Mid-Year Review

Psychological Perspectives

Wave One: Introspection Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt): mind operates by combining

subjective emotion and objective sensations Functionalism

Wave Two: Gestalt – view person’s total experience and did not separate behavior from thought (Max Wertheimer) – little impact on current theories

Wave Three: Psychoanalysis – examination of unconscious mind (Freud); repression, defense mechanisms

Wave Four: Behaviorism – scientific approach using observable outcomes. John watson, Ivan Pavlov, Skinner

Wave Five: Multiple Perspectives – eclectic

Psychological Perspectives:Multiple Perspectives

Humanist: Maslow, Carl Rogers – stress individual choice and free will

PsychoanalyticBiopsychology (neuroscience) – explain psychology as strictly

biological processes (genes, neurotransmitters, structure, etc.)

Evolutionary (Darwinian) – psychology in terms of natural selection

BehavioralCognitive – Jean Piaget, Erikson, etc. – examine thoughts and

behaviors in terms of interpreting, processing and remembering information

Social-cultural (sociocultural) – examine based on cultural influences

Research Methods:Study Designs

Case study – single or small group observed; highly detailed

Correlational – examine relationships between variables

Naturalistic – observe without interaction with participants

Cross sectional – snapshot in time (correlation)Longitudinal – repeated measures of group of

peopleExperimental – assign participants to control or

experimental groups (causation)

Experimental Design

Random sampling – selection process of randomly choosing people from a target population to make your group under study

Random assignment/Randomization – randomly assigning participants to control or experimental groups. People have equal chance of being put into each group

Types of Bias

Confounding – some third variable influences a relationship between two other variables (may make relationship eventhough not there or mask a relationship)

Experimenter biasResponse bias (social desirability)Hawthorne effect – people perform differently

or better when known under observationPlacebo Effect

Overcoming Bias

Blind or Double blindPlaceboCounter balancing

Statistics

Measure of Central Tendency (middle) Mean, Median, Mode

Measures of Spread Range, Variance, Standard deviation (average distance

from the mean) SD: 68%, 95%, 99%

Z-score: way to compare scores between different distributions 1 Z score = 1 Standard deviation Compare different distributions by comparing z score for

values comparing Example: Mean 1 = 90, SD 1 = 2; Mean 2 = 80, SD 2 = 7

Statistics Continued

Correlation coefficient – measure of relationship (-1 to 1)

Scatter plot – graphical representation of relationship between 2 variables

Positively skewed – mostly low, some high (outliers)

Negatively skewed – mostly high, some low (outliers)

Inferential Statistics

P – value: 0.05 standard to compare your calculated p-value. If your value is less than 0.05 the relationship is statistically significant

T-test – compare distributions using means; compare continuous data

Chi-square – compare categorical data

Ethics

IRB – institutional review boardAnimal Research

Clear scientific purpose Best chosen for question (can use cells not animal?) Cared for and housed in humane way Acquired animals legally Experiment must ensure least amount of suffering

Human Research No coercion Informed consent Confidentiality Risk (Cost – benefit analysis) Debriefing

Neuroscience (Biopsychological): Biological Basis for Behavior

Neuroanatomy/Structure of the NeuronDendrites – information in

Interact with sense receptors Interact with neurotransmitters (receptors)

Cell body/Soma – contains nucleus, synthesizes proteins/neurotransmitters

Axon – carries action potential Myelin Sheath – fatty substance that insulates part of the axon

and increases the speed/velocity of the action potentialTerminal buds – information out (release

neurotransmitters)Synapse – gap between dentrites and terminal bud of

two neurons

Communication in and between neurons

Action potential Threshold Depolarization – Sodium channels open Repolarization – Potassium channels open Refractory period – sodium-potassium pump re-establishes the

resting membrane potentialAll or none potential

All action potentials look exactly the same Stimulus strength differentiated by number and frequency of

action potentialsNeurotransmitters

Chemicals that diffuse across the synapse and interact with specific receptors on dendrites

Review specific neurotransmitters

Other information

Afferent/sensory neuronInterneuronEfferent/Motor neuronReflexes

Central Peripheral

BrainSpinal Cord

Somatic - voluntaryAutonomic

Parasympathetic (decrease most body systems, increases digestion)

Sympathetic (increases heart rate, breathing and decreases digestion)

Nervous System

Techniques to Study the Brain

Lesions – damage or removal of brain tissueEEG – record brain wave activityCAT – x ray; structure not functionPET – radioactive glucose; function MRI – structure not functionfMRI – structure and function

Brain Structure

Hindbrain Sits on top of spine Medulla – control breathing, blood pressure, heart rate Pons – involved in facial expression Cerebellum – balance and coordination

Midbrain Reticular formation – controls body arousal and ability to focus Damaged fall into deep coma

Forebrain Thalamus – relay information from senses to different parts of brain Hypothalamus – controls body temperature, hunger, thirst, sexual

arousal and endocrine systemCerebral Cortex

Recent development in brain tissue Cognition

Areas of the Cerebral Cortex

Hemispheres: specialization of function (split-brain patients)

Lobes Frontal

Prefrontal – thought, inhibition (Phineas Gage) Broca’s area – controls speech

Temporal Wernicke’s area – interprets written and spoken speech Hearing

Parietal Somatosensory cortex (motor and sensory cortex)

Occipital vision

Other

Brain Plasticity – ability to create new pathways/neural connections

Neural networks – highly branching connections between many neurons; increased processing power

Endocrine system

HypothalamusPituitaryAdrenal Testes/Ovaries

Learning

Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov John Garcia and Robert Koelling – Taste Aversion UCS, UCR, CS, CR

Operant Conditioning Edward Thorndike (law of effect) Skinner: reinforcement vs. punishment Primary reinforcers: food, water, rest Secondary reinforcers: learn has value (money, power,

etc.) Token economy

Negative reinforcement v. negative punishment

Negative reinforcement – remove a negative stimulus to increase a behavior

Negative punishment – negative stimulus given to reduce a behavior

Reinforcement schedules

Fixed ratio – reinforced after set number of behaviors

Fixed interval – reinforced after preset timeVariable ratio – reinforced after variable

number of behavior doneVariable interval reinforced after varied

timesVariable schedules more resistant to

extinctionRatio schedules promote higher response

Contingency Models of Classical Conditioning

Contiguity – more times two things are paired the greater the learning that takes place (Pavlov)

Contingency – cognition plays a role in learning (Robert Rescorla)

Observational Learning

Albert BanduraBobo Doll

Other types of learning

Latent (Edward Toleman) – rats learn a maze without reinforcement

Insight (Wolfgang Kohler) – realize answer/solution to a problem (Ah ha moment)

Cognition:Memory

3 Box Model

Sensory Memory

Iconic memoryEchoic memorySelective attention – encode what we pay

attention to

Short Term Memory

George Miller and Magic Number of 7Improve:Chunking: grouping info into chunks to

remember moreMnemonic device: ROYGBIVRehearse

Long Term Memory

Episodic: specific eventsSemantic: general knowledge of the world, stored

facts, meaningsProcedural: skills and how to perform themExplicit/declarative: conscious memories/facts or

eventsImplicit/nondeclarative: unintentional memories,

do not realize you have these memoriesEidetic: photographic memoryLong term potentiation: strengthen connections

between each other

Levels of Processing

Deep: recall betterShallow

Retrieval

Recognition: matching current event or fact with one already in memory (multiple choice questions)

Recall: retrieve from external cuesPrimacy Effect (Hermann Ebbinghaus): recall things

at beginning of listRecency Effect: recall things at end of listSerial Position Effect: combination of primacy and

recency effectTip of Tongue Phenomenon explained by semantic

network theoryFlashbulb memory: encoded because of importance

to person

Retrieval Continued

Mood-congruent: greater to recall an item when mood matches the mood when event happened

State-dependent: recall events better if in the same state of consciousness

Constructive Memory

Reconstructed memories may be false.May remember wrong: add or delete details

Forgetting

Retroactive Interference: learning new info interferes with recalling old info

Proactive Interference: Older info interferes with recalling new info

Anterograde Amnesia: cannot encode new memories

Cognition:Language

Phonemes: smallest units of sound Morphemes: smallest unit of sound with

meaningSyntax: grammar of language

Language Acquisition

BabblingHolophrastic/ One word stageTelegraphic/ Two word stageOvergeneralization/Overregularization:

misapplication of grammar rulesNoam Chomsky: Language acquisition device

(innate ability to learn language)Benjamin Whorf: Linguistic relativity

hypothesis – language might control or limit our thinking

Thinking and Creativity

ConceptsPrototype: most typical example of a concept

Problem Solving

Algorithm: rule that guarantees the right solution

Heuristics: rule of thumb Availability: judge situation based on previous similar

situation, may lead to wrong conclusion Representativeness: judging a situation based on how

similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holdsBelief Bias: illogical conclusions to confirm pre-

existing beliefBelief Perseverance: tendency to maintain a

belief even after evidence presented that contradicts the belief

Impediments to Problem Solving

Rigidity Example: functional fixidness

Confirmation bias: look for evidence to confirm belief and ignore other evidence

Framing: how the problem is presented

Creativity

Wolfang Kohler: Insight learningConvergent thinking: One answerDivergent thinking: many potential answers

Developmental Psychology

Nature (Genetics) v. Nurture (Environment)Prenatal Development: Teratogens

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Drugs, Alcohol

Motor/Sensory Development

Reflexes1. Rooting: touch cheek turn head to feed2. Sucking3. Grasping4. Moro: splay arms and legs if “dropped”5. Babinski:toes spread when foot touched

Parenting

Konrad Lorenz: Imprinting (innate in some organisms)Harry Harlow: Monkeys raised with cloth and wire

mothers. Spend time with one that comforts not feeds. Importance of sense of safety

AinsworthSecure attachment: confident explore when parent

around, cry when leave and come to parents when return

Avoidant attachment: resist being held, explore with parent around, do not go to parents for comfort

Anxious/Ambivalent attachment: ambivalent to parents

Parenting Styles

Diana BaumrindAuthoritarian: strict rules and punishmentAuthoritative: consistent standards,

reasonablePermissive: no clear rules or enforcement of

rulesUninvolved

Stage Theories

Jean PiagetEriksonFreudVygotsky

Jean PiagetCognitive Development

Sensorimotor: explore world with senses Object permanence (8 months)

Preoperational: (2 – 7 years) Egocentric: Lack theory of mind: all think and feel like me

Concrete operational Conservation of mass, volume and number

Formal operational Abstract thinking Logical reasoning

Criticism of Piaget

Information processing model – continuous and not in discrete stages

Vygotsky and Zone of proximal development

Erikson and all his stages

Trust v. mistrustAutonomy v. shame and doubtInitiative v. guiltIndustry v. inferiorityIdentify v. role confusionIntimacy v. isolationGenerativity v. stagnationIntegrity v. despair

Kohlberg and Morality

Pre-conventional: make decisions to avoid punishment; decisions limited to own interest

Conventional: look at moral choice through the eyes of others, what is right and wrong

Postconventional: rights and values of an individual life (any individual)

Criticism of Kohlberg

Carol GilliganGender impacts how view situation so males

not more moral than females

Freud Stages of Development

Oral: pleasure through mouth Oral fixation

Anal: conflict around anus (toilet training) Anal fixation

Phallic Oedipus complex: boy secretly in love with mother Electra complex: girl secretly in love with father

LatencyGenital: focus of pleasure through genitals

Gender Development

Biopsychological: neurological differences leads to gender

Social-cognitive: own thoughts and social interactions guide development of gender Gender schemas Gender roles