UNIT II

MODELS AND THEORIES OF

PLANNED CHANGE The Father of OD’s change model

???????????????????

LEWIN’S CHANGE MODEL

Kurt Lewin introduced two ideas about change. The first idea stated that what is occurring at any

point in time is a resultant in a field of opposing forces that is status quo—Its because of two forces in opposite directions resulting in equilibrium point.

Lewin’s second idea was a model of change itself, He suggested that change is a three stage process,

Unfreezing-Changing-Refreezing Unfreezing-Changing-Refreezing ModelModel (Kurt Lewin) (Kurt Lewin)

Unfreezing• Reducing or eliminating resistance

to change by resolving fear and feelings about letting go of the “old.”

Changing (or moving on to a new level)

• Moving on to other things through active participation in the change process.

Refreezing• Encouraging recognition of

successful change and rewarding people for implementing the change.

EDGAR SCHEIN took this excellent idea and improved it by specifying the psychological mechanism involved in each stage:STAGE I: Unfreezing: Creating motivation and readiness to change through

Disconfirmation or lack of confirmation. Creation of guilt or anxiety. Provision of psychological safety.

STAGE II CHANGING: Help the client to see things, judge things, feel things and react to things differently based on a new point of view obtained through Identifying with a new role model, mentor, etc. Scanning the environment for new relevant

information.STAGE III REFREEZING : Helping the client to integrate the new point of view into:

The total personality and self concept. Significant relationships.

1. In stage one, unfreezing, disconfirmation creates pain and discomfort, which causes guilt and anxiety, which motivates the person to change. But unless the person feels comfortable with dropping the old behaviors and taking the new one, change wont occur.

2. In stage 2 Moving, the person undergoes cognitive restructuring. The person acquires information and evidence showing that the change is desirable and possible.

3. The primary task in stage 3, refreezing is to integrate the new behaviors into the person’s personality and attitudes. Ie stabilizing the required change.

The Change Process

The Change Process for, Organizations, and Individuals

Factors Affecting the Change Process

Capacity for change

Forces that positively influence change

Forces that negatively influence change

Theories that inform change

First-order or Continuous ChangeChange occurs without a disruption to the system. The system remains stable, and the equilibrium is maintained.

Second-order or Discontinuous Change

The equilibrium of the system is disrupted as the fundamental properties of the system are changed.

Change Theories and Strategies

Change Agentry

Participatory Change

Data-Driven Change

Force Field Analysis

The environment in which change occurs contains a force field.

Force Field Analysis

Driving Forces

Restraining Forces

Driving Forces

Driving forces move one toward the desired change.

Restraining Forces

Restraining Forces

Burke-Litwin Change Model

Classifying the Change

First-order or continuous change

Second-order or discontinuous change

Developed by Warner Burke and George

Litwin, shows how to create First order and Second order change

FOC = transactional, evolutionary,

adaptative change.

SOC= Transformational, revolutionary,

radical, discontinuous etc.

ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE: is People’s perceptions and attitudes about the Oz. Whether it is good, bad place to work, friendly or unfriendly etc, These are easy to change because they are built on employees’ reactions to current managerial and Oz practices.

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE: is defined as deep seated assumptions, values and beliefs that are enduring, often unconscious, and difficult to change. (Changing culture is very very difficult (not impossible) ).

TRANSACTIONAL LEADER: are leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the directions of established goals bny clarifying role and task requirement, a fair exchage between leader and follower that lead to “NORMAL PERFORMANCE”

TRANSACTIONAL FACTORS INVOLVED IN FIRST ORDER CHANGE

TRANSFORATIONAL LEADERS: are leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self interest for the good of the Oz and who are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on their followers, embody inspiration which lead to new heights of performance.

Changing structure, management practices, and systems causes changes in work unit climate. Which changes motivation and in turn individual and Oz performance, Transactional leadership is required to make this change in Oz climate.

SYSTEMS, POLICIES AND PROCEDURES

INDIVIDUAL NEEDS AND VALUES

TASK REQUIREMENTS AND INDIVIDUAL SKILLS

STRUCTURE

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

MOTIVATION

WORK UNIT CLIMATE

INDIVIDUAL AND OZ PERFORMANCE

TRANSFORMATIONAL FACTORS INVOLVED IN SECOND ORDER CHANGE

For second order change, we must change mission and strategy, leadership styles, and Oz culture, Interventions directed toward theres factors transforms the Oz and cause permanent chaining in Oz culture.

ORGAZINATIONAL CULTURELEADERSHIP

MISSION AND STRATEGY

EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

INDIVIDUAL AND OZ PERFORMANCE

Bruke himself said “THERE ARE 2 DIFFERENT SET OF OZ DYNAMICS, ONE SET AT TRANSACTIONAL LEVEL OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR TO CHANGE CLIMATE AND THE SECOND DYNAMIC RELATES TO SUDDEN HUMAN TRANSFORMATION “SUDDEN”.CONCLUSIONWe consider the BL model to be more advanced in thinking and planning change. OD practitioners size up the change situations, determine the change required T or T and then target interventions.

First-order or Continuous Change

Change occurs without a disruption to the system. The system remains stable, and the equilibrium is maintained.

Second-order or Discontinuous Change

The equilibrium of the system is disrupted as the fundamental properties of the system are changed.

SYSTEMS THEORY

SYSTEM ????

A SET OF CONNECTED ITEMS WHICH WORK TOGETHER

THEORY ????

A FORMAL STATEMENT OF RULES ON WHICH A STUDY IS BASED!!!

1. A second foundation of OD is the ST which views the Oz as open system(Catch me if u can)

2. Open system is one that receives input from the environment and releases output to the environment. Its dynamic, interactive with feedback style, whereas a Closed system is one where interactions occur only among the system components and not with environment.

3. Ludwign Von Bertalanffy first articulated the principles of general systems theory in 1950 and Katz and kahn were the first to apply open system theory to Oz in 1966.

Nature of Systems

Oz are open systems, thus studying open system

leads to a good understanding of Oz.

1. CHARACTERSTICS :All Oz are Input

throughput-output mechanism, take energy, info , money, people , raw material and so on, do something and transfer\export back to the environment in the form of outputs..

2. F

INTERNAL INTERFACE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

SOURCE OF ENERGYMATERIALINFO, MONEY, HR

INPUT TRANSFORMING MECHANISM

OUTPUT

USERS

Every system has a boundary, What is inside the boundary is the system and outside is the environment, Boundaries of open systems are permeable ie allow change of info resources and energy between the system and environment.

3. Open system has a purpose and goal, the

reason for existence.

4. The law of entropy states that all systems

“run down” and disintegrate unless they reverse the entropic process by importing more energy than they use.

5. Info is very imp for the System, Negative

feedback or deviation correction feedback measures whether the output is on course with the purpose, Positive feedback or deviation amplifying feedback measures whether or not the purpose and goals are aligned with the environments need.Info must be filtered, Ex a Fast food company is

interested in nutrition, eating fads, competitiors etc and not aerospace mining, crude oil etc.

6. An open system is steady state or dynamic

homeostasis ie they achieve a state of equilibrium point and seek to maintain this. “Kahn states, “The basic principal is the preservation of the system”.

7. Equifinality, the principle that thaere are

multiple ways to arrive at a particular goal, subsystems exists within larger systems.

HOW SYSTEMS THEORY USED BY OD PRACTIONERS

David Nadler and team at Delta Consulting

Group developed the congruence model for understanding Oz dynamics.

Two major variations of Open Systems theory

are

OUTPUT

SYSTEM

UNIT

INDIVIDUAL

INPUT

ENVIRONMENT

RESOURCES

HISTORY

INFORMAL OZ

PEOPLE

WORKFORMAL OZSTRAT

EGY

1. Sociotechnical System theory: Every Oz

consists of 2 systems, social system and technical system and change in one effects the other.Successful implementation include autonomous work groups, multiskilled teams, controlling variance at source etc,

2. Open system planning: Scanning the

environment to know the expectations, developing futurestic strategies, and developing action plan.

TOGETHER EVERYONEACHIEVES

MORE

What is a team???

A team comprises a group of people or animals linked in a common purpose. Teams are especially appropriate for conducting tasks that are high in complexity and have many interdependent subtasks.

A group in itself does not necessarily constitute a team. Teams normally have members with complementary skills and generate synergy through a coordinated effort which allows each member to maximize his or her strengths and minimize his or her weaknesses. Team members need to learn how to help one another, help other team members realize their true potential, and create an environment that allows everyone to go beyond their limitations.[1]

Team size, composition, and formation

Team size and composition affect the team processes and outcomes. The optimal size (and composition) of teams is debated and will vary depending on the task at hand. At least one study of problem-solving in groups showed an optimal size of groups at four members. Other works estimate the optimal size between 5-12 members.[citation needed] Fewer than 5 members results in decreased perspectives and diminished creativity. Membership in excess of 12 results in increased conflict and greater potential of sub-groups forming.

Many teams go through a life-cycle of stages, identified by Bruce Tuckman as: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning.

TYPES

1. interdependent team 2. independent team :

3. Self-managed teams

4. Project teams

5. Sports teams

6. Virtual teams

Teams and teamwork are among the hottest

things happening in Oz today gurus extol the virtues of teams, , teaming and team related acronyms abound SDT Self Directed Teams, QC Quality Circles, HPO High Performance Teams, HPWSs High Performance Work Systems., STS Sociotechnical Systems, to name just a few.

Who fights victorious wars??? INDIVIDUALS

OR TEAMS

Why the US, NATO, multinational forces not

able to defeat the Taliban in Afghanistan in spite of the best of military hardware??

Does just a single bee sting kill a man???

What about the most successful person whom u

know???

Teams are important for a number of reasons

First__ Most of Id ( INDIVIDUALS) behaviour is rooted in the sociocultural norms and values of the work team.

Second__ Many tasks are so complex they cannot be performed by Id.

Third__Teams create synergy 1=1 = 11

CONCLUSION: Teams have always been an important foundation of OD, now there is a growing awareness of the teams unique ability to create synergy, respond quickly and flexible to problems, find new ways to get the job done, and satisfy social needs in the workplace.

WE ALL REMEMBER THE STORY OF THE OLD FARMER AND SEVEN SONS WHOME HE GIVES ONE STICK EACH TO BREAK……………..

PARALLEL LEARNING STRUCTURES

WHAT IS PARALLEL LEARNING STRUCTURE???

Parallel learning structures are specially created orgizational structures for planning, guiding change programs, constitutes another important foundation of OD.

WHO USED THE TERM FIRST???

Dale Zand introduced this concept in 1974 under the label collateral Organization. And defined it as “ A supplemental Oz co existing with the usual, for ill-structured” problems the formal Oz is unable to resolve.

Gervase Bushe and Abraham used the term Parallel learning structures to refer to this structural interventation. PLS are a mechanism to facilitate innovation in large bureaucratic Oz where the forces of inertia, hierarchical, communication patters and standard ways of addressing problems inhibit learning, innovation and change”

IN SHORT, “PLS ARE A VEHICLE FOR LEARNING HOW TO CHANGE THE SYSTEM, AND THEN LEADING THE CHANGE PROCESS.”

WHAT IS THERE IN A PLS????

, and monitor the change efforts,

Additional refinements include having a steering committee plus idea groups, action groups, work

groups, or implementation groups, with the group serving specific functions designed by the steering committee.

One or more top executive should be member of the steering committee to give the PLS authority, legitimacy, and clout.

According to Bushe and Shani, “The key thing about PLS is that they create a bounded space and time for thinking, talking, deciding, and acting differently than normally takes place at work. If you don’t implement different norms and procedures, you don’t have PLS.

WHAT DO PLS DO????

PLS help people break free of the normal constraints imposed by the Oz, engage in genuine inquiry and experimentation, and initiate needed changes.

High performances Oz often use PLS to coordinate self directed teams. At Ford Motor Company, a steering committee and working groups were use to coordinate the employee involvement teams.

Learning is a life long process

SO DOES OD BELIEVES AND USES THIS PRINCIPLE?????

ANSWER: YES!!!!

HOW????

THROUGH, NORMATIVE-REEDUCATIVE STRATEGY OF CHANGING

OD involves change. And the CA (Change

Agent) uses a particular strategy for change.

Chin and Benne describe three types of

strategies for Changing.

Empirical rational strategy is based on the

assumption that people are rational, will

CHANGING STRATEGIES BY

CA

EMPIRICAL RATIONAL STRAGEY

NORMATIVE REEDUCATIVE STRATEGY

POWER COERCIVE STRATEGY

follow their rational self-interest. And will change if and when they come to realize change is advantageous to them.

Normative Reeducative Strategy is based on

the assumption that norms form the basis for behavior, and change comes through reeducation in which old norms are discarded and supplanted by new ones.

Power-coercive strategy is based on the

assumption that change is compliance of those who have less power with the desires of those who have more power.

Evaluated against these 3 change strategies,

OD clearly falls within the normative-reeducative category, although often OD represents a combination of the NR and ER strategies.

EXAMPLE:Suppose the Salk Polio vaccine has just been invented , tested and cleared for public use and that you are in charge of disseminating it to the public,

1. Acc to Empirical Rational way, you would assume that rational people would use the vaccine if only they had info about it available and its efficacy, your plan therefore would be to disseminate the info and everyone would use it.

2. Acc to normative reeducative way, you would do additional things While u don’t disregard peoples intelligence, cultural norms, vales , and beliefs that must be changed like, All new drugs are dangerous until they have been in market for ten years, My neighbor Mr. Khan isn’t going to use it, Well no one in my family till now has ever had polio so im not afraid of getting it and don’t need to be educated. You would mount both an education campaign about te new drug and a reeducation campaign to change people’s norms and values.

3. According to Power coercive way, you would be straightforward: You would pass a law stating that all persons must get vaccinated and you would enforce the law, people would take the vaccine.

According to Chin and Benne, a normative reeducation strategy has the following implications for the CA ( Change Agent)

1. OD is based primarily on normative reeducation strategy and secondarily on the rational empirical strategy.

2. The client system member defines what changes and improvements they want to make, rather than the OD practitioner.

3. The CA intervenes in a collaborative way with the clients and together they define problems and seek solutions. Anything hindering effective problem solving is bought to light and examined, doubts anxieties and negative feelings are surfaced for working through.

4. Solutions to problems are not a poorly assigned to greater technical info but may resied in

values, attitudes, relationships and customary ways of doing things.

5. Because norms, values and beliefs can best be changed by focusing on the group not on individuals, Burke writes: If one attempts to change an attitude or the behavior of an individual without attempting to change the same attitude in the group to which the Id belongs, then the Id will be a deviate and either will come under pressure form the group to get back into line or will be rejected entirely.

The foundation of OD relates to the primary knowledge base of the field, behavioral science knowledge. OD is the application of behavioral

APPLIED BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE

science knowledge, practices, and skills in ongoing systems in collaboration with system members.

WHY STUDY APPLIED BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE?????????

The aim is to look briefly at how behavioral science knowledge becomes applied behavioral science knowledge and used by the CA!!!

PURE SCIENCE: or basic science, the object of this is knowledge for its own sake, just to know more!!!

And OD emphasizes the latter!!! The problem that confronts a practitioner is customarily a state of disequilibrium that requires rectification. The practitioner examines the problem situation on the basis of which he or she prescribes a solution that hopefully reestablishes the equilibrium, thereby solving the problem.

OD is both a result of applied behavioral

science and a form of applied behavioral science.

Technology, applied science or practice, the object of which is knowledge to solve practical, pressing problems

CONTRIBUTION FROM BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE THEORY

1. Increase the productivity and performance of the employees

2. Help in analyzing and predicting the behavior of the employees while they work.

3. The importance of social norms and values in assessing the perceptions motivations and behavior of people in an Oz.

4. The importance and role of accounting for equilibrium and change in behavior of the employee

5. The impact of social cognitive theory of learning impact of reward and punishment and the use of change theories in understanding Oz culture.

CONTRIBUTION FROM BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE RESEARCH:

1. Research on variables relevant for Oz health.

2. Study about the impact of Ozal and managerial climate on the leadership behavioral and style

3. Studies about the group dynamic, cooperative and competitive group goal structures on causes and discrepancies of conflicts within the groups.

4. Studies on the effects of Ozal and managerial climate on leadership style

5. Studies on different communication networks causes and consequences of conformity, group problem solving and group dynamics.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM PRACTICE THEORY:

1. Theory and practice of laboratory training methods.

2. New thoughts and ideas about education process.

3. Advancement in consultation types and theories.

4. Using the concept of MBO.

5. Effects from theories of group development and helping the relationship of the client and consultants of the Oz.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM PRACTICE RESEARCH:

1. The use of feedback system promotes the Oz change.

2. Outcomes from action research studies and guiding how the Oz can change.

3. Results of behaviors modeling training to develop the human skills.

4. Outcomes showing the importance of informal workgroups and applying long term efforts in improving the Oz.

CHECK WHAT IS APPLICABLE TO SPECIFIC SITUATION? WHAT HELPS ME TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM???

APPLIED BEHAVIOUR SCIENCE

PRACTICE THEORY

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE THEORY

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE RESEARCH

CHECK, WHAT WORKS WHAT FITS? WHAT HELPS ME TO SOLVE THE REAL PROBLEMS??

PRACTICE RESEARCH

ACTION RESEARCH

AND OD

1. Action research attempts to meet the dual goals of making action more effective and building a body of scientific knowledge around that action.Action here refers to programs and interventions designed to solve problems and improve conditions in an Oz.

2. Lets know the two faces of Action Research

AS A PROCESS

AS A PROBLEM SOLVING

APPROACH3. Action research is a process as it’s an ongoing

series of events and actions. 4. Definition: PROCESS “Action Research is the

process of systematically collecting research data about an ongoing system relative to some objective, goal, or need of that system, feeding these data back into the system, taking actions by altering selected variables within the system based both on the data and on hypotheses, and evaluating the results of actions by collecting more data.”

Definition: APPROACH “:Action Research is the application of the scientific methods of fact-finding and experimentation to practical problems requiring actions solutions and involving the collaboration and cooperation of scientists, practitioners, and laypersons”

ACTION RESEARCH MODEL OF OD PROCESS

CHECK WITH BEHAVIOURAL SCIENTIST (CHANGE AGENT, CA)

KEY MANAGERS PERCEPTIONOF PROBLEM

DISCUSS AND WORK ON DATA FEEDBACK AND DATA BY CLIENT

ACGTION (NEW BEHAVIOUR)

DATA GATHERING AND DIAGNOSIS BY CA

FURTHER DATA GATHERING

JOING ACTION PLANNING AND ACTION

FEEDBACK TO CLIENT GROUPS

FEEDBACK

DISCUSSION ON FEEDBACK AND NEW DATA AND ACTION PLANNING

ACTION

DATA GATHERING

DATA GATHERING {REASSESSMENT OF STATE OF THE SYSTEM}

1. The key aspects of the model are diagnosis, data gathering, feedback to the client group, data discussion and work by the client group, action planning and again ACTION!!!!

2. The sequence id cyclic with focus on new methods of problem solving

ACTION RESEARCH AS A PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH

OBJECTIVES

PLANNING

ACTION STEP 1

FACT FINDING

PLANNING

ACTION STEP 2

1. Action research as a problem solving approach, we see it as normative, with centrality of objectives and different role of CA vis-à-vis client.

2. Action research is linked to scientific method of inquiry, its collaborative relations among scientists, practitioners and laypersons, and a lot of rich data is derived.

3. According to Corney, the steps of action research are

a. The identification of problemb. Its selection and a clear procedure for reaching

it.c. Detailed recording of data in detail.d. The significance of the inferences of

generalization with regard to action and desired goals.

e. The continuous retesting of these generalizations in action situation.

EXAMPLE: PROBLEM: Problem of unproductive staff meetings, poorly attended, members with low commitment,YOU are the MANAGER of both the meetings and the staff and that you desire to make the meetings more productive, the steps you would take are:A. First step-gather data abt status quo.

B. Suppose the data is gathered, and the data suggests that the meetings are disliked and regarded as unproductive.

C. Next step is to search for causes of the problem and to generate one or more hypotheses from which you deduce the consequences and test.

D. You come up with FOUR hypotheses.

Staff meetings will be more productive if I solicit and use agenda topics from the staff rather using my own agenda.

NOTE THAT AN ACTION RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS CONSISTS OF TWO ASPECTS, A GOAL AND AN ACTION OR PROCEDURE FOR ACHIEVING IT.

Staff meetings will be more productive if I rotate the chair of te meetings among the staff rather than my always being the chairperson.

Staff meetings will be more productive if we hold them once a week rather than twice a week.

I have always run the staff meetings in a brisk “all-business no-nonsense” fasion, perhaps if I encourage more discussion and if I am more open about my reactions, the staff meetings will be more productive.

Each of these hypotheses has a goal (More productive staff meetings) Additional work would be done to clarify steps in detail implement each and collect data to know the effect.

PARTICIPATION AND EMPOWERMENT

1. One of the