In lamina propria, what is collagen produced by?-Fibroblasts

(What is lamina propria?)

-The lamina propria (more correctly lamina propria mucosæ) is a thin layer of loose connective tissue which lies beneath the epithelium and together with the epithelium constitutes the mucosa. As its Latin name indicates it is a characteristic component of the mucosa, "the mucosa's own special layer". Thus the term mucosa or mucous membrane always refers to the combination of the epithelium plus the lamina propria.

What is collagen?-It is the main component of connective tissue, and is the most abundant protein in mammals.

What are the types of collagen? (V)

-Collagen occurs in many places throughout the body. So far, 29 types of collagen

have been identified and described. Over 90% of the collagen in the body, however, is of

type I, II, III, and IV.

▪ Collagen One: skin, tendon, vascular, ligature, organs, bone (main component of

bone)- resists tension

▪ Collagen Two: cartilage (main component of cartilage)- resists pressure

-fibro cartilage, hyaline cartilage, uvitrius of eye, cornea, retina

▪ Collagen Three: loose connective tissue (reticulate)- structural support

-bv, lymph tissue

▪ Collagen Four: forms bases of cell basement membrane- support and filtration

▪ Collagen Five: pericellular- allows membrane of mm cells to retain shape when relaxed

What are reticular fibers and what type of collagen do they make up?-a type of fiber in connective tissue[1] composed of type III collagen.[2] Reticular

fibers crosslink to form a fine meshwork (reticulum)(looks like an onion bag). This network acts as a supporting mesh in soft tissues such as liver, bone marrow, and the tissues and organs of the lymphatic system.

What is the endostium?-The endostium is associated with cancellous bone. It is a thin layer of connective

tissue which lines the surface of the bony tissue that forms the middle cavity (surrounds marrow) of long bones.

What type of connective tissue is the periosteum?-dense irrecular

What type of fibers are located in veins? (rough, cotton, vinyl, elastic)-elastic

What is required for the conversion of proline to hydroxyproline?-vitamin C

How is collagen formed?1. procollagen is synthesized inside the cell from 3 right handed polypeptide

chains which have large amounts of amino acids glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline.

2. Procollagen is secreted and cleaved to form tropocollagen3. The tropocollagen molecules they assemble info collagen fibrils which form

the collagen fibers. Fibers may be organized into bundles

What cells produce collagen by tissue (loose connective tissue, bone, cartilage)?-Fibroblasts, osteoblasts, chondroblasts (and chondrocytes)

What is ACTH?-often produced in response to biological stress-Its principal effects are increased production and release of cortisol from the

adrenal cortex . (note on the test he used adrenal medulla as an incorrect answer. Pay attention and note adrenal cortex.)

What is true of higher levels of cortisol in regards to ACTH?-Higher levels of cortisol decrease ACTH production

What holds blood vessels and nerves in place with the change of position?-Dense irregular connective tissue

What is dense regular connective tissue?-dense regular connective tissue provides connection between different tissues.

The collagen fibers in dense regular connective tissue are bundled in a parallel fashion. (ex. Tendons and ligaments)

What is dense irregular connective tissue?-Dense irregular connective tissue has fibers that are not arranged in parallel

bundles as in dense regular connective tissue. (ex. Periostium, Dermis, fibrous capsules and some fascia)

Does a decrease in cell activity of the parathyroid gland decrease blood calcium levels?-NO

What causes a decrease in blood calcium levels?-Calcatonin (secreted by c-cells or parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland in

response to hypercalcemia)

What causes an increase in blood calcium levels? (How)?-PTH (parathyroid hormone)- by stimulating the activity of osteoclasts, increasing

with calcitriol the absorption of Ca+ and decreases urinary excretion.

(PTH-- osteoblasts osteoclats= increase Ca+)

What is fibrocartilage?-Transition btwn cartilage and dense regular connective tissue, it is found between

hyaline cartilages and has chondrocytes in rows or clusters. It has obvious bundles of thick collagen type 1 and 2.

Does fibrocartilage have a perichondrium?-NO

What is a perichondrium?-a layer of dense irregular connective tissue which surrounds the cartilage of

developing bone. It consists of two separate layers: an outer fibrous layer and inner chondrogenic layer. The fibrous layer contains fibroblasts, which produce collagenous fibers. The chondrogenic layer remains undifferentiated and can form chondroblasts or chondrocytes. Perichondrium can be found around the perimeter of elastic cartilage and hyaline cartilage.

What does endochontral ossification form? (endo - within, chondro - root for cartilage

-Long bones

*Know the antigen to mast cell and post reactions (below- prob too detailed but a few answers from the 2nd exam are in here)

* The antigen enters the body and attaches to an antigen. The antigen presenting cell presents the antigen to the T- Lymphocyte (made in thymus), which then stimulates B- Lymphocytes (made in liver) (both T and B lymphocytes are macrophages). The B-lymphocyte turns into a plasma cell. The plasma cell releases IgE (antibody). The IgE binds to a mast cell at the FAB region (foreign anti body)(there are two presenting sites on each mast cell (produced in red marrow and located in connective tissue)(mast cells are NOT mobile as are basophils). The mast cell releases chematoic factor, heparin and histamines. The body will become inflamed. In response to the inflammation, prostoglandins and leukotrienes are produced “de novo” and released which constrict vessels.

Name the mobile or wandering cells and what does each do? (leukocytes or white blood cells)

Lymphocytes (T and B)Neutrophils- primary leukocyte to migrate into tissue in early inflammationEsinophil- leukocytes found in allergic reactions and parasitic infectionsBasophils- leukocytes that contain large granules with the same chemicals as mast cells

What is the difference between mast cells and basophils?-Mast cells are fixed, basophils are mobile

Are GAG’s hyrophylic or hydraphylic?-hydrophylic

Are GAG’s negatively charged or positively charged?-Negative

What is the result of a GAG + a protein?-Proteoglycan

What are some examples of GAG’s?-Chondroitin sulfate- cartilage and bone-Hyaluronic acid- synovial fluid-Dermatin sulfate- skin, lungs and tendons-Keratin sulfate- cartilage, nucleus pulposus-Heparin sulfate- arteries and surfaces of cells

What is a proteoglycan?-Protein + GAG (configuration of a bottle brush)

What is a glycoprotein and what are examples?-Glycosylated proteins.-Fibronectin- mediates attachment of the cells to extracellular matrix-Osteonectin and chondronectin (bone and cartilage)-Lamanin- mediates attachment of epithelial cells to basement membrane components.

Do adipose cells produce an inflammatory chemical response? If so what is a result? If not, why not?

-Yes they do. This increases the risk of heart disease

Do low levels of estrogen and testosterone increase or decrease bone density and how does this relate to osteoporosis?

-Low levels of estrogen and testosterone decrease bone densisty and lead to osteoporosis.

What are parafollicular cells located?-The thyroid.

What are parafollicular cells?-are cells in the thyroid that produce and secrete calcitonin.

How does the growth of the diameter of bone occur?-Appositional growth by osteoblast activity on periosteal surface

What part of the bone contains cells that both build up and break down the bone?-Endosteum

What is phagocytic? (macrophages and cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system) and what are they derived from?

-Derived from monocytes-macrophages or histiocytes- connective tissue-kupfer cells- liver-alveolar (dust cells)- alveoli of the lungs-microglia- CNS-osteoclasts-bone-langerhans cells- epidermis of the skin

What are some facts about Golgi tendon organs?-encapsulated sensory endings which function as mechanoreceptors. (Sensory only) Cause muscle to shut down when appropriate (prevents avulsion). Forms a myotendinous junction.

What is the difference between tendinosis and tendinitis?-Tendinosis- caused by injury. Irritated without inflammation-Tendinitis- inflammation

What do androgens do?- mainly testosterone, stimulates the activity of osteoblasts and bone matrix formation

What is the relationship between hypotonic and hypertonic?-Hypotonic- too much water, wants to leak it out-Hypertonic- not enough water, wants to bring it in-Goal of both is equalization

Where is elastic cartilage found?-Ext. ear, epiglottis and Eustachian tube. (it has a perichondrium)

What is angiotensinogen?-Converts to angiotensin 2 and constricts blood vessels (produced in liver w/ small amt in adipose).

What is the difference between a prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic cell?-A prokaryotic cell is found only in bacteria with no nuclear envelope. A eukaryotic cell have a distinct nucleus and surrounded by a nuclear envelope.

What process in the development of cells do they go through in order to become specialized?

-Differentiation

What are the two basic parts a cell is made up of?-Cytoplasm and nucleus

What is the normal range of healthy blood pH?-7.35-7.45

What is the cell membrane composed of and how is this composition arranged?-Composed of lipids arranged in a bilayer along with proteins.

What are glycolipids?-Carbohydrates bound to lipids

What are glycoproteins?-Carbohydrates bound to proteins

Is the cell membrane fully permeable, semi- permeable, or not permeable at all? What is the purpose of this answer in regards to cell function?

-Semi-permeable in order for passive transport (diffusion and facilitated diffusion) and active transport.

Endocytosis?-Moving into the cell membrane

Exocytosis?-Moving out of the cell membrane

Are protein receptors used for the membrane to interact and respond to molecules in the extracellular enviroment or cellular enviroment?

-Extracellular

Are membrane receptors used for the cells communication internally or extracellularly?-Inside the cell (internally)

The organization of the membrane components is referred to as?Fluid mosaic

*Arachadontic acid= low- grade inflammation which is linked to many diseases.

*Omega 3’s= fix to the arachadontic acid (bring down inflammation)

State the geography and function of RER. (7 points)- Lined sacs or cavities- Outer surface covered with ribosomes- Interior region is called a cisterna- Continuous with outer membrane that surrounds the nucleus- Present in all cells- Particularly abundantin cells specializing in protein secretion- Post-translational modifications of proteins, such as folding or association of

protein subunits, occur in the cisterne (folded blob)

What are ribosomes? (and where are they found)- small particles composed of ribosomal RNA- some attached to RER, others are free ribosomes

What are free ribosomes responsible for?- formation of proteins used within a cell

What is SER? Where is SER found? What is SER responsible for? Where is SER especially prominent?

- SER is an irregular network of smooth channels that appear to be tubular- SER is found in large amounts in hepatocytes that are exposed in certain drugs

since enzymes involved in detox of the drugs are attached to the SER- SER are especially prominent in cells that synthesize steroid hormones

What is SER called in muscle cells and what is it involved in?- SER in muscle is called the sarcoplasmic reticulum (sarco-skeletal tissue). - It is involved in the storage of calcium that is necessary for the initiation of

muscle contraction

What is the Golgi apparatus? How does it appear? What is its function (step by step)?- it appears as a parallel stack of plate- like membrane compartments- its function is processing of proteins that are synthesized on RER.- Vescicles containing secretory products from RER trael to the Golgi where

further modification of protein occurs. (whatever the cell needs, the Golgi modifies and makes)

- The modified proteins are then packaged into vesicles or granules that are transported out of the cell in response to a signal via exocytosis.

What are lysosomes?- digestive enzymes

*Lysosomes = phagocytic cells

What is tay sachs?- the accumulation in nerve cells (of ganglioside GM2) causes deterioration of

the nervous system

What is gaucher disease?- lack of enzyme in the macrophages which results in the accumulation of

glycolipids in the liver and spleen.

What do peroxisomes do?- oxidase enzymed used to detox harmful or toxic substances (h2o2 formed)- break down h2o2- beta- oxidation of long chanin fatty acids

Where are a large number of peroxisomes found (2)?- liver and kidneys

Break down in detail everything about mitochondria.- double membrane rod- shaped- present in all cells except mature RBC- inner membrane is invaginated to form cristae (location in production of ATP-

relies on O2- aerobic metabolism)- beta oxidation of short chain fatty acids- has its own DNA (inherited differently than nuclear DNA)

What are centrioles and what do they do?- pairs of cylindrical rods that are oriented at right angles to one another- made up of 9 sets of microtubule triplets- during cell division, the centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell and

organize the formation of the mitotic spindle- cells w/o centrioles are no longer capable of reproduction (RBC, skeletal

muscle)

What are proteosomes?- cylinders w/ protein digesting enzymes

What are examples of non- membranous organelles?- centrioles- proteosomes

What is the cytoskeleten and what makes it up?- the structural framework of the cytosol and functions in the maintenance of

cell chape, stabilization of cell attachments, help with endocytosis and exocytosis and cell motility

o microtubules – made up of tubulin present in centrioles, cilia, flagella and in the spindle filaments

of the mitotic spindleo intermediate filaments- a herero group of filaments found surrounding

the nucleus and forming a network of filaments inside the cytoplasm. The use of immunochemicals has allowed the ID of specific

intermediate filamens and the diagnosis of tunmors to determine the cell of origin.

Cytokeratins- epithelium Desmin- muscle Vimentin- cells derived from mesoderm such as

fibroblasts, chondroblasts, and macrophages Glial fibrillary acid protein- glial or support cells in

CNS Neurofilaments- neurons

o Microfilaments Composed of the protein acin Actin filaments associated with proteins to form a layer

beneath the cell membrane for activities such as endocytosis and exocytosis

In muscle cells the actin is organized with mysin and resp for muscle contraction

Actin filaments form rigid bundles that protrude into microvilli

What are the two parts of a cell that are double membraned?- nucleus- mitochondria

DNA and RNA, which stays in the nucleus and which directs protein synthesis?- DNA- nucleus- RNA- protein synth.

How many chromosomes does a diploid cell have?- 23 pairs of chromosomes

Other than chromosomes, what is the anatomy and physiology of a nucleus?- nuclear envelope composed of two parallel unit membranes separated by a

space called the perinuclear cisterna. Nuclear pores are found where the inner and outer membrane fuse. The pores provide a passage way btwn the nucleaus and cytoplasm.

- The nucleolus is a spherical structure found within the nucleus and composed of ribosomal RNA. This is the site of formation of ribosomal RNA.

- Nuclear matrix is the term used for the components which fill the space inside the nucleus.

What is the DNA double strand helix composed of?- nucleotides

*Know in a DNA code that: adenine and thymine go together Guinine and cytosine go together

How is the genetic code contained?- in a sequence of 3 based on one DNA strand which codes for a particular

amino acid protein

How is DNA fingerprinting accomplished?- regions of DNA with repeating units of triplets

What is a gene?- a region of DNA with tripled codes for the formation of a protein

What is a codon?- Code for amino acid strand of DNA (3 pair code)

How is the information in a DNA strand used for the coding of new DNA?- DNA cannot leave the nucleus - Information in the DNA strand is used for the formation of a strand of

messenger RNA (M-RNA)- M-RNA takes instructions for formation of a protein to the cytoplasm. - RNA is a single stranded molecule w/ the subsitution of a uracil for thymine- The M-RNA coding will have the same triplet coding as the coding strand for

the DNA (template strand).- (regions of the gene w/ non coded strands- introns) (when introns are removed

from M-RNA leaving only the coding regions or exons)- Amino acids are transported to the M-RNA by a transfer RNA (T-RNA)- T-RNA binds to a particular amino acid. A loop in the T-RNA has 3 unpaired

based called an anti- codon.- The M-RNA attached to a ribosome.- The anti- codon on the T-RNA binds to the codon on the M- RNA.

What is diffusion?- movement of molecules according to a concentration gradient

What affects the rate of diffusion?- size of molecule- distance- gradient- electrical gradient- temp.

What is osmosis?- movement of water from area of low solutes to an area of high solutes

What is facilitated diffusion? (what key thing does this type of diffusion need?)- involved the use of carrier proteins

What is active transport? (need?)- needs ATP

An example of active transport is ion pumps. What is the ration of Na+ K+ ions needed in and out of the cell and in which direction should these elements go?

- 3 Na+ : 2K + : for every 3 Na moved out, two K will be moved in.

What is vesicular transport and two types of transport?- the utilization of membrane bound vesicles to move material into or out of the

cello endocytosiso exocytosis

What are the phases of a life cycle of a cell? Describe each in order.- Interphase- the phase most cells spend a large part of their time in

o Go phase- cell is not getting ready for cell division and is engaged in performing specialized cell functions.

o G1 phase- cell engaged in the production of cell organelles. Replication of centrioles starts.

o S phase- cell is involved in replication of the DNA and production of histones. Chromosome number is duplicated and a set of choromosomes will be given to the daughter cell.

o G2 phase- protein synthesis and centriole replication completed.- Mitosis- division of chromosomal material into two nucleai. Givision of the

cytoplasmic material is called cytokinesiso Prophase- coiling of the chromosomes. The nucleoli disappears the

two pair of centrioles move the the opposite poles of the nucleaus and a set of spindle fibers formed the microtubules is found between the centriole pairs. The nuclear nevelope disappears. The kinetochore of each chromatid is attached to the spindle fiber

o Metaphase- chromatids align along the equatorial plane of the cell (meta= middle)

o Anaphase- chromatids of each pair separate. The daughter chromosomes move to the opposite ends of the cell following the spindle fibers. When the chromosomes are at the ends of the cell, anaphase is completed.

o Telophase- nuclear membrane reforms, chromosomes uncoil

- Cytokinesis- division of the cytoplasmic material- cleavage forrow or cytoplasmic constriction is formed along the equatorial plane of the cell. Two cells are formed, each with a plasma membrane.

What is the process by which malignant tumors that do not remain confined to one area and spread to other regions called?

- Metastasis

Vitamins and their roles in bone formation.

Vitamin D- calitrol- cholecalciferol is formed in the skin in response to sunlight

Vitamin C- necessary for collagen formation

Vitamin K- necessary for the synthesis of osteocalcin, the calcium binding protein

Vitamin A- necessary for osteoblast activity

What percent of calcium is found in the skeletal system?- 99%

Thinking of bone repair of a fracture; how is each of the following utilized to repair a fracture?

Hemmorage- blood clot formation

Macrophages- remove debris

Fibroblasts- proliferate in the periosteum and endosteum

Callus- formation made of bone and cartilage from the combined action of osteogenic

and chondrogenic cells

What is osteopenia?- a precursor to osteoporosis, it is low bone mineral densisty

What are the 3 types of joints?- no Myles, not that type- fibrous- synovial- cartilaginous

Definitions:

Synarthrosis= immovable jointsAmphiarthrosis= slightly movable jointsDiarthrosis= freely movable

Spell: z-y-g-a-p-o-p-h-y-s-e-a-l

Does articular cartilage have a perichondrium?- no

Where is articular cartilage located?- at the ends of the bone

How many layers of articular cartilage are there and what are they made of?- 3 layers made of collagen

Where does nourishment of the chondrocytes come from?- synovial fluid

What do synoviocytes do?- produce a portion of the synovial fluid in a synovial cavity

Describe the articular capsule- outer fibrous capsule that is continuous with the periosteum of the bone- pooly vaccularized - highly innervated with ruffini end organs, pacinian corpuscles and free nerve

endings- proprioceptive and nociceptive impulses are sent to the cns- capsule reinforced by joint ligaments and musculotendinous structures that

cross over the hoint

How many layers is the synovial membrane composed of?- 2

Describe these layers.

- inner- highly folded and made up of two types of cells. Type A synoviocytes that are phagocytic and Type B (synoviocytes that are responsible for producing the hyaluronic acid.

What is the meniscus?- a fibrocartilagenous pad that is found in some joints, most notably the knee and TMJ. Found between bones and assists the joint function

What is a bursae?- a fluid filled sac found in the connective tissue around a joint. Lined with a synovial membrane containing synovial fluid. It reduces friction and acts as a shock absorber.

What are erythrocytes?- RBC

What are leukocytes- WBC

What are thrombocytes?- Platelets

What is plasma?- plasma is the liquid portion of the blood, approximately 55% of the volume.

Tell me (or yourself or the wall), about blood collection (what it involved, clotting, formed elements, % of packed blood cells, layers)

- blood collection usually involves the use of anticoagulants. If anticoagulants are not used, the blood will clot and the serum is the liquid portion extruded from the clot

- Erythrocutes will fall to the bottom of the tub (or spun down w/ a centrifuge)

What are the two layers of blood when separated?- hematocrit (% of packed RBC)- leukocytes (thin layer on top of the RBC known as the buffy coat)

What is the most common protein in the blood?- albumin (manufactured in hepatocytes)- responsible for the maintenance of the colloid osmotic pressure

What are globulins and name 5 different types?- antibodies

o IgGo IgMo IgAo IgDo IgE

(Ig- MAD Excellent Grades)

Where are clotting factors such as fibrinogen and prothrombin produced?- hepatocytes

What type of proteins which are involved in defense and inflammatory reactions have an end result in “O.I.L.”?

- complement proteins

What type of proteins carry cholesterol?- lipoproteins

What are three types of nitrogenous wastes?- urea- uric acid- creatinine

What is the production of blood cells called and how many are produced per day?- hematopoiesis- 100 billion per day-

What becomes committed to a common myeloid or a common lymphoid progenitor cell? - pluripotenial hematopoietic stem cell

The cells will undergo further development under the influence of various --------------?- colony stimulating factors

What are the two types of cells that a common myeloid progenitor cells develop into?- progenitor cells- progenitors

What do common lymphoid progenitor cells give rise to what?- T lymphocytes- B lymphocytes- Natural killer cells

Where does blood formation start in an embryo?- yolk sac

Where does blood formation occur in a fetus?- fetal liver and spleen

By 6 months in utero blood cell formation occurs where?- red bone marrow

In adults, most of the blood cell production occurs where and in what regions?- production occurs in the trabecular bone regions of vertebrae, ribs, sternum

and pelvis

As an adult, what is red marrow replaced by?- fatty yellow marrow

What is there more of, RBC or WBC production?- RBC by 700x

What is the formation of RBC called?- erythropoiesis

What is the formation of WBC called?- leukopoiesis

How long does RBC formation take to occur?- 7 days and 3-4 mitotic cell divisions

What is hemoglobin composed of?- 4 heme groups that contain iron and four globins (protein chains) (remember

biochem)-

What are the phases of RBC development?- proerthroblast- erythroblast- late erythroblast- normoblast (resorption of nucleus)- reticulocyte (immature RBC released into bloodsteam and composes 0.8% -

1% of circulating RBC. 5 days for development of proerythroblast to reticulocyte and 2-3 days for reticulocyte to become mature erythrocyte.