Collaborators : Maryfrances Porter, Ph.D. Penny Marsh Kathleen McElhaney, Ph.D.
Memory Mr. McElhaney PLHS. Remembering is an Active Process Memories can be lost and revised...
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Transcript of Memory Mr. McElhaney PLHS. Remembering is an Active Process Memories can be lost and revised...
MemoryMemoryMr. McElhaneyMr. McElhaney
PLHSPLHS
Remembering is an Active Remembering is an Active ProcessProcess
Memories can be lost and revisedMemories can be lost and revised Types of MemoryTypes of Memory
– Short Term MemoryShort Term Memory– Long Term MemoryLong Term Memory
Info that appears to be lost may still be in Info that appears to be lost may still be in memorymemory
Problems with memory:Problems with memory:– Forgetting and storage issuesForgetting and storage issues
Recovered memories are problematicRecovered memories are problematic Strategies such as Mnemonics can Strategies such as Mnemonics can
improve memoryimprove memory
BasicsBasics Definition-Definition- Memory is an active system Memory is an active system
that receives, stores and organizes, that receives, stores and organizes, alters, and recovers informationalters, and recovers information
““Memory- is learning that persists Memory- is learning that persists over time”over time”
Encoding- info is changed into usable Encoding- info is changed into usable and storable formand storable form
Deals with Encoding-Storage-RetrievalDeals with Encoding-Storage-Retrieval
Dual ProcessingDual Processing Parallel Processing- Parallel Processing- Brain processes information in many Brain processes information in many
ways simultaneously ways simultaneously Example- sights, sounds, Example- sights, sounds,
environmentenvironment
3 Part System Memory3 Part System Memory SensorySensory STM (Working)STM (Working) LTM LTM
Sensory MemorySensory Memory New info is perceived through the New info is perceived through the
sensessenses
Info is held exactly as perceived for a Info is held exactly as perceived for a few seconds (few seconds (TransducedTransduced))
Preceding short term MemoryPreceding short term Memory
All of the Senses:All of the Senses: Use Use Transduction:Transduction:
– The process of changing energy The process of changing energy (stimulus) to a form that can be (stimulus) to a form that can be processed by the nervous system-processed by the nervous system-
– For example- light to a form that can be For example- light to a form that can be recognized by the retina.recognized by the retina.
Dual System in MemoryDual System in Memory Short Term MemoryShort Term Memory Long Term MemoryLong Term Memory
Small desk and file cabinet Small desk and file cabinet conceptconcept
STM
Meaningful info storedMeaningful info storedMeaningful info storedMeaningful info storedMeaningful info stored
Meaningful info storedMeaningful info storedMeaningful info storedMeaningful info storedMeaningful info stored
Fig. 9.2 Remembering is thought to involve at least three steps. Incoming information is first held for a second or two by sensory memory. Information selected by attention is then transferred to temporary storage in short-term memory. If new information is not rapidly encoded, or rehearsed, it is forgotten. If it is transferred to long-term memory, it becomes relatively permanent, although retrieving it may be a problem. The preceding is a useful model of memory; it may not be literally true of what happens in the brain (Eysenck & Keane, 1995).
Short Term Memory 1Short Term Memory 1 Is working memoryIs working memory Includes Includes Selective attentionSelective attention Holds small amounts of info for a Holds small amounts of info for a
brief timebrief time Encoding in STM- Encoding in STM-
– memories are stored by imagesmemories are stored by images– And phonetically- by sound, words and And phonetically- by sound, words and
lettersletters
Short Term Memory 2Short Term Memory 2 Storehouse for small amounts of infoStorehouse for small amounts of info Phone numbers/shopping listsPhone numbers/shopping lists
Working memory holds info while Working memory holds info while other activities are taking place.other activities are taking place.
Is Is sensitive to interruptionsensitive to interruption + + interferenceinterference
Processing info helps Processing info helps MemoryMemory
Connecting to LTMConnecting to LTM– Linking information with previously Linking information with previously
learned information.learned information. ChunkingChunking RehearsalRehearsal Elaborative RehearsalElaborative Rehearsal
Short Term Memory 3Short Term Memory 3 Limited size = 7 “slots”/Information Limited size = 7 “slots”/Information
bitsbits Good mem = 9 bitsGood mem = 9 bits RecodingRecoding= reorganizing information= reorganizing information ChunkingChunking = form of recoding, creating = form of recoding, creating
connections/groups between info connections/groups between info Rehearsal-Rehearsal- repeating info increases repeating info increases
STM and can lead to transfer to LTMSTM and can lead to transfer to LTM
Elaborate RehearsalElaborate Rehearsal – – Linking new info to memories in LTM Linking new info to memories in LTM
will improve memorywill improve memory Elaborate = extend, think about info Elaborate = extend, think about info
as you studyas you study Ask yourself “why” why would that Ask yourself “why” why would that
be true?be true? Try to relate new ideas to your own Try to relate new ideas to your own
experiences and knowledgeexperiences and knowledge
Elaborate Rehearsal when Elaborate Rehearsal when you don’t even know you’re you don’t even know you’re
doing it.doing it. Your understanding of academic material improves and your Your understanding of academic material improves and your memory improves with the number of content interactions;memory improves with the number of content interactions;
For Example when we are in class we:For Example when we are in class we:1.1. Above all the organism needs to try to learn the stuffAbove all the organism needs to try to learn the stuff2.2. Listen (auditory interaction)Listen (auditory interaction)3.3. VisualizeVisualize4.4. Take notes (processing the visual, and auditory)Take notes (processing the visual, and auditory)5.5. Think (which is processing)Think (which is processing)6.6. Asking questions (evidence of thinking)Asking questions (evidence of thinking)7.7. Summarize (which is thinking, and engaging in the material/ Summarize (which is thinking, and engaging in the material/
also monitoring comprehension)also monitoring comprehension)8.8. Reviewing notes at home (more thinking and engaging in Reviewing notes at home (more thinking and engaging in
the material)the material)9.9. READ (tons of processing if you really read)READ (tons of processing if you really read)10.10.Discussion (shows you are thinking)Discussion (shows you are thinking)11.11.Extended writing (massive amounts of thinking)Extended writing (massive amounts of thinking)
Long Term MemoryLong Term Memory Found in theFound in the Cortex of Brain Cortex of Brain Hippocampus Hippocampus clearly associated with clearly associated with
memory (see brain map of memory)memory (see brain map of memory) permanent storehousepermanent storehouse for Memory for Memory Everything you knowEverything you know goes into LTM goes into LTM
Important + Important + Meaningful infoMeaningful info gets gets transferred to LTMtransferred to LTM
The The more you know the easier it is to add more you know the easier it is to add memorymemory
Brain Anatomy and MemoryBrain Anatomy and Memory Locations of memory is identified Locations of memory is identified
through through brain mappingbrain mapping
Experiments through Experiments through Electroconvulsive Shock Electroconvulsive Shock destroys destroys memorymemory– Mostly effects recent memoriesMostly effects recent memories– Before ConsolidationBefore Consolidation
Brain #2Brain #2 HippocampusHippocampus= closely associated with = closely associated with
LTM LTM (Thalamus is also associated with LTM)(Thalamus is also associated with LTM) Used in Used in ConsolidationConsolidation of memory of memory Known as the Known as the “Switching Station” “Switching Station”
between STM and LTMbetween STM and LTM Grows neurons that make new Grows neurons that make new
connections with in the brainconnections with in the brain Damage to hippocampus = Damage to hippocampus =
AnterogradeAnterograde amnesia= inability to store amnesia= inability to store new memories LTM new memories LTM (“50 First Dates”)(“50 First Dates”)
Brain 3Brain 3 3lbs of brain3lbs of brain Cerebral Cortex- multiple areas Cerebral Cortex- multiple areas
associated associated
Pre-Front of Cortex = Pre-Front of Cortex = EpisodicEpisodic Memory- eventsMemory- events
Back area of Cortex = Back area of Cortex = SemanticSemantic Memory- ideas Memory- ideas
Current Research: Stimulation from environment promotes new
synapses New experiences alter the functioning of existing
synapses Neurotransmitters associated in memory-
Glutamate, acetylcholine, Memory problems associated with Alzheimer’s
related to a deficiency in neurons that use acetylcholine and found in hippocampus and cortex
Drugs that increase Acetylcholine in synapses improve memory
“Formation of memories is associated with changes in synapses and strengthens and networks”
Long Term MemoryLong Term Memory EncodingEncoding = storage (LTM) stored based on = storage (LTM) stored based on
meaningmeaning Recoding/reorganizing/revision is present in Recoding/reorganizing/revision is present in
LTMLTM example- Chunking can/will work in LTMexample- Chunking can/will work in LTM Constructive ProcessingConstructive Processing = updating memory = updating memory
– Fills in the Fills in the gaps of memory with logical gaps of memory with logical conclusionsconclusions or extensions, or inferences or extensions, or inferences
– ((Pseudo MemoriesPseudo Memories are false memories) are false memories)– Relates to how we can sometimes not know the Relates to how we can sometimes not know the
source of some memoriessource of some memories
Organization of Info in LTMOrganization of Info in LTM Patterns of AssociationPatterns of Association = memory structure = memory structure Examples: rules, images, symbols, Examples: rules, images, symbols,
similarities, formal meaning, personal similarities, formal meaning, personal meaningmeaning
Network ModelNetwork Model (or schema) (or schema)– Associations of new of linked ideasAssociations of new of linked ideas– We make organization based on linked We make organization based on linked
meaningsmeanings
Memory AidsMemory Aids Chunking infoChunking info= try to link 2-3 or = try to link 2-3 or
more facts into larger chunks and more facts into larger chunks and your memory will improveyour memory will improve
Key to memory is to find meaningKey to memory is to find meaning Always think about how you feel Always think about how you feel
about thingsabout things
Fig. 9.7 Fig. 9.7 In the model shown here, long-term memory is divided into In the model shown here, long-term memory is divided into procedural memory (learned actions and skills) and declarative procedural memory (learned actions and skills) and declarative memory (stored facts). Declarative memories can be either semantic memory (stored facts). Declarative memories can be either semantic (impersonal knowledge) or episodic (personal experiences associated (impersonal knowledge) or episodic (personal experiences associated with specific times and places).with specific times and places).
Types of LTM = skill and Types of LTM = skill and factfact
Procedural- Procedural- SkillSkill Conditioned Conditioned
ResponseResponse Learned ActionsLearned Actions AutomaticAutomatic Lower brain-Lower brain-
cerebellumcerebellum Typing and Driving Typing and Driving
ActionsActions
Types of MemoryTypes of Memory Episodic MemoryEpisodic Memory= =
experiencesexperiences AutobiographicAutobiographic
– When we access we When we access we re-experiencere-experience
Most easily Most easily forgotten LTMforgotten LTM
Iconic MemoryIconic Memory Echoic MemoryEchoic Memory
Declarative-Declarative- Facts Facts Names, faces, Names, faces,
dates, words, ideasdates, words, ideas Expressed in words Expressed in words
and symbolsand symbols Semantic MemorySemantic Memory Encyclopedia of Encyclopedia of
basic knowledgebasic knowledge You don’t forgetYou don’t forget
Memory FormationMemory Formation Consolidation-Consolidation- the forming of LTM the forming of LTM
memorymemory Takes Takes time to movetime to move info from STM to info from STM to
LTMLTM
MeaningMeaning is key is key
Models of Memory Why do some
stimuli leave no more than a fleeting impression and others remain in memory forever? (see chart Pg. 244)
5 models or explanations for how memory works
1.1. Information Information ProcessingProcessing
2.2. Levels of ProcessingLevels of Processing3.3. Transfer Transfer
Appropriate Appropriate ProcessingProcessing
4.4. Parallel Distributed Parallel Distributed ProcessingProcessing
5.5. Multiple Memory Multiple Memory SystemSystem
Re-integrativeRe-integrative Memories Memories Memories in LTMMemories in LTM Can be triggered by cuesCan be triggered by cues CuesCues (associations/clues) always (associations/clues) always
enhance memories enhance memories TriggeredTriggered memoriesmemories are cues to are cues to
other connected memories other connected memories Pictures, smells, songs, soundsPictures, smells, songs, soundsCue-Dependent ForgettingCue-Dependent Forgetting
Stimuli associated with memory are Stimuli associated with memory are missingmissing
Memory Tasks- LTMMemory Tasks- LTMRecallRecallDirect Direct Retrieval of Retrieval of InfoInfoWho-WhatWho-WhatFactsFacts
RecognitionRecognitionPrevious Previous learned info is learned info is correctly correctly identifiedidentifiedMC testsMC testsAccurate for Accurate for visualsvisuals
RelearningRelearningReviewing Reviewing previously previously exposed exposed to/learned to/learned infoinfo25% greater 25% greater proficiencyproficiencyReview Review helps we Re-helps we Re-learn faster.learn faster.
Serial Position EffectSerial Position Effect STMSTM Being able to memorize the beginning and end of Being able to memorize the beginning and end of
a lista list But not the middleBut not the middle Why?- Why?- The end- interference, STM has limited capacityThe end- interference, STM has limited capacity Primacy Effect- first 2-3 words on list recall is
good Probability of recall decreases for words in the
middle of the list and then rises dramatically Recency Effect- easier to recall end of list
because first are in STM rehearsal helps the last are close in STM.
Implicit and Explicit Implicit and Explicit MemoriesMemoriesImplicit MemoriesImplicit Memories
We are not aware We are not aware UnconsciousUnconsciousPrimingPriming Giving a person Giving a person
limited cueslimited cues Info previously Info previously
learned is reflected learned is reflected in cued responsesin cued responses
Related to implicit Related to implicit memorymemory
Sub-consciousSub-conscious
Explicit MemoriesExplicit Memories Recall is usedRecall is used Conscious Conscious
memoriesmemories Trying to Trying to
rememberremember
ForgettingForgetting Encoding Failure:Encoding Failure: When a memory was never When a memory was never
formed in the first placeformed in the first place
Memory Traces:Memory Traces: Physical changes in nerve Physical changes in nerve cells or brain activity that occur when cells or brain activity that occur when memories are storedmemories are stored
Memory Decay:Memory Decay: When memory traces become When memory traces become weaker; fading or weakening of memoriesweaker; fading or weakening of memories
Disuse:Disuse: Theory that memory traces weaken Theory that memory traces weaken when memories are not used or retrieved when memories are not used or retrieved
Activity for Fri: Bring books or Activity for Fri: Bring books or Definition of these termsDefinition of these terms
State Dependent Learning (Remembering) Context Dependent Learning (Remembering) Interference (Forgetting) Decay (Forgetting) Proactive Interference (Forgetting) Retroactive Interference (Forgetting) Positive Transference (Remembering) Negative Transference (Forgetting) Repression (unconscious) Suppression (conscious)
Why do we forget? The Role of Decay and Interference:
Decay- the gradual (over time) disappearance of the mental representation of a stimulus (wears out) especially in STM
Interference- a process through which either the storage or retrieval of information is impaired by the presence or other information. (STM forgetting too)
Might occur because one piece of information might interfere with other pieces of info (displaces) pushing it out of memory. (rehearsal prevents displacement STM)
Or, one piece of info makes storage or recall more difficult.
LTM- two types of interference: Retroactive interference- learning of new info interferes
with recall of old info Proactive Interference- old info interferes with learning
or remembering new info.
RememberingRemembering Context Dependent Memory:
– “People remember more of what they learned when conditions during recall match encoding”
– Why? We tend to encode features of the environment in which the learning occurred and these features may later serve as retrieval cues.
State Dependent Memory: A person’s internal state can aid or hamper retrieval
(mood) Positive-recall is easier when positive mood occurs
during encoding
Positive and Negative Positive and Negative TransferenceTransference
Positive Transference Mastery of one task aids mastery of a
second task Knowledge and skill in one adds to
another
Negative Transference (language) Skills developed in one situation conflict
with those required to master a new task
Repression and SuppressionRepression and Suppression Repression (unconscious) Memory motivated by forgetting Forgetting painful troubling or embarrassing memories Held out of consciousness Sensitive to emotional events Use repression to protect themselves from threatening
thoughts Suppression (conscious) An active conscious attempt to put something out of
mind We actively avoid remembering upsetting information Painful upsetting event avoided suppression could be
repression
AmnesiaAmnesiaRetrograde (before) AmnesiaRetrograde (before) Amnesia Forgetting events that Forgetting events that
occur before an injury or occur before an injury or traumatrauma
Korsakoffs Syndrome Korsakoff's syndromeKorsakoff's syndrome
(also called (also called Korsakoff's Korsakoff's dementiadementia, is a , is a neurological disorder neurological disorder caused by a lack of caused by a lack of thiamine (vitamin B1) in in the the brain. Its onset is . Its onset is linked to chronic alcohol linked to chronic alcohol abuse and/or severe abuse and/or severe malnutrition.malnutrition.
Anterograde- AmnesiaAnterograde- Amnesia ““50 First Dates”50 First Dates” Forgetting invents that Forgetting invents that
follow an injuryfollow an injury “These patients are also
able to keep information temporarily in working memory, which depends on the activity of dopamine neurons in the prefrontal cortex. So the hippocampus is crucial in the formation of new episodic memoires, but implicit memory, procedural memory, and working memory appear to be governed by other regions of the brain.”
Sleep + MemorySleep + Memory Sleep improves brains Sleep improves brains
ability to remember ability to remember infoinfo
Important for memory Important for memory consolidationconsolidation
Increases procedural Increases procedural memorymemory
During sleep- During sleep- Short term memories Short term memories
in Hippocampus and in Hippocampus and are then transferred to are then transferred to long term storage in long term storage in Neo-CortexNeo-Cortex
90 minute nap 90 minute nap helps speed up helps speed up learning learning
Naps helpNaps help
Using your brain Using your brain reduces risk of reduces risk of Alzheimer’s Alzheimer’s (crosswords)(crosswords)
FalseFalse Memories Memories Repressed MemoriesRepressed Memories Many traumatic events Many traumatic events
retained in the retained in the unconscious mind which unconscious mind which affects conscious affects conscious thoughts feelings and thoughts feelings and behavior no conscious behavior no conscious memory.memory.
1-4 girls are molested1-4 girls are molested When people say they When people say they
have recovered have recovered memories it is probably memories it is probably true, but still is a problem true, but still is a problem for false memories.for false memories.
Spontaneous Spontaneous Recovery (study Recovery (study said)said)
37% of time 37% of time spontaneous spontaneous recovery memories recovery memories were corroboratedwere corroborated
Memories recovered Memories recovered in Therapy were not in Therapy were not corroborated – corroborated – should be seen should be seen cautiouslycautiously
Memory SupportsMemory Supports Making Notes- write things downMaking Notes- write things down PreventsPrevents info from info from slippingslipping out of short out of short
term memory before you can term memory before you can reviewreview it it and and storestore it more it more permanentlypermanently
Mnemonics “strategies for placing information into an organized context in order to remember it”
To Improve MemoryTo Improve Memory Training to improve memory Use chanting Association Memory Strategy is Mnemonics
Basic Principles– Use mental pictures– Make things meaningful– Make info Familiar- connect to what you already
know– Mental associations- more outrageous = easy to
remember
Memory Aides Memory Aides Recitation Summarize aloud while you learn You practice retrieving information While reading stop and try to reinforce by re-
stating info
Elaborate Rehearsal Emotion aides memoryEmotion aides memory
Method of Loci: remembering through visualization of location and associations- Use the location like a map as mental picture.
Guidelines for Effective Studying
Relate new info to knowledge already stored. Organize The Information: Create an outline or overall context for learning Repetition- (rehearsal) not necessarily works well for LTM
(but on a limited basis) Distributed Practice- Spread out learning over time Use Elaborative Rehearsal Self-Testing: Practice retrieving information you want to remember Address main points from memory Flashcards
Reading A Textbook: What do successful students do?
Monitor understanding Re-read difficult sections Deep level processing
– think about each new topic in relation to other material Helps organize material
Lecture Notes: Take notes on the important ideas Use your own words to express ideas Think about what is being said, draw
connections with other matieral Review the lecture note and fill in
missing details Summarize major points
PQ4R (strategy) Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, Review All designed to increase the depth of processing Preview: Skim the chapter- look at headings, bold face,
italicized words. Get a general idea of what is in the chapter and how it is organized (review the entire chapter then, more closely the individual sections)
Question: before reading each section ask yourself what content will be covered and what information you should be getting from it.
Read: and think about the material, monitor understanding. Are you able to answers earlier questions?
Reflect: as you read think of your own examples, create visual representations of the content; Ask yourself what the material means; consider how each section relates to other sections in the chapter and other content in the book
Recite: at the end of each section, recite the major points out loud; be active… put the ideas in your own words (a form of self testing)
Review: at the end of the chapter, review all the material, review how the material is organized
Basics: from Idiots Guide to Psych: Memory
Our memory doesn’t mind very well—it often misremembers, forgets, and makes mistakes.
The three mental operations required for memory are encoding (putting
information in), storage (filing it away), and retrieval (finding it); forgetting is a failure in one of these areas.
Mnemonics are very effective memory aids that help us store information
in a way that enables us to easily recall it later on. And the use of written reminders and other memory strategies can be especially useful for the elderly, who have more problems remembering recent events.
Sleep is believed to be actively involved in consolidating memory,
especially procedural memories. Mental and physical exercise can slow the impact of degenerative
neurological diseases, such as Alzheimer’s. False memories can fool us and professionals as well; although not likely,
it is possible to remember serious childhood trauma that never that never happened. As far as forgetting traumatic things that did happen, the truth is still up in the air. However, the vast majority of people remember ongoing traumatic events.