The Solid State

No. of octahedral voids = N, No. of tetrahedral voids = 2N density, D =

= , m =

Doping: Increase in conductivity by adding impurity. Types of semiconductor: n-type and p-type paramagnetism: Weakly attracted by a magnetic field in same direction.

Diamagnetism : weakly repelled by magnetic field.Ferromagnetism : Strongly attracted, permanently magnetized

Q1. What happens when ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic solid is heated?Q2. Why a window of glass of old buildings is thick at bottom?Q3. Give one example of each doping which produces n- type & p-type semiconductors?Q4. What type of defect can arise when a solid is heated ? Which physical property is affected by this?Q5. Analysis shows that nickel-oxide has the formula Ni0.98O1.00 . What fraction of nickel exist as Ni2+ And Ni3+ Ions?

SolutionsHenry’s Law : It states that the partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase(p) is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (X) in the solution.

p = KHχ KH : Henry Law constant

Raoult’s law : for a solution of volatile liquids , the partial vapour pressure of each component in the solution is directly proportional to it’s mole fraction.

PTotal = X1P10 + X2P2

0

PTotal = P10 + (P0

0 - P10) X2

IDEAL solution :Which obeys Roult’s law.

H = 0 and V = 0

Non-Ideal solution : Which do not obeys Roult’s law.

H ≠ 0 and V ≠ 0

Colligative properties : which depend on the number of solute particles irrespective of their nature relative to the total number of particles present in the solution. eg-

Relative lowering of vapour pressure of solvent Elevation in boiling point

Depression in freezing point Osmotic pressure of solution

Vant’s Hoff factor :

Normal molecular mass Observed molecular mass

Q1. Write the relation between normality & molarity? Q2. Define: Reverse osmosis, osmotic pressure?Q3. Calculation of molecular mass with the help of colligative properties?Q4.explain the term elevation in boiling point & depression in freezing point with the help of graphical representation?Q5. What do you mean by Ideal & non-ideal solutions? Explain with its graphs?Q6. What do you mean by abnormal molecular mass explain with example?Q7. State the Roult’s law and Henry’s law? How Roult’s equation is related to the Henry equation?Q8. Define vant’s hoff factor ? write the modified formula of all the colligative properties using vant’s hoff factor?

Electrochemistry1. ELECTROLYTE : Substance that dissociates into ions in soluble

solvent or in molten form.

2. FARADAY’S Ist LAW : i.e.

FARADAY’S IInd LAW : = , Z=

3. SPECIFIC CONDUCTIVITY : k=c x l/A

MOLAR CONDUCTIVITY :

EQUIVALENCE CONDUCTIVITY :

4. KOHLRAUSCH’S LAW : At infinite dilution , each ion contributes a definite conductance to total conductance . Am Bn mAn+ + nBm-

5. Ostwald’s dilution states, degree of dissociation at a given concentration is directly proportional to square root of dissociation constant. K = cα2 / 1-α

6. Degree of dissociation , α = m / 0m or e / 0e

i =

7. Nerst eg : E = E.0 -2.303RT / nF log10 Q8. WorkUE done by cell= nFE

Max work done by cell = nFE0

Question:-Q1. Why electrolysis of NaBr & NaI does gives Q2. Why does a dry cell become dead after long time, even if it has been not use? Q3. Consider the cell:Q4. What is standard hydrogen electrode? Give the reaction that occurs at this electrode when it act as a (+ve) electrode in an electrochemical cell.Q5. Write Nerst eg for electrode reaction Q6. Explain fuel cell with example

Chemical KineticsInstantaneous Rate of Reaction-

Rinst=-d[R]/dt=d[p]/dtRate of Reaction=k[A]L[B]M

Where k is constantL=order of Reaction w.r.t.AM=order of Reaction w.r.t.B

Molecularity- It is defined as the no. Of molecules which are involved in the rate of determining step of the reaction.Half-Life of a Reaction-

T1/2=0.693/kArhenius Expression=k=Ae-Ea/RT

Temperature dependence of the Rate of ReactionLogk2/k1=Ea/2.303R[T2-T1/T1T2]

Collision theory-It provides a greater insight into the energetic & mechanistic aspects of reaction

Rate=PZABe-Ea/RT Questions1. Why a negative sign is inserted in the rate of reaction when it is expressed as change in conc. of a reactant.2. Differentiate between rate law & law of mass action? 3. How is activation energy affected by catalyst & temperature?4. Differentiate between elementary &complex reactions?5. Explain Pseudo first order reaction?6. A reaction is of second order w.r.t. a reactant. How will the rate of reaction be affected if the conc. Of this reactant is i) doubled ii) half7. Define the following: i) elementary step in a reaction ii) rate of reaction

8. Derive the integrated rate equation for the first order reaction with example9. Briefly explain the collision theory?

The d-and f-Block ElementsTransition elements-: The element which has incompletely filled d-orbital in its ground state or in any of its oxidation state.Common oxidation states-: +2, +3 as shown by first row transition elements.MAGNETIC MOMENT-: spin only formula

µ= n(n+2)

n= number of unpaired electrons & µ is magnetic moment in units of bohr magneton (BM).

CATALYTIC PROPERTY-:This activity is described to adopt multiple oxidation states and to form complexes.LANTHANOID CONTRACTION-: The filling of 4-f before 5-d orbital results in a regular decrease in atomic radii is called lanthanoid contraction which essentially compensates for the expected increase in atomic size with increasing atomic number.The net result is that second & third d-series exhibit similar radii and physical & chemical properties.Short questions-:

1. Vanadium pentaoxide act as good catalyst. why?2. Cu, Ag, Au have completely filled d-orbital but they are known as

transition elements . Why?3. Give the chemical equation for the reaction between MnO4

- & C2O4- .

4. What is the general electronic configuration of transition & inner transition metals?

5. Why do transition elements show similarities along the period?Long Questions:-

1. Cu (I) compounds are white but Cu(II) compounds are coloured .why?2. The e0(M+2/M) value for copper is positive what is the possible reason

for this?3. Why are Mn(+2) compounds are more stable than fe(+2)

compounds towards oxidation to their +3 state?4. To what extent do the electronic configuration decides the stability

of oxidation state in first series of transition elements?Give Reasons:-

1. Co(III) is more stable in aq. Solution but in the presence of complexing reagent it is easily oxidized?

2. The d configuration is very unstable in ions.

3. The lowest oxide of transition elements is basic, the highest is acidic.4. The transition metals exhibits higher oxidation states in oxides &

fluorides?

Coordination CompoundsShort Summary

1. Total number of lone pairs coordinated by ligands to central metal atom is called its coordination number.

2. Coordination compounds contain a central metal atom or ion surrounded by a large number of oppositely charged ion.

3. A molecule, ion or group that coordinates lone pair to central metal atom is called LIGAND.

4. According to crystal field theory as ligands approaches to metal atom then splitting of d-orbital’s of metal atoms takes place. These d-orbital’s lie into two categories:-

(i) t2g orbital contains dxy, dyz, dzx

(ii) eg orbital contains d X2

- Y2

, d Z2.

5. Structural isomerism-: (i)Ionization isomers: [Co (NH3)5 Br]SO4 & [ Co (NH3)5Br] SO4.

(ii) Hydrate isomer-:[Co(H2O)6]Cl3 & [Co(H2O)5Cl]Cl2 H2O(iii) Coordination Isomer-: [Co(NH3)6][Cr(C2O4)3] & [Cr(NH3)6]

[Co(C2O4)3]

(iv) Linkage isomer-: [Co (NH3)5 ONO] Cl2 & [Co (NH3)5 NO2] Cl2

6. STEREO ISOMERISM-: (i) Geometrical isomerism-: shown by square planer &

octahedral complexes.(ii) Optical isomerism-: shown by non super imposible & mirror

image complexes.7. V.B theory considers covalent bond between metal & ligands.8. The colour of transition metal complexes is due to transition of

electron from lower d-orbital to higher d-orbital.Short Questions

1.What is meant by the chelate effect? Give an example.

2.Draw facial and meridional isomer of [Co(NH3)3(NO2)3]

3.Draw optical isomers of [Co(en)3]2+

4.Draw a sketch to show the splitting of d-orbital’s in an octahedral crystal field.

5.Give an example in each case the role of coordination compound in (i) Biological systems (ii) Medicinal chemistry (iii) Heterogeneous catalysis (iv) extraction of metals

6.Explain why [Ni(CN)4]4- & [Ni(Co)4]4 have different structure but same magnetic behavior.

Chemistry In Every Day Life1. Drugs-: Drugs are chemical agent

effects human metabolism.2. Use of chemicals for therapeutic effect is called

chemotherapy.3. Target molecules-: carbohydrates, proteins lipids

& nucleic acid.4. PRESERVATIVES - prevent spoilage of food due

to microbial growth.5. SYNTHETIC DETERGENTS - cleaning agents

having properties of soaps.Types -: Anionic. Cationic & Non- Anionic

6. Drugs -: Antibiotic, Analgesics, Antiseptics, Disinfectant, Antacids & Tranquilizers.

Questions1. Give one example of an artificial sweetener used by the diabetic patient.2. Aspirin drugs helps in the prevention of heart attack.why6?3. Diabetic patient are advised to take artificial sweetener instead of natural

sweetner.why?4. Detergents are non biodegradable while soaps are biodegradable Give

reasons.5. Classify synthetic detergents with example.6. Explain food preservatives with examples.7. How antiseptics differ from disinfectant.8. Explain cationic detergents.9. Explain analgesics.10. Name the drug used in case of depression.

PolymersPolymers are defined as high molecular mass macromolecular which consist of repeating structure unit defined from corresponding monomers. In presence of an organic peroxide initiator, the alkenes and their derivatives undergo addition polymerization or chain growth polymerization through a free radical mechanism.

Types of Polymers-:(i) Natural(ii) Semi-synthetic(iii) Synthetic

Based On The Structure Of Polymers

(i) Linear polymers-: long and straight chain

(ii) Branched chain polymers-: linear chain having branches.

(iii) Cross linked polymers-: Formed from bi & tri functional monomers & contain strong covalent bond between various linear polymer chains.

The condensation polymerization progresses through step by step and is also called as step growth condensation polymers. Eg;Nylon, Bakelite and Dacron. A mixture of two unsaturated monomers exhibits COPOLYMERISATION. Natural rubber can be made stiffered by vulcanization process.

QuestionsQ1. Name a natural elastomer?Q2. What does PMMA stands for?Q3. Name a Synthetic polymer which is an amide?Q4. Give chemical name of teflon?Q5. What is the function of sulphur in vulcanization of rubber?Q6. Write equation for the preparation of nylon 6, 6?Q7. What is a plasticizer?Q8. Why is Bakelite a thermosetting polymer?Q9. What is the main constituent of bubble gum?Q10. What are monomers of SBR?Q11. How is nylon 610 prepared?Q12. What is the monomer of natural rubber? What is the difference in the structures of natural rubber and gutta percha?Q13. Define terms: i) Elastomers ii) Fibres iii) thermoplastic PolymersQ14. What are biodegradable polymers? Write the structural formula of a biodegradable Polymer?Q15. How Bakelite is made and what is its major use? Why is Bakelite a thermosetting Polymer?Q16. Write is the equations for the synthesis of i) Neoprene and ii) Glyptal.Which one of the two is a condensation polymer?Q17. Write the names and structures of the monomers of each of the following Polymers.i)Natural rubber ii) Buna-S iii)Neoprene iv)Buna-NQ18. Classify polymers on the basis of structure?Q19. Define homopolymers and copolymers with example?Q20. What are condensation and addition polymers?

BiomoleculesCarbohydrates: These are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketone or molecules which provide such units on hydrolysis.These are of 3 types.

i) Monosaccharides, disaccharides & polysaccharides: Monosaccharides are held by ‘glycosidic linkage’.

Proteins:These are polymers of twenty different x-amino acids which are linked by peptide bonds.

Enzyme are ‘biocatalyste’which speed up the reaction in biosystem.They are specific & selective. Vitamins: vitamins are classified as fat soluble(A,D,Eand K) &water

soluble(Bgp and C).Defiency of vitamin leads to diseases.Nucleic acid are polymers of nucleotides which consists of a base,a pentose sugar &phospase moiety.These are responsible for transfer of character from parents to offsprings.These are of two type: RNA &DNA.

Dna contains five carbon sugar molecule called 2-deoxyribose whereas RNA contains ribose.DNA &RNA both contains adenine,guanine & cytosine &fourth base thymine in DNA & uracil in RNA.Structure of DNA is double strand & RNA is single.There are 3 types of RNA

Questions1.what is meant by glycosidic linkage?2.Write two function of carbohyate in planets?3.what are enzymes?4.what happen when protein is denatured?5.How do amino acids form proteins?6.what are hydrolysis product of (a) Sucrose (b) lactose7.What are enzymes? Discuss their function. Name two diseases which are caused due to deficiency of enzymes?8.what is difference between RNA &DNA?9.Differentiate between globulas & fibrous plant?10.Explain various steps involved in the formation of protein from amino acid?11.The two strands in DNA are not identical but are complementary. Explain?

General Principal& Processes of Isolation of ElementsMinerals: The naturally occurring chemical substances in the earth crust obtained by mining are minerals?Ores: the rocky materials which contain sufficient quantity of mineral so that mital can be enteracted feasulluy.Gangue: the undesirable materials present in are called Gangue.Important types of Ores:Ore type Examples1) Nature Cu , Ag ,Hg ,Au ,etc2) Oxide Al2o3 , Fe2o3 ,Fe3o4, suo2, Mno2

3) Carbonate Caco3,Feco3,Pbco3,Znco3,Cuco3

4) Sulphates Baso4,Pbso4,caso4.2H2o 5) Sulphide Ag2s ,Cu2s,PbS,HgS,ZnS,Fes,CasMettalurgy: Process involved in isolation of metals from its one. Concentration of one : removal of unwanted mattval like clay, sand, etc from the one.Conversion of ore into metaloxide:Its easier to reduce oxides rather than sulphides and carbonates.Reduction of oxide to metal:The process of converting metal oxides to metal is called reduction.common reducing agents are Ag,Mg,C,Co etc.Ellingham diagram:The plots between ∆fG0 of oxides of elements temperature is called Ellingham diagram.It provides sound idea of suitable reducing agents .such diagrams help in predicting fesibilyTo thermal reduction of ore.Each pot is a straight line except when solid changes to liquid that is change in phase.Questions1)Define electro refining.2)what is the principle of separation of metal ion in qualitative analysis.3)Name sulphide ore of copper and silver.4)Name the process of heating of sulphide ore to convert it into an oxide ore.5)Describe froth formation process and what is the role of depressant and 6)How is chemical reduction is different from electrolyte reduction?How is Ag obtained from agetine?7)Explain : 1)van arkel method 2)Magnetic separation8) (i)what happens when ore of mercury is heated. (ii)Explain smelting with the help of example.

Surface Chemistry ABSORPTION ADSORPTION

1.Bulk phenomenonE.g. Annydrous cacl2 absorb water vapour2. The concentration of solute increases throughout the bulk of solid.Physical adsorption

1.Surface phenomenonE.g. silicaget absorbs water vapour2. The concentration increase more on the surface, less in bulk.Chemical adsorption

1. It is non-specific2. Reversible3. Weak wander waal forces of attraction with adsorbent.4. forms multimolecular layer.

1. It is specific2. Irreversible3. Strong forces of attraction with adsorbent.

4. Forms unimolecular layer.

Friendich Adsorption Isotherm-: it is given by X/M = K P1/n

LYOPHILIC SOL1 solvent loving. 2 self – stabilized.3 reversible Eg-: gum in water.

LYPHOBIC SOL1 solvent hating. 2 need stabilizing agent.3 non- reversible Eg-: colloidal sol of Au, Ag etc.

Properties of Colloidal solution-:1. brownian movement2. Tyndall Effect3. Electrophoresis

Emulsion -: (liquid-liquid solution).Application of Colloids-

1. Medicines (milk of magnesia-antacid).2. Paints, inks, rubber fevicol are colloidal sol.3. Photographic films are cooled colidal sol. Of AgBr.

Questions1. What is the name given to the substance which is getting

adsorbed?2. Why does physabsorption decrease with increase in temperature?3. Why ester hydrolysis is slow in begning & becomes slow after

sometime?4. State Hardy – Schulz rule Give reasons for development of chare

on colloidal particles?5. Which of two He & Ne, gets adsorbed on of charcoal more readily

why?6. Explain the following terms-: i) Dialysis ii) Electrophoresis iii) Tyndall effect iv) Flocculation7. “Action of soap is due to emulsification & misclee formation” Comment.

8. Define gold number & kraft temperature.9. Differntiate between-:

(i) Homogenous & heterogeneous catalyst.(ii) Physical & chemical adsorption.(iii) Lypophillic & lypophobic sol.10. (a) Why is alum added to water for purification.

(b) Why deltas are former where river & sea water meet?

AMINES

1) Hoffmann Bromamide Dregadation Reaction:-

R-C-NH2 + Br2 + 4NaOH R-NH2 + Na2CO3 + 2NaBr + 2H2O

2) Aldehyde and ketones Reductive Ammination:-CH3CHO + NH3 + H2 -------> CH3-CH2-NH2 + H2O

CH3-C-CH3 + NH3 + H2 ---------> CH3-CH-CH2 + H2O

NH2

3) Gabriel phthalimide synthesis:- For preparation of pure Primary aliphatic amines.

NH ----------> N K

O Na R-NH2 + N-R

(1° amine) O Na

4) Carbyl amine reaction:-R-NH3 + CHCl3 + KOH ----------> R-NC + 3KCl + 3H2O

5) Sandmeyers reaction:-

C6H5N2Cl + HCl --------------> C6H5Cl + N2

6) Coupling Reaction:- for preparing dyes

NΞNCl + H OH ----------> N=N OH

Ni

Ni

KOHOH

R-X

NaOH (aq)

CuCl2

OHˉ

(p-hydroxyazobenzene)(orange dye)+ Clˉ + H2O

7) Gattermann Reaction:-C6H5N2X --------------> C6H5X + N2

Questions

1) Why aromatic primary amines can’t be prepared by Gabriel Phthalimide synthesis?2) The boiling points of tertiary amines are lower than those of secondary and primary amines. Explain?3) Secondary amines are more basic than 1o amines. Explain?4) An organic compound ‘A’ having molecular formula C2H7N on treatment with HNO2 gave an oily yellow substances. What is ‘A’?5) Why are aryldiazonium ion more stable than alkydiazonium Ion?*1) how will u convert:- a) benzonitrile to acetophenone b)methanamine to ethanamine c) ethanoic acid to methanamine2) How will u distinguish between:- a)methylmaine and dimethylamine b) ethylamine and aniline c) anline and benzylamine 3) Give name and structure of A,B and c:-

i) CH3CH2I CH3CH2 A C

ii) ArN2Cl A B C

4) Explain:-a) Coupling reaction b) Carbylamine reaction5) Describe a method for identification of 1o,2o,3o amines. Also write chemical reactions involved.

ALDEHYDES KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDTOLLEN’S TEST: on warming an aldehyde with freshly prepared silver nitrate solution (Tollen’s reagents) a bright silver mirror is produced.R CHO + 2[Ag(NH3)2]+ 3OH ------------RCOO+2Ag +2H2O+4NH3

FEHLING’S TEST: on heating an aldehyde with Fehling’s reagent a reddish brown ppt is obtained. Aldehyde are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion.R-CHO+Cu2+ +5OH-----------RCOO- + Cu2O(Red brown ppt.)+3H2O

CuX/

NaCN OHˉ B + Br2

CuCN H2O/H⁺ NH3

CROSS ALDOL CONDENSATION: When aldol condensation is carried out between two different aldehyde and ketons, it is called cross aldol condensation.2CH3CH0+CH3CH2CHO CH3CH =CHCHO + CH3-CH2-CH = CH(CH3)CHO + CH3CH=CH(CH3)-CHO

+CH3CH2CH= CHCHO (But-2-enal) (2-methyl pent-2-enal)

--CHO + --C-C0-CH3 OH— ---CH=CH-CO--

(Benzalacetophenon)

CANNIZZARO REACTOIN: Aldehyde and ketons having number of alpha-hydrogen atom undergo self oxidation and reduction on treatment with conc. Alkali. (i) H-CO-H + H-CO-H KOH CH3OH + H-CO-OK(ii) --CO-H + H-CO-- KOH --OH + --COOK

QUES- An organic compound with the molecular formula C9H10O forms 2,4 – DNP derivative reduces tollens reagent and undergoes cannizzaro reaction. On vigorous oxidation it gives 1-2 benzene dicarboxylic acid.identify the compound.QUES- give simple chemical tests to distinguish between the following pair of compounds:

(1) Propanal and propanone(2) Acetophenone and benzophenone(3) Benzoic acid and ethylbenzoate(4) Ethanal and propanal

QUES- how will you prepare following compounds from benzene:(1) Methyl benzoate (2) M-nitro benzoic acid(3) P-nitro benzoic acid(4) P-nitro benzoic aldehyde

QUES- HOW WILL YOU BRING ABOUT THE FOLLOWING CONYERSion?i) Priopanone to propeneii) Benzoic acid to benzadehydeiii) Benzene to m-nitrobenzophemoneiv) Benzaldehyde to benzophenenev) Benzaldhyde to 3 –phenylpropane-1-ol

Alcohols phenols and Ethers

Kolbe’s Reaction:-

NaOH COOH

CO2

Kolbe’s reaction H+

Riemer - Tiemann Reaction:-

aq.NaOH+CHCl3

OH

OH

O-Na+ CHCl2 O-

CHO CHO

[ ] NaOH

H+

INTERMEDIATE SALICYLALDHEYDE

Williamson’s Synthesis:-

CH3 CH3

CH3-C-O-Na+ + CH3-Br CH3 –O-C-CH3

+ NaBr

C6H5OH + NaOH R-ONa R-O-R

Questions

1. Write the mechanism of acid dehydration of ethanol to yield ethane.2. Explain why ortho-nitrophenol is more acidic than that of ortho-

methoxy-phenol.3. While separating a mixture of ortho and Para nitrophenols by steam

distillation explain which isomer will be steam volatile and. Why?4. What is meant by hydroboration – oxidation reaction? Illustrate with

example?5. Preparation ethers by dehydration of secondary or tertiary alcohols

is not a suitable method. Why?

Haloarenes and Haloalkenes

Sandmeyer Reaction:

C6H5NH2 ----- C6H5N2X(Benzene Diazonnium chloride)

C6H5N2X --- N2(Aryl Halide)

M.P/B.P.:- RI>RBr>RCl>RFThe boiling point of isomeric haloalkanes decrease with increase in branching.

CH

NaNo2 + HX

Cu2X2

Nucleophilic Substitution:R-X + N- -→ R-N + X-

CH3 SN1 : (CH3)CBr ↔ CH3 CH3 + Br –

CH3

+

CH3-CH3 + OH - ------- (CH3)3COH

SN2: OH-- + CH3Cl CH3- OH-+ Cl

Wurtz fittig Reaction: R

+ Na + RX + Na X

Fittig Reaction:

2 + 2 Na - + 2NaX

Questions:

1. Differentiate between SN1 and SN2 reaction?2. What are racemic mixtures? How we can separate racemic mixtures?

X X

X

3. Why is sulphuric acid not used during the reaction of alcohols with KI?4. The treatment of alkyl chlorides with aqueous KOH leads to the formation of alcohols but in presence of alcoholic KOH are major products? Explain?

Q. Write the products:

1. C6H5 –CH-CH2 + HBr -2. C6H5-CH2-CH=CH2 + HBr -

Q. CH3—CH2—CH2—CHBr—CH3 CH3—CH2—CH2--CH=CH3 (A)

CH3—CH2—CH2—CHBr—CH3 CH3—CH2—CH=CH-CH3 (B)

Q. Which of the product (A or B) would be preferred according to the Saytzeff rule?

OH-

OH-