should be a major thrust area for
increasing productivity levels.
• A correct assessment of the nature and extent of the existing degraded land
through a rapid inventory using remote sensing techniques and GIS needs
to be carried out on priority with scientifically sound criteria and indicators
with helps from Soil and Terrain Database (SOTER) and Global Assessment
of Human-induced Soil Degradation (GLASOD). This will enable the
adoption of measures to counter various types of degradation at the right
time and place.
• Ministries or departments such as the MoEF, MoA, MoRD, MoWR, MoM,
MoI, etc., at both the national as well as state level, are involved in land use
in the country. The Land Use Commission should involve them, NGOs and
other stakeholders to develop a coordinated approach for land use and
management and for resolving related cross-cutting issues.
• Policy issues in sustainable land management may include coordination of
land titling, economic policy, nature conservation policy, and population
policy. Therefore, national strategies for sustainable use of land resources
need to thoroughly harmonise, adapt, and integrate the different strategies
and policies of governments, which are directly or indirectly linked to the
use of land by stakeholders.
• Soil nutrient mining results in serious soil health and ecological problems,
which needs urgent attention. Integrated Plant Nutrient System (IPNS), have
to be adopted to improve fertiliser use efficiency and reduce the potential
danger of pollution from higher nutrient use in agriculture.
• A systematic monitoring mechanism needs to be developed to assess the
balance between input and withdrawal of nutrients to guard against possible
nutrient depletion (Sarkar et al. 1991). Also, there is a need to define the
threshold values for such additions and for promoting a balance with use of
organic manure, chemical fertilisers, bio-fertilisers and agrochemicals to
ensure sustainability and increased production.
• Domestic and municipal wastes, sludges, pesticides, industrial wastes, etc.
need to be used with utmost care to avoid the possibility of pollution of soil
through heavy metals and other toxic substances.
• Shifting cultivation with a short fallow cycle does not allow enough time
for the land to recuperate naturally and is responsible for large-scale (about
4.5 mha) land degradation in several parts of the country. The practice, a
socio-economic outlet, needs to be discouraged and alternatives to the people
engaged in the practice need to be provided in a phased manner for their
livelihood.
• Limited land resources and an increase in rural population, both produce
land shortages through fragmentation of holdings resulting in small farms,
low production per person and increase in landlessness, which leads to
poverty. Land shortages and poverty further lead to non-sustainable land
16
Threats management practices, one of the important causes and effect nexuses of
land degradation. The major challenge in the agriculture sector is to check
the fragmentation of land holdings, which can be achieved by: providing
security of land rights and land tenure; encouraging the efficient use of
marginal lands; developing areas of untapped potential thereby correcting
uneven utilisation of land; and using the irrigation potential efficiently. A
tenure regime should be clear, flexible and secure.
• Implementation of land-related policies is a complex and sensitive task. It
would require government as well as non-governmental sectors such as
communities, private bodies to come to a common platform. Additionally,
the steps, mechanisms and institutional structures for policy implementation
need to be drafted along with a detailed action plan clearly designating
responsibilities and taking into consideration the intrinsic character of land,
the concerned user groups and future possibilities.
• Improvements in sustainable land use and development impinge on the
interests of all stakeholders: both individuals and groups. Therefore, a multi-
level stakeholder approach for the planning process is essential to obtain
socially balanced results in which the economic and ecological objectives
are both given due weightage. All stakeholders such as farmers/
conservationists, owners/ tenants, individuals/communities as well as
administrators, planners, governments, etc. should participate in problem
analysis, express and evaluate their needs, interests and aims, and then
negotiate for options and priorities of action. This approach implies
democratic and, to some extent, formalised procedures, but which are based
on a sound information foundation that includes data on the properties of
the land, the land uses and their functions in the recovery of the ecosystem.
In a multi-stakeholder approach, three principles must converge: good land
husbandry, sustainable land use, and an enabling institutional environment.
Technology transfer and training needs for farmers, especially women, small
and marginal farmers and other disadvantaged sections of rural society are
of paramount importance.
• Failure of land-users and community leaders to recognise or to be educated
about the causes, urgency, seriousness, and full consequences of degradation
often works against any measures to counter degradation. In this context,
the negotiated participatory approach needs to be adopted to mitigate some
of these adverse effects.
• An increase in industrialisation, urbanisation, mining and infrastructure
development is taking away considerable areas of land from agriculture,
forestry, grassland, pasture, etc. resulting in environmental disturbances. To
harmonise such developmental activities and make them compatible with
surrounding land use and guard against any form of land degradation, an
Area-wide Environment Quality Management (AEQM) approach needs to
be adopted.
• The agricultural extension system of the country needs revamping to make
it more efficient and far-reaching and the lab-to-land concept needs to be
translated to practice so that multidisciplinary technical information, viable
land use options and alternatives identified for various agro-ecological and
socio-economic units and crop combinations and crop rotations suitable for
17
Land Degradationthem, as suggested by the ICAR, can be advanced to the land users for more
vigorous and effective land management results.
• Education, training, research, and technology development would enable to
focus on analysing and adapting conditions and principles for sustainable
land use as well as resource conservation technologies and practices.
Research institutes should look for ways of working closely with land users
and communities.
• Informal and formal institutions and organisations – from farmer groups,
local NGOs and communities to ministries, government policies, and
legislations can be sustained, only if they are accepted and supported by
their respective populations. This means that local knowledge systems, norms
and values, must be respected. Negotiation processes among all stakeholders,
which must be a part of good governance and administrative management,
can be enhanced by better information and knowledge about land user’s
visions, options and needs with respect to sustainable land management.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1) Explain various causative factors of land degradation.
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2) Explain various pressures on land in India.
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3) Discuss about the major problems that contribute to soil degradation in India.
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18
Threats 4) Provide some examples of soil erosion in India.
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5) Discuss about the existing programmes to contain land degradation.
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1.8 LET US SUM UP
• The steady growth of human as well as livestock population and their
respective demands for competing usage are exerting profound pressure on
India’s limited land resources for challenging uses in forestry, agriculture,
pastures, human settlements and industries. This has led to land degradation.
The lowering of land capability is quantitative and/or qualitative in nature,
wherein lands under cultivation face the major problem followed by grazing
land and pastures, forests, barren lands, and uncultivable lands in decreasing
order.
• The negative effects of land degradation are taking a heavy toll on India’s
environment and economy, which are causes of grave concern.
• Deforestation, overgrazing, agriculture and industries have been identified
as major factors of land degradation by FAO.
• Nevertheless, the role of mining sector, urban and infrastructure development,
and modern agricultural practices in causing land degradation cannot be
ignored.
• The major problems that contribute to soil degradation in India include 1)
soil erosion, 2) loss of fertility, 3) salinity and alkalinity, 4) acidity, 5) water
logging, and 6) deterioration of soil structure. Akin to these, floods, droughts
also contribute to soil degradation.
• Around 80 mha is exposed to the threat of soil erosion in India, while 43
mha is actually affected due to the above mentioned factors. The problem is
experienced in almost all the bio-geographical zones in India due to a variety
of practices and problems, most of which are region specific.
• Though, there are several schemes and programmes such as Integrated
Watershed Management Programmes by the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt.
of India; preparation of soil erosion maps of different states by NBSS &
LUP and CSWCRTI, ICAR.
19
Land Degradation• Nevertheless, there lies several gaps in the existing policies and responses,
and due recommendations have been made to the Govt. of India from time
to time for implementation during five-year plans.
1.9 KEY WORDS
Soil degradation : It refers to removal/erosion of the top most layer of the
land. A process by which top soil is detached from land
and washed away by water, ice or sea waves or blown
away by wind.
Land degradation : It is the inevitable result of any form of mining,
particularly opencast mining, which thoroughly
disturbs the physical, chemical, and biological features
of the soil and alters the socio-economic features of
the area.
1.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER
READINGS
Purohit, S.S., Shammi, Q.J. and Agrawal, A.K. 2007. Environmental Sciences:
A New Approach. Agrobios (India), Jodhpur. 397p.
Purohit, S.S. and Ranjan, R. 2003. Ecology, Environment and Pollution. Agrobios
(India), Jodhpur. 1023p.
Sehgal, J. and Abrol, I.P. 1994. Soil degradation in India: status and impact.
New Delhi: Oxford and IBH. 80p.
Sahay, K.B. 2000. Problem of livestock population. Delhi: The Tribune, 11 April
2000.
MoEF. 1999. National Forestry Action Programme. Ministry of Environment
and Forests, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Vol. I, 79p.
1.11 KEY TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) Your answer must include the following points:
• Deforestation
• Overgrazing
• Agriculture
• Mining
• Industries
2) Your answer must include the following points:
• Human population
• Livestock population
• Deforestation
20
Threats • Firewood extraction
• Shifting cultivation
• Faulty irrigation
3) Your answer must include the following points:
• Soil erosion
• Salinity & alkalinity
• Water and wind erosion
• Overgrazing
4) Your answer must include the following points:
• Wind erosion in arid regions
• Uncertain rainfall areas
• Coastal erosion
• High-altitude plantation
5) Your answer must include the following points:
• Watershed management programmes
• Soil erosion mapping
21
Land Degradation
UNIT 2 DESERTIFICATION
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 The Concept and Definition
2.3 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
2.4 Status of Dry Lands and Desertification in the World
2.5 Major Factors Contributing to Desertification
2.6 Processes of Desertification
2.7 Impacts of Desertification
2.7.1 Impacts on Biodiversity and Depletion of Vegetative Cover
2.7.2 Impacts on Climate Change
2.7.3 Impact of Livestock Population Pressures on Grazing & Forest Land Resources
2.7.4 Impact of Human Population Pressures on Forest Resources
2.7.5 Impacts of Soil Erosion
2.7.5.1 Impact of Wind Erosion
2.7.5.2 Impact of Water Erosion
2.7.5.3 Impact of Erosion on Soil Fertility
2.7.5.4 Impacts of Over-abstraction of Ground Water
2.7.5.5 Impact of Inefficient Water Management
2.7.6 Impacts on Decline in Quality of Life
2.7.7 Impacts on Migration from Rural to Urban Areas
2.8 Combating and Mitigating Desertification
2.9 Opportunities in Dry Lands and its Sustainable Use
2.10 Let Us Sum Up
2.11 Key Words
2.12 References and Suggested Further Readings
2.13 Key to Check Your Progress
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Desertification occurs on all continents except Antarctica and affects the
livelihoods of millions of people, including a large proportion of the poor in dry
lands. Desertification takes place worldwide in dry lands, and its effects are
experienced locally, nationally, regionally, and globally. Desertification is the
degradation of land in any dry land, and is caused by a variety of factors, such as
climate change and human activities. Desertification, one of the most significant
global environmental problems, is a complex process of maladjustment between
interacting forces of physico-biotic environment and their users. This is
particularly true for arid and semi-arid tracts and their margins, where rainfall is
low and evaporation is high causing persistent stress in the soil moisture regime.
These areas, unless used with care and skill, are vulnerable to degradation process
in which the land’s capacity for biological production gradually reduced. Due to
human and livestock population pressures, ill-planned development projects,
22
Threats extension of agriculture to marginal lands, overgrazing and massive biomass
collection, and the degradation of such arid and semi-arid lands is going on
unabated in different parts. The gradual reduction in land productivity takes a
toll on the overall human well-being and more importantly the sustainable
development in any country.
2.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• define the concept of desertification;
• explain the factors responsible for desertification;
• describe the magnitude of the problem in India and elsewhere;
• analyze the approaches in combating desertification; and
• highlight the opportunities in dry lands and how to bring about sustainability
in drylands.
2.2 THE CONCEPT AND DEFINITION
Desertification, one of the major global environmental challenges, has drawn
the attention of the international community especially researchers, policy and
decision makers and NGOs. A large part of world’s dry lands are threatened by
this process. The scenario in developing countries like India are further worsening
due to growing population, ever increasing demands for cultivable land, fuel,
fodder, needs for its growing industries and this process very much threatens its
large area within the dry lands. The 1992 UN Conference on Environment and
Development that was held in Rio de Janeiro, defined desertification as land
degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub humid areas resulting from various
factors including climatic variations and human activities. These definitions of
desertification focus on degradation and economic decline in arid and semiarid
regions of the world. About 41% of the Earth’s land surface is classified as
drylands. They are home to an estimated two billion people who experience
relatively low human well-being and development indicators, such as high infant
mortality and low GNP per capita.
Desertification has been described as “the diminution or destruction of the
biological potential of the land, and can lead ultimately to desert-like conditions.
It is an aspect of the widespread deterioration of ecosystems under the combined
pressure of adverse and fluctuating climate and excessive exploitation. Such
pressure has diminished or destroyed the biological potential, i.e. plant and animal
production, for multiple purposes at a time when increased productivity is needed
to support growing populations in quest of development” (Verstraete, 1986).
Desertification produces many changes in the ecosystems of a region.
Desertification is recognized primarily by the physical changes in the
environment: reduction of plant cover, soil loss, loss of soil organic matter,
deposition of sand bodies, increased run-off, etc. (Kassas, 1977). In extreme
cases, desertification can result in marked reduction in vegetative cover and loss
of soil by water and wind erosion. In such areas there is a loss in primary
productivity and in potential productivity. The impacts of desertification are not
evenly distributed among the arid and semi-arid regions of the world.
23
Desertification2.3 UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION TO
COMBAT DESERTIFICATION (UNCCD)
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those countries
experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa is a
Convention to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought through
national action programme that incorporate long-term strategies supported by
international cooperation and partnership arrangements. The Convention, the
only convention stemming from a direct recommendation of the Earth Summit’s
Agenda 21, was adopted in Paris on 17th June 1994 and entered into force in
December, 1996. It is the first and only internationally legally binding framework
set up to address the problem of desertification. The Convention is based on the
principles of participation, partnership and decentralization - the backbone of
Good Governance and Sustainable Development. The convention was opened
for signature by countries on October 14th 1994 and entered into force on
December 26th 1996. It now has 193 country parties to the Convention, making
it truly global in reach. India is a signatory to the UNCCD. The Secretariat of the
UNCCD stands ready to continue its service to Parties through policy advice
and in the consultation and monitoring processes. Thematic Programme Network
1 (TPN-1), on ‘Desertification Monitoring and Assessment’, is one of the six
thematic programme areas identified as part of Asian regional action programme
under UNCCD. Space Applications Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad has been
identified as the national focal organization to coordinate TPN-1 activities in the
country.
Desertification as a global challenge, together with Climate Change and
Biodiversity, now enjoys the support of a strong coalition of partners. But public
awareness has not kept pace. In relation to the true scope and magnitude of the
problem, Desertification still receives too little attention and is little understood
by the public at large. To draw the attention of public at large for this and to help
publicize the Convention, 2006 was declared “International Year of Deserts and
Desertification” but debates have ensued regarding how effective the International
Year was in practice. The UNCCD defines desertification as “land degradation
in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors,
including climatic variations and human activities.” Land degradation is in turn
defined as the reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity of
drylands.
2.4 STATUS OF DRY LANDS AND
DESERTIFICATION IN THE WORLD
India occupies only 2.4% of the world’s geographical area, yet supports about
16.7% of the world’s human population; it has only 0.5% of the world’s grazing
land but supports 18% of the world’s cattle population. Thus there is tremendous
pressure on our land-based natural resources. India is endowed with a variety of
soils, climate, biodiversity and ecological regions. About 50.8 mha land area
(15.8% of the country’s geographical area) is arid, 123.4 mha (37.6%) is semi-
arid and 54.1 mha (16.5%) areas fall in the dry sub-humid region (NBSS & LUP,
2001). All put together, about 228 mha area, i.e. 69% of the geographic area of
the country is dry land (arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid). Different categories
of drylands and their present status across the globe are presented in Figure 1.
24
Threats Desertification is the persistent degradation of dryland ecosystems by variations
in climate and human activities. Drylands, home to a third of the human population
in 2000, occupy nearly half of Earth’s land area. Across the world, desertification
affects the livelihoods of millions of people who rely on the benefits that dryland
ecosystems can provide. In drylands, water scarcity limits the production of crops,
forage, wood, and other services ecosystems provide to humans. Drylands are
therefore highly vulnerable to increases in human pressures and climatic
variability, especially sub-Saharan and Central Asian drylands. Some 10 to 20%
of drylands are already degraded, and ongoing desertification threatens the world’s
poorest populations and the prospects of poverty reduction. Therefore,
desertification is one of the greatest environmental challenges today and a major
barrier to meeting basic human needs in drylands.
Figure 2.1: Present day dry lands and their categories
Source: Desertification: http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/151708/
In India, the total area under desertification is 81.45 mha. Water erosion (26.21
mha), wind erosion (17.77 mha), vegetal degradation (17.63 mha) and frost
shattering (9.47 mha) are the major processes of desertification. Nearly one third
of the country’s land area (32.07%) is under the process of desertification. There
are about eight major processes active in the country. Water erosion is the most
pronounced process, followed by vegetal degradation and aeolian processes. Total
area under land degradation is 105.48 mha. Area-wise Rajasthan, J&K, Gujarat
and Maharashtra has high proportions of land under various stages of
desertification.
2.5 MAJOR FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO
DESERTIFICATION
Several factors contribute and cause in gradual land degradation in arid and semi
arid areas and lead to completed desertification. An exhaustive checklist of factors
corresponding issues those cause and contribute to desertification can be listed
as below:
i) Unsustainable Agricultural Practices
a) Extensive and frequent cropping of agricultural areas
25
Desertificationb) Excessive use of fertilizers.
c) Shifting cultivation without allowing adequate period of recovery.
ii) Unsustainable Water Management Practices
a) Poor & Inefficient Irrigation Practices
b) Over abstraction of ground water, particularly in the coastal regions
resulting in saline intrusion into aquifers
iii) Conversion of land for other uses
a) Prime forest into agricultural land.
b) Agricultural land for other uses.
c) Encroachment of cities and towns into agricultural land.
iv) Deforestation
a) Unsustainable forest management practices
a) Forest land clearances for agriculture (including shifting cultivation)
b) Other land use changes (Projects- energy, roadways, etc).
c) Overgrazing, excessive fuel wood collection
d) Uncontrolled logging and illegal felling and
e) Forest fires
v) Industrial, mining and other activities without satisfactory measures for
prevention of land degradation and land rehabilitation.
vi) Demographic pressures - human and livestock.
vii) Frequent droughts/failure of monsoon and their link with global climate
phenomena.
• Unsustainable Agricultural Practices: Unsustainable agricultural practices
include excessive use of fertilizers, pesticides, frequent cropping patterns,
inappropriate technologies, or choice of crops/ plants, etc. Non-point sources
of pollution are a problem in areas with wide application of fertilizers.
• Unsustainable Water Management Practices: Poor and inefficient irrigation
practices, over abstraction of ground water, particularly in the coastal regions
resulting in saline intrusion into aquifers, etc. are some of major unsustainable
water management practices which has led to problems of desertification in
such regions. Over abstraction of groundwater without compensatory
recharge has led to depletion of groundwater table.
• Land Use Changes: Diversion of land from forestry and agriculture to other
land uses has been one of the principal causes of land degradation Diversion
of forest lands for non-forestry purposes was curtailed with the enactment
of Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 with the objective of arresting diversion
of forest land for non-forestry purposes. Wherever diversion of forest land
is unavoidable, for instance for developmental projects (energy,
infrastructure, transportation, etc.) compensatory afforestation on non-forest
land is mandatory. However, loss of prime forests could have an impact in
the long-term stability of the forests. The other land use change is due to
encroachments, through violation of forest boundaries, illegal farming in
26
Threats forests. Due to their illegal status, they are unable to receive extension
services and improve their farming systems, further accelerating land
degradation. The encroachment of forest land, and the socioeconomic
pressure to regularize them, continues to be the most pernicious problem of
forest protection.
• Deforestation and Loss of Vegetative Cover: It is difficult to separate the
causes from the effects of deforestation and forest degradation. Some direct
causes of deforestation are land clearances for agriculture (including shifting
cultivation), other land use changes including unplanned urbanization, land
transfers, different forms of encroachments, over-grazing, uncontrolled and
wasteful logging, illegal felling, and excessive fuel wood collection.
Shifting Cultivation: Shifting cultivation refers to a farming system in which, a
short but variable cultivation phase (on slash-and-burn land) alternates with long
and equally variable fallow periods. With increasing pressure on forest lands,
and shortening on the fallow period, this practice of farming which was once in
balance with nature has become disorderly causing considerable damage to the
regeneration of forests cleared in this manner. Deleterious effects include
deforestation, spread of sterile grassland, soil erosion, and loss of productivity
of forest and agricultural land.
Collection of Fuel wood: Consumption of wood (timber and fuel wood) in India
is considerably (4 to 5 times higher than what can sustainably be removed from
the forests. Much of the rural energy for cooking comes from collection of fuel
wood from forests. In 1990, the estimated removal of fuel wood was about 250
million cm3, which has been estimated to increase to 310 million cm3 by 2000
(NFAP, MOEF, 1999). This contributes to the overall deterioration of the quality,
stocking condition and productivity of the forest ultimately leading to
deforestation and degradation.
Grazing in Forest Land: Forest lands are important sources of grazing. It is
estimated that that over 270 million livestock consisting of over 50% of India’s
livestock graze in the forests (NFAP, 1999). These include traditional ethnic
sedentary village livestock and migratory animals herded by ethnic grazers.
Additionally grazers collect an estimated 175 to 200 million tonnes of green
fodder annually. This results in overgrazing and over-extraction of green fodder,
leading to forest degradation through damages to regeneration and compaction
of soil. A sample survey of FSI estimates that impact of grazing affects 78% of
the country’s forests, of which 18% suffers high incidence and 31% medium
incidence. Grazing occurs even in protected areas. In another survey, 67% of the
national parks and 83% of the wildlife sanctuaries surveyed reported grazing
incidences.
Forest fires: Forest fires, mostly ground fires affect annually about 35 mha of
forest area. The nature and severity of damage depend on the type of forest,
availability of fuel and climatic factors.
• Industrial and Mining Activities:
o Industrial Activities: Industrial effluents and mining are also gradually
emerging as important agents of desertification. In most cases the root
cause of the problem is the mismanagement by land users and poor
27
Desertificationimplementation of pollution control regulations. Industrial effluents
and their discharge into inland waters and irrigation with poor quality
water in many parts of the country are rendering stretches of land in
some of the States as degraded. Industrial effluents from textile, printing
and dyeing industry and their discharge into streams and rivers, which
are non-perennial with no flow during the lean season severely
contaminates them. Use of such waters for irrigation has affected
agricultural land as well. Besides productivity decline or complete loss,
progressive degeneration of bio-diversity is yet another major
consequence of land degradation. In many areas the groundwater has
been polluted. Some of the most affected areas are found in Pali, Jodhpur
and Balotra in Rajasthan due to dyeing industry; Bicchri also in
Rajasthan due to discharge of highly toxic effluents. Large tracts of
land have been rendered unfit in industrial estates such as Vapi,
Ankleshwar in Gujarat; Pattancheru, Bollaram in Andhra Pradesh which
house large a large number of chemical manufacturing units;
Vaniyambadi in Tamil Nadu due to effluents from leather processing
industrial units
o Mining Activities: Mining is another major industry, which is a factor
of desertification in the country. This is especially with unplanned open
cast mining and dumping of mine overburden in the vicinity of
agricultural lands. Despite guidelines and regulations for undertaking
adequate environmental measures during mining operations, open cast
mining of sandstone, limestone, marble, gypsum, and clay is largely
practiced by small scale entrepreneurs who do not take up post mining
operations. Consequently, such areas are gradually turned into
wastelands. China clay, Fuller’s earth, calcite and gypsum generate fine
particles which are washed down the slopes with runoff and get
deposited in the adjoining cultivated fields. This eventually leads to
problems of water logging and salinity. Many of the states in India are
under several pressures due to mining activities due to poor land
management after mining.
• Disposal of Solid & Toxic Wastes onto Land: In many parts of the country
such as Vapi, Ankleshwar, in Gujarat; Pattancheru and Bollaram in Andhra
Pradesh; Pali, Balotra in Jodhpur large tracts of land have been rendered
useless due to disposal of toxic industrial wastes. In some areas, this has led
to ground water contamination as well. The costs for reclamation of such
land, if carried out as per requirements, would be enormous. However, in
recent times the reckless disposal of solid waste by municipal corporations
in the country is also adversely affecting the land productivity and also in
some areas, ground water contamination has been reported.
• Drought: It is often perceived that droughts by themselves cause
desertification, however E.O. Wilson, in his book, The Future of Life,
maintains that while drought is a contributing factor, the root causes are all
related to man’s overexploitation of the environment. Droughts are common
in arid and semiarid lands, and well-managed lands can recover from drought
when the rains return. Continued land misuse during droughts, however,
increases land degradation. Increased population and livestock pressure on
marginal lands has accelerated desertification. In some less arid areas, local
28
Threats ecosystem is getting disrupted due to nomads moving in and the rate of land
erosion increases as a result. Nomads typically try to escape the desert, but
because of their land-use practices, they are bringing the desert with them.
Drought is generally a naturally occurring phenomenon due to deficit of
rainfall in a region. However, drought effects can be exacerbated due to
absence of vegetative cover impacting the hydrological regime. In the recent
years, due to global climate changes and several anthropogenic pressures
on locally available natural resources, the frequency of droughts have
increased considerably, thereby accelerating the process of desertification.
Recurrent droughts lead to decline in biomass production and depletion of
organic carbon (humus) in the soils. It is, therefore, not surprising that
some of the most severely degraded land are found in the chronically drought
prone areas having shallow and light textured soils.
• Demographic pressures (human and livestock): The general problem of arid
areas with large populations is essentially one of human ecology. The
inherently limited resources within arid and semi-arid regions set the ultimate
limit of production. Furthermore, erratic rainfall results in widely fluctuating
production leading to scarcity, which imposes stress on these populations.
In general, the population density of both human and livestock in the arid
region is much higher than the national average. The decennial growth rate
of population during the decade 1981-91 in the desert region was 29% as
against 23% for the country (MOEF, 1996). The livestock population also
increased from 9.4. million in 1951 to 14.4 million in 1961 (53% increase )
and to 15.52 million in 1971 (8% increase). The density of livestock on
grazing lands has consequently increased. The increase of cattle, buffaloes
and camels has been very high in this region. As population increases, the
demand on natural resources is further magnified leading to further intensive
use of land and other natural resources in drier regions. Consequentially, an
imbalance between the human and animal population on the one hand and
plants, water, and land resources on the other does arise. If not checked
timely and effectively, continuous increase in demand for fodder and food
leads to loss of vegetation, leading to loss of biodiversity. The barrenness of
the land affects the hydrological cycle which can affect the rainfall pattern
for the region. In the semi-arid, sub-humid regions of the country also, there
are some areas such as the Gangetic Plains, where the population density is
one of the highest in the world.
2.6 PROCESSES OF DESERTIFICATION
The different processes involved in land degradation include: (i) Wind erosion
(ii) Water erosion (iii) Salinity-Alkalinity and (iv) Water logging. Many of the
processes are described in the unit-1 on land degradation; however, the same are
discussed in detail in this unit.
• Soil Erosion: Soil erosion by water and wind account for 87% of the area
affected by soil degradation. It has been estimated that between 1977 and
1997 the area critically affected by erosion has almost doubled.
• Wind Erosion: Wind erosion is the major process of land degradation in the
hot arid regions of the country affecting 10.46 mha. These include the States
29
Desertificationof Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat, and Punjab, covering an area of 28,600
sq.km of which 68% is covered by sand dunes and sandy plains. Wind erosion
is also prevalent in the coastal area where sandy plains dominate and in the
cold desert regions of Leh in Jammu & Kashmir (Prasad & Biswas, 1999).
• Water Erosion: Water or run-off induced soil erosion is the most serious
process of land degradation and desertification in the country affecting about
107.1 mha of the country’s geographical area. In the Indian context, it results
in loss of topsoil and terrain deformation (ravines, gullies, etc.) (MOA, 1985).
The broad types of water erosion are given in Table 5.1. Soil erosion through
accelerated sheetwash and rill / gully development occurs mainly in the
Saurashtra and Kutchh uplands and along the eastern margin of the Thar in
Rajasthan, where the average rainfall varies from 350 mm to 500 mm. The
major reasons are increased cultivation of marginal land with high slopes
and shallow soils, destruction of natural vegetation for fuel and fodder,
overgrazing, and other environmentally destructive uses. In the Aravalli Hill
ranges along the eastern margin of the Thar, the hill slopes are being regularly
denuded of natural vegetation cover for fuelwood, and fodder. Consequently
the soils are being washed out by sheet rill and gully erosion, so much so
that in many areas there is hardly any soil left to start an afforestation
programme. In Kachchh region, the problem is partly related to a slow natural
upliftment of the terrain over the centuries, leading to a change of base level
and increased erosion.
• Soil Salinity-Alkalinity: Vast areas in the otherwise productive Indo-Gangetic
plain cutting across the states of Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and some
coastal regions of Gujarat have lost their productivity due to soil salinity–
alkalinity. These soils are characterized by excess soluble salts with sodium
carbonate in substantial quantity. Consequently, the soils accumulate sodium
on the exchange complex thus resulting in poor physical properties including
low infiltration rates. In many areas a layer of calcium carbonate concretion
(kankar pan), which is normally found at a depth of 1 m, acts as a barrier for
root penetration into the soil. The soil pH is high adversely affecting
germination, plant growth, and nutrient availability to plants. The process
of salinization sets in due to (a) irrigation with ground water containing
excess of carbonate and bicarbonate ions (secondary salinization), (b) runoff
from adjoining undrained basins, and (c) rise in ground water table as a
consequence of mismanagement of irrigation command. This is a man-made
problem. In addition, there is natural salinity in depressions in landscaping
of lower elevations.
• Water logging: Water logging is estimated to affect about 8.52 mha of the
land surface. The problem is severe in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command
Area in Rajasthan, where excess irrigation in the soils having gypsum-rich
barriers at shallow depth and wrong drainage planning are the major causes
for degradation in these canal command areas, leading to saline-sodic water
and a salt-rich hard pans. Some areas of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab
under agriculture also have this problem. According to a World Bank study,
India loses 1.2-2.0 million tonnes of food grain production every year due
to water logging (ICAR, 1999).
30
Threats2.7 IMPACTS OF DESERTIFICATION
2.7.1 Impacts on Biodiversity and Depletion of Vegetative Cover
Biodiversity, which plays a role in supporting dry land ecosystems, is seriously
impaired by desertification. Owing to degradation of forests and natural habitats
for expansion of agriculture, river valley projects and industrial and urban
developments, the biodiversity of the country are under threat, some of them for
survival itself. Land use changes are increasingly becoming responsible for
expansion of degraded lands thus adversely affecting the forest and wildlife.
One of the obvious impacts of desertification is the gradual change of ecosystem
through loss/replacement of one species with another, and this is seen in many
parts of Rajasthan. Similarly the permanent pastures and fallows in the high
rainfall zones which once supported a good stand of trees and shrubs now present
a stunted landscape. The common grazing lands around villages have now turned
as some of the severely degraded sites, due to over exploitation and gross neglect.
Encroachment of these village commons for crop production and other non-
farm activities has also led to conversion of these pasturelands to other uses. The
disruption of the interlinked services jointly provided by dryland plant biodiversity
is a key trigger for desertification and the disappearance of habitats for
biodiversity.
2.7.2 Impacts on Climate Change
Unlike other aspects, the impact of desertification on climate is a very complex
phenomenon and is not fully understood. Vegetation is instrumental in soil
conservation and in regulating rainfall infiltration and local climate. The resultant
soil moisture level influences the solar radiation and thus the energy balance of
both the surface and atmosphere of the earth. For example, any change in the
surface albedo (reflection of sunlight) (due to vegetative loss) will affect the
amount of solar radiation absorbed by the surface. Similarly, changes in soil
moisture levels will determine the portion of energy that is used in evaporation
and transpiration processes, which in turn affects the micro-climate. Other factors
such as wind speeds, surface temperatures influence the evapo-transpiration rates.
All plants support primary production that ultimately provides food and fuel
wood that sequesters carbon, thus regulating global climate. Excessive
exploitation of vegetation, therefore, leads to losses in primary production and
hence to reduced carbon sequestration. Dry land soils contain over a quarter of
all organic carbon stores in the world as well as nearly all the inorganic carbon.
As a result of desertification, some of this carbon is released into the atmosphere,
thus affecting the global climate system. As per the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment Report, an estimated 300 million tons of carbon are released every
year. This disruption of the interlinked services jointly provided by dryland plant
biodiversity is a key trigger for desertification and the disappearance of habitats
for biodiversity. The close interconnections between desertification, biodiversity
loss and climate change illustrate the multiple benefits to be gained from joint
implementation of the UNCCD, the Convention on Biological Diversity and the
Framework Convention on Climate Change.
31
Desertification2.7.3 Impact of Livestock Population Pressures on Grazing and
Forest Land Resources
India’s high livestock population is increasing further. Most livestock farming is
of low productivity. With the steady rise in animal, especially cattle population
in the country, pastures and grazing lands have been subjected to overuse, which
has resulted in loss of vegetation and affected their regeneration potential leading
to slow degradation of grazing land, which eventually become barren. There has
been an increase in the area under pasture and grazing lands being opened up for
agricultural & other purposes. The reduced availability of grazing land has led to
more and more forests being used as grazing grounds.
Livestock production in India is to a large extent dependent on crop residues and
crop by-products. The total supply of feed and fodder in 1993 was straw 398
million tons, green fodder 573.50 million tons, and concentrates 41.98 million
tons (MOEF 1993 estimates). It is estimated that during 1993, the country faced
a deficit of 570 million tonnes green fodder, 276 million dry fodders. The 1995
combined availability of green fodder from permanent pastures, other grazing
lands, agricultural lands and forests was estimated at 434 million tonnes, whereas
the minimum requirement was estimated to be 882 million tonnes. The big gap
has resulted in unlimited and unrestricted grazing in forestlands (SOE 1995).
Forests have been an important source of grazing and for fodder in the absence
of adequate pastureland. It is estimated that about 270 million livestock graze in
forests. Additionally, grazers collect an estimated 175 to 200 million tonnes of
green fodder annually. This further results in overgrazing and over extraction of
green fodder leading to forest degradation through their deleterious effects on
soil compaction and poor regeneration of forests (NFAP, 1999).
Livestock are increasing at a rate of 2% per annum mounting a tremendous
pressure on the limited land resources (ICAR. 1999). There has been a steady
decline in the area and quality and quantity of CPRS, as a result of increase in
population and livestock pressures. About a third of the total feed intake of the
ruminants in India, large and small, is by grazing on common property resources
(CPRs). Overgrazing by herds far larger than what the land can sustain, year
after year, has progressively rendered them into marginal or wastelands, grossly
eroded and changing plant association, making them unsuitable for bovines and
fit only for sheep and goats. It is clearly understood that the cause and effect of
all these retrogressive changes in the common property resources (CPRs) and
more generally on the ecosystem, emanates from the enormous increase in human
population followed by increase in animal populations, far beyond the land’s
ability to sustain and provide for.
2.7.4 Impact of Human Population Pressures on Forest
Resources
In India, population pressures per unit area of forest are one of the highest in the
world. In 1991, the national average density of population per km2 of forestland
was 1320 and ranged from 2860 in the north western States to 191 in the north
eastern region. Consumption of wood (timber and fuelwood) in India is
considerably (4 to 5 times) higher than what can sustainably be removed from
the forests. In 1990, the excess removal of fuel wood was estimated to be about
250 million m3 with an expected increase to 310 million m3 by 2000 (NFAP,
MOEF, 1999). These are steadily adding to forest degradation and deforestation.
32
Threats 2.7.5 Impacts of Soil Erosion
These can be further classified into impacts of wind erosion, impacts of water
erosion, impacts of erosion on soil fertility, impacts of over-abstraction of ground
water, impacts of inefficient water management.
2.7.5.1 Impacts of Wind Erosion
Sand dunes and other sandy land forms in any desert are most vulnerable to
wind erosion/deposition due to their instability and vulnerability. This is especially
due to the decreasing rainfall and increasing gradient in the wind velocity. In
Thar desert of India, the threshold velocity for initiating wind erosion has been
estimated to be around 10 km/hr. However, wind velocities of as much as 30
km/hr are common, leading to loss of topsoil and terrain deformation in the
affected regions. Destruction of natural plant cover in the sandy terrain for fuel
and fodder, opening up of sandy tracts and higher slopes of sand dunes for
agriculture also accelerate the aeolian process. Large-scale introduction of tractor
ploughing in the in Haryana and Rajasthan increases the sand load manifold for
aelian processes, and is threatening more areas through new sand dune formation
and advancement of old dunes.
2.7.5.2 Impacts of Water Erosion
The estimated national average of rate of soil erosion, based on existing soil loss
data, is 16.35 t/ha/yr, leading to an annual total soil loss of about 5.3 billion
tonnes, where, the Shivaliks, Western Ghats and the north-eastern States contribute
to 64% of the erosion. Of the eroded soil, nearly 29% are permanently lost to the
sea, 10% end up in reservoirs and about 61% transferred from one place to another.
An annual reduction of the storage capacity by 1-2 % in reservoirs is witnessed
due to the transfer of eroded soil into them. The data on river valley projects on
17 medium and small reservoirs in India have shown that the rate of inflow of
sediment is about 3 times (9.17 ha-m/100 km2/annum) compared with the design
rate of (2.93 ha-m/100 km2/annum), rendering their life expectancy and the
hydroelectric power generation to 1/3rd the planned capacity. The annual water
erosion rate has been estimated to range from less than 5 t/ha/yr (for dense forests,
snow clad mountains and arid desert regions) to more than 80 t/ha/yr in the
Shivalik Hills. An annual top soil loss exceeding 40 t/ha/yr has been observed in
the north-eastern region (which practice shifting cultivation).
2.7.5.3 Impacts of Erosion on Soil Fertility
Soil erosion is directly linked to deterioration of soil health which in turn affects
crop productivity and sustainability. Erosion also takes away with it 14 million
tonnes of such major nutrients as N, P, and K from the country’s soils annually.
Red and lateritic soils are particularly prone to this problem. Intensive cropping
has further hastened the process of nutrient removal. The eastern part of Jammu
and Kashmir is the worst affected with respect to loss of soil organic matter
(SOM) besides parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Government of India has not
estimated the economic losses due to impacts of all the factors and processes of
land degradation. According to The Energy Research Institute (TERI), New Delhi,
the economic losses caused by lower crop yields, and reduced reservoir capacity
has been estimated to be in the range of Rs. 89-232 billion, as a result of loss of
11-26% of agricultural output (TERI- GREEN India- 2047).
33
Desertification2.7.5.4 Impacts of Over-abstraction of Ground Water
The excessive pumping of groundwater for irrigation purposes in intensively
cultivated areas of Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh has caused the
lowering of ground water table in certain pockets. Currently eight Indian states,
that are agriculturally important overexploit groundwater, each with a net irrigated
area of over 0.3 million hectares. During the past decade, ground water table has
dropped at a rate of 0.5-0.8 metre per year in Haryana and 0.2-1.0 m per year in
Punjab. Major metros such as New Delhi, Chennai have over exploited their
ground water and the levels have dropped drastically. The overexploitation of
groundwater in some areas has made its extraction increasingly expensive and
not viable and small and marginal farmers are particularly the victims of such
high costs. In Kachchh region of Gujarat, over extraction of ground water has
led to saline water intrusion into coastal aquifers resulting in deterioration of
water quality. Reclamation of saline ground water is one of the most difficult
problems of reclamation of degraded lands. Present day policy decision “free
electricity to farmers” by different political parties in several Indian states such
as Tamil Nadu also contributes to over-extraction of this precious underground
resource.
2.7.5.5 Impacts of Inefficient Water Management
Inefficient water management is observed at all levels - city, province, and village
leading to drought-like situations. In places of acute water scarcity, long hours
are spent for collection of water which affects the quality of life and is a direct
loss to the economy. The per capita availability of renewable freshwater resources
in India has fallen from 6000 m3 to about 2300 m3 in a span of five decades
(1947-1997). The temporary/long-term fall of water logging are on adverse affects
on the ecology, reduced agricultural output, limited choice of crops, and
deteriorating socioeconomic conditions of the affected region.
2.7.6 Impacts on Decline in Quality of Life
Food security, water security, sustained availability of fuel and fodder and adequate
income generation are some of the key parameters that decide the quality of life
of rural communities. Responsibility of collection of fuel wood, fodder and water
requirements of the family in many rural areas rests with the womenfolk. The
quality of life of women particularly in the severely affected regions of the country,
especially belonging to the backward communities, is extremely hard as many
of them spend a life of slog spending large amount of their daily time for collection
of fuel wood, food, fodder and water needs of the family. Increase in collection
time is an indication of progressive degradation of the land and a corresponding
decline in quality of life of people in such regions. Many areas experience the
men migrating to cities and the women being the de-facto heads of families
looking not only after children but also responsible for all aspects of running the
household and their livelihood. The contribution and importance of women in
the development of the family unit as well as to the local community and to the
economy draws due attention for preventing further decline in life quality.
2.7.7 Impacts on Migration from Rural to Urban Areas
Economic factors, social factors, degraded security conditions, and environmental
factors are amongst the root causes of migration. In developed countries,
urbanisation is mostly driven by industrialization and results in migration of
34
Threats people from rural to urban areas. On the contrary, urbanisation in developing
countries is the result, in most cases, of pressures from declining quality of life
in rural areas. As per the 1991 census, 26% of the India’s population (217 million)
live in urban areas. This is expected to be about 300 million in 2001 and is
expected to rise to 590 million by 2025 (Report of GOI to CSD, 1994). Twenty
three metropolitan cities account for 32.5% of the urban population in the country.
The cause-and-effect relationship between desertification and migration has only
recently been recognized by different stakeholders, and empirical evidence is
becoming available from UN, intergovernmental, research and policy institutes.
For example, land degradation has been indicated as an important contributing
factor to rural-urban migration in Mexico and to Mexico-U.S. migration streams
where 700,000 to 900,000 migrate from Mexico’s dry lands annually (Source:
FAO). Studies from Africa, including Egypt, Morocco, Niger, Mali, and Burkina
Faso indicate that land degradation and desertification contribute to human
mobility, and worsening living conditions for both those who leave and those
who remain behind (Source: UNUEHS).
Desertification, per se, is not the only reason for migration to cities and nor is
migration the only source of urban growth. In fact with the advent and expansion
of the electronic media, the hopes and aspirations of people have increased
enormously and this is also one of the contributing factors to migration to cities
and urban sprawl. There is a well-established correlation between desertification
and migration from rural areas. Desertification induced forced migration to urban
areas leads to an inability to adjust to exigencies of urban living and results in
creation of slums and the associated social stress (UNCCD, 1997). This in most
of the developing countries, including India, is the sole reason why many of the
urban plan programmes fail, and citizens are not provided with basic amenities.
Increased pollution and environmental degradation and the consequent decline
in the quality of life are the ultimate resultants.
2.8 COMBATING AND MITIGATING
DESERTIFICATION
One means by which desertification can be avoided is by turning to alternative
livelihoods that do not depend on traditional land use, yet provide sustainable
income. Most dry lands indeed offer tangible economic opportunities to alleviate
the currently prevailing poverty. These include dry land aquaculture for the
production of fish, greenhouse agriculture and tourism-related activities.
Desertification can further be avoided by creating economic opportunities in dry
land urban centres through commercialization of agricultural products and a
decentralized food processing infrastructure. This is particularly relevant when
considering that the urban section of dry lands is projected to increase to around
52 percent by 2010 and to 60 percent by 2030.
Desertification is recognized as a major threat to biodiversity. Some countries
have developed various issue specific action plans to counter its effects,
particularly in relation to the protection of endangered flora and fauna. A number
of methods have been tried in order to reduce the rate of desertification; however,
most measures treat symptoms of sand movement and do not address the root
causes of land modification such as overgrazing, unsustainable farming and
deforestation. In developing countries under threat of desertification, many local
35
Desertificationpeople use trees for firewood and cooking which has increased the problem of
land degradation and often even increased their poverty. In order to gain further
supplies of fuel the local population add more pressure to the depleted forests;
adding to the desertification process.
The issue of desertification, as has been illustrated, is not a fatality. Technical
solutions do exist, and response policies have been also been identified. The
need of the hour is greater consciousness and political will. In this regard, the
IYDD and the programs and initiatives have helped in raising the visibility of
the issue on the international agenda. Desertification is an issue, as it is largely
man-made, which directly or indirectly, affects us all and just it is within the
domain of human capacity to manage and contain it. Several techniques and
approaches are made in last couple of decades to contain the further spread of
dry lands and deteriorating conditions, and some of them are as below:
• Provisioning of water (e.g. by wells and energy intensive systems involving
water pipes or over long distances) and fixating and hyper-fertilising soil.
• Fixating the soil is often done through the use of shelter belts (as practised
in Thal, Pakistan), woodlots and windbreaks. Windbreaks are made from
trees and bushes and are used to reduce soil erosion and evapo-transpiration:
a mitigatory measure.
• Enriching of the soil and restoration of its fertility is often done by plants.
Of these, the Leguminous plants which extract nitrogen from the air and
fixes it in the soil, and food crops/trees as grains, barley, beans and dates are
the most important.
• Solar ovens and efficient wood burning cook stoves are advocated as a means
to relieve pressure upon the environment so as to reduce the extent of tree
cutting. However, these techniques are generally cost prohibitively in the
very regions where they are needed.
• Sand fences are used throughout the Middle East and the US, in the same
way snow fences are used in the north. Placement of straw grids, each up to
a square meter in area, will also decrease the surface wind velocity.
• Oases and farmlands in windy regions are often protected by planting tree
fences or grass belts in order to reduce erosion and walking dunes. Oases
often section their plot of land by placing a barrier of thorny bushes or other
obstacles to keep grazing animals away from the food crops, and alternatively
water provisioning (e.g. from a well) is made outside this barrier mainly to
accommodate the animals of travellers (e.g. camels).
• Sand that manages to pass through the grass belts can be caught in strips of
trees planted as wind breaks 50 to 100 meters apart adjacent to the belts.
Small plots of trees may also be scattered inside oases to stabilize the area.
On a much larger scale, a “Green Wall of China”, which will eventually
stretch more than 5,700 km in length, nearly as long as the Great Wall of
China, is being planted in north-eastern China to protect “sandy lands” –
deserts created by human activity.
• Dry lands in Kachchh region of Gujarat and some areas in Rajasthan are
planted by exotic species such as Prosopis juliflora (here in after to be
referred as Prosopis). Vast tracts of this species are grown in Kachchh region
36
Threats of Gujarat to prevent desert encroachment and salinity ingression from sea.
However, it has drawn the attention of various stakeholders for both the
beneficial and adverse role for ecosystem including native human
community. The details are described in the next section.
2.9 OPPORTUNITIES IN DRY LANDS AND ITS
SUSTAINABLE USE
Dry lands are often considered as synonymous with wastelands. However, one
has to recognize the actual potential of dry lands in terms of its unique biodiversity
and the ecological services it provides. Several human communities have lived
for centuries in the arid and semi-arid dry lands across the globe and have been
living sustainably utilizing the resources and opportunities it provides. To cite
an example in this regard is arid dry lands in Rajasthan and Gujarat state in
India. The dry lands have been infested by exotics such as Prosopis, and this
species, among all other exotic species, attracts highest level of attention from
diverse groups like researchers, forest managers, policy makers and even general
public due to its economic advantages and ecological disadvantages. Prosopis is
a shrub/tree species, indigenous in dry lands of western South America, which
was intentionally introduced to Rajasthan and Gujarat. Since its introduction
some 140 years ago, driven by concerns of desert encroachment and for dry land
livelihoods, Prosopis has rapidly spread, currently inhabiting most dry lands,
thus covering more than 40% of the land of India. This spread has brought about
significant changes in the structure and function of India’s dry land ecosystems
and in the benefits people derive from these ecosystems (namely “ecosystem
services”). Some services have been regionally or locally augmented, such as
soil conservation and firewood provision, and others have been degraded, such
as livestock forage provision and the support of biodiversity.
There have been several discussions in managing this species, which is the result
of an intentional introduction followed up by an unintentional spread in these
two states. Researchers from Central Arid zone Research Institute (CAZRI) at
Jodhpur, Rajasthan has demonstrated successfully that this species could be a
boon to the local community. Different organs of this species can be put into
different uses: such as wood is used for making furniture, pod is used for making
biscuits etc. this, not only, contains the spread of the species, but also provides
alternate livelihood options for the local community. Similarly, there are several
examples across the globe, where native people have made use resources, which
are once considered as a nuisance and sometimes the cause of desertification
and some of them are as below:
• Green revolution in Sahel: increased production without increased external
inputs in dry lands agriculture in Sahel dry land and other arid lands in
Africa
• Increasing involvement of Tunisian women in sustainable management of
biodiversity in north Africa
• Multiple use of dry lands in Jordan – boosting prosperity of the region
(grazing, rain fed agriculture, urbanization, nature conservation). Ecotourism
has emerged as one of the potential livelihood alternative for native denizens.
• Grassland management in Kachchh region of Gujarat – fodder and livestock
management.
37
Desertification• Sustainable community water management in village Chiradia, Barmer
district, Rajasthan – rejuvenating old and traditional water holding and water
harvesting structures and practices.
To cite aptly, after having these elaborative discussion as in the previous
paragraphs, drylands are diverse ecosystems and provide diverse opportunities
and solutions to achieve sustainability in the area where resources are limited.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1) Brief on UNCCD and define the term desertification.
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2) Describe the global status of dry lands and desertification.
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3) Discuss about the major contributing factors of desertification.
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4) Provide a brief on different processes involved in desertification.
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Threats 5) Discuss the impacts of desertification different ecosystem components.
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6) Discuss about the options for combating and mitigating desertification
process.
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2.10 LET US SUM UP
• Desertification is a result of a long-term failure to balance demand for and
supply of ecosystem services in dry lands. The pressure is increasing on dry
land ecosystems for providing services such as food, forage, fuel, building
materials, and water for humans and livestock, for irrigation, and for
sanitation.
• This increase is attributed to a combination of human factors and climatic
factors.
• The climatic factors of concern include droughts and projected reduction in
freshwater availability due to global warming.
• Since this process is experienced in various bio-climatic realms, the
magnitude and impacts of desertification vary greatly spatially and
temporally. This variability is driven by the degree of aridity combined with
the pressure people put on the ecosystem’s resources.
• There are, however, wide gaps in our understanding and observation of
desertification processes and their underlying factors. A better delineation
of desertification would enable cost-effective action in areas affected by it.
• Desertification can also be avoided by reducing the stress on dry land
ecosystems, which can be achieved in two ways. First, by introduction of
alternative livelihoods those have lesser impact on dry land resources.
Secondly, by creation of economic opportunities in urban centers and areas
outside dry lands can be beneficial. The popular notion of “prevention is
better than cure” is applicable in this case, as the challenges lie in finding
opportunities from the process of desertification and sustainable
utilization of dry land resources so as to obtain optimum ecosystem goods
and services.
39
Desertification2.11 KEY WORDS
UNCCD : The United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification
Desertification : Desertification has been described as “the
diminution or destruction of the biological
potential of the land, and can lead ultimately to
desert-like conditions.
Shifting Cultivation : Shifting cultivation refers to a farming system in
which, a short but variable cultivation phase (on
slash-and-burn land) alternates with long and
equally variable fallow periods.
2.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER
READINGS
Ajai, A.A., Dhinwa, P.S., Pathan, S.K. and Ganesh, Raj, K. 2009. Desertification/
land degradation status mapping of India. Current Science. 97 (10): 1478 – 1483.
Batterbury, S.P.J. and Warren, A. 2001. Desertification. In N Smelser and P Baltes
(eds.) International Encyclopædia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier
Press. pp. 3526–3529.
NBSS and LUP 2001. Agro-ecological subregions of India for planning and
development. NBSS & LUP Publication, ICAR, Nagpur, 2001.
Purohit, S.S. and Ranjan, R. 2003. Ecology, Environment and Pollution. Agrobios
(India), Jodhpur. 1023p.
Purohit, S.S., Shammi, Q.J. and Agrawal, A.K. 2007. Environmental Sciences:
A New Approach. Agrobios (India), Jodhpur. 397p.
Sehgal, J. and Abrol, I.P. 1994. Soil degradation in India: status and impact.
New Delhi: Oxford and IBH. 80p.
2.13 KEY TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) Your answer must include the following points:
• UNCCD
• Year of the conference
• Member countries
2) Your answer must include the following points:
• Geographical area
• Dry land area
• Areas under different bio-climatic realms
3) Your answer must include the following points:
• Unsustainable Agricultural Practices
40
Threats • Unsustainable Water Management Practices
• Land conversion for other uses
• Deforestation
• Industrial and mining activities
• Demographic pressures - human and livestock
4) Your answer must include the following points:
• Wind erosion
• Water erosion
• Salinity-Alkalinity
• Water logging
5) Your answer must include the following points:
• Biodiversity and depletion of vegetative cover
• Climate change
• Human & Livestock Population Pressures
• Soil Erosion
• Soil Fertility
• Over-abstraction of Ground Water
• Inefficient Water Management
• Decline in Life Quality
• Migration: Local, regional and national
6) Your answer must include the following points:
• Provisioning of water
• Fixating the soil
• Soil and restoration
• Alternate livelihood options
• Integrated Watershed management programmes
• Multiple use of dry land resources
41
Desertification
UNIT 3 DISASTERS
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Disasters: Definition and Types
3.2.1 Natural Disasters
3.2.2 Man-made Disasters
3.3 India’s Vulnerability to Hazards and Disasters
3.4 Effects of Major Disasters
3.5 Fundamental Aspects of Disaster Management
3.6 Enhancing Resilience and Reducing Vulnerability to Disasters
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.8 Key words
3.9 References and Suggested Further Readings
3.10 Key to Check Your Progress
3.0 INTRODUCTION
A natural hazard is a geological, meteorological, hydrological, volcanic or seismic
phenomenon, or other processes that occur in the natural environment. Disaster
is the effect of hazards such has floods, cyclones, earthquakes, disease outbreaks
etc. They affect the environment, threaten social health and lead to physical,
social and economical losses depending upon the resilience and the capacity of
the population to resist the disaster. Natural and man-made disasters have impacted
on people since early civilization. They have influenced, shaped and modified
human behaviour towards environment. Thereby, changing the way people live
and respond to the ongoing event in their immediate surroundings.
India has been traditionally vulnerable to the geophysical and hydro-
meteorological disasters on account of its unique geo-climatic conditions and
particularly long coastline, about 7600 km. Moreover, the floods, droughts,
cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been recurrent phenomena in India.
More than 30 million people are affected by disasters every year in India. It is the
poor and the under-privileged who are worst affected by disasters particularly
due to their locational disadvantage and economic defenselessness. Their
resilience to bounce back to pre-disaster level of normality is highly limited. The
imminent threat, however, is from a vicious spiral among environmental
degradation, poverty and natural disasters interacting in a mutually reinforcing
manner. These, in turn, retard sustainable development, and also wipe out any
small gains made thereof (Kesavan and Swaminathan, 2006). Disaster
management occupies an important place in India’s policy framework particularly
to support preparedness, provide relief in case of emergency, and implement
strategies to reduce disaster losses.
42
Threats3.1 OBJECTIVES
At the completion of this unit you should be able to:
• define natural and man-made disasters;
• explain the immediate, short and long term effects of major disasters;
• describe the different components of disaster management;
• analyze important strategies for disaster reduction; and
• highlight preparedness and resilience building for working of a sustainable
system.
3.2 DISASTERS: DEFINITION AND TYPES
A disaster is an ecological disruption located in time and space which produces
conditions whereby, the continuity of structure and process of social units becomes
problematic. It is an event or series of events which seriously disrupts normal
activities. It occurs when hazard meets vulnerability. It adversely impacts human
and environment on an overwhelming scale and require outside support to restore
normalcy. WHO defines Disaster as “any occurrence that causes damage,
ecological disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and health
services, on a scale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from outside
the affected community or area”. In this respect, proper strategies of preparedness,
mitigation and prevention of disasters are necessary to be implemented in order
to reduce adverse environmental impacts and loss of life and property.
Disasters are classified in various ways such as natural and man made sudden
disasters and slow onset disasters, one time extreme disasters and disasters in
day to day life (Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Classification of Environmental Disasters.
Environmental Hazards and Disasters
Natural Disasters Man-induced Disasters
Planetary Disasters Extra Planetary Disasters Physical Disasters
Chemical Disasters
Biological Disasters
Terrestrial or Endogenous hazards
Atmospheric or Exogenous hazards
Volcanic eruptions
Earthquakes
Landslides
Earthquakes Landslides Soil erosion
Release of toxic chemicals
Nuclear Explosions
Pandemics Epidemics, disease outbreaks
Abnormal or Infrequent Events
Cumulative Atmospheric Disasters
Floods Droughts Cold Waves Heat Waves
Cyclones Hailstorms Lightning
Social Disasters
Terrorism and war
43
Disasters3.2.1 Natural Disasters
Natural disasters refer to the geological or weather related event caused by natural
forces that often has a significant effect on human populations. Natural disasters
can further be categorized under planetary disasters and extra-planetary natural
disasters. Examples of such events are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes,
floods, forest fires, droughts etc.; all these can devastate human lives, property
and environment. The resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population to
endure or resist the disaster, and their resilience.
• Landslides and avalanches: Landslides and avalanches are defined according
to the size or type of debris generated, distance moved, speed of flow and
underlying geology. They refer to the discrete down slope movement of
rock and soil masses under gravitational influence along a failure zone.
Movement caused by gravity may be gradual, which may lead to the tilting
of trees, poles etc. Landslides usually occur in mountainous areas. Although
the action of gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur,
there are other contributing factors affecting the original slope stability.
Typically, pre-conditional factors build up specific sub-surface conditions
that make the area/slope prone to failure, whereas the actual landslide often
requires a trigger before being released. A landslide may move soil in amounts
ranging from a few cubic meters to several cubic kilometers, which may
block a stream, creating a new lake, or cover a small town or highways.
Example: Landslides in August 1999 buried scores of people in Rudraprayag,
Ukhimath and parts of Dehradun. Mappa village in Pithoragarh district was
completely wiped. Death due to landslides is reported from hilly and
mountainous areas regularly, e.g. landslides disasters met by the pilgrims
on the annual trek to Kailash mansarovar.
• Earthquakes: Stress in the earth’s crust can cause solid rock to deform
elastically until it suddenly fractures and is displaced along the fracture,
producing a fault. The faulting or a later abrupt movement on an existing
fault is an earthquake that causes the ground to vibrate or shake. Earthquakes
set up shock waves that radiate out from the centre of movement. The focus
is the point of initial movement and the epicenter is the point on the surface
directly above the focus. The primary effects of Earthquakes include shaking
and sometimes permanent vertical or horizontal displacement of the ground.
These effects may have serious consequences for people and properties.
Secondary effects of Earthquakes include various types of mass wasting,
urban fires, and flooding due to subsidence of land. Earthquakes can cause
extensive damage. An Earthquake’s impact cannot be predicted, it depends
on its magnitude, intensity, duration, ground movement frequency, geological
and soil conditions and the time of occurrence, it also depends on the factors
like local population density and quality of structures. Example: The
devastating earthquake of Gujarat in 2001, registering 7.9 on the Richter
scale, killed more than 20,000 people, injured 167,000 and left 600,000
homeless. It was the second largest recorded earthquake in India, the largest
being in 1737, and was the worst natural disaster in India in more than 50
years.
• Volcanic eruptions: Volcanic eruption is another example of natural terrestrial
disaster. Volcanoes are vents or openings, in Earth’s surface through which
melted rock, called magma and gases are expelled. Volcanic eruptions can
44
Threats be disasters and damage the ecosystems of the surrounding area extensively
because they destroy human settlements, agricultural farms, kill people and
animals and destroy property. Enormous quantities of dust and ashes emitted
into the sky during volcanic eruptions have been associated with weather
and climatic changes at regional and global levels. It is also believed that
volcanic eruptions and fallouts of dusts and ash and accompanying acid
rain cause large scale destruction of plants and animals and also extinction
of a few. On the other hand volcanic eruptions can also be boons to human
settlement as they provide rich soils for agricultural purposes. Today, there
are more than 600 active volcanoes around the world. Most of these are
located in an area called “The Ring of Fire”. The Ring of Fire forms a ring
like pattern of volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean.
• Floods: Flooding is the inundation of extensive land area with water for
several days in continuation. Flood is an attribute of physical environment
and this is a component of hydrological cycle of a drainage basin. It is a
natural phenomenon and is a response to rainfall but it becomes a disaster
when it causes colossal loss to human lives and property. Floods are also
aggravated by human activity and thus flood disaster is both natural as well
as man induced rather than man accentuated phenomenon. Heavy rainfall
for long period in continuation is the root cause of river floods. Blocking of
natural flow of the rivers by landslides caused by earthquakes, and other
natural and anthropogenic factors and clearance of such blockades causes
sudden severe flash floods in the downstream sections of the river. Similarly,
breaches in the dams constructed across the river also cause devastating
floods downstream. The most notorious rivers of the world in terms of
devastating floods and resultant damage to natural environment and loss of
human lives and property are the Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi,
Krishna, Godavari, Narmada, Luni, Mahi etc.
• Tsunamis: Tsunami is a Japanese word meaning “Harbor Waves”. They are
Ocean waves produced by Earthquakes or underwater landslides. It is actually
a series of waves that can travel at speeds from 400-600 mph in the open
ocean. Unusual wave heights of 10-20 ft high can be very destructive and
cause many deaths and injuries. Most deaths caused by Tsunamis are because
of drowning. The areas of greatest risks to Tsunamis are the low lying areas
i.e. less than 25 feet above sea level and those within 1 mile of the shore
line. Apart from loss of lives, other associated risks to Tsunamis include
flooding, contamination of drinking water, fires from ruptured gas lines and
tanks and loss of vital community infrastructure. Additionally, adverse
environmental conditions left by the Tsunamis may contribute to the
transmission of the diseases like diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis,
typhoid, malaria, plague etc. from contaminated food and water as well as
from disease vectors. Recent example from India is the Tsunami of 26th
December 2004, in which about 17,000 people lost their lives.
• Cyclonic Storms: The term “cyclone” refers to all classes of storms with
low atmospheric pressure at the centre, are formed when an organized system
of revolving winds, clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere, anti-clockwise
in the Northern Hemisphere, develops over tropical waters. Tropical cyclones
are variously called in different parts of the globe as Hurricanes in the North
Atlantic Ocean, Typhoons in the North Pacific Ocean, Cyclones in India
and Bangladesh and Willy Willy in Australia. Cyclones are classified on the
45
Disastersbasis of the average speed of the wind near the centre of the system as
tropical depression with wind speed upto 61 km/hr, Tropical storm when
the wind speed is between 61 km/hr - 115 km/hr and Hurricanes when the
wind speed is greater than 115 km/hr. A hurricane is a low pressure, large
scale weather system which derives its energy from the latent heat of
condensation of water vapor over warm tropical seas. A mature hurricane
may have a diameter ranging from 150 to 1000 km with sustained wind
speeds often exceeding 180 km/hr near the centre with still higher gusts. A
unique feature of a hurricane is the Eye. The eye provides a convenient
frame of reference for the system, and can be tracked with radar, aircraft or
satellite. The Saffir/Simpson1 scale is often used to categorize hurricanes
based on their wind speed and damage potential. Five categories of hurricanes
are recognized - Minimal, Moderate, Extensive, Extreme and Catastrophic.
The destructive potential of a hurricane is significant due to the high wind
speeds, accompanying torrential rains which produce flooding, and storm
surges along the coastline. Example: The strongest and most notorious
cyclone it the Andhra coast on May 9, 1990. It was 25 times stronger and
more disastrous than the deadliest cyclone of November 1977, which claimed
the lives of thousands of people.
• Droughts and Famine: Droughts are more deadly natural environmental
disaster as it is directly related to the basic essentials for supporting life –
water - and indirectly related to food because crops and other plants and
animals exclusively depend upon water. Droughts are periods when less
rainfall occurs than in the average year and they are parts of the natural
weather cycle in many parts of the world. A Drought exists when rainfall is
70% below average for at least 21 days. Droughts resulting from
accumulative effects of water scarcity cause extensive and enormous damage
to agriculture and natural vegetation and therefore cause famine and
starvation of human and animal population of the affected region. Droughts,
apart from being a natural event can also be caused by human activities.
Overgrazing and deforestation can decrease rainfall in downwind areas.
Global climatic changes also affects rainfall pattern. This in turn creates
excessive flooding in some areas and Droughts in others. The various effects
of droughts are: (i) decrease in stream flow, (ii) drop in the ground water
table, lakes, streams and reservoirs, (iii) loss of agricultural crops, (iv) loss
of wild life, especially aquatic organisms, (v) increased forest fires and (vi)
considerable human discomfort and life loss. Drought affects 67 districts,
25 percent of the total cropland and 12 percent people of India. The zones
worst affected by severe droughts includes larger tracts in the states of
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and
southern Uttar Pradesh.
3.2.2 Man made Disasters
Any environmental degradation induced by man becomes hazard and disaster
when it assumes alarming proportion and causes irreparable loss to human society.
1 The Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale (SSHS), or the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale
(SSHWS), classifies into five categories distinguished by the intensities of their sustained
winds. To be classified as a hurricane, Category 1, a tropical cyclone must have maximum
sustained winds of at least 74 mph. The highest classification in the scale, Category 5, is
reserved for storms with winds exceeding 155 mph.
46
Threats Man made disasters is caused through variety of human activities both of
intentional and unintentional character.
• Fire and accidents: Bush fires, forest fires, and mine fires are generally
started by lightning, but fire accidents can also be caused due to human
negligence or criminal intention to cause damage (arson). They can burn
extensive areas and kill people. If a fire intensifies enough to produce its
own winds, it will form into a firestorm. A good example of a mine fire is
the one near Centralia, Pennsylvania. Started in 1962, it ruined the town
and continues to burn today. Jharia coal mines in Jharkhand/India, is still
burning. Casualties resulting from fires, regardless of their source or initial
cause, can be aggravated by inadequate emergency preparedness. Such
hazards as a lack of accessible emergency exits, poorly marked escape routes,
or improperly maintained fire extinguishers may result in many more deaths
and injuries than might occur with such protections. Accidents, including
road, rail and aviation mishaps turn disastrous when it involves substantial
loss of life and property. One of the more devastating events occurred in
1977 on the island of Tenerife of the Canary Islands, when
miscommunications between and amongst air traffic control and an aircrew
caused two fully loaded jets to collide on the runway, killing over 500
passengers. The most devastating is the disaster of 2001, when two separate
United Airlines planes hit the World Trade Center minutes apart. The total
number of fatalities includes passengers and crew on both planes and those
killed on the ground tolled to 2907 people. A railroad disaster is an occurrence
associated with the operation of a passenger train which results in substantial
loss of life. One of the most devastating rail disasters occurred in 2004 in
Sri Lanka when 1,700 people died in the Queen of the Sea train accident.
Other notable rail disasters in India are the 1981 Bihar train disaster, where
more than 500 people died when a train falls into a river. In the Firozabad
rail disaster of 1995, where 350 people were killed as Delhi-bound
Purushottam Express rammed into the stationary Kalindi Express.
• Chemical and nuclear mishaps: Dumping of toxic chemical substances in
the ground may become hazardous to subsequent colonization of the area.
Spilling of immense quantity of crude oil from oil tankers into sea water
cause rapid rate of spreading of oil slicks which create havoc for marine
organisms and the human population faces the shortage of food supply. A
great marine disaster was created because of leakage of 100,000 tons of
crude oil from a huge oil tanker which struck the Spanish coast near the
port of La Coruna and exploded on May 12, 1976. The oil slicks killed most
of the sea organisms meant for human food such as mussels, oysters and
clams and the oil slicks were carried as far away as the Caribbean Sea by
ocean currents. Another incident of leakage of crude oil occurred on June,
24, 1989, when 5,000,000 tones of crude oil leaked from an oil tanker into
Atlantic Ocean. When nuclear weapons are detonated or nuclear containment
systems are otherwise compromised, airborne radioactive particles (nuclear
fallout) can scatter and irradiate large areas. Not only is it deadly, but it also
has a long-term effect on the next generation for those who are contaminated.
Ionizing radiation is hazardous to living things, and in such a case much of
the affected area could be unsafe for human habitation. During World War
II, United States troops dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki. As a result, the radiation fallout contaminated the
47
Disasterscities’ water supplies, food sources, and half of the populations of each city
were stricken with disease. The Soviet republics of Ukraine and Belarus are
part of a scenario like this after a reactor at the Chernobyl nuclear power
plant suffered a meltdown in 1986. To this day, several small towns and the
city of Chernobyl remain abandoned and uninhabitable due to fallout. The
Bhopal gas poisoning is an extreme example of chemical mishap where
over 30,000 people were killed and the ill effects are still persisting.
• Epidemics and Pandemics: Epidemic is an outbreak of an illness or disease
in which the number of individual cases significantly exceeds the usual or
expected number of cases in any given population. Epidemics are also
aftereffects of natural disasters like earthquake, cyclone, droughts and famine.
In 1994, a pneumonic plague epidemic broke out in Surat, Gujarat, where it
resulted in 52 deaths and a large internal migration of about 300,000
residents, who fled fearing quarantine. A combination of heavy rainfall and
clogged sewers creating unhygienic condition further aggravated the problem
and precipitated the epidemic. The early 2009 hepatitis-B outbreak was an
epidemic that spread in Modasa, northern Gujarat owing to the negligence
of medical doctors, who were accused of re-using syringes, which had been
contaminated with hepatitis-B virus, to treat other patients. Over 125 people
were infected and up to 49 people were killed in that epidemic. A pandemic
is an illness or disease outbreak of global proportions. It happens when a
novel virus emerges among humans - it causes serious illness and is easily
human transmissible (spreads easily from person-to-person). As people today
are highly internationally mobile, the pandemic virus would spread rapidly
around the world. Moreover, several months would be needed before any
vaccine became available because pandemic viruses are new ones.
Additionally, there would be sudden and potentially considerable shortages
of personnel to provide vital community services as the illness became
widespread threatening life. An excellent example of a disease which has
reached pandemic proportions is the outbreak of swine Influenza in 2009
and AIDS/HIV virus in 2008 till date. Human obesity, certainly less fatal
but causes numerous health problems, has risen so drastically worldwide
that it is now being considered a pandemic.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Explain with example the difference between hazard and disaster.
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48
Threats 2) What is natural Disaster and explain India’s vulnerability to them?
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3) Briefly explain man made disaster and give an example from India.
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3.3 INDIA’S VULNERABILITY TO HAZARDS AND
DISASTERS
Natural disasters, particularly of geophysical and hydro- meteorological origin
such as floods, droughts, earthquakes, cyclones and cloud bursts have been
recurrent phenomena in India, which affects about 3 crore people every year.
About 60% of the landmass in India is prone to earthquakes of various intensities;
over 40 million hectares is prone to floods; about 8% of the total area is prone to
cyclones and 68% of the area is susceptible to drought.
On the basis of geographic and climatic considerations, India can be divided
into five zones according to its disaster proneness to natural events;
1) Northern mountain region including foot hills - this region is prone to strong
snow storms leading to Land-slides and strong cold waves and also is
Earthquake prone belt with violent subterranean volcanic activity
2) Indo-Gangetic plains - heavy rains during monsoon make these plains
vulnerable to Floods
3) Deccan plateau - a Drought prone area
4) The western desert - a Drought prone area
5) Coastal areas - they are prone to Sea erosion, Cyclones and Tidal waves
3.4 EFFECTS OF MAJOR DISASTERS
Disasters throughout history have had significant impact on the environment,
numbers, health status and life style of populations of the affected region. Disasters
have immediate, short and long term effects. Immediate and short term effects
are usually the Tangible impacts that include direct financial costs due to the
damages, whereas the long term effects which are more long lasting includes
also includes the Intangible impacts which are more abstract such as stress, loss
of photographs and other memorabilia. Current research indicates that the
intangible impacts are often of greater concern than tangible impacts, even though
tangible impacts can be very costly.
49
DisastersSome of the common effects of all disasters include:
• Deaths
• Severe injuries, requiring extensive treatments
• Increased risk of communicable diseases
• Damage to the health facilities
• Damage to the water systems
• Food shortage
• Population movements
The health problems common to all disasters are:
• Social reactions
• Communicable diseases
• Population displacements
• Climatic exposure
• Food and nutrition
• Water supply and sanitation
• Mental health
• Damage to health infrastructure
Natural disasters will continue to occur. However, human efficiency and
carefulness can be effective in reducing the man induced disasters. Moreover,
proper management of an economy racked by disasters of either nature is essential
to reduce the misery of affected population which mostly includes the poor and
under privileged.
3.5 PHASES OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Disaster Management includes all the activities, strategies, programmes and
measures which can be taken up before, during and after a disaster with the
purpose to avoid a disaster, reduce its impact or recover from its losses. The four
fundamental aspects of disaster management are preparedness, response, recovery
and mitigation (Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2: Major Aspects in Disaster Management Cycle.
50
Threats These aspects correspond to the three phases in the Disaster Cycle, which are:
a) The Pre-Disaster phase - involving activities for risk reduction before a
Disaster occurs;
b) The Disaster Occurrence phase - involving relief activities undertaken during
an emergency and;
c) The Post-Disaster phase involving recovery activities undertaken in response
to a disaster with a purpose to achieve early resurgence and rehabilitation of
the affected communities.
• Preparedness: The objectives of the disaster preparedness is to ensure that
appropriate systems, procedures and resources are in place to minimize loss
of life, disruption of critical services, and damage when the disaster occurs
and to provide prompt, effective assistance to disaster victims, thus
facilitating relief measures and rehabilitation services. Disaster preparedness
is an ongoing process to carry out the following activities; (i) evaluate the
risk of the country or particular region to disasters, (ii) adopt proper safety
standards and regulations, (iii) organize communication, information and
warning systems, (iv) ensure coordination and response mechanisms, (v)
adopt measures to ensure that financial and other resources are available for
increased readiness and can be mobilized when disaster occurs, (vi) develop
public education programs, (vii) co-ordinate information sessions with news
media, (viii) organize disaster simulation exercises that test response
mechanisms and (ix) organize health sectors disaster preparedness plan and
outline clear mechanisms for coordinating with other sectors and
internationally. Pre-disaster preparedness and efforts to minimize
environmental damage is the key to poverty reduction, ecological security
and mitigation and management of weather- and water-related natural
disasters. This in turn supports sustainable development by reducing the
impact of human activities on environment.
• Response: Disaster response includes the mobilization of the necessary
emergency services and first responders in the disaster area. This is likely to
include a first wave of core emergency services, such as firefighters, police
and ambulance crews. It may commence with search and rescue but in all
cases the focus will quickly turn to fulfilling the basic humanitarian needs
of the affected population. This assistance may be provided by national or
international agencies and organizations. A well rehearsed emergency plan
developed as part of the preparedness phase enables efficient coordination
of rescue and relief. On a personal level the response can take the shape
either of a shelter in place or an evacuation, either by automobile or on foot.
Organizational response to any significant disaster - natural or human
induced- is based on existing emergency management organizational systems
and processes. There is a need for both discipline (structure, doctrine, process)
and agility (creativity, improvisation, adaptability) in responding to a disaster.
Combining that with the need to onboard and build a high functioning
leadership team quickly to coordinate and manage efforts as they grow
beyond first responders indicates the need for a leader and his or her team to
craft and implement a disciplined, iterative set of response plans. This allows
the team to move forward with coordinated, disciplined responses that are
vaguely right and adapt to new information and changing circumstances
51
Disastersalong the way. Effective coordination of disaster assistance is often crucial,
particularly when many organizations respond and local emergency
management agency (LEMA) capacity has been exceeded by the demand or
diminished by the disaster itself.
• Recovery: The aim of the recovery phase is to restore the affected area to its
previous state and it starts after the immediate threat to human life after the
disaster, has subsided. Recovery activities differ from the response activities
in its focus; recovery efforts are concerned with issues and decisions that
must be made after immediate needs are addressed. Recovery efforts are
primarily concerned with actions that involve rebuilding destroyed property,
rehabilitation, re-employment, and the repair of other essential infrastructure.
Efforts should be made to “build back better”, aiming to reduce the pre-
disaster risks inherent in the community and infrastructure. An important
aspect of effective recovery efforts is taking advantage of a ‘window of
opportunity’ for the implementation of mitigation measures that might
otherwise be unpopular. Citizens of the affected area are more likely to
accept more mitigation changes when a recent disaster is in fresh memory.
• Mitigation: It is virtually impossible to prevent occurrence of most Natural
Disasters, but it is possible to minimize or mitigate their damage effects.
Mitigation embraces measures taken to reduce both the effect of the hazard
and the vulnerability in order to reduce the scale of a future disaster. Therefore
mitigation activities can be focused on the hazard itself or the elements
exposed to the threat. The mitigation phase differs from the other phases
because it focuses on long-term measures for reducing or eliminating risk.
Examples of mitigation measures which are hazard specific include water
management in drought prone areas, relocating people away from the hazard
prone areas and by strengthening structures to reduce damage when a hazard
occurs. In addition to these physical measures, mitigation also aims at
reducing the economic and social vulnerabilities of potential disasters. The
implementation of mitigation strategies can be considered a part of the
recovery process if applied after a disaster occurs. Mitigation measures can
be structural or non-structural. Structural measures use technological
solutions, like flood levees. Non-structural measures include legislation,
land-use planning (e.g. the designation of nonessential land like parks to be
used as flood zones), and insurance. Mitigation is the most cost-efficient
method for reducing the impact of disasters; however it is not always suitable.
Mitigation does include providing regulations regarding evacuation,
sanctions against those who refuse to obey the regulations (such as mandatory
evacuations), and communication of potential risks to the public. Some
structural mitigation measures may have adverse effects on the ecosystem.
The Mitigation Program will direct the following activities: (i) identify areas
exposed to Natural Hazards and determine the vulnerability of key elements
- health facilities and water systems etc., (ii) co-ordinate the work of Multi
Disciplinary teams in designing and developing safety standards etc., (iii)
hospitals must remain operational to attend to disaster victims and have
additional space to manage the high number of medical casualties, (iv)
include Disaster Mitigation Measures in the planning and development of
new facilities, (v) identify priority hospitals and critical health facilities that
comply with current building codes and standard, (vi) ensure that mitigation
measures are taken into account in a facility’s maintenance plans, (vii)
52
Threats inform, sensitize and train those personnel’s who are involved in planning,
administration, operation, maintenance and use of disaster mitigation
facilities and (viii) promote the inclusion of Disaster Mitigation in the
curricula of Professional training institutes.
3.6 ENHANCING RESILIENCE AND REDUCING
VULNERABILITY TO DISASTERS
Vulnerability is a product both of physical exposure to hazards and of a
community’s capacity to cope with and recover from its impacts i.e., its resilience.
For the poor and marginalized social communities, access and control over
resources are important determinants of vulnerability and resilience, shaping
both their exposure to hazards and their capacity to cope with and recover from
disasters. Resilience means being able to bounce back to normalcy after disaster.
It is surely not just absence of vulnerability. It refers directly to the ability to
function with the spectrum of risks and indirectly to the capacity of people,
communities, agencies, in the first place to prevent and mitigate losses and then
secondly, if damage occur to maintain normal living conditions as far as possible
and manage recovery from the impact.
Holling, 1995, rightly expressed the relation between vulnerability and resilience
in the terms “vulnerability comes from loss of resilience”. Resilience depends
on, among other things, the effectiveness of the risk response and the capability
to respond in the future. Although the capacity to response is clearly an attribute
of the system as a whole that exists prior to the event, it gets operational or
functional only when the event strikes or the stress exceeds tolerance. Responses
then are needed for coping with the contingencies and improving the condition
itself as well as for enhancing their capacity to respond in future. Good
governance, diverse option availability and accessibility, awareness, education
and communication at regional level, local coping strategies, positive social
networking, and sustainable economy are all elements to enhance capabilities
and thereby strengthen resilience.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) What are the common effects of all disasters and which type of preparedness
activities can be helpful in reducing them?
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Disasters2) Discuss the different phases in disaster management cycle with suitable
example.
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3) Explain the meaning of resilience and its importance in reducing vulnerability.
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3.7 LET US SUM UP
• Rapid growth of population and its increased concentration often in marginal
areas and hazardous environment has escalated both the frequency and
severity of natural and man-made disasters. Apart from the anarchic
population growth, the major and complex emergencies are closely linked
to unplanned population settlement and poverty.
• Lack of preparedness, insufficient minimum health services and lack of basic
health education are aggravating factors that can make a disaster out of a
hazard or an emergency and a complex emergency out of social tension.
• Natural hazards such as hurricanes, tsunamis and earthquakes can lead to
disasters when they strike vulnerable communities. Disasters results in
significant morbidity, mortality and economic loss.
• Disaster management involves eliminating the preventable consequences
of the disaster, reducing losses to life and property and restore normalcy in
the affected area as soon as possible.
• Pre disaster preparedness is highly needed in all possible cases of extreme
events in order to reduce losses. E.g. preparedness to take advantage of
good monsoons for agricultural production and developing alternate
contingencies for aberrant monsoons are also important to reduce the losses
that are caused by famine.
• There is a strong need for a paradigm shift from post-disaster relief to pre-
disaster preparedness through technological and knowledge empowerment
of the vulnerable social group. Furthermore, disaster preparedness must be
integrated with elements and pathways of sustainable development in a
‘bottom-up’ and participatory manner.
54
Threats3.8 KEY WORDS
Disaster : WHO defines Disaster as “any occurrence that causes
damage, ecological disruption, loss of human life,
deterioration of health and health services, on a scale
sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from
outside the affected community or area”.
Flooding : It is the inundation of extensive land area with water
for several days in continuation.
Tsunamis : They are Ocean waves produced by Earthquakes or
underwater land-slides.
Man-made disasters : Any environmental degradation induced by man
becomes hazard and disaster when it assumes
alarming proportion and causes irreparable loss to
human society.
3.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER
READINGS
Alexander, D. 1993. Natural Disasters, Research Press, New Delhi: 619p.
Bryant, E.A. 1991. Natural Hazards, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge:
294p.
Chapman, D. 1994. Natural Hazards, Oxford University Press, Melbourne: 174p.
Smith, K. 1996. Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster,
2nd edition, Routledge, London; 389p.
Kesavan, P.C and Swaminathan, M.S. 2006. Managing extreme natural disasters
in coastal areas. In: Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A, 364, 2191-2216.
Kesavan, P.C and Swaminathan, M.S. 2011. Sustainable Rural Development for
Disaster Risk Reduction. In: Anil K. Gupta and Sreeja S. Nair edited
“Environmental Knowledge for Disaster Risk Management”. Natl. Inst. Disaster
Management, ekDRM Secretariat, IIPA campus, New Delhi.
3.10 KEY TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) Your answer should include the following points:
• Definition of natural hazards and disaster
• Relation between hazard and disaster
2) Your answer should include the following points:
• Definition of natural disaster
• India’s proneness to natural disaster
3) Your answer should include the following points:
• Definition of man-made disaster
55
Disasters• Bhopal Gas Tragedy
Check Your Progress 2
1) Your answer should include the following points:
• Tangible and intangible effects of major disasters
• Disaster preparedness activities
2) Your answer should include the following points
• Phases of Disaster Management Cycle
• Preparedness
• Response
• Recovery
• Mitigation
3) Your answer should include the following points:
• Vulnerability
• Resilience
• Coping capabilities
56
Threats
UNIT 4 BIOPIRACY
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.1.1 Biological Invasion/Invasive Alien Species
4.1.1.1 Ecological and Economical Impacts
4.1.1.2 Few Examples
4.1.2 Biological/Germ Warfare
4.1.3 Biological Terrorism
4.1.4 Biopiracy
4.1.4.1 Indigenous Ecological Knowledge / Ttraditional Knowledge System and
Biopiracy
4.1.4.2 Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL)
4.1.4.3 Some Examples of Biopiracy of Traditional Knowledge
4.1.4.4 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and its Provisions
4.1.4.5 Indian Rules and Regulations Regarding Biological Resources and
Biopiracy
4.1.4.6 Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
4.2 Let Us Sum Up
4.3 Key Words
4.4 References and Suggested Further Readings
4.5 Key to Check Your Progress
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Biological threats or biothreats, a source of hazard to humankind and political
stability, involve various aspects such as biological invasion / invasive alien
species, bioterrorism, biological weapons, biological warfare, biopiracy, etc. The
impacts of each of these aspects on the environment are multifarious and are at
times interrelated. Of these threats, bioterrorism came into general public view
after the 2001 attack on the United States by the usage of anthrax. Communities
such as arms control, defence, scientific, law enforcement, public health, medical
and industry are on the front lines in combating biological threats. These
communities have different cultures, assumptions, priorities, and even languages.
Thus, biothreats (biowarfare agents and bioterrorism) need to be identified on
the spot. Now there are quite a few tools perform such functions and identify the
encountered suspect materials. For e.g. sandwich immunoassay employed at the
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), and BioPen (Lab-in-a-Pen)
by Ben Gurion University, Israel. Each subsection below describes and elaborates
about various categories of biothreat.
4.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you should be able to:
• describe the various aspects of biothreats;
• explain invasive alien species its threat to India’s biodiversity and sustainable
development;
57
Biopiracy• highlight the biological weapons and their ecological impacts; and
• analyze the importance of Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL).
4.1.1 Biological Invasion/ Invasive Alien Species
The most frequently used definition for invasive species implies to the non-
indigenous, non-native, alien species of plants or animals that adversely affect
the habitats. These species occur outside their natural adapted ranges and dispersal
potential. In general, species that are not the native ones are known as invasive /
alien species. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN) defines Alien Invasive Species as an alien species that becomes
established in natural or semi-natural ecosystems or habitat, an agent of change,
and threatens native biological diversity. Species become invasive when they
are introduced outside their natural habitat intentionally or unintentionally where
they express themselves, get established, invade and outcompete native species
thus resulting into biodiversity loss, disfunctioning of ecosystem, etc.
Invasion is one of the major factors for the decline in global biodiversity. Alien
invasive species introduced into the country whether by design or default can
cause catastrophe to native species, water bodies, etc. Even though an invasive
species is defined as an introduced species, some of the native species also may
increase in number due to natural events or alterations thus becoming invasive.
Apart from plants, insects, pest and mammals are also known to invade the
agricultural/ crop fields, leading to habitat alteration and destruction. Nevertheless,
plants, mammals and insects comprise the most common types of invasive alien
species in terrestrial environments. On the contrary, many alien / exotic species
support agriculture and forestry system.
Alien invasive species may affect and invade the region economically,
environmentally, and/or ecologically. Due to the differences in resource utilisation
pattern between native and exotic plant species, these species may change soil
structure, decomposition, nutrient status, etc. The invasion by these species is at
a large scale that ultimately suppresses the growth of other existing species. The
species then eventually gets spread invaded all over the area. The suppression in
growth of other existing species may be due to the production of allelopathins.
For e.g. leaves and pericarp of Prosopis juliflora, an invasive alien species, is
known to show allelopathic effect thus, resulting in loss of plant diversity. The
leaves and pericarp of this species are known to contain water-soluble
allelopathins, which are capable of inhibiting seed germination thus retarding
growth of the associated species. The species is also known to contain phenolic
compounds, which after senescence does not promote the growth of other species.
Invasive species also have specific traits, which are in such a combination that
promote / allow the species to compete with the existing native species. Certain
species due to their capability of relatively fast growth, coppicing ability,
widespread habitat, adaptability, dispersal ability and reproduction to native
species become invasive in nature. Invasive species can outcompete native species
for nutrients, light, space / niche overlap, water or food.
4.1.1.1 Ecological and Economical Impacts
Ecological impacts of invasion by either floral or faunal species are manifolds.
Already disturbed habitats are more prone to invasions thus leading to adverse
58
Threats effects / impacts on the ecosystem and its functioning. The best example of this
is that of Eichhornia crassipes, water hyacinth, an aquatic plant species that
proliferates twice within 2-3 days under the suitable climatic conditions. This
wetland species is considered as a pest in wetlands of several countries. In India,
the species was found in mass in wetlands of Keoladeo National Park (KNP),
Bharatpur, Rajasthan. The wetland was dominated by this species, which in the
later stage affected the fauna as well as flora in the aquatic area. The species
formed thick mats over the water surface thus hampering the penetration of
sunlight required for the organisms in water. In the same wetland one invasive
fish species, Clarias gariepinus, Thailand Magur, was also recorded which fed
on other small fishes in the park’s wetland. Later both the species were cleared /
removed manually from the wetland in order to avoid ecosystem imbalance and
maintain the importance of this world heritage site.
The unwanted, weed plants, directly influence the yield due to its impact on
nutrients, etc. On the other side, the unintentional introduction of forest pest
species and plant pathogens can alter forest ecology and affect the timber industry
negatively. For example the Asian long-horned beetle (Anoplophora
glabripennis), introduced into U.S. during 1996, infected and damaged millions
of acres of hardwood trees. Other examples are plant pathogens such as the
Chestnut blight fungus (Cryphonectria parasitica) and Dutch elm disease
(Ophiostoma novo-ulmi) which seriously affect the forest health. Invasive species
are also likely to have much impact on recreational activities. On the other hand,
by and large, the economic benefits of invasive alien species are numerous which
is many a time ignored and only their negative impacts / effects are taken into
account. E. crassipes even though leads to drastic changes and losses in wetland
ecosystem functioning is a well known plant species in the science of remediation.
The species is helpful in the removal of heavy metals from the sediments. Many
of the invasive plant species thrive very fast and are resistant to diseases. Their
large biomass makes them an important source of fuel generation. For many
invasive species, there are commercial benefits, either existent or capable of
being developed. Lantana camara is an invasive plant species, which is used for
making furniture, fruit / flower / vegetable baskets, etc. Prosopis juliflora is
another invasive species, which has enormous potential to provide livelihood
options to communities. Different parts of this plant offer different services and
benefits, and hence can be put into a different type of use. Its pods can be used to
make biscuits; main trunk can be used for making furniture; branches can be
used as fodder; whole plant can be used for making charcoal, as it offers high
calorific value charcoal.
4.1.1.2 Few Examples
• Eichhornia crassipes: The species originated from South America, one of
the worst aquatic weeds in the world, is a very fast growing plant. The plant
has large, purple and violet flowers, which make it a popular ornamental
plant for ponds. As discussed in section 4.1.1.1. E. crassipes (water hyacinth)
blocks the water flow and forms thick mats over the water surface under
adequate climatic conditions. Thus, it prevents the sunlight to pass through
the water and formation of oxygen for the fishes, submerged plants, insects,
etc. Thus, it affects the biodiversity of the region and results in mass mortality
of fishes, etc.
59
Biopiracy• Chromolaena odorata: It is a fast-growing perennial shrub, native to South
America and Central America. The species was introduced into the tropical
regions of Asia, Africa and the Pacific. It forms dense stands thus competing
with the establishment of other plant species. The species is very aggressive
and known to have allelopathic effects.
• Prosopis juliflora: It is a shrub / small tree indigenous in dry lands of western
South America, Mexico, and the Caribbean, and has become established as
a weed in Asia, Australia and elsewhere. In India, it was intentionally
introduced to Rajasthan and Gujarat some 140 years ago, driven by concerns
of desert encroachment and for dry land livelihoods. Since then Prosopis
has rapidly spread currently inhabiting most dry lands, thus covering some
40% of the land of India. This spread has brought about significant changes
in the structure and function of India’s dry land ecosystems and in the benefits,
people derive from these ecosystems (namely “ecosystem services”). Some
services have been regionally or locally augmented, such as soil conservation
and firewood provision, and others have been degraded, such as livestock
forage provision and the support of biodiversity. It finds use as forage, wood
and environmental management. It shows vigorous coppicing growth and
its root penetrate the soil deeply for water. The species if managed properly
is a good source of fuel. The pods of this species are rich in sugar out of
which biscuits are made. P. juliflora in India is both an Invasive Alien and a
Cultivable species, and this duality apparently calls for a concern. Article
8(h) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), of which India is a
contracting Party since 1994, directs that “Each contracting Party shall, as
far as possible and as appropriate, prevent the introduction of, control or
eradicate those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or
species”. Cultivation of an alien species is thus incompatible with controlling
and eradicating it. However, the large swaths of areas and ecosystems
inhabited and inhabitable by Prosopis are not uniform, neither with respect
to the ecosystem services degraded by Prosopis, nor with respect to those
services it has already promoted and/or it is projected to promote. Since
“ecosystem services” are benefits people derive from ecosystems, and since
these benefits contribute to their well-being, it is proposed that depending
on the ecosystems and depending on the people that depend on them,
Prosopis would be treated either as an invasive alien species or as a cultivable
one, and will be accordingly managed, to achieve either eradication, control,
or cultivation.
4.1.2 Biological/Germ Warfare
Biological / germ warfare implies to the use of disease-causing biological agents
(e.g. fungi, bacteria, viruses, etc.) intentionally in order to kill or harm humans,
other animals or plants. These live germs refereed as biological weapons or bio-
weapons reproduce within the host and are of various categories depending upon
the requirement and target group size (an individual, group or population). Some
of these germs warfare may be lethal or non-lethal and they may be developed,
acquired, stockpiled or deployed by nation states or by non-national groups. The
use of toxins produced by living organisms is considered under the provisions of
both the Biological Weapons Convention and the Chemical Weapons Convention.
Hence, many a time’s both (biological warfare and chemical warfare) are
considered as one. However, these toxins unlike the biological germs do not
reproduced within the host.
60
Threats Based on the requirement the biological weapon needs to have certain
characteristics. Below given are some of the characteristics of biological weapons.
• Anti-personal: Such a bio-weapon need not be individual specific and targets
a bigger group. Hence, the major characteristics of anti-personal biological
weapons targeting humankind are high infectivity, potency, no vaccination,
and aerosol. The well known example of such a bio-weapon is anthrax,
which forms hard spores fit for dispersal as aerosols. Contrary to this the
second pneumonic (lung) infections of anthrax generally does not cause
secondary infections in other people. Thus, the effect of the agent is usually
confined to the target. The details about anthrax are being discussed in
bioterrorism.
• Anti-agriculture: These types of bio-weapons specifically target / destroy
the plant species or defoliate vegetation. These species are likely to attack
the animals around the area thus intended to eliminate animal resources for
transportation and food. The Agent Orange was used by U.S. and Britain
army during the Second World War in order to attack and destroy the livestock
and farmland of the opponent. Herbicides based on plant growth regulators
(herbicides) are also sometimes considered as biological germ warfare and
were much used in Malaya and Vietnam in counter protection.
• Biodefence: All the bio-weapons involve animal virus, etc. with an exception
of smallpox, which is a source of disease in humans. Thus, in use of biological
weapons, it is very likely that animals will fall ill either simultaneously
with, or perhaps earlier than humans. The goal of bio-defence is to integrate
the sustained efforts of the national and homeland security, medical, public
health, intelligence, diplomatic, and law enforcement communities.
4.1.3 Biological Terrorism
Bioterrorism is a term, which means deliberate dissemination of biological agents
such as bacteria, viruses, or toxins, that may be occurring naturally or in a human
modified form and can be used in biological warfare. Bioterrorism is a sort of
biological weapon that is much cheaper and widespread. Biological terrorism,
eventually becoming a threat is one amongst the various biological warfare agents.
Of these agents, biological toxins are fast acting with no incubation period for
manifestation of toxic effects. In the recent past such weapons have been used in
various sectors however, in the military, bioterrorism has certain reservations
due to its characteristic of mass disturbance. Hence, they cannot be restricted to
the target alone. Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus is one amongst so many
biological weapons, which affects the economy and not the person in general.
Based on the requirements these bio-weapons / agents of bioterrorism can be of
three types as discussed below
• Category A: These agents impose risks of high priority, easy to be transmitted,
with high mortality rate, cause major health impact. Such agents cause high
panic in the public with special attention for public health. To quote a few
examples are Taluaremia, anthrax, smallpox, botulinum toxin, etc. Anthrax
is non-contagious, caused by the spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis.
It was firstly used during 1916 as a modern biological warfare by
Scandinavian “freedom fighters” supplied by the German General Staff
against the Imperial Russian Army in Finland. However, during 1993 the
61
Biopiracyattempt of using the anthrax failed. Later during 2001, anthrax was used in
a series of attacks on the offices of several United States Senators in a
powdered form and delivered by the post.
• Category B: Agents of this category are easier to disseminate with low
mortality rates. Few examples are Brucellosis (Brucella species), Melioidosis
(Burkholderia pseudomallei), Psittacosis (Chlamydia psittaci), Q fever
(Coxiella burnetii), Ricin toxin from beans of Ricinus communis, Abrin
toxin from Abrus precatorius, Staphylococcal enterotoxin B, Typhus
(Rickettsia prowazekii), Viral encephalitis (alphaviruses, e.g. Venezuelan
equine encephalitis, eastern equine encephalitis, western equine encephalitis),
Water supply threats (by Vibrio cholera, Cryptosporidium parvum).
• Category C: These are the pathogens, which have not yet been discovered
fully and are under emergence with high mortality or a major health impact,
easy to produce and disseminate. Examples of Category C type of
bioterrorism agents are Nipah virus and Hantavirus.
4.1.4 Biopiracy
Science and invention are the two sides of a coin, which can never be segregated.
Human being has always nurtured, modified and passed on the cultural knowledge
from one generation to the next as a part of their moral responsibility thus keeping
the culture always alive for ages. Traditional knowledge has an important role in
day-to-day need thus making it important from cultural identity point of view.
Knowledge about the use of plant and animal species in treatment of diseases
remains a mile-stone in the medicinal field. Noble inventions in science have
always been welcomed and encouraged as in return the inventor receives a reward
for the noble discovery and information. This led to the introduction of patent
system by several countries so as to encourage and motivate the inventors for
inventing useful and innovative products for the benefit of the society.
All these patents seem to be in vein as many provisions are being modified in
their implementation at the request of multinational companies (MNCs). Even
the information which is not innovative and does exist previously are being
granted patent in many countries. The changes in rules have been made just to
satisfy the economic aspirations of big MNCs. However, we forget that the MNCs
have always been in a hurry to get control of valuable bio-products and are seeking
patents on everything. This has implications for biopiracy because the US patent
system allows the grant of patents on products derived from indigenous
knowledge. Thus, biopiracy is the name given to the unauthorized use of biological
material and indigenous knowledge. Biopiracy “refers to the use of intellectual
property systems to legitimize the exclusive ownership and control over biological
resources and biological products and processes that have been used over centuries
in non-industrialized culture”. It is an imitation of indigenous knowledge, by the
striking similarity between their traditional use and the modern patented use.
Thus, the patented uses are not new rather mere replication of existing indigenous
knowledge.
4.1.4.1 Indigenous Ecological Knowledge/Traditional Knowledge System
and Biopiracy
The use and continuous development of plant varieties by local farmers, their
sharing and diffusion, and the knowledge associated with them, play an essential
62
Threats role in agricultural systems in developing countries. Traditional knowledge is
essential to the food security and health of millions of people in the developing
world. Additionally, knowledge of the healing properties of plants has been the
source of many modern medicines. The traditional knowledge about indigenous
species and their use in treatment of diseases has lead to miraculous researches/
information in biologically active molecules. With the use of this traditional
knowledge, several diseases can be cured. However, on the sadder part the ideas
and the traditional knowledge are becoming more and more susceptible to
exploitation, it becoming easily accessible. Traditional knowledge includes both
the codified (documented) as well as non-codified information (not documented
but may be orally transmitted). The stealing of this knowledge is much easier as
the information is available mostly in regional language, which becomes a barrier
for the patent offices to search the information prior to granting patents thus,
leading to biopiracy. The reliability of the traditional medicine systems coupled
with the absence of such information with patent offices, provides an easy
opportunity for interlopers for getting patents on these therapeutic formulations
derived from traditional medicine systems. The grant of patents on non-patentable
knowledge (related to traditional medicines), which is either based on the existing
traditional knowledge of the developing world, or a minor variation thereof, has
been causing a great concern to the developing world. In many of these cases,
the country had to fight for revocation of the granted patents, which is not a
feasible option possible as it involves huge money and time.
4.1.4.2 Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL)
India has faced several threats of biopiracy for e.g. turmeric, neem and basmati
rice. In 1999, following the ultimately successful, but expensive, Indian challenge
of the turmeric and basmati patents granted by United States & Patent Office
(USPTO), it was agreed that the Indian National Institute of Science
Communication (NISCOM) and the Department of Indian System of Medicine
and Homoeopathy (ISM&H) would collaborate to establish a Traditional
Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL). Patent examiners, in the international patent
offices, while examining the patentability of any claimed subject matter, use
available resources for searching the appropriate non-patent literature sources.
Patent literature, is usually present in several distinctive databases and is easily
searched unlike the non-patent literature Therefore, a need was felt to create
more easily accessible non-patent literature databases on traditional knowledge
in India. Hence, Government of India has taken an initiative of translating and
publishing ancient manuscripts regarding traditional knowledge in electronic
forms. Thus, during 2001 the TKDL was set up with an aim of protecting India’s
heritage from exploitation by foreign companies. This includes about 1200
formulations of various systems of Indian medicine (Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani
and Yoga) available in public domain which are being recorded from Arabic,
Persian, Sanskrit, Tamil and Urdu. They are available in digitized format in various
languages: English, French, German, Japanese and Spanish. Yoga poses also
remain a part of its giant collection. The library has also signed agreements with
leading international patent offices such as European Patent Office (EPO), United
Kingdom Trademark & Patent Office (UKPTO) and the United States Patent
and Trademark Office to protect traditional knowledge from biopiracy as it allows
patent examiners at International Patent Offices (IPO) to access TKDL databases
for patent search and examinations purposes. Traditional Knowledge Resource
Classification (TKRC), an innovative structured classification system for the
63
Biopiracypurpose of systematic arrangement, dissemination and retrieval was evolved for
about 5,000 subgroups against few subgroups available in International Patent
Classification (IPC), related to medicinal plants. The information is being
structured under section, class, subclass, group and subgroup as per the
International Patent Classification (IPC) for the convenience of its use by the
international patent examiners. Information comprising about two lakh
formulations has been transcribed for realizing the objective of TKDL Project.
In TKDL, digitized format the Slokas are saved in the database and each one is
read and converted into a structured language using TKRC by subject experts.
The codes are then filled into the data entry screen. The translated version of all
the TKRC codes is ported in the database. The codes once saved in Meta data
directory are converted in different languages based on Unicode technology. The
converted format of the formulation is readable and can be understood by a
layman though it is targeted towards a patent examiner. Software also converts
traditional terminology into modern terminology, for example, Jwar to fever,
Turmeric to Curcuma longa, Mussorika to small pox etc. TKDL includes a search
interface providing full text search and retrieval of traditional knowledge
information on IPC and keywords in multiple languages. The search features
include single or multiple word searches, complex Boolean expression search,
Proximity search, Field search, Phrase search, etc in the form of simple and
advance search options. Simple search lets the user search a combination of
keywords. TKDL thus acts as a bridge between formulations existing in local
languages and a Patent Examiner at a global level, since the database will provide
information on modern as well as local names in a language and format
understandable to Patent Examiners.
4.1.4.3 Some Examples of Biopiracy of Traditional Knowledge
Few very common examples of biopiracy of traditional knowledge are discussed
below:
• Turmeric (Curcuma longa Linn.): The rhizomes of turmeric are used as a
spice in Indian kitchens. The species can be used effectively in medicines,
cosmetics and dyes and has been traditionally used to heal wounds and
rashes. In 1995, two expatriate Indians at the University of Mississippi
Medical Centre were granted a US patent on use of turmeric in wound
healing. The Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), India, New
Delhi filed a re-examination case with the USPTO challenging the patent
on the grounds of existing of prior art. CSIR argued that turmeric has been
used for thousands of years for healing wounds and rashes and therefore its
medicinal use was not a novel invention. Their claim was supported by
documentary evidence of traditional knowledge, including ancient Sanskrit
text and a paper published in 1953 in the Journal of the Indian Medical
Association. The US Patent Office revoked this patent in 1997, after
ascertaining that there was no novelty; the findings by innovators having
been known in India for centuries.
• Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.): Neem extract is known for its anti-pest
and anti-fungal properties. The neem oil extracted from its seeds can be
used to cure cold and flu. In 1994, European Patent Office (EPO) granted a
patent to the US Corporation W.R. Grace Company and US Department of
Agriculture for a method for controlling fungi on plants by the aid of
64
Threats hydrophobic extracted Neem oil. In 1995, a group of international NGOs
and representatives of Indian farmers filed legal opposition against the patent.
Thus, the patent granted on Neem was revoked by the EPO in May 2000.
• Basmati Rice (Oryza sativa Linn.): Rice Tec. Inc. had applied for registration
of a mark “Texmati” before the UK Trade Mark Registry. One of the
documents relied upon by Rice Tec as evidence in support of the registration
of the said mark was the US Patent granted by US Patent Office to Rice Tec.
This US utility patent was unique in a way to claim a rice plant having
characteristics similar to the traditional Indian Basmati Rice lines and with
the geographical delimitation covering North, Central or South America or
Caribbean Islands. Evidence from the IARI (Indian Agricultural Research
Institute) Bulletin was used against these claims. The evidence was backed
up by the germplasm collection of Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad
since 1978. CFTRI (Central Food Technological Research Institute) scientists
evaluated the various grain characteristics and accordingly the claims were
attacked based on the declarations submitted by CFTRI scientists on grain
characteristics. Eventually, a request for re-examination of this patent was
filed during 2000. Soon after filling the re-examination request, Rice Tec
chose to withdraw claims. Biopiracy of traditional knowledge is not limited
to India alone. In fact, there have been several examples from other countries
where traditional knowledge biopiracy has become a concern. Some of these
examples are given below:
• Kava (Piper methysticum Forster): Kava is an important cash crop in the
Pacific and is valued as an important beverage. In North America and Europe,
Kava is now promoted for a variety of uses. French company L’Oreal - a
global giant with US $10 billion a year in sales - has patented the use of
Kava to reduce hair loss and stimulate hair growth.
• Ayahuasca (Banisteriopsis caapi Mort.): For generations, Shamans of
indigenous tribes throughout the Amazon basin have processed the bark of
B. caapi Mort. to produce a ceremonial drink known as Ayahuasca. The
Shamans use Ayahuasca to diagnose and treat illness, meet with spirits, and
divine the future. American, Loren Miller obtained US Plant Patent, granting
him rights over an alleged variety of B. caapi Mort., which he had collected
from a domestic garden in Amazon and had called “Da Vine”, and was
analyzing for potential medicinal properties. The patent claimed that Da
Vine represented a new and distinct variety of B. caapi Mort., primarily
because of the flower colour. The Coordinating Body of Indigenous
Organisations of the Amazon Basin (COICA), which represents more than
400 indigenous tribes in the Amazon region, along with others, protested
about a wrong patent that was given on a plant species. On re-examination,
USPTO revoked this patent. However, the inventor was able to convince
the USPTO, the original claims were reconfirmed and the patent rights
restored to the innovator.
• Hoodia (Hoodia gordonii (Masson) Sweet ex Decne): The Hoodia, a
succulent plant, originates from the Kalahari Desert of South Africa. For
generations it has been known to the traditionally-living San people as an
appetite suppressant. In 1995, South African Council of Scientific &
Industrial Research (CSIR) patented Hoodia’s appetite-suppressing element
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Biopiracy(P57) and hence, its potential cure for obesity. The San people eventually
learned of this exploitation of their traditional knowledge, and in 2001,
launched legal action against South African CSIR and the pharmaceutical
industry on grounds of biopiracy. They claimed that their traditional
knowledge has been stolen, and the South African CSIR had failed to comply
with the rules of the Convention on Biodiversity, which requires prior
informed consent of all stakeholders, including the original discoverers and
users. The South African CSIR claimed that they have planned to inform
the San of the research and share the benefits, but wanted to make sure that
the drug proved successful. The two sides entered into negotiations for a
benefit-sharing agreement, despite complications regarding who should be
compensated: the person who originally shared the information, their
descendants, the tribe, or the entire country. However, during 2002, a
landmark was reached in which the San would receive a share of any future
royalties.
4.1.4.4 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and its Provisions
Drafting of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was initiated in 1980s
and finalized at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. In all 150 government leaders signed
the Convention on Biological Diversity during 1992. In order to safeguard the
biological diversity the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
convened the Ad Hoc Working Group of Experts on Biological Diversity during
1988 to explore the need for an international convention on biological diversity.
The experts were to take into account the need to share costs and benefits between
developed and developing countries as well as ways and means to support
innovation by local people. This work was over during 1992 with the Nairobi
Conference for the Adoption of the Agreed Text of the Convention on Biological
Diversity. The Convention was opened for signature from 5 June 1992 until 4
June 1993 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(the Rio “Earth Summit”). In this duration, the Convention was signed by 168
signatory. The Convention entered into force on 29 December 1993, which was
90 days after the 30th ratification. The first session of the Conference of the
Parties was scheduled for during 1994 in the Bahamas.
The Convention recognizes that biological diversity is about more than plants,
animals and micro-organisms and their ecosystems – it is about people and our
need for food security, medicines, fresh air and water, shelter, and a clean and
healthy environment in which to live. It deals with the conservation and
sustainable use of biodiversity, and with access to biological diversity and sharing
of the benefits arising from this access. National policies development, plans
and legal regimes designed to protect a country’s genetic heritage as well as the
exploitation of biotechnologies were included. CBD states (inter alia) that nations
have sovereign rights over their genetic resources and these can only be removed
subject to prior informed consent.
4.1.4.5 Indian Rules and Regulations Regarding Biological Resources and
Biopiracy
India is a major biodiversity country with: Two hotspots (the Western Ghats and
the Eastern Himalayas); ten biogeographic regions; two realms (Paleoartic and
Indio-Malayan); and three biomass (tropical humid forests, tropical dry/deciduous
forests, and the warm deserts and the semi-arid deserts). Thus, from the
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Threats patentability point of view India holds much more important micro-organisms.
The country covers 2.4% of the world’s land area accounting for 7.3% of the
global fauna. The country is considered the origin of 30,000 to 50,000 varieties
of crops and holds 5 world heritage sites and 12 biosphere reserves. The Indian
Parliament has passed on a biodiversity law that seeks to make it more difficult
for foreign companies to exploit India’s biological resources. The government
has made a three-level regulatory structure that provides important safeguards
against misuse of India’s biological resources by multinational corporations thus,
protecting and conserving its traditional knowledge.
According to these rules an imprisonment of up to 5 years or a fine of US$20,000
would be imposed on those who export biological resources for research or
commercial use, who seek patents abroad on inventions based on Indian biological
resources, or who transfer the results of Indian research on biological resources
abroad without approval. The law is based on the equitable sharing of benefits
from these resources by local communities. The bill provides the framework to
regulate the transfer of Indian resources and knowledge and to reduce biopiracy.
4.1.4.6 Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
The World Trade Organization (WTO), 1995 as a successor to the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade-1947 (GATT 1947), governs multilateral trade
among Members. The WTO follows the principle of non-discrimination, based
on the twin concepts of Most Favoured Nation (MFN) and national treatment
between Members. It administers the implementation of a set of agreements,
which include the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), other
agreements in the goods sector (e.g., agriculture, textiles, sanitary and psycho-
sanitary measures, Trade Related Investment Measures-TRIMs, anti-dumping,
etc.), and in addition, agreements in two other areas, viz., trade in services, and
Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). The TRIPs was added to the
GATT treaty during 1994 at Uruguay Round of trade negotiations. Thus, after
this the GATT became the basis for the establishment of the WTO. Overall, The
TRIPS agreement introduced intellectual property law into the international
trading system. The TRIPs Agreement tries to bring in uniformity in the standards
of intellectual property rights among the WTO irrespective of their development
status. While this is expected to result in technology transfer and flow of
investment among the Members, the extent of benefits accruing will depend on
domestic industries and the status of development of the countries.
The TRIPS Agreement is a minimum standards agreement, which allows members
to provide more extensive protection of intellectual property. According to TRIPS
Agreement, all the countries have to provide patent for protection of product
patents from 1st January 1995 onwards. However, for developing countries, a
transition period of 10 years (until 1st January 2005) was provided and for least
developed countries, the transition period was extended to 2016. During this
transition period, it was decided that these economies would accept applications
for patents (which would be considered and granted after January 2005) and
provide EMR (Exclusive Marketing Rights) for the producers of patented drugs
(in the pharmaceutical industry) and agrochemicals.
• Doha declaration, 2001: The November 2001 Doha Declaration on the
TRIPS Agreement and Public Health was adopted by the WTO Ministerial
Conference of 2001 in Doha on November 14, 2001. It reaffirmed flexibility
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Biopiracyof TRIPS member states in circumventing patent rights for better access to
essential medicines. In Paragraphs 4 to 6 of the Doha Declaration,
governments agreed that:
Para – 4: The TRIPS Agreement does not and should not prevent Members
from taking measures to protect public health. Accordingly, while reiterating
our commitment to the TRIPS Agreement, we affirm that the Agreement
can and should be interpreted and implemented in a manner supportive of
WTO Members’ right to protect public health and, in particular, to promote
access to medicines for all. In this connection, we reaffirm the right of WTO
Members to use, to the full, the provisions in the TRIPS Agreement, which
provide flexibility for this purpose.
Para – 5: Accordingly and in the light of paragraph 4 above, while
maintaining our commitments in the TRIPS Agreement, we recognize that
these flexibilities include:
a) In applying the customary rules of interpretation of public international
law, each provision of the TRIPS Agreement shall be read in the light
of the object and purpose of the Agreement as expressed, in particular,
in its objectives and principles.
b) Each Member has the right to grant compulsory licences and the freedom
to determine the grounds upon which such licences are granted.
c) Each Member has the right to determine what constitutes a national
emergency or other circumstances of extreme urgency, it being
understood that public health crises, including those relating to HIV/
AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and other epidemics, can represent a
national emergency or other circumstances of extreme urgency.
d) The effect of the provisions in the TRIPS Agreement that are relevant
to the exhaustion of intellectual property rights is to leave each Member
free to establish its own regime for such exhaustion without challenge,
subject to the MFN and national treatment provisions of Articles 3 and 4.
Para – 6: We recognize that WTO Members with insufficient or no
manufacturing capacities in the pharmaceutical sector could face difficulties
in making effective use of compulsory licensing under the TRIPS Agreement.
We instruct the Council for TRIPS to find an expeditious solution to this
problem and to report to the General Council before the end of 2002.
These provisions in the Declaration ensure that governments may issue
compulsory licenses on patents for medicines, or take other steps to protect public
health.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1) Define biopiracy. Give examples where India has faced threats of biopiracy.
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Threats 2) What is biological warfare? Describe the different characteristics.
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4.2 LET US SUM UP
• Biothreat definition
• Invasive alien species
• Biological warfare / bioterrorism
• Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL)
• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and its provisions
• Indian rules and regulations regarding biological resources and biopiracy
• Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
4.3 KEY WORDS
Alien Invasive species : International Union for Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources (IUCN) defines Alien
Invasive Species as an alien species that becomes
established in natural or semi-natural ecosystems
or habitat, an agent of change, and threatens native
biological diversity.
Bioterrorism : It is a term, which means deliberate dissemination
of biological agents such as bacteria, viruses, or
toxins, that may be occurring naturally or in a
human modified form and can be used in
biological warfare.
4.4 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER
READINGS
Basmati Case Study (http:/ / www. american. edu/ ted/ basmati. htm)
Chaudhari, S. K. 2003. Microbial biopiracy in India: How to fight back? Journal
of Intellectual Property Rights. 8: 389-399.
4.5 KEY TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) Your answer should include the following points:
• Definition
• Examples from Basmati rice and Neem
2) Your answer should include the following points:
• Definition
• Characteristics (Anti-personal, Anti-agriculture, Biodefence)