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March 2012

Saturday Programme Roscrea

Produced by ELISTA Education©

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Environment

One definition for environment is “The circumstances or conditions that surround one;

surroundings”. When we thinks about the surroundings of animals i.e their

environment in many cases there can be a lot, in other situations there may be few. Take an out door reared pig on a small holding compared to a intensive commercially

reared pig as an example. Task 1: Look at the pictures as a guide, and try to list everything in the

environment of these pigs. Think physical environment of all that they can see, smell, interact with and eat but also that which may be felt such as

wind or sunshine.

-------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------

Underline anything you have listed in the

environment that you feel

could cause discomfort.

Ideally an animals’ environment

should stimulate them in a

positive (but not over bearing)

way. (More on this in session 7).

Look at your list and try to

compare the number of things

that stimulate.

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Comfort is described to be “A condition or feeling of pleasurable ease, well-being, and

contentment”, and discomfort therefore being an unpleasurable feeling. Since we do not know for sure

what animals find comfortable and/or comforting we have to make observations, this most often relates to

physical environment and as we shall see later their preferences.

Understanding what makes an animal emotionally comfortable is a controversial area and links

significantly with the ‘Freedom from fear and distress’ as previously discussed.

Task 2: No need to write it down, but have a think about what makes you feel

comfortable and uncomfortable, both in the physical sense such as the chair that you sit

on, but also in the emotional and social sense also, for example being in a situation with

lots of people but not knowing anyone? Could animals be capable of feeling this

discomfort also?

Habitat

Habitat is most commonly considered the type of environment an animal lives in, in human terms this could be in a rural or urban habitat, depending on whether we live in the country or in the town.

Task 2: Look at the pictures below, list in order the likeness of the environments in which these pets are kept to the ‘natural’ habitats in which they (or their nearest living

ancestor) would be found in.

ORDER:………………………………………………………………………………………..

A

C

B

C F

E

D

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Adaptations for Environment As discussed in a previous session, animals will adapt over time to ensure they

are best suited for their environment in a process called natural selection. This

aids survival, reproduction and ultimately continuation of the species.

In some cases the adaptations seen in domestic animals are very „man made‟ and

have been encouraged through selective breeding, the breeding of like with

like. Often the characteristics had an original use, relating to the work required

of the animal or to help it exist in the environment it was developed.

Adaptations can be described as being physical (occurring on the outside or

externally visible), physiological (occurring on the inside, mechanics and

function), behavioural (actions) and social (interactions).

Examples in Dog World.

Alaskan Malamute: originates from Artic Alaska, where the climate is obviously

cold and environment harsh. Physical Adaptations:

In providing an environment for this dog we

should ensure that it was a cooler environment.

Conversely a breed such as the Rhodesian

Ridgeback or Basenji that originate from Africa

would not thrive in a cooler environment.

Thick double coat

for insulation

Small (surface area) ,well

furred ears to reduce hear

loss

Dark over coat to

absorb heat from

sun, but light around

face to reflect from

eyes

Large feet, nearly webbed to

act like snow shoes, and great

for digging holes in which to

curl up and sleep

Fluffy tail to

cover the face

when curled up

General large build

for strength in the

work of hauling

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Similar can be seen in horses with adaptations, comparing for example the

Shetland Pony with an Arab horse.

In the Shetland Islands of Scotland the weather would be harsh with cold

strong winds at certain times of the year, terrain would be hilly and rocky

underfoot this is strongly comparative to Egypt and Arabia where the climate

would be dry, generally hot, sandy underfoot and with limited water available.

Task 3: Label the two images in a similar fashion to the Malamute above. Are

there physiological or behavioural adaptations that could also be included?

Task 4: Research an animal of your choice comparing two breeds native to very

different environments. What are their adaptations? And how should they be

housed/cared for differently to avoid discomfort?

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Effect of Light in Birds

Animals that are seasonal breeders have hormones that are triggers by change in seasons, more specifically daylight length.

As the optic nerve sends information to the brain about what is occurring visually in the animals’ environment (although eyesight is limited in some birds) the

signals by pass a gland called the pineal gland in the brain. This gland detects the amount of light (i.e a lot, a little) and either produces (during the night for diurnal

animals) or inhibits (during the day) the production of Melatonin. Melatonin has a direct effect on sleep patterns and also triggers other hormones

such as oestrogen and testosterone which surge in the breeding season for the on set of reproduction.

In domestic situations we have an effect on animals natural rhythms by artificial

light. For example a canary in the home could start laying eggs in the autumn rather than spring when both central heating and house lights are put on, causing an apparent increase in light and heat for the bird.

In commercial egg production, houses in which hens are kept may be artificially lit for up to 18 hours in a day to promote the increase and continue production of eggs.

Many wildlife experts indicate concern over light pollution having an effect on the natural pattern of animals. Here is an article relating to the affect of light on birds, not quite cyclic patterns, but instead reduction of their prey:

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SPACE Requirements

In Ireland legislation the only time space requirements for pets are mentioned is in the

Protection of Animals Act 1965, section 25 where it states that Animals kept for sale

shall be kept “at all times in accommodation suitable, as respects size, temperature,

lighting, ventilation and cleanliness”.

This is very vague, and ambiguous, as what one person considers “suitable”, and other

may not.

In the UK legislation specific to Pet Shops was produced in 1951. Pet shops are required

to have a specific licence to sell pets and much stricter guidelines have been produced

which sellers must conform to, these include; Accommodation, Registration, Exercise,

Stocking Numbers and Densities, Health, Disease, Acclimatisation, Food, Drink,

Observation, Waste Disposal, Transportation, Advice to buyers and Fire safety and

Animals.

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The guidelines given in relation to space are this:

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Task 5:

If you have any smaller pets at home, or know anyone who has, calculate the space available to that

pet in comparison to the guidelines given for pet shops.

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Critical Analysis Evaluation of housing looking at both positive and negative aspects of a design. Below is an example of Critical Analysis of a chinchilla house. A similar task will be performed during the session and also by way of assessment.

Bold text are positives. 6 positive points, 4 negative, 1 neutral. This may be a good

way to compare between products.

Solid ladder/ramp easier

on chin’s feet Tubes

potentially

difficult to

clean

Chin get

stuck?

No hide-

away box

or solid

sides to

cage

Easy

removable

base for

cleaning

On wheels

for easy

moving

Secure door Poor access, difficult

to capture chin from

here

Up higher

to prevent

household

predators

looking in!

Strong

metal bars

prevent

chewing

Plastic

platforms

easily

chewed

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The History of Zoos

Adapted from http://www.bornfree.org.uk/zoocheck/zczoos03.htm

Wild animals have, throughout history, intrigued the human race. We are amazed by their

diversity of form and entertained by their actions. The first wild animal menageries are

recorded as far back as Ancient Egypt where wild animals - regarded as objects of

wealth - were presented as gifts to the pharaohs.

The Romans also viewed animals as objects believing that they were created solely for

the convenience of humans. The Roman philosopher Cicero wrote "We are the absolute

masters of what the earth produces" and under Roman law, animals had no rights.

Creating their own form of entertainment, the Romans flocked to see hundred of

thousands of lions, tigers, elephants, leopards and bears forced to fight each other - as

well as human gladiators - to the death. These 'games' continued for more than 500

years.

King Henry 1st created the first wild animal menagerie in Britain at Woodstock, England,

which later was re-housed at the Tower of London by Henry III in the 13th Century. He

introduced the first elephant to Britain, which was presented to him as a gift. Animal

menageries remained private collections and it was not until the early part of the 19th

Century that animal collections started to become accessible to the general public with

the opening of zoological collections in Paris, Vienna, Dublin and later London. The 'zoo'

concept had been established.

At that time, these collections were nothing more than living museums exhibiting

creatures as objects of curiosity from around the world, captured by the Victorian

explorers or presented as gifts from parts of Africa and Asia in return for diplomatic

favours. The Zoological Society of London, founded in 1826, justified London's zoological

collection as "the advancement of zoology and animal physiology and the introduction of

new and curious subjects of the Animal Kingdom".

Throughout the 19th and early part of the 20th Century there were only a small number of

animal collections. It was not until the 'zoo boom' of the 1950s, that entrepreneurs

recognised the potential money to be made by entertaining the public and satisfying their

curiosity about the animal kingdom. Zoos became established worldwide as recreational

centres and the 'advancement of science' was largely forgotten.

In 1848 a German animal collector, Carl Hagenbeck, built a zoo allowing animals outdoor

access. He believed enclosures should resemble nature. However, only a relatively few

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zoological collections adopted this method, and even then, the level of animal welfare

remained questionable.

Until the 20th Century there had been little or no concern for the welfare of zoo animals.

Animals were barely perceived to have physical needs, let alone mental and emotion

needs, and many were kept in appalling conditions. The appearance of zoos however did

begin to change in the 1970s and 1980s. Public opinion was changing with the

development of sophisticated natural history television documentaries, the expanded

opportunities for global travel, and an increased recognition of the welfare implications of

captivity. People started to question the role of zoos and their commitment to

conservation, education and animal welfare. Zoos had no option but to begin to change.

Preference Testing Example

The following is an example to show, quite simplistically how results of preference tests can be analysed. Aim: To discover the basking light preference of a Hermann’s Tortoise. Objective: A single Hermann’s Tortoise was used to determine a preference for red light or blue right. Method: A six year old male Hermann’s Tortoise was used as the subject. His standard housing was an area 1.2m by 90cm in a domestic garage. The sides of the area were made of timber to a depth of 40cm and within the area was his food bowl, water bath, shredded paper in one corner, slate rocks and a large flower pot. The area was lined with newspaper. An infra red heat lamp of 250W hung 75cm above the slate rocks and the garage was lit with fluorescent tubes. There were no windows in the garage. Housing area:

Shredded paper food slate rocks

Water

bath

Infra Red

Lamp

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The environment was modified so that equal amounts of shredded paper were in either corner to the left of the area, and the water bath moved to the right hand corner. Two 60W bulbs were suspended over the shredded paper areas, one with a red film and one with a blue film. Scan sampling method was used to record the location of the tortoise. The frequency of scan was every 10 minutes for a duration of 12 hours. A photo snap shot was taken upon scan and a grid used over the photo. The grid used determined whether all (1), half (0.5) a third (0.3) or quarter (0.25) of the tortoise was in the area of blue and red. Results:

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Scan Results

0 0.5 1 1.5

1

6

11

16

21

26

31

36

41

46

51

56

61

66

71

76

81

86

Scan

nu

mb

er

Aamount of Tortoise in Area of light

blue

red

Discussion: The graph shows the amount of scans when the tortoise was either in both (to various degrees) or in one (to various degree) light area of the environment. Since the position of the tortoises location was recorded on a scale of 0-1 with intervals of 0.25. 0.3 and 0.5 a score and percentage can be calculated.

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The score generated by recording the amount of tortoise under red light at scans of every 10 minutes for 12 hours was 28.6, whilst the score generated by recording the amount of tortoise under blue light was 7.65. Since the total number of scans was 72(and the maximum score under any one light is 72), the tortoise is calculated to spend 39.722% amount of the time fully or partly under the red light, 10.625% under the blue light and 49.653 under neither red nor blue light. It is suggested that since the tortoise is used to a heat lamp that glows red this may have increased his motivation for moving under this colour. It is suggested that to be more certain of preference one lamp at a time should be tested against no light since the tortoise spent approximately half of its time under the coloured lights and half not under them. Conclusion: The results suggest a significant preference for red light over blue, but not a significant difference for red over not being under either light. Evaluation: In order to reduce bias the observations should be repeated, with the locations of red and blue reversed, and then further repeated in comparison to no light the coloured lights could be moved to different areas of the environment.

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About Compassion in World Farming - Ireland Compassion in World Farming -Ireland started in 1992. It is part of the international Compassion in World Farming organisation, which was founded in England and now works to achieve better animal welfare standards in the EU and globally. Compassion in World Farming hosts a European Coalition For Farm Animals, in which animal welfare groups from the EU (including Compassion in World Farming - Ireland) work together to improve EU farm animal welfare standards. Compassion in World Farming - Ireland is represented on the Irish Government's Farm Animal Welfare Advisory Council . This was established in 2002 as a response to growing public interest in high farm animal welfare standards in Ireland. Compassion in World Farming campaigns solely for improvements in farm animal welfare. Specifically, we want to see an end to industrialised farming of animals. We believe that all farm animals should be kept in ways that allow them to carry out their natural behaviours and that do not cause them suffering or pain. Compassion in World Farming's Chief Executive for the whole organisation, Philip Lymbery, explains the work of Compassion in World Farming as follows: "Compassion in World Farming is working strategically toward a whole food system that is truly kind, caring and honest - kind to animals; caring for the environment and consumer health; and honestly labelled. http://www.ciwf.ie/about/index.html CIWF in Ireland is limited in its activity and uses resources produced in the UK although the farming industries can be slightly different . An example of the type of literature produced (in this case for students) by CIWF is on the following page. The pictures below are from campaigns by CIWF. CIWF campaigns to raise public and political awareness about farm animal welfare.

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TRANSPORTING LARGER ANIMALS The transportation of larger animals now comes under tighter legislative guidelines, in that it is more carefully monitored and recorded because of new EU legislation. The following is produced as a comparison of the now current Animal Transport Legislation and the previous. Are the tighter guidelines also improving animal welfare?…see what you think! On 5 January 2007, a new Regulation on the protection of animals during transport applied across the European Union (EU), with some elements coming into force later in 2008 or 2009.

The new regulations identify the chain of all those involved in animal transport and who is

responsible for what. It also introduces efficient enforcement tools, such as checks via the

tachograph.

The Regulations recognise that most of the stress on the animals occurs around loading and

unloading and therefore introduces rules to deal with situations before and after transport, for

example at slaughterhouses or at harbours. It encourages Member States to develop guides

of good practice. Currently only about 10% of animal transport in Europe consists of long

distance transport.'

1. Travelling Times

Travelling times have been regulated to reduce stress for animals on the road

Previous Regulations on long-distance travel:

Very young animals (still drinking milk): 9 hours travel + 1 hour rest (watering)

+ 9 hours travel

Pigs: 24 hours (permanent access to water)

Horses: 24 hours with watering every 8 hours Cattle, sheep and goats: 14 hours traveling +1 hour rest (watering) + 14

hours.

The above sequences may be repeated if animals are unloaded, fed, watered and rested for

at least 24 hours in an approved staging point.

New EU Legislation for long distance travel:

All species: maximum 9 hours travelling + minimum 12 hours rest. The sequence may be

repeated. No staging point is required. Animals rest within the vehicle.

2. New Travel restrictions for young and pregnant stock.

Previous Regulations

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Prohibition for newborn animals in which the navel has not completely healed. No

specifications for the different species.

New Guidelines on young and pregnant stock

Ban of travelling above 100 km with young animals (pigs less than 4 weeks /

lambs less than one week / calves less than 2 weeks / horses less than 4 months

(for long-distance only)).

Ban on females travelling one week after birth and before giving birth (10% of the estimated time of the gestation)

3. Improved equipment for improved conditions

Previous Regulations:

Partition of the compartment, access to animals, but no additional space for long distance

journeys.

New Guidelines:

Specific temperature according to species (with temperature monitoring system, recording data, driver cabin with alert system)

Permanent access to drinking water

More space according to species and length of journey e.g. 40% more for pigs,

16% more for cattle, 32% more for sheep-

Prohibition on tying animals (animals can move around or lay down, precise space definitions allows better enforcement)

Better conditions on sea vessels (e.g. inclination of ramps, drinking equipment,

approval system).

4. Conditions for horses improved

Previous Regulations:

Minimum space allowances.

New Legislation

Larger space allowances for short distance journeys

Individual stalls/boxes for long distance journeys

Permanent access to hay.

5. Regulation instead of Directive better enforcement tool

Previous Situation

National legislation based on EU Directive (some national interpretation possible allowing

variation in member states).

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New: National legislation based on EU Regulation ( no national discretion, ensuring

harmonisation in all Member States).

6. What is long distance transport?

Previous Regulations

Travel longer than 8h with upgraded trucks.

New Guidelines

9 hours (based on drivers' social legislation, therefore easily enforceable). Driver has to stop

for 12 hours after 9 hours driving. Length of journey defined as the entire transport operation

from start to final destination, including intermediate points.

7. Who is responsible?

Previous Regulations

Transport operator and transporters (companies).

New Regulations

As above, but also traders (organisers) and drivers, as well as "keepers" (staff at assembly

centres, markets and slaughterhouses as well as farmers).

8. Ensuring better enforcement

Previous Regulations

Enforcement via Route Plan (but Route Plans are only mandatory if a border is crossed and

the journey is longer than 8 hours).

New Regulations

Enforcement via Journey Log when above 9 hours; not only when border

crossed. Signatures of all involved, report at end of transport

Via tachograph efficient tool; not possible to alter data A person has to be made responsible for entire transport.

9. More personal responsibility in case of infringements

Previous Regulations

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Suspend/withdraw approval of transporter, etc

New Regulations

Additional checks in case of infringements Also suspension / withdrawal of driver training certificate and the authorisation

of the means of transport

Prohibited transit onto the territory of a Member State

Training requirements are demanded for the people responsible for the welfare of the animals.

10. Authorisation: improved standards to facilitate enforcement

Previous Regulations

Authorisation via registration of transporter.

New Regulations

Reinforced registration rules, harmonised registration format (European

database)

Requirements on traceability and emergency plans for transporter Obligation for transporters to carry a copy of the authorisation

5 year time limit on approval of vehicles for long distance journeys (9 hours);

also for sea vessels (sea vessels also require specific equipment)

Compulsory approved training for drivers and animal handlers at livestock markets.

11. New responsibilities at interim stops (assembly centres, markets, etc)

Previous Regulations

No responsibilities for market places / assembly centres / harbours.

New Guidelines

Clear responsibility to check and implement animal welfare rules by the "keeper" (a newly

introduced term). Operators of assembly centres have to ensure personnel is trained.

12. Post-journey follow-up: an important part of enforcement

Previous Regulations

Route plan is checked (only if + 8 hours and crossing border)

Limited information.

New Guidelines

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Comprehensive journey log for long-distance/9 hours (e.g. place of destination has to perform checks and report status of animals, including number of animals arriving dead or

unfit).

CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild

Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between governments. Its aim

is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants

does not threaten their survival.

Although nowadays awareness about endanger species is quite high, when

the ideas for CITES were first formed, in the 1960s, international discussion of

the regulation of wildlife trade for conservation purposes was something

relatively new. With hindsight, the need for CITES is clear.

Annually, international wildlife trade is estimated to be worth billions of dollars

and to include hundreds of millions of plant and animal specimens. The trade

is diverse, ranging from live animals and plants to a vast array of wildlife

products derived from them, including food products, exotic leather goods,

wooden musical instruments, timber, tourist curios and medicines. Levels of

exploitation of some animal and plant species are high and the trade in them,

together with other factors, such as habitat loss, is capable of heavily

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depleting their populations and even bringing some species close to

extinction. Many wildlife species in trade are not endangered, but the

existence of an agreement to ensure the sustainability of the trade is

important in order to safeguard these resources for the future.

Because the trade in wild animals and plants crosses borders between

countries, the effort to regulate it requires international cooperation to

safeguard certain species from over-exploitation. CITES was conceived in the

spirit of such cooperation. Today, it accords varying degrees of protection to

more than 30,000 species of animals and plants, whether they are traded as

live specimens, fur coats or dried herbs.

CITES was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of

members of IUCN (The World Conservation Union). The text of the

Convention was finally agreed at a meeting of representatives of 80 countries

in Washington DC., United States of America, on 3 March 1973, , and on 1

July 1975 CITES entered in force.

CITES is an international agreement to which States (countries) adhere

voluntarily. States that have agreed to be bound by the Convention ('joined'

CITES) are known as Parties. Although CITES is legally binding on the

Parties – in other words they have to implement the Convention – it does not

take the place of national laws. Rather it provides a framework to be

respected by each Party, which has to adopt its own domestic legislation to

ensure that CITES is implemented at the national level.

CITES currently has 169 Parties signed to the convention.

CITES works by subjecting international trade in specimens of selected

species to certain controls. All import, export, re-export and introduction from

the sea of species covered by the Convention has to be authorized through a

licensing system. Each Party to the Convention must designate one or more

Management Authorities in charge of administering that licensing system and

one or more Scientific Authorities to advise them on the effects of trade on the

status of the species.

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The species covered by CITES are listed in three Appendices, according to

the degree of protection they need.

Roughly 5,000 species of animals and 28,000 species of plants are protected

by CITES against over-exploitation through international trade. They include

some whole groups, such as primates, cetaceans (whales, dolphins and

porpoises), sea turtles, parrots, corals, cacti and orchids. But in some cases

only a subspecies or geographically separate population of a species (for

example the population of just one country) is listed. Appendices as of

present*.

all primates

all cetaceans (whales & dolphins)

all cats (leopard, tiger, etc)

all bears

all elephants

all rhinoceroses

all crocodylians (alligators, crocodiles, caimans,etc)

all sea turtles (Cheloniidae)

all Boidae (boas, pythons)

CITES produces advice for Transportation including construction of containers

ADVICE TO CARRIERS 1. General welfare 1.1 Animals should have priority over merchandise. 1.2 Generally, only animals that are in good health should be transported, but there may be

occasions when it may be necessary, in the animals' interest, for them to travel to a location where the appropriate treatment can be given. On such occasions it is probable that the animal will be accompanied by a qualified veterinarian or trained attendant.

1.3 Pregnant animals, or animals that are still dependent on their mother, should not be

transported, but there are exceptions to this. It is not always possible to ascertain if an animal is pregnant; certain species may safely be transported in the early stages of pregnancy; it may be in the best interests of an animal for it to be moved to a location where conditions are more suitable for it to give birth to its young. Females of many species are pregnant for most of their lives and it is, therefore, not practicable to avoid shipping them when they are in this condition. It is clearly inadvisable to transport animals that are still dependent on their mothers, but there may be sound reasons for doing so.

1.4 Sedation is inadvisable, as the side-effects are still not fully known and, furthermore, animals

that are in a lethargic state are very vulnerable to injury if violent movement of the aircraft, ship, lorry or train is experienced. If there are exceptional circumstances which merit sedation, then a qualified veterinarian should normally accompany the animal.

1.5 Generally, animals of different species should not be housed in the same container, but there

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are exceptions to this. Compatibility depends on several factors, such as sex, state of maturity, physical size and the nature of the animals concerned. Furthermore, animals of the same species should not be housed in the same container unless it is known that they are compatible with one another. Under certain conditions each unit of a fully partitioned container can be treated as a separate container.

1.6 The handling of animals should only be resorted to when absolutely necessary, i.e. in cases of

sickness or the removal of carcasses. Handling is very disturbing to the animals and, furthermore, there is a real risk of infection, as many animals are carriers of diseases that can be passed on to humans.

1.7 Dealing with sickness or injury during transport depends on a number of factors. If sickness or

injury occurs during an air journey, it may not be possible to take any action, as the animals may be housed in the baggage hold of the aircraft, and the animals' condition may only be observed on landing. On arrival at an airport, the nearest veterinarian or, in the case of some exotic species, zoo should be contacted. A similar course of action would apply for journeys by sea or land – action would have to be taken without delay at the first stop.

1.8 Humane destruction during transport is, again, a matter that depends on several factors.

Destruction should only be resorted to on the advice of either a veterinarian, or a person who has experience of the species in question. In the event of danger to human life, due to behaviour of an animal, then the captain of the aircraft or ship will take such action as he deems necessary, in the interests of safety.

1.9 The removal of sick and dead animals from containers is, normally, only possible at stops,

except in the case of sea voyages when carcasses could be disposed of and other accommodation could possibly be found for sick animals. However, the removal of carcasses is a matter which very much depends on circumstances. In some cases, particularly on very short journeys, it may be advisable to leave dead animals in their containers, rather than disturb the others; this particularly applies to birds. On the other hand, many airlines will not accept containers that house any dead animals. It is important that veterinary advice, or advice from a person experienced in the handling and care of the species, should be sought before a carcass is disposed of, to establish the cause of death, and to establish whether any infectious disease is involved.

1.10 Arrangements for feeding and watering will depend on the species of animal involved, and the

duration of the journey. For lengthy journeys by land or sea, full facilities should be provided for adequate food. An adequate supply of water is essential for most species, and steps should be taken to ensure that there is no danger of drowning.

1.11 Some fishes, reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates are able to survive without distress for

long periods without food, and some reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates survive for long periods without water. Furthermore, it may be advisable to withhold food for 24 hours before shipment, as this minimizes pollution of the water or packing material involved for transport.

1.12 When fishes are undergoing lengthy journeys, great attention should be paid to the water

temperature, and every effort made to keep this within the range specified on the labelling. Also, it may be necessary to re-oxygenate the water for certain species, using the equipment provided on the container.

1.13 To avoid cross-infection, and for health and hygiene reasons, human contact with animals

should be avoided. Animals, therefore, should not be housed near foodstuffs or in places to which unauthorized persons have access.

1.14 No animal should be transported with radioactive material or other substances dangerous to

health. 1.15 Containers should be secured to the aircraft, rail wagon, lorry or ship to avoid any possible

movement and, when being handled, it is important that every care should be taken to ensure that the containers are kept in a horizontal position.

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2. Advance arrangements for transport

2.1 When animals are being transported over long distances, and will be passing from one

climatic zone to another, it is important that care should be taken to plan the journey so that animals are not suddenly moved to a country having a contrasting climate to that to which they are accustomed, unless a controlled environment is available.

2.2 Great distress can be caused to animals due to prolonged transit stops at airports, ports or

marshalling yards. It is, therefore, most important that, on occasions when these transit stops are likely to occur, proper arrangements be made in advance to ensure that they are not subjected to extremes of temperature. On aircraft, the heating and air conditioning systems are frequently shut down on such occasions, and arrangements would therefore have to be made, either for the animals to be off-loaded and held in more suitable conditions until the journey is resumed, or for emergency fans or heaters to be brought into service during the stopover.

2.3 Advance preparation should be made for any necessary quarantine measures or other animal

health regulations at the ports of intermediate stops or final destination. 2.4 Animal consignments should be collected promptly at their final destination. However, in the

event of unanticipated delay, the help of a veterinarian, local animal welfare organization, or person experienced in the care and handling of the animals concerned, should be obtained. If live animals have to be left for prolonged periods in airports, ports, railway yards, etc., they should be housed in places to which unauthorized persons do not have access. Animals that are already under considerable stress, as a result of being transported, suffer great distress through unnecessary interference by curious members of the public. Crated animals should be kept away from direct exposure to the sun and inappropriate temperatures.

2.5 Cash on delivery facilities should not be used for animals. 3. Containers

3.1 In order to allow for the use of suitable local materials, no precise specification has been laid

down as to the materials from which containers should be constructed. For many animals, the preferred material will be timber, but such materials as bamboo, cardboard, hardboard, plastics and metal, may often be suitable for the construction of containers.

3.2 The use of expanded polystyrene is recommended for reptiles, amphibians, fishes and

invertebrates, as this material has excellent heat insulation properties. When considerable mechanical strength is necessary, then a rigid outer casing should be provided.

3.3 In order to ensure sufficient rigidity and strength, it is almost always necessary to build

containers on a framework when timber or hardboard is employed. In the case of certain large animals, the use of bolts and nuts in place of screws and metal reinforcement for corners, and for walls and roof, is also to be recommended.

3.4 It is important that all containers should have inner surfaces which are completely free of any

projecting nails, screws, ends of mesh or any other sharp or jagged materials which could cause injury to the animal. Moreover, if any wood preservative or paint is used on the containers, it should not be toxic or a skin irritant.

3.5 For some animals a slatted or mesh floor is preferable, in order that urine and excreta may be

trampled through by the animals and fall into the liquid-proof trays beneath the floor. The dimensions of the slats, and the spacing between them, will be governed by the species of animal to be housed; the spacing should be such that there is no possibility of the animals' feet being trapped.

3.6 Animals that have strong gnawing or clawing habits should be transported in containers, the

walls of which have been lined with sheet metal or welded mesh of sufficient strength. The

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slatted floor should not be lined as protection against the escape of the animals is afforded by the liquid-proof trays beneath. Absorbent bedding may be used in the containers in place of a slatted floor and tray.

3.7 Birds travel more satisfactorily in semi-darkness and most mammals undergo less stress if a

burlap or similar loose-weave cover is fitted over any mesh or bar front to the containers; this should, however, be easily removable for inspection, feeding and watering purpose. Care should be taken that ventilation is not impaired.

3.8 In most cases the containers are more satisfactory if sliding doors are fitted, as the ingress

and egress of the animals is more easily controlled than with hinged doors. 3.9 One of the causes of death in animals during transport is lack of sufficient air, so great

attention should be paid to the ventilation of containers. Regardless of the fact that containers may have mesh or bar fronts, ventilation holes should be provided in all walls and, in certain cases, also in the roof. The diameter of these holes should be governed by the species of animal the container is to house, and it is important that no part of the animal should be able to protrude through these holes; in the case of certain animals, these holes would require to be covered with fine mesh. However, in spite of this, careful attention should also be given to insulation.

3.10 An additional safeguard against animals being asphyxiated should be provided, by fitting

spacer bars on all sides, top and bottom of containers. The size of the spacer bars should be governed by the container size.

3.11 On long journeys, many animals should be provided with suitable bedding material, however,

many countries do not allow certain materials such as straw to be imported and the requirements of the receiving country should be established if this type of bedding material is to be used.

Task 6: Evaluate the following three containers suggested by CITES. Suggest on a scale of one to 10

how ‘comfortable’ the animal would be during transportation, with 1 being very uncomfortable.

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