Mobile Assisted Language Learning - Review of Literature
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Transcript of Mobile Assisted Language Learning - Review of Literature
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 1
Running head: MOBILE ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING
Mobile Assisted Language Learning: Education on the Move. A Review of Literature.
Juan M. Garcia. Student. ETEC613
17-April-2012 Dr. Larysa V. Lysenko
Department of Education Concordia University
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 2
Abstract
This paper presents a review of literature of the field of Mobile Assisted Language
Learning, or MALL, a subset and intersection of both, Computer Assisted Learning and Mobile
Learning (also known as M-learning). The paper aims to present a general picture of the nature
and amount of research on the field as published in peer-reviewed journals. The paper is
structured around the concept of descriptive mapping and doesn’t aim to be a profound critical
analysis of methodologies and results of existing studies but rather to depict the state of research
in MALL, thus serving as a stepping-stone for further research. The research presented a picture
of high penetration and growth of mobile device usage and generally positive attitudes towards
mobile learning while discovering big gaps and troublesome issues on the topics, methodologies
and results obtained by the researchers of the published articles.
Keywords: Computer Assisted Language Learning, Mobile Assisted Language Learning,
L2, M-learning, literature review, descriptive mapping, systematic review.
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 2
1. Introduction and justification
1.1 A mobile world: Usage of mobile phones in North America
In 2010 the Pew Internet & American Life Project, a project of the Pew Research Center,
published a report on the wireless habits of US residents: 59% of adults go online wirelessly.
Two in five use their mobile phones to access the Internet (Smith, 2010). Considering data of the
2010 US census, which places the population of the US at 308.7 millions (U.S. Department of
Commerce, 2011), it means that 123.48 million of its habitants access Internet on their phones.
That represents roughly more than 3.5 times the total population of Canada and more than 38
times that of Quebec (“Census,” n.d.). But Canada with its lower population doesn’t fall behind,
the Canadian Wireless Telecommunication Industry Association reports over 25 million of
mobile subscribers (“Facts & Figures,” 2011) in a country of less that 34 million inhabitants
(“Census,” n.d.). And in 2011 the Mexican government reported 84.2 mobile subscriptions per
100 habitants, up from 21.6 in 2001 and 0.2 in 1991 (Comision Federal de Telecomunicaciones,
2012). The parade of statistics showing the penetration of mobile phones across the world could
continue, but a picture would emerge: mobile phone use has exploded in the last few years and it
has reached high levels of penetration, even in developing countries. And mobile phones are only
one of many mobile devices; personal media players, tablets, personal digital assistants,
connected appliances, smart watches, and whatever new devices we might see appearing in the
market in the next few years.
The growth of mobile telephones and mobile Internet access along with a ecosystem of
varying mobile connected devices has been accompanied of a growth in research regarding the
potential of using mobile devices for learning: M-learning. A cursory search would reveal the
wealth of literature on the topic. There are within this body of knowledge particular niches that
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 3
reflect particular uses or issues regarding M-learning. One of them is Mobile Assisted Language
Learning (MALL).
As the world becomes connected and countries and cultures, and people, across the world
connect, communicating in a foreign language becomes a key issue. Can mobile devices help
promote second language learning? Given the huge reach of mobile device it would be fool not
to explore the possibility; enlisting mobile devices at the service of second language learning, if
it is feasible, is an enticing proposition. Thus, the question of relevance and importance of the
subject becomes evident as the potential of mobile to improve access to education and to
generate new knowledge is demonstrated in numbers, what lies beyond potential, the realities,
become subject of research.
The use of mobile devices to enhance or promote the learning of second languages is the
main subject of this paper. A coherent and well-structured question around which this research
centers will be presented shortly.
2. The importance and nature of a literature review
The Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Co-ordinating Centre or EPPI-
Centre, a member of the Social Science Research Center, itself part of the Institute of Education
of the University of London defines descriptive mapping as the practice of describing and
analyzing studies in order to “understand the scope of current research activity” (“Mapping and
refining the review’s scope,” n.d.). The process allows identifying areas of opportunity for future
research and gaps on the current body of research. The nature of such a systematic review has
one more advantage: “By simply describing, rather than scrutinising in-depth and critically
appraising the research, reviewers can address a much broader field of research than is possible
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 4
when conducting a narrower synthesis of research findings” (“Mapping and refining the review’s
scope,” n.d.).
The nature of this research favors the use descriptive mapping. The lack of previous
experience dealing with the field of Mobile Assisted Language Learning or MALL, and the
unawareness of the topics in the field make the use of the aforementioned technique suitable. It
will eventually facilitate giving direction to new research one the field.
Furthermore, descriptive mapping is suitable to the scope and nature of the present
research; as it is a starting point for future research and it is constrained in its nature by time and
limitations in extension.
3. …that is the question.
3.1 Defining a research question
Having defined the nature of the present research the substantive question is presented:
q What is the state of MALL research as defined by the following sub-questions:
§ How extensive is the body of literature available MALL?
§ What is the dominant nature of the existing research in MALL (Qualitative or
Quantitative)?
§ What methodologies have been used in said research?
§ What have been the findings of current MALL research?
Since descriptive mapping “is achieved by an analysis of the keywording results in terms
of variables such as language, population focus, study design and key characteristics related to
the review topic” (“Mapping and refining the review’s scope,” n.d.) another valid and relevant
question arises:
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 5
q What studies present the defined keyword, synonym or equivalent keywords (such as
those present in database’s own glossaries)?
Keywords defining studies by some of the characteristics have been established:
o MALL: Mobile Assisted Language Learning.
o Combinations of terms expressing mobile learning and second language learning (m-
learning, mobile learning, technology assisted learning for the former and L2, second
language learning/teaching/acquisition, foreign language).
o Peer-reviewed (For the nature of the studies).
o Published (For the nature of the studies).
o Journal (Also limiting the scope of publications allowed).
The initial set of keywords allowed for an initial overview of a field unknown to the
researcher. A two-stage review could allow for a narrowing of the scope. However the step was
not necessary as the literature on the field responding to the criteria greatly limited the size of the
body of literature available for study (a great deal of research exist, just not published in peer-
reviewed journals). The decision not too limit further the scope by defining keywords relating to
methodologies, targeted L2, nature of studies and quality of results or experimental groups sizes
proved adequate since it would have reduced greatly the available literature.
3.2 A caveat
As it will be discussed towards the end of the paper, it would seem that the vertiginous
speed by which mobile technology evolves and transforms itself has directed the field of MALL
to be heavily reliant on conferences and other non-peer-reviewed, or at least not peer-reviewed
journal, publications. That has hugely limited the available literature for review, therefore, the
researcher believes that the initial limitations established: “The review should include only
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 6
empirical research, based on qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods” (Lysenko, 2012) should
allow a certain degree of flexibility in this case. A few publications, just two, that are not
empirical research but that due to the fact that they make reference to empirical research are
mentioned. This represents a compromise between having to renounce to research a topic of
importance and relevance, as expressed on the introduction, and having to allow research non-
published in academic journals (another interdiction established beforehand), or reducing the
body of works presented. Without further comment in said regard the review of literature
continues.
4. The body of literature
4.1 Introduction to the body of literature
As the publications started to accumulate a trend started to appear: research responding to
the research questions and the criteria established originates mostly in Asia. Studies from Japan,
Singapore, India, Iran, Philippines, Mongolia, and China were discovered. And, out of these
studies the division between two target L2 languages emerged: English and Chinese were the
dominating target languages. In function of this emerging trend the body of literature is
presented as a factor of geographical region and target language. Asian studies focusing on
Chinese as a target language are presented first, then Asian studies focusing on English as target
L2. Finally, European studies focusing on French, and then on English, just to conclude with
studies that do not fit on the organizing schema but that for reasons that will be explained later
(including fitting the search parameters) have also been selected for this research.
4.2Existing research
Over the next few pages the evidence is integrated: interpretation, synthesis, analysis and
evaluation are conducted. First on individual publications and then as a whole body of research
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 7
where patterns, topics and gaps appear. The study is not extensive and rather limited by space
and time constrains. To facilitate the understanding, and extend the quality of the content of the
presented research a chart outlining the objectives of the researchers and research questions—
explicit or implicit—along with a more detailed description of the methodology and results is
provided and it is recommended that it be read, and used, along with the text of this research.
4.2.1 Teaching Chinese in Asia
Two studies originating in Singapore analyzed the use of mobile technologies as tools for
the teaching/learning of Chinese. Of the two studies covered “Vocabulary learning by mobile-
assisted authentic content creation and social meaning-making: two case studies” (Wong & Looi,
2010) focuses on two case studies while “Students' Personal and Social Meaning Making in a
Chinese Idiom Mobile Learning Environment” (Lung-Hsiang Wong, Chee-Kuen Chin, Chee-
Lay Tan, & May Liu, 2010) takes one of the case studies from “Vocabulary learning by mobile-
assisted authentic content creation and social meaning-making: two case studies” (Wong & Looi,
2010) and analyzes it in more depth.
4.2.1.1 Vocabulary learning by mobile-assisted authentic content creation and social
meaning-making: two case studies (Singapore/L2 Chinese).
In “Vocabulary learning by mobile-assisted authentic content creation and social
meaning-making: two case studies” Wong & Looi (2010) analyze two case studies in which
mobile devices were used by students to create contextualized meanings and generate a social
learning experience. Wong & Looi (2010) argue that “the focus of MALL research has gradually
shifted from content-based (delivery of learning content through mobile devices) to design
oriented (authentic and/or social mobile learning activities)”. Along with this perspective they
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 8
present a strong belief on the potential of using mobile devices to create contextually relevant
learning that is socially engaging.
The researchers created two experiments. Both involving the use of mobile devices to
facilitate students’ creation of imagery, and text, describing concepts previously learned in class
and generating discussion after the fact. Both case studies explored groups of 40 elementary
students (8 years old for case study 1 and 11 years old for case study 2). Two large differences
emerge between the studies; case study one takes place solely within the confines of the school
while case study 2 extends learning beyond class by inviting students to take the devices with
them everywhere they go and creating images representing the concepts (in this case idioms)
they learned. The level of the concepts studied is also different as case study 1 deals with
prepositions and case study 2 deals with idioms. Study 2 provided students with materials online
(videos depicting the idioms) and a wiki to upload photos, a phrase related to the photo using the
idiom and class discussion of each photo.
The researchers found out that tasks performed in groups generated more engagement
than individual tasks in both case studies. In-class discussions generated a higher level of
discussion than the online forum (online discussion was a feature of study 2). Also, researchers
found that student’s use of the mobiles differed from their expectations, as the standard deviation
on the average production of artifacts is quite large (25.9) (Wong & Looi, 2010). Furthermore
parents limited the use of mobiles, kids couldn’t engage in a fully seamless learning experience.
Furthermore, when the students engaged in taking pictures the activity was “almost
purely for resource collection” (Wong & Looi, 2010), meaning they didn’t used the mobile to
associate phrases to the pictures.
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 9
The study starts to show a what will become emerging trends that will repeat themselves
over the next studies: students didn’t use the mobile with the frequency intended. While there are
positive attitudes toward the use of mobile, and connected technologies, engagement with said
technology doesn’t always correspond to the positive opinions. In this case this last comment is
exemplified with the higher engagement with classroom discussions versus online discussion, as
well as the artifact production rates.
The lack of post-tests, control groups, and the small sample sizes (another trend that will
emerge) make it more difficult to evaluate the question of whether there was measurable learning
taking place. Although the researchers do not doubt that this kind of activity leads to learning
based on the existing literature and theories. They succeeded in creating an environment that was
conductive to learning, from their perspective.
4.2.1.2 Students' Personal and Social Meaning Making in a Chinese Idiom Mobile Learning
Environment (Singapore/L2 Chinese).
In “Students’ Personal and Social Meaning Making in a Chinese Idiom Mobile Learning
Environment” Lung-Hsiang Wong, Chee-Kuen Chin, Chee-Lay Tan, and May Liu (2010)
analyzed in a more extensive manner the results of the case study 2 of “Vocabulary learning by
mobile-assisted authentic content creation and social meaning-making: two case studies” (Wong
& Looi, 2010). Students were given instruction in class, using among other elements comic
animations illustrating idioms, the animations were made available online. Students were then
given a mobile device (smartphone) and were expected to use it to take pictures and then upload
them to a class wiki along with a phrase related to the photo using an idiom, thus the photo must
provide an example of an idiom. A discussion was to take place on both the wiki and in class,
helping students correct each other and learn from each other.
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 10
The researchers aimed to further investigate the “cognitive process and learning strategies
during the course of content creation” (Lung-Hsiang Wong et al., 2010). In this context the
results showed ,as mentioned earlier, that picture taking was not always simultaneous to the
language learning activity—as designed—since students collected resources (Lung-Hsiang
Wong et al., 2010) and later assigned them a meaning. Furthermore students engaged more fully
in class than outside of it. The small group in-class discussion lead the researchers to think that
online discussions might be better served if also done in small groups. Learning did not take
place as researches designed initially, the mobile phone served more as a camera than as a
smartphone and online discussions generated low engagement. The disconnect between designed
use, based in particular learning theories, and actual use started to emerge as a pattern.
One of the most interesting features of requiring a multimodal presentation, enabled by
the mobile devices picture taking and the phrase creating feature, was the ability for the
instructor and other students to visualize erroneous concepts that might escape the eye in
seemingly correct sentences but erroneous photo/idiom pairing, yet this feature does not seem to
relate particularly to the use of mobile, as other forms of representation: enactments, drawings,
and so on might have lead to the same results.
A limitation to the study came in the form of parents attitudes: the parents’ prohibition of
children’s usage of mobile phone outside the home “ defeated the purpose of 24x7 seamless
learning and narrowed the context that the students could associate the idioms with” (Lung-
Hsiang Wong et al., 2010). This further skewed the rates of production of artifacts in favor of
students allowed to use the system outside of home. Does this signify another form of digital
divide to be considered? Attitudes not only within the student but also around him might prove a
pressing issue.
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 11
The researchers concluded that the evidence showed “indicators of seamless language
learning that has the potential of transforming language learning into an authentic learning
experience” (Lung-Hsiang Wong et al., 2010). However it must be said that given the actual
engagement and use of mobile devices demonstrate that there are still issues to be researched
further.
4.2.2 Teaching English in Asia
The teaching of English as L2 dominated the literature, surprisingly even in the UK. The
majority of the research originated in Asia. The two facts together mean that the following
section represents the larger section of the existing body of research. One issue that must be
highlighted for consideration in future studies: while using Asia as a whole served organizational
purposes, attitudes and usage of mobile devices differ greatly by country and culture. A future
grouping of nations or cultures based on their perception and uses of mobile devices might prove
useful to identify geo-cultural issues.
4.2.2.1 A Mobile Device and Online System with Contextual Familiarity and its Effects on
English Learning on Campus (China/L2 English).
In their study Cheng, Hwang, Sheng-Yi Wu, Shadiev, and Xie (2010) posited that as
“most people have a mobile device, most often a phone, in both developed and developing
countries” and since “English is often taught using uninteresting topics” (Cheng, Hwang, Sheng-
Yi Wu, Shadiev, & Xie, 2010) a system that presented relevant and geographically contextual
information could allow students to enhance their motivation, learn useful English and support
communication among students.
The researchers created a system that used a GPS enabled phone with Internet access in
order to provide students with relevant information about the campus, comment and give
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 12
suggestions to other users. The students could create photos, videos, and conversations. Said
system was available also via web on the computer. The system was meant to allow students to
practice English in a relevant context and the researchers to gauge the perception of such a
system, their learning effects and the usage of mobile and non-mobile devices in relationship to
participation and engagement. The system was designed with “rules derived from existing
human interface research” (Cheng et al., 2010).
The sample size was rather small, 10 graduate students (6 males, 4 females).
Questionnaires were provided to students after the 6 months the project test lasted. No test were
given to measure effect sizes, which was expected since the researchers desired to measure
attitudes and usage rather effects. Te particular disconnect between usage and effects merits
further research since finding out that students have positive attitudes and are willing to use
systems that in the end don’t work is not productive. However since that (effects) was not the
aim of the study it is not a critique of this particular piece of research but of the body of research
available.
The students had very positive opinions about the system but preferred to use the
computer interface. Such a trend emerged in many of the studies, but not all. The smart phones
used in many of the studies, including this, are mostly Windows Mobile phone based. It would
be interesting to see if newer interfaces and user interface guidelines provided by mobile
operating systems would see a change. Apple’s iOS, Android and even Windows own newer
Windows Phone 7 redefine the user interface of mobile platforms. Furthermore, connections are
now faster. Do the attitudes differ in other contexts? As we will find out, yes. There is a need to
do research across cultures; does the same system would generate the same usage in Japan, in the
US, in Africa? Most likely not, as we will see.
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 13
4.2.2.2 Using mobile phones in English education in Japan (Japan/L2 English).
This article was placed intentionally in this order as it contrasts with the previous study:
If Japanese students do prefer the use of mobile phones over desktop computers it might set an
interesting conversation and gap/opportunity in research. Thornton and Houser (2005) set out to
find the landscape of mobile phone use in Japan, the attitudes of students towards the usage of
mobile phones and how they engaged multimodal content in mobile devices (mail and
multimedia in phones and PDAs). Their study focused not on effect sizes, although they did find
larger gains in post-tests of mobile learners.
After surveying 333 university students they confirmed high rates of mobile phone
ownership, and usage, particularly email, and availability and use of Internet on the phones.
Students manifested sending an average of 200 mails from their phones each week as compared
to two on their computers (Thornton & Houser ,2005).
From their initial sample the researchers created two experiments, one comprised of 44
female Japanese students who were sent 3 daily emails to help them increase their English
vocabulary, the first mail in the morning defined the word, the second one provided an
opportunity for rehearsal and the third one rehearsal in a narrative. Their attitudes and the effects
of the experiment on test scores were measured. The second experiment focused on attitudes and
allowed students (31 sophomores) to access multimedia content in mobile devices along with
quizzes (Thornton & Houser ,2005).
Both experiments showed that students engaged and favored the use of the technology
they were accustomed to use: email in the phone. The rates of mobile use are quite different of
those of the previous study with students engaging on the mobile phone and 89% of them
expressing their desire to continue to learn using their mobile (Thornton & Houser ,2005). The
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 14
case of Japan breaks the pattern that many other studies created since in this case positive
attitudes toward mobile learning were reflected in usage.
The researchers concluded that “Japanese students may have unique attitudes towards
learning and towards mobile technology, unique access to technology, and unique patterns of
using mobile technology” (Thornton & Houser, 2005) and they continue to invite to replicate and
compare studies across cultures (Thornton & Houser, 2005). Their statement is very insightful
and researchers must consider that the accelerated adoption of mobile technologies (information
is readily available from different sources: trade associations, polling organizations,
governmental organizations) might mean that younger generation might have different patterns
of usage, even a few years of difference between studies might start to show more Japan-like
patterns in countries other than Japan.
4.2.2.3 Effectiveness of vocabulary learning via mobile phone (China/L2 English).
The study presents what some researchers have called “content based” (Wong & Looi,
2010) and represents an attempt to use the limited capabilities of a highly distributed device.
They focus on how students can learn vocabulary from SMS (Short Messaging Service, used to
refer to a message sent used such system). The study, as it has become the trend, evaluates
attitudes and opinions from the users, although the objective was to “examine the effectiveness
of SMS vocabulary lessons of limited lexical information on the small screen of mobile phones”
(Lu, 2008). One can notice the difference not only in teaching approaches but subject between
this experiment and “Students' Personal and Social Meaning Making in a Chinese Idiom Mobile
Learning Environment” as idioms are different in nature because their meaning is different to the
sum of the meaning of its components.
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 15
In the experiment Lu (2008) implemented a system that would send out two text
messages per day to each student, one in the morning, one in the afternoon. The experiment
lasted to weeks and 31 vocational high school students were the subjects of the study. The
researchers wondered if such a system would be more effective than paper-based learning and
what would be the students’ perception of the system.
The results are not surprising, as mentioned before there is a trend emerging, opinions
about the system and the possibility of mobile learning were positive, 3.7/5 in a Likert scale(Lu,
2008), mobile learners presented vocabulary gains and system use differed from the one
encouraged by teachers (Lu, 2008). The findings further establish the positive attitudes of young
learners toward mobile, however as Thornton and Houser (2005) showed this might be a cultural
attitude and further research in other countries is needed. Up to this point mobile learning has
been showing to produce positive learning outcomes when such variable is measured.
The other commonality between this study’s findings and other studies is the gap
between intended use and actual use. In this case students did not read the SMS as they were
received but rather at later times. Simultaneously, the students favored the convenience of the
system over the quality of the content. Since attitudes favor convenience, could delay reading of
materials be a function of said convenience? Further research is needed but the continuous
mention of convenience in the measurements of attitudes across studies and the students
establishing their own patters of use as opposed to following instructions seem to indicate that a
connection exists.
4.2.2.4 Personalized Intelligent Mobile Learning System for Supporting Effective English
Learning (China/L2 English).
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 16
In a study comprised of 15 university students, 3rd year, enrolled on the English
department the researchers developed a system to select news texts and deliver them to the
students, then use the student feedback—incorporated on the mobile system—and delivery more
news articles that are suitable to their level of English and conductive to students improving their
level of English by using principles established by Vygotsky’s concept of the Zone of Proximal
Development.
The researchers analyzed the attitudes of students toward the system (Chen & Hsu,
2008). At this point it will come as no surprise, given the emerging trend, that attitudes were
positive and that on the issue of effects on learning one can observe a positive difference
between pre and post-tests, along with students own higher self assessed reading skills.
Students engaged with the mobile devices, however two issues that arose might help
better understand why students behave the way they behave towards mobile devices and their
lack of use of the devices: students received a two hours training class on how to use the device
and ranked the system as friendly. Have other projects failed to take into account the level of
familiarity of a user with a system? It would seem so. Can the training received by students
change the way they perceive the usefulness of a system? That is an interesting topic for study
and a future consideration. The other aspect that might help shed light on other studies is the
students reported perception of the use of the system as extraneous to their learning activities;
they viewed it as something different to their learning process, an additional activity, not integral
to L2 acquisition and mastery.
The trends in results and objectives of the studies solidify: the study looked for pre and
post test difference, and they appeared. The researchers collected data regarding attitudes, and
they were positive: usability scored high on the scale. A few differences proved key: training and
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 17
explanation of the system and the use of an interface suitable to mobile, such features are not
present in every research, but helped better understand probable areas for inquiry.
4.2.2.5 The role of electronic pocket dictionaries as an English learning tool among Chinese
students (China/L2 English).
In their research of the motivations of students to use electronic dictionaries Jian,
Sandnes, Law, Huang, and Huang (2009) analyzed the use of electronic dictionaries and their
perceptions in China. As mobile phones become more advanced some of the findings of the
researchers may help designers of smartphone-based dictionaries. Feedback in the form of
questionnaires was collected from 104 engineering students—out of which 38 were graduates
and the rest undergraduates—and 88 humanities—with 20 students being graduate students and
the rest undergraduates (Jian, Sandnes, Law, Huang, & Huang, 2009).
The study highlights cultural differences, just as the study conducted by (Thornton &
Houser, 2005). Cultural differences among students don’t need to be country based; humanities
students and engineering students had different attitudes toward mobile dictionary usage.
Engineering students favored portability and Humanities students favored usability (Jian,
Sandnes, Law, Huang, & Huang, 2009). The differences among students in the same university,
in the same country show how different attitudes can be toward MALL devices. One should also
add that as the authors put it “electronic dictionaries are uncommon in most other parts of the
world, such as Europe, Africa and America” (Jian et al., 2009).
The study also found that access to dictionaries in mobile phone and access to multimedia
content was not highly desired by the students (Jian, Sandnes, Law, Huang, & Huang, 2009).
The electronic dictionaries, as compared to the phone, were faster and allowed the use of a full
keyboard. There seems to be a leaning towards devices and interfaces that are easier to use, one
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 18
could even consider portability one such feature also since it makes is accessible. Mobile and
convenience seem to go hand in hand: when students are asked to use cumbersome methods or
unresponsive interfaces they shy away from use, regardless of possible learning benefits. When
the mobile system is convenient and more accessible than other methods then students seem to
move towards mobile. Why use a small phone keyboard when a full keyboard is available? Why
access the content on a tiny screen when I don’t need it now and I can access it at home? Why
wait until I get home to read the news if I can read them during my commute? Convenience
trumps everything else in mobile, or the research would seem to show that.
4.2.2.6 Vocabulary on the move: Investigating an intelligent mobile phone-based
vocabulary tutor (Japan/L2 English).
In his experiment Stockwell (2007) created a internet based system in which students
could access small lessons and then do activities such a multiple option questions. The system
was created in such a way that the presentation layer was independent of the content layer
(Stockwell, 2007) making it easy to display on mobile phones by adapting to the device. The
research aimed to investigate the differences in use and student performance between both
presentations. The system would store data regarding how often the students used the system, on
which platform and for how long. The experimental group (no control group existed) consisted
of 11 third and fourth year university students, out of which only 5 used the mobile system
(Stockwell, 2007) (although all of them where encouraged to use it).
Independently of the low usage (only one student used the system on a mobile device
more times than on a computer (Stockwell, 2007)) students gave favorable opinions about the
use of mobile learning, although they ranked the computer higher than the mobile. The study
would seem to contrast with that of Thornton and Houser (2005), however the nature of the task
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 19
was different. The other aspect that is present on this study is the fact that the sample was very
small, the difference between the two studies might be due to statistical issues when dealing with
such a small sample. And that criticism is not exclusive to Stockwell (2007) but to the whole
field as a whole since study after study used small samples and/or no control groups.
The other discrepancy that arose between this study and that of Thornton and Houser
(2005) is that in Stockwell (2007) saw mobile users scoring slightly lower on the tasks as
compared to the higher scores of the non-mobile learners.
4.2.2.7 Using Mobile Phones to Improve Educational Outcomes: An Analysis of Evidence
from Asia (Philippines, Mongolia and India/L2 English).
In their study Valk, Rashid, and Elder (2010) aimed to examine “the extent to which
mobile phones helped improve educational outcomes in two specific ways: 1) in improving
access to education, and 2) in promoting new learning”. Theirs is an analysis of experiment
obeying the criteria of: demonstrating the use of mobile phones, and addressing lower and lower-
middle classes in the Asia-Pacific region. Having clearly documented results was the final
criteria. Out of the 6 projects that fitted the criteria only three addressed to MALL.
In the Philippines an English teaching program paired CD and workbooks with quizzes
via SMS to improve access to education since as Samrajiva and Zainudeen (2008) as quoted by
Valk, Rashid, and Elder (2010) mention: “mobile phone ownership is increasingly more common
in the lower socio-economic segments of society”. The project didn’t required complex
engagement with the phone but also didn’t provide much content in mobile form either, that
might be the reason why mobile phone users scored only “marginally higher” (Valk, Rashid, &
Elder, 2010).
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 20
The Mongolia experiment was similar in that SMS was used to test students. Students did
not complete the tests in immediate fashion but instead waited and did them last minute, which,
as we have seen, is common behavior; students don’t engage with content on the mobile instantly
but rather accommodate to their own time and convenience.
The last of the projects resembles more the first case study mentioned in “Vocabulary
learning by mobile-assisted authentic content creation and social meaning-making: two case
studies” since it took place in the confines of a school but using mobile devices. The study found
that stronger students benefited more from the self-directed activities of mobile while weaker
students benefited more from teacher-led activities, the results indicate that different activities,
mobile or not, might be better suited to stronger or weaker learners. “The role of electronic
pocket dictionaries as an English learning tool among Chinese students” by dictionaries Jian,
Sandnes, Law, Huang, and Huang (2009) also found differences in uses and attitudes toward a
mobile device, in this case electronic dictionaries, depending on level of proficiency.
The results of the 3 studies showed that while there is “evidence of mobile phones
facilitating increased access, much less evidence exists as to how mobiles promote new learning”
(Valk, Rashid, & Elder, 2010). They studies showed that students also perceived benefits on
mobile learning which agrees with previous studies and further makes the case for the need of
continued research. Students do accept mobile learning, but what has to be done to make such
learning productive and efficient? That is a less researched question that needs to be addressed.
4.2.2 Teaching Language in Europe.
4.2.2.1 Development of a cross-platform ubiquitous language learning service via mobile
phone and interactive television (UK/L2 English).
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 21
Fallahkhair, Pemberton, and Griffiths (2007) created a project that aimed to bring the
functionalities and features of interactive TV, or iTV, and mobile phones to the service of
language learning. Their project consisted on creating a multiplatform service that would allow
television viewers to receive additional content while watching TV. “Programmes such as news,
soap operas and documentaries have the potential to enhance language learners’ experience by
showing the target language, culture and context of use” (Fallahkhair et al., 2007) while the
mobile system served for “learning the new recommended language items and as tool for
managing personal knowledge” (Fallahkhair et al., 2007).
The study aimed to measure attitudes and to obtain feedback for the design of the system
(since the iTV component was a simulation with an operator in another room and not a full
functioning system). The sample was composed of 14 paid volunteers, all university staff or
students between the ages of 21 and 39. They experienced the system in a laboratory
environment, which simulated a living room, for an hour and a half and were give an hour to
complete a questionnaire. The perception of the system was positive but the participants found it
slow and confusing (Fallahkhair et al., 2007). The dichotomy between positive opinion of the
system and its evaluation as slow and confusing appears as just one more example of the
disconnect between positive attitudes on the user side and the actual implementation of the
system and the users use. The fact that the participants were paid to experience the system in a
laboratory setting makes it harder to gauge what would de the real use learners would give to the
system.
The authors very cleverly assert that for a system such as theirs a certain level of
automation has to be achieved and that there is a need for “algorithms for selection and
segmentation of learning materials from the broadcast television” (Fallahkhair et al., 2007),
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 22
specially since this system does not depend on content created specifically for it but rather feeds
from broadcast television.
4.2.2.2 M-Learning: An Experiment in Using SMS to Support Learning New
English Language Words (Cyprus/L2 English).
The research conducted by Cavus & Ibrahim (2009) tested a Mobile Learning Tool
(MOLT) with 45 college students. The students used the system and then a survey of uses and
attitudes was collected. Pre and post-test were also carried out. The system spaced the sending of
message with the aim of improving learning. Users however did not always engaged the content
as it was received and attended it on their own time and terms. The finding helps corroborate
finding from other researchers where users disregard teacher’s instructions and consume content
on their own terms, furthering the case for mobile as student-centered medium.
Student self-assessed that they could remember the words more easily, such belief was
reflected in the improvements in post-test results, as compared to the pre-test results (Cavus &
Ibrahim, 2009). The attitudes towards the system proved positive since students ranked highly
statements such as ‘I found the MOLT system enjoyable’(Cavus & Ibrahim, 2009). When asked
what other features they would like to see, images and animation dominated (Cavus & Ibrahim,
2009). It would be interesting to know if such preference for image and video would be reflected
in actual use since some of the research of the field has showed discrepancies between opinions
and usage.
The scope of the study mimics what other studies have done to “find out the potential of
using mobile devices” (Cavus & Ibrahim, 2009) for teaching purposes. Up to this point the
literature has dealt more with potential than large-scale implementation or establishing
frameworks for developing MALL. One could theorize that the developers of MALL are either
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 23
few, or they create materials or systems based on their own beliefs without supporting evidence
or they use the guidance of m-learning and CALL research to create a sort of Ad-hoc franken-
literature.
4.2.2.3 On the Spot: Using Mobile Devices for Listening and Speaking Practice on a French
Language Programme (UK/L2 French).
The project carried out in the Open University of UK aimed to research how students
could use their own mobile devices to practice listening and speaking French. With 35 students
enrolled during a 6-weeks course the experimenters, Demouy & Kukulska-Hulme (2010)
provided access to learning materials in two mode: on the personal media player (PMP) students
could download and listen to French pronunciation while mobile phone users could call a
number and record and review their pronunciation by over the phone (Demouy & Kukulska-
Hulme, 2010).
Users of both systems adapted the use of the system to their needs and uses of
technology: PMP users took advantage of their commutes to listen to the materials while phone
users waited to be at home or in another ideal environment since their system usability was
affected by noise and the complicated and limiting interface (it required users to punch numbers
on the phone while getting no visual feedback and provided no easy navigation of materials).
The students manifested wanting to have quizzes relating to the recorded materials,
which comes as no surprise since other studies have showed that users appreciate immediate
feedback (Valk et al., 2010). Users seem to enjoy the affordances that mobile offers in the way of
shortening not only distances but also time between actions and feedback, while simultaneously
managing time on their own side of the communication on their own terms and by their own
timelines.
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 24
User centered learning emerges once more as a feature not necessarily of the design of
the learning system (this system carefully timed messages for students) but rather as a function
of the nature and the attitudes of users towards mobile.
On the aspect of MALL’s potential for teaching and learning the post-test results prove
again that results can be comparable to those of traditional education.
4.2.3 Teaching second languages across the world: Identifying trends.
The inclusion of the following articles responds to two issues. First, they correspond to
the keywording defined as part of the descriptive mapping and the criteria established in this
review of literature, although they may run counter to the initial guidelines provided (as
mentioned in “A Caveat”). The size of existing literature that fits the criteria is quite small and
makes it almost necessary to include them. But most importantly, when trying to evaluate the
existing literature through descriptive mapping the aim is to paint a picture of the field, to find
out what exists, what is missing and direct further research. These articles help better understand
the state of MALL research and paint a more complete picture; it is for this reason that they have
been included.
4.2.3.1 Computer-Assisted Language Learning Trends and Issues Revisited: Integrating
Innovation (USA).
The article barely makes reference to learning through mobile devices by mentioning that
“much of CALL uses general consumer communication tools and applications for which we
would no longer use the term ‘pedagogical software’, such as mobile communication devices and
tools for texting, audio conferencing, videoconferencing, podcasting and so on” (Garrett, 2009).
The author makes no mention of mobile learning as a distinct category and seems to include it
with every other web-based or communication tool, however the studies presented previously
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 25
have demonstrated different uses by students themselves and the failure to engage students in
mobile devices when materials are not designed to their use of mobile. Is this the reason why the
body of literature is so rachitic? Is there a tendency of ignoring mobile and lumping it with
every other web-based learning? If so, the affordances, and the actual use students give to mobile
are being ignored and great disservice to the learning and research community is taking place.
4.2.3.2 Editorial: From Courseware to Coursewear? (N/A).
This editorial for the journal “Computer Assisted Language Learning” proposes that in
MALL there has been no hype; a fact that one could interpret also from the small size of the
literature. The author argues that this might indicate that MALL is in a state of amateur
development and that the hype will increase “as soon as tools become available allowing
teachers and researchers their own mobile applications and tools” (Colpaert, 2004). This position
presents an interesting point regarding MALL research, it may well be that research has lagged
since the penetration of mobile devices is high but production of MALL software and tools is
limited. The author expresses the need for a “framework which integrates a sound pedagogical
approach based on the mobile language learner in a sociocollaborative context” (Colpaert, 2004).
Certainly the literature shows that no such framework is available.
4.2.3.3 Novel Technologies, Engines and Mobiles in Language Learning (India).
Marginally connected with MALL, the article presents some of the aspects that reflect the
“aspects of CALL as these relate to teaching and learning English in India” (Kirubahar, Santhi,
& Subashini, 2010). While mobile devices are just an element of the whole CALL environment
the author indicates that “M-learning not only breaks barriers but also presents new challenges in
the educational area” (Kirubahar et al., 2010). The author’s overview and case for M-Learning
further proves the need for more studies around MALL in order to better understand how to
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 26
reach the potential mentioned. Studies support some of the issues presented by the researcher and
help define a picture of positive attitudes towards mobile learning, but there is a lack of peer-
reviewed published research.
4.2.3.4 Mobile Phones: Just a Phone or a Language Learning Device? (Iran).
In what amounts to little less than a brief review of literature, Bahrani (2011) presents an
argument for the use of mobile devices in language learning and presents a few guidelines to
design materials that are suited to use on mobile devices. The article is brief and introduces
nothing in the way results from experiments. However, it fitted the selection criteria and helps
establish the case for the need of more research. Academics have started to manifest interest and
Bahrani’s article shows how even the most basic overview of the field can garner interest and
provide scarce resource for people trying to understand the field.
5. Further analysis and discussion
While the present study conducted an analysis on individual articles, including
connecting them to other studies as a whole body of research there is space for further analysis.
Studies seem to demonstrate that students have positive attitudes towards mobile learning and
the statistics seem to demonstrate that mobile has a huge reach, however there is big disconnect
when it comes to L2 or MALL. Studies and experiments have been small in size, limited, non-
conclusive, in general they present very little in the way of a large picture. This is worrisome,
specially considering the opportunity presented by the marriage of availability and positive
attitudes.
The other disconnect seems to be between the way users interact with mobile devices and
the way researchers intend them to do so, a posteriori it is not unexpected; researchers can quote
literature supporting the use of mobiles for learning, however they would be hard pressed to
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 27
describe uses of mobile devices and attitudes outside of those found by their studies. How do
people use their phones? Is there level of emotional attachment with the devices that might
prevent them from fully using a loaned test device the same way they would use theirs? What are
the dominant and emerging technologies, not just from a technical perspective but on the
marketplace? Thornton and Houser's (2005) more thorough understanding of mobile use in
Japan, the practices favored by users might be one of the factors why they didn’t see a huge
discrepancy between reported attitudes and the use of the system they designed. They also used
the largest sample sizes with 333 students polled and 44 used for one of their experiments. Other
researches would be well advised to follow their example.
In a mobile society where commerce and travel across borders is a reality it is surprising
to see so little research, the attitudes of Chinese and other Asian researchers towards improving
their use of MALL is commendable and the scarcity of such research in the western world is
worrisome.
Taken together, the research also seems to show that mobile learning tends to become
learner centered; even a seemingly content-based approach, when conducted in mobile, has
affordances for self-directed learning.
6. Conclusions
6.1 Answering the research questions
The present review of literature was structured around well-defined research questions
and structured coherently on the fundamentals of a descriptive map, a methodical analysis of
evidence. As such, the conclusions for the research come in form of answers to those questions.
6.1.2 Extent
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 28
The evidence shows that the available body of literature is small in size when only
published, peer-reviewed journals are contemplated. However there are vast amounts of
publications in the form of conference papers and non-peer reviewed publications. This might
obey to the ever-changing nature of mobile devices and the time frames required to create and
publish research that obeys to the strict guidelines of academic publishing.
6.1.2 Nature of the Research and Methodologies
The nature of the research is for the most part qualitative and has focused heavily on
discovering attitudes and behaviors around the use of mobile devices for language learning.
Although quantitative studies exist and suggest that mobile learning is no inferior on its effects to
traditional learning they represent a minority of the studies and their sample sizes are small (in
certain cases as little as 10 students become an experimental group with no control group). There
is also a common practice of implementing a sample/pilot program and have students participate
to observe their use of the system, identify their attitudes with the intention of adapting such
systems for further investigation.
6.1.3 Findings
One of the interesting findings on the research has been a disconnect between positive
attitudes and actual engagement and use of the mobile system, furthermore the use of the systems
responds to users preferences commonly ignoring teachers instructions of suggestions, which
means that students high ranking of convenience as a factor or a characteristic of mobile is not
surprising. It would seem that students see mobile devices as devices of convenience and as such
they don’t adapt themselves to new uses but use the mobile to adapt content to their own needs
and convenience. This is a particularly interesting topic that should be further investigated and
implemented in the design of future systems.
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 29
6.1.4 Conclusion: What is the state of MALL research?
Overall the research published in peer reviewed journals has not been able to catch up
with the technology, there are no studies about the effects of using tactile interfaces, of systems
using newer devices and most importantly the newer user interfaces and affordances of mobiles.
Research in North America has tremendously lagged behind. For example, Apple Inc.,
manufacturer of the iPhone and iPad, has made strong attempts to introduce its mobile devices to
the educational market; little has been done to investigate their potential (or that of similar
devices) in language learning.
Yes, the body of literature regarding m-learning is vast, rich and vibrant. But the community
of second language learners and teachers has been greatly unattended.
A far fetched, but nonetheless valid, question also rises: Is this lack of research a function
of cultural hegemony? Of disregard for foreign cultures (foreign to western/English speaking
countries)? No example could be found of actual research in the USA, and only two in the UK,
yet the majority of the studies focus on the teaching and learning of English (even one of the two
published in the UK). Take the example of China, were current research has explored how
students can use mobile to learn English: no equivalent exists in the US, regardless of the size of
the Chinese community in USA and the amount of trade and commerce established between the
two countries. What role do culture, power, hegemony, and other issues play on the research
stage? The question remains open.
Finally, it was established the great potential that mobile has, if at the beginning only by its
high penetration, but later on by the widespread acceptability and positive attitudes of
users/learners towards mobile learning. The research community would do a great disservice, to
those hoping to teach or learn a second language, if they do not increase the amount and quality
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 30
of research being done. The research community has then almost a moral obligation to catch up
with the reality of mobile in the world.
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 31
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Mobile Assisted Language Learning 34
Appendix 1: Search Strategy
Database: PsycINFO.
Keyboards searched: Mobile Assisted Language Learning, L2, second language, M-learning,
mobile learning, mobile, learning, language acquisition, mobile phone
Suggested words/thesaurus/related topics: verbal learning, foreign language learning, cellular
phones, m-learning, distance education
Additional criteria: peer reviewed journal, years 2000 to 2012, and full text available.
Database: ERIC.
Keyboards searched: Mobile Assisted Language Learning, L2, second language, M-learning,
mobile learning, mobile, learning, language acquisition, mobile phone
Suggested words/thesaurus/related topics: ubiquitous language learning, computer assisted
teaching, computer assisted learning
Additional criteria: peer reviewed journal, years 2000 to 2012, and full text available.
Comments:
Results often presented a huge quantity of ‘noise’: irrelevant results appeared, no
standardized term existed in the databases for Mobile Assisted Language Learning while the
term was used frequently on the literature. A great deal of what could be called ‘weeding’ took
place, thus relevant information regarding the number of results becomes useless. For example
ERIC showed only one result for peer reviewed articles under the keywording ‘Mobile Assisted
Language Learning while in many other cases variables and keywords entered where nowhere to
be found on the results produced.
Mobile Assisted Language Learning 35
Appendix 2: Chart of Studies
For a digital version consult the file: mallResearchXLS.xls