Marc Chagall

“Chagall” redirects here. For the 1963 film, see Chagall(film).

Marc Zakharovich Chagall (/ʃəˈɡɑːl/ shə-GAHL;[3][nb 1] 6 July [O.S. 24 June] 1887 – 28March 1985) was a Russian-French artist.[1]:21 Art criticRobert Hughes referred to Chagall as “the quintessentialJewish artist of the twentieth century” (though Chagallsaw his work as “not the dream of one people but ofall humanity”). An early modernist, he was associatedwith several major artistic styles and created works invirtually every artistic medium, including painting, bookillustrations, stained glass, stage sets, ceramic, tapestriesand fine art prints.According to art historian Michael J. Lewis, Chagall wasconsidered to be “the last survivor of the first generationof European modernists”. For decades, he “had also beenrespected as the world’s preeminent Jewish artist”. Usingthe medium of stained glass, he produced windows forthe cathedrals of Reims and Metz, windows for the UN,and the Jerusalem Windows in Israel. He also did large-scale paintings, including part of the ceiling of the ParisOpéra.Before World War I, he traveled between St. Peters-burg, Paris, and Berlin. During this period he createdhis own mixture and style of modern art based on hisidea of Eastern European Jewish folk culture. He spentthe wartime years in Soviet Belarus, becoming one of thecountry’s most distinguished artists and a member of themodernist avant-garde, founding the Vitebsk Arts Col-lege before leaving again for Paris in 1922.He had two basic reputations, writes Lewis: as a pio-neer of modernism and as a major Jewish artist. Heexperienced modernism’s “golden age” in Paris, where“he synthesized the art forms of Cubism, Symbolism,and Fauvism, and the influence of Fauvism gave rise toSurrealism". Yet throughout these phases of his style “heremained most emphatically a Jewish artist, whose workwas one long dreamy reverie of life in his native villageof Vitebsk.”[4] “When Matisse dies,” Pablo Picasso re-marked in the 1950s, “Chagall will be the only painterleft who understands what colour really is”.[5]

1 Early life and education

Chagall’s Parents

1.1 Early life

Marc Chagall was born Moishe Segal in a Jewish fam-ily in Liozna,[6] near the city of Vitebsk (Belarus, thenpart of the Russian Empire) in 1887.[note][7] At the timeof his birth, Vitebsk’s population was about 66,000, withhalf the population being Jewish.[4] A picturesque city ofchurches and synagogues, it was called “Russian Toledo",after a cosmopolitan city of the former Spanish Empire.As the city was built mostly of wood, little of it survivedyears of occupation and destruction duringWorld War II.Chagall was the eldest of nine children. The family name,Shagal, is a variant of the name Segal, which in a Jewishcommunity was usually borne by a Levitic family.[8] Hisfather, Khatskl (Zachar) Shagal, was employed by a her-ring merchant, and his mother, Feige-Ite, sold groceriesfrom their home. His father worked hard, carrying heavybarrels but earning only 20 roubles each month (the av-erage wages across the Russian Empire being 13 roublesa month). Chagall would later include fish motifs “out ofrespect for his father”, writes Chagall biographer, JacobBaal-Teshuva. Chagall wrote of these early years:

1

2 1 EARLY LIFE AND EDUCATION

Day after day, winter and summer, at sixo'clock in the morning, my father got up andwent off to the synagogue. There he said hisusual prayer for some dead man or other. Onhis return he made ready the samovar, dranksome tea and went to work. Hellish work, thework of a galley-slave. Why try to hide it? Howtell about it? No word will ever ease my fa-ther’s lot... There was always plenty of butterand cheese on our table. Buttered bread, likean eternal symbol, was never out of my childishhands.[9]

One of the main sources of income of the Jewish pop-ulation of the town was from the manufacture of cloth-ing that was sold throughout Russia. They also madefurniture and various agricultural tools.[10] From the late18th century to the First World War, the Russian gov-ernment confined Jews to living within the Pale of Settle-ment, which included modern Ukraine, Belarus, Poland,Lithuania, and Latvia, almost exactly corresponding tothe territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth re-cently taken over by Imperial Russia. This caused thecreation of Jewishmarket-villages (shtetls) throughout to-day’s Eastern Europe, with their own markets, schools,hospitals, and other community institutions.[11]:14

Most of what is known about Chagall’s early life has comefrom his autobiography, My Life. In it, he described themajor influence that the culture of Hasidic Judaism hadon his life as an artist. Vitebsk itself had been a centerof that culture dating from the 1730s with its teachingsderived from the Kabbalah. Chagall scholar Susan Good-man describes the links and sources of his art to his earlyhome:

Chagall’s art can be understood as the re-sponse to a situation that has long marked thehistory of Russian Jews. Though they were cul-tural innovators who made important contribu-tions to the broader society, Jews were con-sidered outsiders in a frequently hostile soci-ety... Chagall himself was born of a familysteeped in religious life; his parents were ob-servant Hasidic Jews who found spiritual satis-faction in a life defined by their faith and orga-nized by prayer.[11]:14

Chagall was friends with SholomDovber Schneerson, andlater with Menachem M. Schneerson.[12]

1.2 Art education

In Russia at that time, Jewish children were not allowedto attend regular Russian schools or universities. Theirmovement within the city was also restricted. Chagalltherefore received his primary education at the local Jew-ish religious school, where he studied Hebrew and the

Portrait of Chagall by Yehuda (Yuri) Pen, his first art teacher inVitebsk

Bible. At the age of 13, his mother tried to enroll himin a Russian high school, and he recalled, “But in thatschool, they don't take Jews. Without a moment’s hesi-tation, my courageous mother walks up to a professor.”She offered the headmaster 50 roubles to let him attend,which he accepted.[9]

A turning point of his artistic life came when he first no-ticed a fellow student drawing. Baal-Teshuva writes thatfor the young Chagall, watching someone draw “was likea vision, a revelation in black and white”. Chagall wouldlater say that there was no art of any kind in his family’shome and the concept was totally alien to him. WhenChagall asked the schoolmate how he learned to draw, hisfriend replied, “Go and find a book in the library, idiot,choose any picture you like, and just copy it”. He soonbegan copying images from books and found the experi-ence so rewarding he then decided he wanted to becomean artist.[10]

He eventually confided to his mother, “I want to be apainter”, although she could not yet understand his sud-den interest in art or why he would choose a vocation that“seemed so impractical”, writes Goodman. The youngChagall explained, “There’s a place in town; if I'm admit-ted and if I complete the course, I'll come out a regularartist. I'd be so happy!" It was 1906, and he had noticedthe studio of Yehuda (Yuri) Pen, a realist artist who alsooperated a small drawing school in Vitebsk, which in-cluded the future artists El Lissitzky and Ossip Zadkine.

1.3 Artistic inspiration 3

Due to Chagall’s youth and lack of income, Pen offered toteach him free of charge. However, after a few months atthe school, Chagall realized that academic portrait paint-ing did not suit his desires.[10]

1.3 Artistic inspiration

Marc Chagall, 1911, Trois heures et demie (Le poète), Half-Past Three (The Poet) Halb vier Uhr, oil on canvas, 195.9 x144.8 cm, The Louise and Walter Arensberg Collection, 1950,Philadelphia Museum of Art

Goodman notes that during this period in Russia, Jewshad two basic alternatives for joining the art world: Onewas to “hide or deny one’s Jewish roots”. The otheralternative—the one that Chagall chose—was “to cher-ish and publicly express one’s Jewish roots” by integratingthem into his art. For Chagall, this was also his means of“self-assertion and an expression of principle.”[11]:14

Chagall biographer Franz Meyer, explains that with theconnections between his art and early life “the hassidicspirit is still the basis and source of nourishment for hisart.”[13] Lewis adds, “As cosmopolitan an artist as hewould later become, his storehouse of visual imagerywould never expand beyond the landscape of his child-hood, with its snowy streets, wooden houses, and ubiqui-tous fiddlers... [with] scenes of childhood so indelibly inone’s mind and to invest themwith an emotional charge sointense that it could only be discharged obliquely throughan obsessive repetition of the same cryptic symbols andideograms... "[4]

Years later, at the age of 57 while living in the United

Marc Chagall, 1911, I and the Village, oil on canvas, 192.1 x151.4 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York

Marc Chagall, 1911-12, The Drunkard (Le saoul), 1912, oil oncanvas. 85 x 115 cm. Private collection

States, Chagall confirmed this when he published an openletter entitled, “To My City Vitebsk":

Why? Why did I leave you many yearsago? ... You thought, the boy seeks some-thing, seeks such a special subtlety, that colordescending like stars from the sky and landing,bright and transparent, like snow on our roofs.Where did he get it? How would it come to aboy like him? I don't knowwhy he couldn't findit with us, in the city—in his homeland. Maybethe boy is “crazy”, but “crazy” for the sake ofart. ...You thought: “I can see, I am etched inthe boy’s heart, but he is still 'flying,' he is stillstriving to take off, he has 'wind' in his head.” ...

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Marc Chagall, 1912, Calvary (Golgotha), oil on canvas, 174.6x 192.4 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York. Alternative ti-tles: Kreuzigung Bild 2 Christus gewidmet [Golgotha. Cruci-fixion. Dedicated to Christ]. Sold through Galerie Der Sturm(Herwarth Walden), Berlin to Bernhard Koehler (1849–1927),Berlin, 1913. Exhibited: Erster Deutscher Herbstsalon, Berlin,1913

I did not live with you, but I didn't have one sin-gle painting that didn't breathe with your spiritand reflection.[1]:91

2 Art career

2.1 Russia (1906–1910)

In 1906, he moved to St. Petersburg which was then thecapital of Russia and the center of the country’s artis-tic life with its famous art schools. Since Jews were notpermitted into the city without an internal passport, hemanaged to get a temporary passport from a friend. Heenrolled in a prestigious art school and studied there fortwo years.[10] By 1907, he had begun painting naturalisticself-portraits and landscapes.Between 1908 to 1910, Chagall was a student of LéonBakst at the Zvantseva School of Drawing and Painting.While in St. Petersburg, he discovered experimental the-ater and the work of such artists as Paul Gauguin.[14]Bakst, also Jewish, was a designer of decorative art andwas famous as a draftsman designer of stage sets and cos-tumes for the 'Ballets Russes,' and helped Chagall by act-ing as a role model for Jewish success. Bakst moved toParis a year later. Art historian Raymond Cogniat writesthat after living and studying art on his own for four years,“Chagall entered into the mainstream of contemporaryart. ...His apprenticeship over, Russia had played a mem-orable initial role in his life.”[15]:30

Chagall stayed in St. Petersburg until 1910, often visitingVitebsk where he met Bella Rosenfeld. In My Life, Cha-

gall described his first meeting her: “Her silence is mine,her eyes mine. It is as if she knows everything about mychildhood, my present, my future, as if she can see rightthrough me.”[10]:22

2.2 France (1910–1914)

In 1910, Chagall relocated to Paris to develop his artis-tic style. Art historian and curator James Sweeney notesthat when Chagall first arrived in Paris, Cubism was thedominant art form, and French art was still dominated bythe “materialistic outlook of the 19th century”. But Cha-gall arrived from Russia with “a ripe color gift, a fresh,unashamed response to sentiment, a feeling for simplepoetry and a sense of humor”, he adds. These notionswere alien to Paris at that time, and as a result, his firstrecognition came not from other painters but from poetssuch as Blaise Cendrars and Guillaume Apollinaire.[16]:7Art historian Jean Leymarie observes that Chagall beganthinking of art as “emerging from the internal being out-ward, from the seen object to the psychic outpouring”,which was the reverse of the Cubist way of creating.[17]

He therefore developed friendships with GuillaumeApol-linaire and other avant-garde luminaries such as RobertDelaunay and Fernand Léger. Baal-Teshuva writes that“Chagall’s dream of Paris, the city of light and aboveall, of freedom, had come true.”[10]:33 His first days werea hardship for the 23-year-old Chagall, who was lonelyin the big city and unable to speak French. Some dayshe “felt like fleeing back to Russia, as he daydreamedwhile he painted, about the riches of Russian folklore, hisHasidic experiences, his family, and especially Bella”.

Marc Chagall, 1912, The Fiddler, an inspiration for the musicalFiddler on the Roof[18]

2.3 Russia and Soviet Belarus (1914–1922) 5

In Paris, he enrolled at Académie de La Palette, an avant-garde school of art where the painters Jean Metzinger,André Dunoyer de Segonzac and Henri Le Fauconniertaught, and also found work at another academy. Hewould spend his free hours visiting galleries and salons,especially the Louvre; artists he came to admire includedRembrandt, the Le Nain brothers, Chardin, van Gogh,Renoir, Pissarro, Matisse, Gauguin, Courbet, Millet,Manet, Monet, Delacroix, and others. It was in Paris thathe learned the technique of gouache, which he used topaint Belarusian scenes. He also visited Montmartre andthe Latin Quarter “and was happy just breathing Parisianair.”[10] Baal-Teshuva describes this new phase in Cha-gall’s artistic development:

Chagall was exhilarated, intoxicated, as hestrolled through the streets and along the banksof the Seine. Everything about the French cap-ital excited him: the shops, the smell of freshbread in the morning, the markets with theirfresh fruit and vegetables, the wide boulevards,the cafés and restaurants, and above all the Eif-fel Tower.

Another completely new world that openedup for him was the kaleidoscope of colours andforms in the works of French artists. Chagallenthusiastically reviewed their many differenttendencies, having to rethink his position asan artist and decide what creative avenue hewanted to pursue.[10]:33

During his time in Paris, Chagall was constantly remindedof his home in Vitebsk, as Paris was also home to manypainters, writers, poets, composers, dancers, and otherémigrés from the Russian Empire. However, “night afternight he painted until dawn”, only then going to bed fora few hours, and resisted the many temptations of the bigcity at night.[10]:44 “My homeland exists only in my soul”,he once said.[17]:viii He continued painting Jewish motifsand subjects from his memories of Vitebsk, although heincluded Parisian scenes—- the Eiffel Tower in particular,along with portraits. Many of his works were updatedversions of paintings he had made in Russia, transposedinto Fauvist or Cubist keys.[4]

Chagall developed a whole repertoire of quirky motifs:ghostly figures floating in the sky, ... the gigantic fid-dler dancing on miniature dollhouses, the livestock andtransparent wombs and, within them, tiny offspring sleep-ing upside down.[4] The majority of his scenes of lifein Vitebsk were painted while living in Paris, and “in asense they were dreams”, notes Lewis. Their “undertoneof yearning and loss”, with a detached and abstract ap-pearance, caused Apollinaire to be “struck by this qual-ity”, calling them “surnaturel!" His “animal/human hy-brids and airborne phantoms” would later become a for-mative influence on Surrealism.[4] Chagall, however, didnot want his work to be associated with any school ormovement and considered his own personal language of

Marc Chagall, 1912, Still-life (Nature morte), oil on canvas,private collection

symbols to be meaningful to himself. But Sweeney notesthat others often still associate his work with “illogicaland fantastic painting”, especially when he uses “curiousrepresentational juxtapositions”.[16]:10

Sweeney writes that “This is Chagall’s contribution tocontemporary art: the reawakening of a poetry of rep-resentation, avoiding factual illustration on the one hand,and non-figurative abstractions on the other”. André Bre-ton said that “with him alone, the metaphor made its tri-umphant return to modern painting”.[16]:7

2.3 Russia and Soviet Belarus (1914–1922)

Because he missed his fiancée, Bella, who was still inVitebsk—"He thought about her day and night”, writesBaal-Teshuva—and was afraid of losing her, Chagall de-cided to accept an invitation from a noted art dealer inBerlin to exhibit his work, his intention being to continueon to Belarus, marry Bella, and then return with her toParis. Chagall took 40 canvases and 160 gouaches, wa-tercolors and drawings to be exhibited. The exhibit, heldat Herwarth Walden’s Sturm Gallery was a huge success,“The German critics positively sang his praises.”[10]

After the exhibit, he continued on to Vitebsk, where heplanned to stay only long enough to marry Bella. How-ever, after a few weeks, the First World War began, clos-ing the Russian border for an indefinite period. A yearlater he married Bella Rosenfeld and they had their firstchild, Ida. Before the marriage, Chagall had difficultyconvincing Bella’s parents that he would be a suitablehusband for their daughter. They were worried abouther marrying a painter from a poor family and won-dered how he would support her. Becoming a successfulartist now became a goal and inspiration. According toLewis, "[T]he euphoric paintings of this time, which showthe young couple floating balloon-like over Vitebsk—itswooden buildings faceted in the Delaunay manner—are

6 2 ART CAREER

People’s Art School where the Vitebsk Museum of Modern Artwas situated

the most lighthearted of his career”.[4] His wedding pic-tures were also a subject he would return to in later yearsas he thought about this period of his life.[10]:75

The October Revolution of 1917 was a dangerous timefor Chagall although it also offered opportunity. By thenhe was one of the Russia’s most distinguished artists anda member of the modernist avant-garde, which enjoyedspecial privileges and prestige as the “aesthetic arm of therevolution”.[4] Hewas offered a notable position as a com-missar of visual arts for the country, but preferred some-thing less political, and instead accepted a job as com-missar of arts for Vitebsk. This resulted in his foundingthe Vitebsk Arts College which, adds Lewis, became the“most distinguished school of art in the Soviet Union”.It obtained for its faculty some of the most importantartists in the country, such as El Lissitzky and KazimirMalevich. He also added his first teacher, Yehuda Pen.Chagall tried to create an atmosphere of a collective ofindependently minded artists, each with their own uniquestyle. However, this would soon prove to be difficult as afew of the key faculty members preferred a Suprematistart of squares and circles, and disapproved of Chagall’sattempt at creating “bourgeois individualism”. Chagallthen resigned as commissar and moved to Moscow.In 1915, Chagall began exhibiting his work in Moscow,first exhibiting his works at a well-known salon and in1916 exhibiting pictures in St. Petersburg. He againshowed his art at a Moscow exhibition of avant-gardeartists. This exposure brought recognition, and a num-ber of wealthy collectors began buying his art. He alsobegan illustrating a number of Yiddish books with inkdrawings. He illustrated I. L. Peretz's The Magician in1917.[19] Chagall was 30 years old and had begun to be-come well known.[10]:77

In Moscow he was offered a job as stage designer for thenewly formed State Jewish Chamber Theater. It was setto begin operation in early 1921with a number of plays bySholem Aleichem. For its opening he created a numberof large background murals using techniques he learned

Bella with White Collar, 1917

fromBakst, his early teacher. One of themainmurals was9 feet (2.7 m) tall by 24 feet (7.3 m) long and includedimages of various lively subjects such as dancers, fiddlers,acrobats, and farm animals. One critic at the time calledit “Hebrew jazz in paint”. Chagall created it as a “store-house of symbols and devices”, notes Lewis.[4] The mu-rals “constituted a landmark” in the history of the the-atre, and were forerunners of his later large-scale works,including murals for the New York Metropolitan Operaand the Paris Opera.[10]:87

Famine spread after the war ended in 1918. The Cha-galls found it necessary to move to a smaller, less expen-sive, town near Moscow, although he now had to com-mute to Moscow daily using crowded trains. In 1921,he worked as an art teacher in a Jewish boys’ shelter insuburban Malakhovka, which housed orphaned refugeesfrom Ukrainian pogroms.[5]:270 While there, he created aseries of illustrations for the Yiddish poetry cycle Grief

2.4 France (1923–1941) 7

written by David Hofstein, who was another teacher atthe Malakhovka shelter.[5]:273

After spending the years between 1921 and 1922 livingin primitive conditions, he decided to go back to Franceso that he could develop his art in a more comfortablecountry. Numerous other artists, writers, and musicianswere also planning to relocate to theWest. He applied foran exit visa and while waiting for its uncertain approval,wrote his autobiography, My Life.[10]:121

2.4 France (1923–1941)

In 1923, Chagall left Moscow to return to France. Onhis way he stopped in Berlin to recover the many pic-tures he had left there on exhibit ten years earlier, beforethe war began, but was unable to find or recover any ofthem. Nonetheless, after returning to Paris he again “re-discovered the free expansion and fulfilment which wereso essential to him”, writes Lewis. With all his earlyworks now lost, he began trying to paint from his memo-ries of his earliest years in Vitebsk with sketches and oilpaintings.[4]

He formed a business relationship with French art dealerAmbroise Vollard. This inspired him to begin creat-ing etchings for a series of illustrated books, includingGogol's Dead Souls, the Bible, and the La Fontaine’s Fa-bles. These illustrations would eventually come to repre-sent his finest printmaking efforts.[4] In 1924, he travelledto Brittany and painted La fenêtre sur l'Île-de-Bréhat.[20]By 1926 he had his first exhibition in the United States atthe Reinhardt gallery of New York which included about100 works, although he did not travel to the opening.He instead stayed in France, “painting ceaselessly”, notesBaal-Teshuva.[10] It was not until 1927 that Chagall madehis name in the French art world, when art critic and his-torian Maurice Raynal awarded him a place in his bookModern French Painters. However, Raynal was still at aloss to accurately describe Chagall to his readers:

Chagall interrogates life in the light of a re-fined, anxious, childlike sensibility, a slightlyromantic temperament ... a blend of sadnessand gaiety characteristic of a grave view of life.His imagination, his temperament, no doubtforbid a Latin severity of composition.[5]:314

During this period he traveled throughout France and theCôte d'Azur, where he enjoyed the landscapes, color-ful vegetation, the blue Mediterranean Sea, and the mildweather. He made repeated trips to the countryside, tak-ing his sketchbook.[5]:9 He also visited nearby countriesand later wrote about the impressions some of those trav-els left on him:

I should like to recall how advantageousmy travels outside of France have been for me

in an artistic sense—in Holland or in Spain,Italy, Egypt, Palestine, or simply in the south ofFrance. There, in the south, for the first time inmy life, I saw that rich greenness—the like ofwhich I had never seen in my own country. InHolland I thought I discovered that familiar andthrobbing light, like the light between the lateafternoon and dusk. In Italy I found that peaceof the museums which the sunlight brought tolife. In Spain I was happy to find the inspirationof a mystical, if sometimes cruel, past, to findthe song of its sky and of its people. And in theEast [Palestine] I found unexpectedly the Bibleand a part of my very being.[1]:77

2.4.1 The Bible illustrations

“The Prophet Jeremiah" (1968)

After returning to Paris from one of his trips, Vollardcommissioned Chagall to illustrate the Old Testament.Although he could have completed the project in France,he used the assignment as an excuse to travel to Pales-tine to experience for himself the Holy Land. He ar-rived there in February 1931 and ended up staying for twomonths. Chagall felt at home in Palestine where manypeople spoke Yiddish and Russian. According to JacobBaal-Teshuva, “he was impressed by the pioneering spiritof the people in the kibbutzim and deeply moved by theWailing Wall and the other holy places”.[10]:133

Chagall later told a friend that Palestine gave him“the most vivid impression he had ever received”.Wullschlager notes, however, that whereas Delacroix andMatisse had found inspiration in the exoticism of NorthAfrica, he as a Jew in Palestine had different perspec-tive. “What he was really searching for there was not ex-ternal stimulus but an inner authorization from the landof his ancestors, to plunge into his work on the Bibleillustrations”.[5]:343 Chagall stated that “In the East I foundthe Bible and part of my own being.”As a result, he immersed himself in “the history of

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the Jews, their trials, prophecies, and disasters”, notesWullschlager. She adds that beginning the assignmentwas an “extraordinary risk” for Chagall, as he had fi-nally become well known as a leading contemporarypainter, but would now end his modernist themes anddelve into “an ancient past”.[5]:350 Between 1931 and1934 he worked “obsessively” on “The Bible”, even go-ing to Amsterdam in order to carefully study the biblicalpaintings of Rembrandt and El Greco, to see the extremesof religious painting. He walked the streets of the city’sJewish quarter to again feel the earlier atmosphere. Hetold Franz Meyer:

I did not see the Bible, I dreamed it. Eversince early childhood, I have been captivatedby the Bible. It has always seemed to me andstill seems today the greatest source of poetryof all time.[5]:350

Chagall saw the Old Testament as a “human story, ... notwith the creation of the cosmos but with the creation ofman, and his figures of angels are rhymed or combinedwith human ones”, writes Wullschlager. She points outthat in one of his early Bible images, “Abraham and theThree Angels”, the angels sit and chat over a glass of wine“as if they have just dropped by for dinner”.[5]:350

He returned to France and by the next year had com-pleted 32 out of the total of 105 plates. By 1939, at thebeginning of World War II, he had finished 66. How-ever, Vollard died that same year. When the series wascompleted in 1956, it was published by Edition Téri-ade. Baal-Teshuva writes that “the illustrations were stun-ning and met with great acclaim. Once again Chagallhad shown himself to be one of the 20th century’s mostimportant graphic artists”.[10]:135 Leymarie has describedthese drawings by Chagall as “monumental” and,

...full of divine inspiration, which retracethe legendary destiny and the epic history ofIsrael to Genesis to the Prophets, throughthe Patriarchs and the Heroes. Each picturebecomes one with the event, informing thetext with a solemn intimacy unknown sinceRembrandt.[17]:ix

2.4.2 Nazi campaigns against modern art

Not long after Chagall began his work on the Bible,Adolf Hitler gained power in Germany. Anti-Semiticlaws were being introduced and the first concentrationcamp at Dachau had been established. Wullschlager de-scribes the early effects on art:

The Nazis had begun their campaignagainst modernist art as soon as they seizedpower. Expressionist, cubist, abstract, andsurrealist art—anything intellectual, Jewish,

foreign, socialist-inspired, or difficult tounderstand—was targeted, from Picassoand Matisse going back to Cézanne and vanGogh; in its place traditional German realism,accessible and open to patriotic interpretation,was extolled.[5]:374

Beginning during 1937 about twenty thousand worksfrom German museums were confiscated as “degenerate”by a committee directed by Joseph Goebbels.[5]:375 Al-though the German press had once “swooned over him”,the new German authorities now made a mockery ofChagall’s art, describing them as “green, purple, and redJews shooting out of the earth, fiddling on violins, flyingthrough the air ... representing [an] assault on Westerncivilization”.[5]:376

After Germany invaded and occupied France, the Cha-galls naively remained in Vichy France, unaware thatFrench Jews, with the help of the Vichy government,were being collected and sent to German concentrationcamps, from which few would return. The Vichy col-laborationist government, directed by Marshal PhilippePétain, immediately upon assuming power establisheda commission to “redefine French citizenship” with theaim of stripping “undesirables”, including naturalized cit-izens, of their French nationality. Chagall had been soinvolved with his art, that it was not until October 1940,after the Vichy government, at the behest of the Nazi oc-cupying forces, began approving anti-Semitic laws, thathe began to understand what was happening. Learningthat Jews were being removed from public and academicpositions, the Chagalls finally “woke up to the danger theyfaced”. But Wullschlager notes that “by then they weretrapped”.[5]:382 Their only refuge could be America, but“they could not afford the passage to New York” or thelarge bond that each immigrant had to provide upon entryto ensure that they would not become a financial burdento the country.

2.4.3 Escaping occupied France

According to Wullschlager, "[T]he speed with whichFrance collapsed astonished everyone: the French army,with British support, capitulated even more quickly thanPoland had done” a year earlier. “Shock waves crossedthe Atlantic... as Paris had until then been equated withcivilization throughout the non-Nazi world.”[5]:388 Yetthe attachment of the Chagalls to France “blinded themto the urgency of the situation.”[5]:389 Many other well-known Russian and Jewish artists eventually sought to es-cape: these included Chaim Soutine, Max Ernst, MaxBeckmann, Ludwig Fulda, author Victor Serge and prize-winning author Vladimir Nabokov, who although notJewish himself, was married to a Jewish woman.[21]:1181Russian author Victor Serge described many of the peo-ple living temporarily in Marseille who were waiting toemigrate to America:

2.5 United States (1941–1948) 9

Here is a beggar’s alley gathering the rem-nants of revolutions, democracies and crushedintellects... In our ranks are enough doctors,psychologists, engineers, educationalists, po-ets, painters, writers, musicians, economistsand public men to vitalize a whole greatcountry.[5]:392

After prodding by their daughter Ida, who “perceived theneed to act fast”,[5]:388 and with help from Alfred Barrof the New York Museum of Modern Art, Chagall wassaved by having his name added to the list of prominentartists whose lives were at risk and who the United Statesshould try to extricate. Varian Fry, the American journal-ist, and Hiram Bingham IV, the American Vice-Consulin Marseilles, ran a rescue operation to smuggle artistsand intellectuals out of Europe to the US by providingthem with forged visas to the US. Chagall was one of over2,000 who were rescued by this operation. He left Francein May 1941, “when it was almost too late”, adds Lewis.Picasso and Matisse were also among artists invited tocome to America but they decided to remain in France.Chagall and Bella arrived in New York on 23 June 1941,which was the next day after Germany invaded the So-viet Union.[10]:150 Ida and her husband Marc followed onthe notorious refugee ship SS Navemar with a large caseof Chagall’s work.[22] A chance post-war meeting in aFrench café between Ida and intelligence analyst KonradKellen led to Kellen carrying more paintings on his returnto the United States.[23]

2.5 United States (1941–1948)

Photo portrait of Chagall in 1941 by Carl Van Vechten

Even before arriving in the United States in 1941, Chagallwas awarded the Carnegie Prize third prize in 1939 for“Les Fiancés”. After being in America he discovered thathe had already achieved “international stature”, writesCogniat, although he felt ill-suited in this new role in aforeign country whose language he could not yet speak.He became a celebrity mostly against his will, feeling lostin the strange surroundings.[15]:57

After a while he began to settle in New York, which wasfull of writers, painters, and composers who, like himself,had fled from Europe during the Nazi invasions. He livedat 4 East 74th Street.[24] He spent time visiting galleriesand museums, and befriended other artists including PietMondrian and André Breton.[10]:155

Baal-Teshuva writes that Chagall “loved” going to the sec-tions of NewYork where Jews lived, especially the LowerEast Side. There he felt at home, enjoying the Jewishfoods and being able to read the Yiddish press, which be-came his main source of information since he did not yetspeak English.[10]

Contemporary artists did not yet understand or even likeChagall’s art. According to Baal-Teshuva, “they had littlein common with a folkloristic storyteller of Russo-Jewishextraction with a propensity for mysticism.” The ParisSchool, which was referred to as 'Parisian Surrealism,'meant little to them.[10]:155 Those attitudes would beginto change, however, when Pierre Matisse, the son of rec-ognized French artist Henri Matisse, became his repre-sentative and managed Chagall exhibitions in New Yorkand Chicago in 1941. One of the earliest exhibitions in-cluded 21 of his masterpieces from 1910 to 1941.[10] Artcritic HenryMcBride wrote about this exhibit for theNewYork Sun:

Chagall is about as gypsy as they come...these pictures do more for his reputation thananything we have previously seen... His colorssparkle with poetry... his work is authenticallyRussian as a Volga boatman’s song...[25]

2.5.1 Aleko ballet (1942)

He was offered a commission by choreographer LeonidMassine, of the New York Ballet Theatre to design thesets and costumes for his new ballet, Aleko. This balletwould stage the words of Pushkin's verse narrative TheGypsies with the music of Tchaikovsky. While Chagallhad done stage settings before while in Russia, this was hisfirst ballet, and it would give him the opportunity to visitMexico. While there he quickly began to appreciate the“primitive ways and colorful art of the Mexicans,” notesCogniat. He found “something very closely related to hisown nature”, and did all the color detail for the sets whilethere.[15] Eventually, he created four large backdrops andhad Mexican seamstresses sew the ballet costumes.When the ballet premiered on 8 September 1942 it was

10 2 ART CAREER

considered a “remarkable success.”[10] In the audiencewere other famous mural painters who came to see Cha-gall’s work, including Diego Rivera and José Orozco. Ac-cording to Baal-Teshuva, when the final bar of musicended, “there was a tumultuous applause and 19 curtaincalls, with Chagall himself being called back onto thestage again and again.” The ballet also opened in NewYork City four weeks later at the Metropolitan Opera andthe response was repeated, “again Chagall was the hero ofthe evening”.[10]:158 Art critic Edwin Denby wrote of theopening for the New York Herald Tribune that Chagall’swork:

has turned into a dramatized exhibition ofgiant paintings... It surpasses anything Chagallhas done on the easel scale, and it is a breath-taking experience, of a kind one hardly expectsin the theatre.[26]

2.5.2 Coming to grips with World War II

After Chagall returned to New York in 1943, however,current events began to interest him more, and this wasrepresented by his art, where he painted subjects includ-ing the Crucifixion and scenes of war. He learned that theGermans had destroyed the town where he was raised,Vitebsk, and became greatly distressed.[10]:159 He alsolearned about the Nazi concentration camps.[10] During aspeech in February 1944, he described some of his feel-ings:

Meanwhile, the enemy jokes, saying thatwe are a “stupid nation.” He thought that whenhe started slaughtering the Jews, wewould all inour grief suddenly raise the greatest propheticscream, and would be joined by the Christianhumanists. But, after two thousand years of“Christianity” in the world—say whatever youlike—but, with few exceptions, their hearts aresilent... I see the artists in Christian nations sitstill—who has heard them speak up? They arenot worried about themselves, and our Jewishlife doesn't concern them.[1]:89

In the same speech he credited Soviet Russia with doingthe most to save the Jews:

The Jews will always be grateful to it. Whatother great country has saved a million anda half Jews from Hitler’s hands, and sharedits last piece of bread? What country abol-ished antisemitism? What other country de-voted at least a piece of land as an autonomousregion for Jews who want to live there? Allthis, and more, weighs heavily on the scales ofhistory.[1]:89

On 2 September 1944, Bella died suddenly due to a virusinfection, which was not treated due to the wartime short-age ofmedicine. As a result, he stopped all work formanymonths, and when he did resume painting his first pic-tures were concerned with preserving Bella’s memory.[15]Wullschlager writes of the effect on Chagall: “As newspoured in through 1945 of the ongoing Holocaust at Naziconcentration camps, Bella took her place in Chagall’smind with the millions of Jewish victims.” He even con-sidered the possibility that their “exile from Europe hadsapped her will to live.”[5]:419

With Virginia Haggard McNeil

After a year of living with his daughter Ida and her hus-bandMichel Gordey, he entered into a romance with Vir-ginia Haggard, daughter of diplomat Sir Godfrey DigbyNapier Haggard and great-niece of the author Sir HenryRider Haggard; their relationship endured seven years.They had a child together, David McNeil, born 22 June1946.[10] Haggard recalled her “seven years of plenty”with Chagall in her book, My Life with Chagall (RobertHale, 1986).A few months after the Allies succeeded in liberatingParis from Nazi occupation, with the help of the Alliedarmies, Chagall published a letter in a Paris weekly, “Tothe Paris Artists":

In recent years I have felt unhappy that Icouldn't be with you, my friends. My enemyforced me to take the road of exile. On thattragic road, I lost my wife, the companion ofmy life, the woman who was my inspiration.I want to say to my friends in France that shejoins me in this greeting, she who loved Franceand French art so faithfully. Her last joy wasthe liberation of Paris... Now, when Paris isliberated, when the art of France is resurrected,the whole world too will, once and for all, befree of the satanic enemies who wanted to an-nihilate not just the body but also the soul—thesoul, without which there is no life, no artisticcreativity.[1]:101

2.6 France (1948–1985) 11

2.5.3 Post-war years

By 1946, his artwork was becoming more widely recog-nized. The Museum of Modern Art in New York had alarge exhibition representing 40 years of his work whichgave visitors one of the first complete impressions of thechanging nature of his art over the years. The war hadended and he began making plans to return to Paris. Ac-cording to Cogniat, “He found he was even more deeplyattached than before, not only to the atmosphere of Paris,but to the city itself, to its houses and its views.”[15] Cha-gall summed up his years living in America:

I lived here in America during the inhumanwar in which humanity deserted itself... I haveseen the rhythm of life. I have seen Americafighting with Allies... the wealth that she hasdistributed to bring relief to the people who hadto suffer the consequences of the war... I likeAmerica and the Americans... people there arefrank. It is a young country with the qualitiesand faults of youth. It is a delight to love peoplelike that... Above all I am impressed by thegreatness of this country and the freedom thatit gives.[10]:170

He went back for good during the autumn of 1947, wherehe attended the opening of the exhibition of his works atthe Musée National d'Art Moderne.[15]

2.6 France (1948–1985)

After returning to France he traveled throughout Europeand chose to live in the Côte d'Azur which by that timehad become somewhat of an “artistic centre”. Matisselived above Nice, while Picasso lived in Vallauris. Al-though they lived nearby and sometimes worked together,there was artistic rivalry between them as their work wasso distinctly different, and they never became long-termfriends. According to Picasso’s mistress, Françoise Gilot,Picasso still had a great deal of respect for Chagall, andonce told her,

“When Matisse dies, Chagall will be theonly painter left who understands what coloris... His canvases are really painted, not justtossed together. Some of the last things he’sdone in Vence convince me that there’s neverbeen anybody since Renoir who has the feelingfor light that Chagall has.”[27]

In April 1952, Virginia Haggard left Chagall for the pho-tographer Charles Leirens; she went on to become a pro-fessional photographer herself.Chagall’s daughter Ida married art historian Franz Meyerin January 1952, and feeling that her father missed the

companionship of a woman in his home, introduced himto Valentina (Vava) Brodsky, a woman from a similarRussian Jewish background, who had run a successfulmillinery business in London. She became his secretary,and after a fewmonths agreed to stay only if Chagall mar-ried her. The marriage took place in July 1952[10]:183—though six years later, when there was conflict betweenIda and Vava, “Marc and Vava divorced and immediatelyremarried under an agreement more favourable to Vava”(Jean-Paul Crespelle: Chagall, l'Amour le Reve et la Vie,quoted in Haggard: My Life with Chagall).In 1954, he was engaged as set decorator for Robert Help-mann's production of Rimsky-Korsakov's opera Le Coqd'Or at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, but hewithdrew. The Australian designer Loudon Sainthill wasdrafted at short notice in his place.[28]

In the years ahead he was able to produce not just paint-ings and graphic art, but also numerous sculptures andceramics, including wall tiles, painted vases, plates andjugs. He also began working in larger-scale formats, pro-ducing large murals, stained glass windows, mosaics andtapestries.[10]

2.6.1 Ceiling of the Paris Opera (1963)

In 1963, Chagall was commissioned to paint the newceiling for the Paris Opera (Palais Garnier), a majestic19th-century building and national monument. AndréMalraux, France’s Minister of Culture wanted somethingunique and decided Chagall would be the ideal artist.However, this choice of artist caused controversy: someobjected to having a Russian Jew decorate a French na-tional monument; others disliked the ceiling of the his-toric building being painted by a modern artist. Somemagazines wrote condescending articles about Chagalland Malraux, about which Chagall commented to onewriter:

They really had it in for me... It is amaz-ing the way the French resent foreigners. Youlive here most of your life. You become a natu-ralized French citizen... work for nothing dec-orating their cathedrals, and still they despiseyou. You are not one of them.[10]:196

Nonetheless, Chagall continued the project which tookthe 77-year-old artist a year to complete. The final can-vas was nearly 2,400 square feet (220 sq. meters) andrequired 440 pounds of paint. It had five sections whichwere glued to polyester panels and hoisted up to the 70-foot (21 m) ceiling. The images Chagall painted on thecanvas paid tribute to the composers Mozart, Wagner,Mussorgsky, Berlioz and Ravel, as well as to famous ac-tors and dancers.[10]:199

It was presented to the public on 23 September 1964 inthe presence of Malraux and 2,100 invited guests. The

12 3 ART STYLES AND TECHNIQUES

Paris correspondent for the New York Times wrote, “Foronce the best seats were in the uppermost circle:"[10]:199Baal-Teshuva writes:

To begin with, the big crystal chandelierhanging from the centre of the ceiling wasunlit... the entire corps de ballet came ontothe stage, after which, in Chagall’s honour,the opera’s orchestra played the finale of the"Jupiter Symphony" by Mozart, Chagall’s fa-vorite composer. During the last bars of themusic, the chandelier lit up, bringing the artist’sceiling painting to life in all its glory, drawingrapturous applause from the audience.[10]:199

After the new ceiling was unveiled, “even the bitterest op-ponents of the commission seemed to fall silent”, writesBaal-Teshuva. “Unanimously, the press declared Cha-gall’s new work to be a great contribution to French cul-ture.” Malraux later said, “What other living artist couldhave painted the ceiling of the Paris Opera in the wayChagall did?... He is above all one of the great colouristsof our time... many of his canvases and the Opera ceilingrepresent sublime images that rank among the finest po-etry of our time, just as Titian produced the finest poetryof his day.”[10]:199 In Chagall’s speech to the audience heexplained the meaning of the work:

Up there in my painting I wanted to reflect,like a mirror in a bouquet, the dreams and cre-ations of the singers and musicians, to recallthe movement of the colourfully attired audi-ence below, and to honour the great opera andballet composers... Now I offer this work asa gift of gratitude to France and her École deParis, without which there would be no colourand no freedom.[1]:151

3 Art styles and techniques

3.1 Color

According to Cogniat, in all Chagall’s work during allstages of his life, it was his colors which attracted andcaptured the viewer’s attention. During his earlier yearshis range was limited by his emphasis on form and his pic-tures never gave the impression of painted drawings. Headds, “The colors are a living, integral part of the pictureand are never passively flat, or banal like an afterthought.They sculpt and animate the volume of the shapes... theyindulge in flights of fancy and invention which add newperspectives and graduated, blended tones... His colorsdo not even attempt to imitate nature but rather to sug-gest movements, planes and rhythms.”[15]

He was able to convey striking images using only two orthree colors. Cogniat writes, “Chagall is unrivalled in this

"Bestiaire et Musique” (1969)

ability to give a vivid impression of explosive movementwith the simplest use of colors...” Throughout his life hiscolors created a “vibrant atmosphere” which was basedon “his own personal vision.”[15]:60

His paintings would later sell for very great prices. InOctober 2010, for example, his painting "Bestiaire etMusique,” depicting a bride and a fiddler floating in anight sky amid circus performers and animals, “was thestar lot” at an auction in Hong Kong. When it sold for$4.1 million, it became the most expensive contemporaryWestern painting ever sold in Asia.[29]

3.2 Subject matter

3.2.1 From life memories to fantasy

Chagall’s early life left him with a “powerful visual mem-ory and a pictorial intelligence”, writes Goodman. Afterliving in France and experiencing the atmosphere of artis-tic freedom, his “vision soared and he created a new re-ality, one that drew on both his inner and outer worlds.”But it was the images and memories of his early yearsin Belarus that would sustain his art for more than 70years.[11]:13

According to Cogniat, there are certain elements in hisart that have remained permanent and seen throughout hiscareer. One of those was his choice of subjects and theway they were portrayed. “The most obviously constantelement is his gift for happiness and his instinctive com-passion, which even in the most serious subjects preventshim from dramatization...”[15]:89 Musicians have been aconstant during all stages of his work. After he first gotmarried, “lovers have sought each other, embraced, ca-ressed, floated through the air, met in wreaths of flow-ers, stretched, and swooped like the melodious passageof their vivid day-dreams. Acrobats contort themselves

3.2 Subject matter 13

The Circus Horse

with the grace of exotic flowers on the end of their stems;flowers and foliage abound everywhere.”[15]Wullschlagerexplains the sources for these images:

For him, clowns and acrobats always re-sembled figures in religious paintings... Theevolution of the circus works... reflects a grad-ual clouding of his worldview, and the circusperformers now gave way to the prophet orsage in his work—a figure into whom Chagallpoured his anxiety as Europe darkened, and hecould no longer rely on the lumiére-liberté ofFrance for inspiration.[5]:337

Chagall described his love of circus people:

Why am I so touched by their makeup andgrimaces? With them I can move toward newhorizons... Chaplin seeks to do in film what Iam trying to do in my paintings. He is perhapsthe only artist today I could get along with with-out having to say a single word.[5]:337

His early pictures were often of the town where he wasborn and raised, Vitebsk. Cogniat notes that they are re-alistic and give the impression of firsthand experience bycapturing a moment in time with action, often with a dra-matic image. During his later years, as for instance in the“Bible series”, subjects were more dramatic. Hemanagedto blend the real with the fantastic, and combined with hisuse of color the pictures were always at least acceptable ifnot powerful. He never attempted to present pure realitybut always created his atmospheres through fantasy.[15]:91In all cases Chagall’s “most persistent subject is life itself,in its simplicity or its hidden complexity... He presentsfor our study places, people, and objects from his ownlife”.

3.2.2 Jewish themes

After absorbing the techniques of Fauvism and Cubism(under the influence of Jean Metzinger and AlbertGleizes)[30] Chagall was able to blend these stylistic ten-dencies with his own folkish style. He gave the grim lifeof Hasidic Jews the “romantic overtones of a charmedworld”, notes Goodman. It was by combining the as-pects of Modernism with his “unique artistic language”,that he was able to catch the attention of critics and col-lectors throughout Europe. Generally, it was his boy-hood of living in a Belarusian provincial town that gavehim a continual source of imaginative stimuli. Chagallwould become one of many Jewish émigrés who later be-came noted artists, all of them similarly having once beenpart of “Russia’s most numerous and creative minorities”,notes Goodman.[11]:13

WorldWar I, which ended in 1918, had displaced nearly amillion Jews and destroyed what remained of the provin-cial shtetl culture that had defined life for most EasternEuropean Jews for centuries. Goodman notes, “The fad-ing of traditional Jewish society left artists like Cha-gall with powerful memories that could no longer be fedby a tangible reality. Instead, that culture became anemotional and intellectual source that existed solely inmemory and the imagination... So rich had the experi-ence been, it sustained him for the rest of his life.”[11]:15Sweeney adds that “if you ask Chagall to explain hispaintings, he would reply, 'I don't understand them at all.They are not literature. They are only pictorial arrange-ments of images that obsess me...”[16]:7

In 1948, after returning to France from the U.S. afterthe war, he saw for himself the destruction that the warhad brought to Europe and the Jewish populations. In1951, as part of a memorial book dedicated to eighty-four Jewish artists whowere killed by theNazis in France,he wrote a poem entitled “For the Slaughtered Artists:1950”, which inspired paintings such as the “Song ofDavid” (see photo):

I see the fire, the smoke and the gas; ris-ing to the blue cloud, turning it black. I seethe torn-out hair, the pulled-out teeth. Theyoverwhelm me with my rabid palette. I standin the desert before heaps of boots, clothing,ash and dung, and mumble my Kaddish. Andas I stand—from my paintings, the paintedDavid descends to me, harp in hand. Hewants to help me weep and recite chapters ofPsalms.[1]:114–115

Lewis writes that Chagall “remains the most importantvisual artist to have borne witness to the world of EastEuropean Jewry... and inadvertently became the publicwitness of a now vanished civilization.”[4] Although Ju-daism has religious inhibitions about pictorial art of manyreligious subjects, Chagall managed to use his fantasy im-

14 4 OTHER TYPES OF ART

ages as a form of visual metaphor combined with folk im-agery. His “Fiddler on the Roof”, for example, combinesa folksy village setting with a fiddler as a way to show theJewish love of music as important to the Jewish spirit.Art historian Franz Meyer points out that one of the mainreasons for the unconventional nature of his work is re-lated to the hassidism which inspired the world of hischildhood and youth and had actually impressed itself onmost Eastern European Jews since the 18th century. Hewrites, “For Chagall this is one of the deepest sources, notof inspiration, but of a certain spiritual attitude... the has-sidic spirit is still the basis and source of nourishment ofhis art.”[15]:24 In a talk that Chagall gave in 1963while vis-iting America, he discussed some of those impressions.However, Chagall had a complex relationship with Ju-daism. On the one hand, he credited his Russian Jewishcultural background as being crucial to his artistic imagi-nation. But however ambivalent he was about his religion,he could not avoid drawing upon his Jewish past for artis-tic material. As an adult, he was not a practicing Jew,but through his paintings and stained glass, he continu-ally tried to suggest a more “universal message”, usingboth Jewish and Christian themes.[31]

For about two thousand years a reserve ofenergy has fed and supported us, and filledour lives, but during the last century a splithas opened in this reserve, and its compo-nents have begun to disintegrate: God, per-spective, colour, the Bible, shape, line, tradi-tions, the so-called humanities, love, devotion,family, school, education, the prophets andChrist himself. Have I too, perhaps, doubted inmy time? I painted pictures upside down, de-capitated people and dissected them, scatteringthe pieces in the air, all in the name of anotherperspective, another kind of picture composi-tion and another formalism.[15]:29

He was also at pains to distance his work from a singleJewish focus. At the opening of The Chagall Museum inNice he said 'My painting represents not the dream of onepeople but of all humanity'.

4 Other types of art

4.1 Stained glass windows

One of Chagall’s major contributions to art has been hiswork with stained glass. This medium allowed him fur-ther to express his desire to create intense and fresh colorsand had the added benefit of natural light and refractioninteracting and constantly changing: everything from theposition where the viewer stood to the weather outsidewould alter the visual effect (though this is not the casewith his Hadassah windows). It was not until 1956, when

Stained glass windows in Saint-Stephen Cathedral, Metz, France

he was nearly 70 years of age, that he designed windowsfor the church at Assy, his first major project. Then, from1958 to 1960, he created windows for Metz Cathedral.

4.1.1 Jerusalem Windows (1962)

In 1960, he began creating stained glass windows forthe synagogue of Hebrew University’s Hadassah MedicalCenter in Jerusalem. Leymarie writes that “in order toilluminate the synagogue both spiritually and physically”,it was decided that the twelve windows, representing thetwelve tribes of Israel, were to be filled with stained glass.Chagall envisaged the synagogue as “a crown offered tothe JewishQueen”, and the windows as “jewels of translu-cent fire”, she writes. Chagall then devoted the next twoyears to the task, and upon completion in 1961 the win-dows were exhibited in Paris and then the Museum ofModern Art in New York. They were installed perma-nently in Jerusalem in February 1962. Each of the twelvewindows is approximately ll feet high and 8 feet (2.4m) wide, much larger than anything he had done before.Cogniat considers them to be “his greatest work in thefield of stained glass”, although Virginia Haggard McNeilrecords Chagall’s disappointment that they were to be litwith artificial light, and so would not change according tothe conditions of natural light.French philosopher Gaston Bachelard commented that“Chagall reads the Bible and suddenly the passages be-

4.1 Stained glass windows 15

come light.”[17]:xii In 1973 Israel released a 12-stamp setwith images of the stained-glass windows (see image).[32]

The windows symbolize the twelve tribes of Israel whowere blessed by Jacob andMoses in the verses which con-clude Genesis and Deuteronomy. In those books, notesLeymarie, “The dying Moses repeated Jacob’s solemnact and, in a somewhat different order, also blessed thetwelve tribes of Israel who were about to enter the landof Canaan... In the synagogue, where the windows aredistributed in the same way, the tribes form a symbolicguard of honor around the tabernacle.”[17]:xii Leymariedescribes the physical and spiritual significance of thewindows:

The essence of the JerusalemWindows liesin color, in Chagall’s magical ability to animatematerial and transform it into light. Words donot have the power to describe Chagall’s color,its spirituality, its singing quality, its dazzlingluminosity, its ever more subtle flow, and itssensitivity to the inflections of the soul and thetransports of the imagination. It is simultane-ously jewel-hard and foamy, reverberating andpenetrating, radiating light from an unknowninterior.[17]:xii

At the dedication ceremony in 1962, Chagall describedhis feelings about the windows:

Stained Glass memorial at UN

For me a stained glass window is a trans-parent partition betweenmy heart and the heartof the world. Stained glass has to be seriousand passionate. It is something elevating andexhilarating. It has to live through the percep-tion of light. To read the Bible is to perceivea certain light, and the window has to makethis obvious through its simplicity and grace...The thoughts have nested in me for many years,since the timewhenmy feet walked on theHolyLand, when I prepared myself to create en-gravings of the Bible. They strengthened meand encouraged me to bring my modest gift

to the Jewish people—that people that livedhere thousands of years ago, among the otherSemitic peoples.[1]:145–146

4.1.2 United Nations building (1964)

In 1964 Chagall created a stained-glass window, entitled“Peace”, for the UN in honor of Dag Hammarskjöld, theUN’s second secretary general who was killed in an air-plane crash in Africa in 1961. The window is about 15feet (4.6 m) wide and 12 feet (3.7 m) high and containssymbols of peace and love along withmusical symbols.[33]In 1967 he dedicated a stained-glass window to John D.Rockefeller in the Union Church of Pocantico Hills, NewYork.

4.1.3 Fraumünster in Zurich, Switzerland (1967)

The Fraumünster cathedral in Zurich, Switzerland,founded in 853, is known for its five large stained glasswindows created by Chagall in 1967. Each window is32 feet (9.8 m) tall by 3 feet (0.91 m) wide. Religionhistorian James H. Charlesworth notes that it is “surpris-ing how Christian symbols are featured in the works of anartist who comes from a strict and Orthodox Jewish back-ground.” He surmises that Chagall, as a result of his Rus-sian background, often used Russian icons in his paint-ings, with their interpretations of Christian symbols. Heexplains that his chosen themes were usually derived frombiblical stories, and frequently portrayed the “obedienceand suffering of God’s chosen people.” One of the pan-els depicts Moses receiving the Torah, with rays of lightfrom his head. At the top of another panel is a depictionof Jesus’ crucifixion.[34][35]

4.1.4 St. Stephan’s church in Mainz, Germany(1978)

In 1978 he began creating windows for St. Stephan’schurch in Mainz, Germany. Today, 200,000 visitors ayear visit the church, and “tourists from the whole worldpilgrim up St. Stephan’s Mount, to see the glowing bluestained glass windows by the artist Marc Chagall”, statesthe city’s web site. “St. Stephan’s is the only Germanchurch for which the Chagall has created windows.”[36]

The website also notes, “The colours address our vitalconsciousness directly, because they tell of optimism,hope and delight in life”, says Monsignor Klaus Mayer,who imparts Chagall’s work in mediations and books. Hecorresponded with Chagall during 1973, and succeededin persuading the “master of colour and the biblical mes-sage” to create a sign for Jewish-Christian attachment andinternational understanding. Centuries earlier Mainz hadbeen “the capital of European Jewry”, and contained thelargest Jewish community in Europe, notes historian JohnMan.[37]:16[38] In 1978, at the age of 91, Chagall created

16 4 OTHER TYPES OF ART

St. Stephen’s church, Mainz, Germany

the first window and eight more followed.[39] Chagall’scollaborator Charles Marq complemented Chagall’s workby adding several stained glass windows using the typicalcolours of Chagall.

4.1.5 All Saints’ Church, Tudeley, UK (1963–1978)

All Saints’ Church, Tudeley is the only church in theworld to have all its twelve windows decorated byChagall.[40] The other two religious buildings with com-plete sets of Chagall windows are the Hadassah Med-ical Center synagogue, and the Chapel of Le Saillant,Limousin.The windows at Tudeley were commissioned by SirHenry and Lady Rosemary d'Avigdor-Goldsmid as amemorial tribute to their daughter Sarah, who died in1963 aged 21 in a sailing accident off Rye. When Cha-gall arrived for the dedication of the east window in 1967,and saw the church for the first time, he exclaimed "C'estmagnifique ! Je les ferai tous !" (“It’s beautiful! I will dothem all!") Over the next ten years Chagall designed theremaining eleven windows, made again in collaborationwith the glassworker Charles Marq in his workshop atReims in northern France. The last windows were in-stalled in 1985, just before Chagall’s death.

4.1.6 Chichester Cathedral, West Sussex, UK

On the north side of Chichester Cathedral there is astained glass window designed and created by Chagall atthe age of 90. The window, his last commissioned work,was inspired by Psalm 150; 'Let everything that hathbreath praise the Lord' at the suggestion of Dean WalterHussey.[41] The window was unveiled by the Duchess ofKent in 1978.[42]

4.2 Murals, theater sets and costumes

Chagall first worked on stage designs in 1914 while livingin Russia, under the inspiration of the theatrical designerand artist Léon Bakst.[43] It was during this period in theRussian theatre that formerly static ideas of stage designwere, according to Cogniat, “being swept away in favorof a wholly arbitrary sense of space with different di-mensions, perspectives, colors and rhythms.”[15]:66 Thesechanges appealed to Chagall who had been experiment-ing with Cubism and wanted a way to enliven his images.Designing murals and stage designs, Chagall’s “dreamssprang to life and became an actual movement.”[15]

As a result, Chagall played an important role in Russianartistic life during that time and “was one of the most im-portant forces in the current urge towards anti-realism”which helped the new Russia invent “astonishing” cre-ations. Many of his designs were done for the Jewish The-atre in Moscow which put on numerous Jewish plays byplaywrights such as Gogol and Singe. Chagall’s set de-signs helped create illusory atmospheres which becamethe essence of the theatrical performances.[44]

After leaving Russia, twenty years passed before he wasagain offered a chance to design theatre sets. In the yearsbetween, his paintings still included harlequins, clownsand acrobats, which Cogniat notes “convey his sentimen-tal attachment to and nostalgia for the theatre”.[15] Hisfirst assignment designing sets after Russia was for theballet “Aleko” in 1942, while living in America. In 1945he was also commissioned to design the sets and costumesfor Stravinsky’s “Firebird”. These designs contributedgreatly towards his enhanced reputation in America as amajor artist and, as of 2013, are still in use by New YorkCity Ballet.Cogniat describes how Chagall’s designs “immerse thespectator in a luminous, colored fairy-land where formsare mistily defined and the spaces themselves seem ani-mated with whirlwinds or explosions.”[15] His techniqueof using theatrical color in this way reached its peak whenChagall returned to Paris and designed the sets for Ravel's"Daphnis and Chloë" in 1958.In 1964 he repainted the ceiling of the Paris Opera using2,400 square feet (220 m2) of canvas. He painted twomonumental murals which hang on opposite sides of thenew Metropolitan Opera house at Lincoln Center in NewYork which opened in 1966. The pieces, “The Sources of

17

Music” and “The Triumph of Music”, which hang fromthe top-most balcony level and extend down to the GrandTier lobby level, were completed in France and shipped toNew York, and are covered by a system of panels duringthe hours in which the opera house receives direct sunlightto prevent fading. He also designed the sets and costumesfor a new production of Die Zauberflöte for the companywhich opened in February 1967 and was used through the1981/1982 season.

4.3 Tapestries

Ceramic plate titled “Moses”

Chagall also designed tapestries which were woven underthe direction of Yvette Cauquil-Prince, who also collabo-rated with Picasso. These tapestries are much rarer thanhis paintings, with only 40 of them ever reaching the com-mercial market.[45] Chagall designed three tapestries forthe state hall of the Knesset in Israel, along with 12 floormosaics and a wall mosaic.[46]

4.4 Ceramics and sculpture

Chagall began learning about ceramics and sculpturewhile living in south France. Ceramics became a fashionin the Côte d'Azur with various workshops starting up atAntibes, Vence and Vallauris. He took classes along withother known artists including Picasso and Fernand Léger.At first Chagall painted existing pieces of pottery but soonexpanded into designing his own, which began his workas a sculptor as a compliment to his painting.

Gravestone of Marc Chagall and his wife in Saint Paul de Vence,France

Chagall Art Center in Vitebsk, Belarus

After experimenting with pottery and dishes he movedinto large ceramic murals. However, he was never satis-fied with the limits imposed by the square tile segmentswhich Cogniat notes “imposed on him a discipline whichprevented the creation of a plastic image.”[15]:76

5 Final years and death

Author Serena Davies writes that “By the time he diedin France in 1985—the last surviving master of Euro-

18 7 EXHIBITIONS AND TRIBUTES

pean modernism, outliving Joan Miró by two years—hehad experienced at first hand the high hopes and crushingdisappointments of the Russian revolution, and had wit-nessed the end of the Pale, the near annihilation of Eu-ropean Jewry, and the obliteration of Vitebsk, his hometown, where only 118 of a population of 240,000 survivedthe Second World War.”[47]

Chagall’s last work was a commissioned piece of art forthe Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago. The maquettepainting titled “Job” was completed, but Chagall died justbefore the completion of the tapestry.[48] Yavett CauquilPierce was weaving the tapestry under Chagall’s supervi-sion and was the last person to work with Chagall beforehis death. She left Vava and Marc Chagall’s home at 4pm on 28 March after discussing and matching the finalcolors from the maquette painting for the tapestry. Hedied that evening.[49]

His relationship with his Jewish identity was “unresolvedand tragic”, Davies states. He would have died withoutJewish rites, had not a Jewish stranger stepped forwardand said the kaddish, the Jewish prayer for the dead, overhis coffin.[47]

6 Legacy and influence

Chagall biographer Jackie Wullschlager terms Chagall a“pioneer of modern art and one of its greatest figurativepainters... [who] invented a visual language that recordedthe thrill and terror of the twentieth century.”[5] She adds:

On his canvases we read the triumph ofmodernism, the breakthrough in art to an ex-pression of inner life that ... is one of the lastcentury’s signal legacies. At the same timeChagall was personally swept up in the hor-rors of European history between 1914 and1945: world wars, revolution, ethnic persecu-tion, the murder and exile of millions. In anage when many major artists fled reality for ab-straction, he distilled his experiences of suffer-ing and tragedy into images at once immediate,simple, and symbolic to which everyone couldrespond.[5]:4

Art historians Ingo Walther and Rainer Metzger referto Chagall as a “poet, dreamer, and exotic apparition.”They add that throughout his long life the “role of out-sider and artistic eccentric” came naturally to him, as heseemed to be a kind of intermediary between worlds: “asa Jew with a lordly disdain for the ancient ban on image-making; as a Russian who went beyond the realm of fa-miliar self-sufficiency; or the son of poor parents, growingup in a large and needy family.” Yet he went on to estab-lish himself in the sophisticated world of “elegant artisticsalons.”[50]:7

Through his imagination and strong memories Chagallwas able to use typical motifs and subjects in most of hiswork: village scenes, peasant life, and intimate views ofthe small world of the Jewish village (shtetl). His tran-quil figures and simple gestures helped produce a “mon-umental sense of dignity” by translating everyday Jewishrituals into a “timeless realm of iconic peacefulness”.[50]:8Leymarie writes that Chagall “transcended the limits ofhis century. He has unveiled possibilities unsuspected byan art that had lost touch with the Bible, and in doing sohe has achieved a wholly new synthesis of Jewish culturelong ignored by painting.” He adds that although Chagall’sart cannot be confined to religion, his “most moving andoriginal contributions, what he called 'his message,' arethose drawn from religious or, more precisely, Biblicalsources.”[17]:x

Walther and Metzger try to summarize Chagall’s contri-bution to art:

His life and art together added up to thisimage of a lonesome visionary, a citizen of theworld with much of the child still in him, astranger lost in wonder—an image which theartist did everything to cultivate. Profoundlyreligious and with a deep love of the homeland,his work is arguably the most urgent appeal fortolerance and respect of all that is different thatmodern times could make.[50]:7

7 Exhibitions and tributes

During his lifetime, Chagall received several honors:

• In 1960, Brandeis University awarded Marc Chagallan honorary degree in Laws, at its 9th Commence-ment.

• In 1977, the city of Jerusalem bestowed uponhim the Yakir Yerushalayim (Worthy Citizen ofJerusalem) award.[51]

• Also in 1977, the government of France awardedhim its highest honour, the Grand-Croix de la Le-gion d'honneur.

Postage stamp tributes

Because of the international acclaim he enjoyed and thepopularity of his art, a number of countries have issuedcommemorative stamps in his honor depicting examplesfrom his works. In 1963 France issued a stamp of hispainting, “The Married Couple of the Eiffel Tower”. In1969, Israel produced a stamp depicting his “King David”painting. In 1973 Israel released a 12-stamp set with im-ages of the stained-glass windows that he created for theHadassah Hebrew University Medical Center Synagogue;

19

Bust of Marc Chagall in Celebrity Alley in Kielce (Poland)

each window was made to signify one of the "TwelveTribes of Israel".[32]

In 1987, as a tribute to recognize the centennial ofhis birth in Belarus, seven nations engaged in a spe-cial omnibus program and released postage stamps in hishonor. The countries which issued the stamps includedAntigua & Barbuda, Dominica, The Gambia, Ghana,Sierra Leone and Grenada, which together produced 48stamps and 10 souvenir sheets. Although the stamps allportray his various masterpieces, the names of the art-work are not listed on the stamps.[32]

Exhibitions

There were also several major exhibitions of Chagall’swork during his lifetime and following his death.

• In 1967, the Louvre in Paris exhibited 17 large-scale paintings and 38 gouaches, under the title of“Message Biblique”, which he donated to the na-tion of France on condition that a museum was tobe built for them in Nice.[10]:201 In 1969 work be-gan on the museum, named Musée National Mes-sage Biblique Marc Chagall. It was completed andinaugurated on 7 July 1973, on Chagall’s birthday.Today it contains monumental paintings on biblicalthemes, three stained-glass windows, tapestries, alarge mosaic and numerous gouaches for the “Bibleseries.”[10]:208

• From 1969 to 1970, the Grand Palais in Paris heldthe largest Chagall exhibition to date, including 474

works. The exhibition was called “Hommage aMarc Chagall”, was opened by the French Presidentand “proved an enormous success with the publicand critics alike.”[10]

• In 1973, he traveled to the Soviet Union, his first visitback since he left in 1922. The Tretiakov Gallery inMoscow had a special exhibition for the occasion ofhis visit. He was able to see again the murals he longago made for the Jewish Theatre. In St. Petersburg,he was reunited with two of his sisters, whom he hadnot seen for more than 50 years.

• In 1982, the Moderna Museet in Stockholm, Swe-den organized a retrospective exhibition which latertraveled to Denmark.

• In 1985, the Royal Academy in London presented amajor retrospective which later traveled to Philadel-phia. Chagall was too old to attend the Londonopening and died a few months later.

• In 2003, a major retrospective of Chagall’s ca-reer was organized by the Réunion des Musées Na-tionaux, Paris, in conjunction with the Musée Na-tional Message Biblique Marc Chagall, Nice, andthe San Francisco Museum of Modern Art.

• In 2007, an exhibition of his work titled “Chagall ofMiracles”, was held at Il Complesso del Vittorianoin Rome, Italy.

• The regional art museum in Novosibirsk had a Cha-gall exhibition on his biblical subjects[52] between 16June 2010 and 29 August 2010.

• The Luxembourg Museum in Paris held a Chagallretrospective in 2013.[53]

Current exhibitions and permanent displays

• Chagall’s work is housed in a variety of locations,including the 'Palais Garnier' (the Opera de Paris),the Art Institute of Chicago, Chase Tower Plazaof downtown Chicago, the Metropolitan Opera,the Metz Cathedral, Notre-Dame de Reims, theFraumünster abbey in Zürich, Switzerland, theChurch of St. Stephan in Mainz, Germany and theBiblical Message museum in Nice, France, whichChagall helped to design.

• The only church in the world with a complete set ofChagall window-glass is located in the tiny village ofTudeley, in Kent, England.

• Twelve stained-glass windows are part of HadassahHospital Ein Kerem in Jerusalem, Israel. Eachframe depicts a different tribe.

20 9 NOTES

Stained glass windows in Reims Cathedral, 1974

Fraumünster in Zürich, Switzerland

• In the United States, the Union Church of PocanticoHills contains a set of Chagall windows commem-

orating the prophets, which was commissioned byJohn D. Rockefeller, Jr..[54]

• The Lincoln Center in New York City, containsChagall’s huge murals; The Sources of Music andThe Triumph of Music are installed in the lobby ofthe new Metropolitan Opera House, which beganoperation in 1966. Also in New York, the UnitedNations Headquarters has a stained glass wall of hiswork. In 1967 the UN commemorated this artworkwith a postage stamp and souvenir sheet.[33]

• The family home on Pokrovskaya Street, Vitebsk, isnow the Marc Chagall Museum.[52][55]

• TheMuseum of Biblical Art in Dallas, Texas[56] cur-rently hosts many of his works as well.

• The Marc Chagall Yufuin Kinrin-ko Museum inYufuin, Kyushu, Japan, holds about 40–50 of hisworks.[57]

• Marc Chagall’s late painting titled “Job” for the JobTapestry in Chicago.

• Picasso, Matisse, Chagall, featuring pieces fromChagall’s Bible series and more is on display nowat the Sangre de Cristo Arts Center in Pueblo, Col-orado. This exhibit ends 11 January 2015.

Other tributes

During the closing ceremony of the 2014 WinterOlympics in Sochi, a Chagall-like float with clouds anddancers passed by upside down hovering above 130 cos-tumed dancers, 40 stilt-walkers and a violinist playingfolk music.[58][59]

8 See also• Apocalypse in Lilac, Capriccio

• I and the Village

• La Mariée (The Bride)

• Soleil dans le ciel de Saint-Paul (Sun in the sky ofSaint-Paul)

• List of Russian artists

• List of Notable Freemasons

9 Notes1.^ Most sources uncritically repeat the infor-mation that he was born on 7 July 1887, with-out specifying whether this was a Gregorian orJulian date. However, this date is incorrect. He

21

was born on 24 June 1887 under the then Ju-lian calendar, which translates to 6 July 1887in the Gregorian calendar, the gap between thecalendars in 1887 being 12 days. Chagall him-self miscalculated the Gregorian date when hearrived in Paris in 1910, using the 13-day gapthat then applied, not realising that this appliedonly from 1900 onwards. For further details,see Marc Chagall and His Times: A Documen-tary Narrative, p. 65.

[1] Yiddish: מַארק זַאהַארָאוויטש ;שַאגַאל Russian: Марк За-ха́рович Шага́л; Belarusian: Марк Захаравіч Шагал

10 References[1] Benjamin Harshav: Marc Chagall and his times: a docu-

mentary narrative. Contraversions: Jews and Other Dif-ferenc. Stanford University Press; 1 edition. August2003. ISBN 0804742146.

[2] Polonsky, Gill, Chagall Phaidon, 1998. p. 25

[3] “Random House Unabridged Dictionary”. Dictio-nary.reference.com. Retrieved 15 March 2012.

[4] Lewis, Michael J. “Whatever Happened to Marc Cha-gall?" Commentary, October 2008 pp. 36–37

[5] Wullschlager, Jackie. Chagall: A Biography Knopf, 2008

[6] “Marcchagall.narod.ru”. Marcchagall.narod.ru. Re-trieved 15 March 2012.

[7] Binyāmîn Haršav, Marc Chagall, Barbara HarshavMarc Chagall and his times: a documentary narrative.Books.google.com.au. Retrieved 15 March 2012.

[8] “Segal.org”. Segal.org. 22 May 2005. Retrieved 15March 2012.

[9] Chagall, Marc. My Life, Orion Press (1960)

[10] Baal-Teshuva, Jacob. Marc Chagall, Taschen (1998,2008)

[11] Goodman, Susan Tumarkin. Marc Chagall: Early WorksFrom Russian Collections, Third Millennium Publ. (2001)

[12] Jonathan Wilson, Marc Chagall. Page 61-68

[13] Meyer, Franz. Marc Chagall, L′CEuvre Grave′, Paris(1957)

[14] “The inflated stardom of a Russian artist”, IHT, 15–16November 2008

[15] Cogniat, Raymond. Chagall, Crown Publishers, Inc.(1978)

[16] Sweeney, James J.Marc Chagall, TheMuseum ofModernArt (1946, 1969)

[17] Leymarie, Jean. The Jerusalem Windows, GeorgeBraziller (1967)

[18] Several of Chagall’s paintings inspired the musical; con-trary to popular belief, the “title of the musical doesnot refer to any specific painting”. Wecker, Menachem.“Marc Chagall: The French painter who inspired the titleFiddler on the Roof", The Washington Post, October 24,2014

[19] “The Magician”. World Digital Library. 1917. Retrieved2013-09-30.

[20] “Marc Chagall at Vereinigung Zürcher Kunstfreunde”.Kunsthaus.ch. 30 June 2008. Retrieved 15 March 2012.

[21] Shrayer, Maxim. An anthology of Jewish-Russian litera-ture – vol 1, M.E. Sharpe (2007)

[22] “El Museo de arte Thyssen-Bornemisza – (Paseo delPrado, 8, Madrid-España)". Museothyssen.org. Re-trieved 15 March 2012.

[23] “Viewpoint: Could one man have shortened the VietnamWar?". BBC News. 8 July 2013. Retrieved 9 July 2013.

[24] Tracie Rozhon (16 November 2000). “BIG DEAL; AnOld Chagall Haunt, Repainted”. New York Times. Re-trieved 10 April 2013.

[25] McBride, Henry. New York Sun, Nov. 28, 1941

[26] Denby, Edwin. New York Herald Tribune, Oct. 6, 1942

[27] Gilot, Françoise. Life with Picasso, Anchor Books (1989)p. 282

[28] Australian Dictionary of Biography; Loudon Sainthill;Retrieved 3 September 2013

[29] "$4 million Chagall painting sets new Asian record” Eco-nomic Times, 5 Oct 2010

[30] Cooper, Douglas, The Cubist Epoch, London : Phaidon, inassociation with the Los Angeles County Museum of Art& the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1970

[31] Slater, Elinor and Robert. Great Jewish Men, (1996)Jonathan David Publ. Inc. pp. 84–87

[32] “Stamps; A Tribute of Seven Nations Marks the ChagallCentennial” New York Times, 8 Feb 1987

[33] Chagall Stained-Glass, United Nations Cyber School Bus,United Nations, UN.org, 2001, retrieved 4 August 2007

[34] Charlesworth, James H. The Good and Evil Serpent: Howa Universal Symbol Became Christianized, Yale Univ.Press (2010) pp. 421–422

[35] “Photo of stained glass at Fraumünster cathedral, Zurich,Switzerland”

[36] “St. Stephan’s—Chagall’s mysticism of blue light”, Cityof Mainz website

[37] Man, John, The Gutenberg Revolution, (2002) HeadlineBook Publishing

[38] “Jewish Life and Times in Medieval Mainz”, City ofMainz website

22 12 EXTERNAL LINKS

[39] “Youtube.com”. Youtube.com. Retrieved 15 March2012.

[40] “All Saints’ Church, Tudeley”. Retrieved 18 December2009.

[41] Chagall Glass at Chichester and Tudeley, Paul Foster(ed), published by University College Chichester, ISBN0-948765-78-X

[42] Susan Gillingham, Jewish and Christian Approaches tothe Psalms: Conflict and Convergence, Oxford UniversityPress, USA, 2013, ISBN 9780199699544, p. 113

[43] Penny L. Remsen “Chagall, Marc” in Thomas J Miko-towicz, Theatrical designers: and International Bio-graphic Dictionary. New York: Greenwood, 1992 ISBN0313262705

[44] Susan Goodman, with essays by Zvi Gitelman, VladislavIvanov, Jeffrey Veidlinger, and Benjamin Harshav (2008).Chagall and the Artists of the Russian Jewish Theater. YaleUniversity Press. ISBN 9780300111552. Retrieved 15March 2012.

[45] “Moscow-faf.com”. Moscow-faf.com. Retrieved 15March 2012.

[46] “Jewishvirtuallibrary.org”. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Re-trieved 15 March 2012.

[47] Davies, Serena. Chagall: Love and Exile by JackieWullschlager—review UK Daily Telegraph, 11 October2008

[48] Marc Chagall Brings a Message of Hope and Faith to theDisabled

[49] Marc Chagall tapestry Chicago Tribune

[50] Walther, Ingo F., Metzger, Rainer. Marc Chagall, 1887–1985: Painting as Poetry, Taschen (2000)

[51] “Recipients of Yakir Yerushalayim award (in Hebrew)".City of Jerusalem official website

[52] “Museum.nsk.ru”. Museum.nsk.ru. Retrieved 15 March2012.

[53] Chagall Between War and Peace - 21 February 2013 – 21July 2013

[54] “Hudsonvalley.org”. Hudsonvalley.org. Retrieved 15March 2012.

[55] “Marc ChagallMuseum”. Chagal-vitebsk.com. Retrieved15 March 2012.

[56] “Biblicalarts.org”. Biblicalarts.org. Retrieved 15 March2012.

[57] “Travel | Yufuin”. Metropolis. 10 October 2008. Re-trieved 15 March 2012.

[58] “Olympics close with tribute to Russian artists and a littleself-deprecating humor”, Washington Post, 23 February2014

[59] video clip: “Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics Closing Cere-mony”

11 Bibliography

• Alexander, Sidney,Marc Chagall: A BiographyG.P.Putnam’s Sons, 1978.

• Monica Bohm-Duchen, Chagall (Art & Ideas)Phaidon 1998. ISBN 0-7148-3160-3

• Chagall, Marc, My Life Peter Owen Ltd, 1965(2003) ISBN 978-0-7206-1186-1

• Compton, Susann, Chagall Harry N. Abrams, 1985.

• Harshav, Benjamin,Marc Chagall and His Times: ADocumentary Narrative, Stanford University Press,2004. ISBN 978-0-8047-4214-6

• Harshav, Benjamin, Marc Chagall on Art and Cul-ture, Stanford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8047-4830-6

• Kamensky, Aleksandr, Marc Chagall, An ArtistFrom Russia, Trilistnik, Moscow, 2005 (In Russian)

• Kamensky, Aleksandr, Chagall: The Russian Years1907–1922., Rizzoli, New York, 1988 (Abridgedversion of Marc Chagall, An Artist From Russia)ISBN 0-8478-1080-1

• Nikolaj, Aaron, Marc Chagall., (Monographie)Reinbek 2003 (In German)

• Shishanov V.A. Vitebsk Museum of Modern Art – ahistory of creation and a collection. 1918–1941. –Minsk: Medisont, 2007. – 144 p.

• Wilson, Jonathan Marc Chagall, Schocken, 2007ISBN 0-8052-4201-5

• Wullschlager, Jackie. Chagall: A Biography Knopf,2008

• Shishanov, V.A. “Double Portrait with a glass ofwine” - in search of the sources of the plot of MarcChagall paintings / V.A. Shishanov / / Marc Cha-gall and St. Petersburg. The 125th anniversary ofthe birth of the artist / Scientific. Ed. and comp. :O.L. Leykind, D.Y. Severyukhin. - St. Petersburg:“Evropeiski House” in 2013. pp. 167–176.

12 External links

• Official site of Marc Chagall Museum in Vitebsk,Belarus

• Official site of Marc Chagall Museum in Nice,France

• Marc Chagall at the Museum of Modern Art

• Marc Chagall at the Jewish Museum New York

23

• Union List of Artist Names, Getty Vocabularies.ULAN Full Record Display for Marc Chagall.Getty Vocabulary Program, Getty Research Insti-tute. Los Angeles, California.

24 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text• Marc Chagall Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc%20Chagall?oldid=656733647 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Kpjas, Brion VIBBER,The Anome, Andre Engels, XJaM, Enchanter, MrH, DW, Olivier, DennisDaniels, Pit~enwiki, Tomos, IZAK, Alex756, Jabo~enwiki,RodC, Bemoeial, Lfh, Viajero, Jwrosenzweig, Phoebe, François~enwiki, Spinster, Carbuncle, Robbot, NightCrawler, Pigsonthewing, YrjöKari-Koskinen, Altenmann, Romanm, Postdlf, Sverdrup, Clngre, Meelar, Humus sapiens, JackofOz, Lupo, Cyrius, Unfree, Alan Liefting,Stirling Newberry, Xyzzyva, Centrx, DocWatson42, Tom harrison, Everyking, Curps, Gamaliel, Jgritz, Yekrats, Solipsist, Bobblewik,Jastrow, Tipiac, Utcursch, Andycjp, Alexf, Jmkleeberg, Blankfaze, Antandrus, Kaldari, Mzajac, Eichberger~enwiki, FashionNugget,Gizm0~enwiki, Thorwald, Hmmm~enwiki, Corti, Mike Rosoft, D6, Simonides, Justin Foote, CALR, EugeneZelenko, Pyrop, Rich Farm-brough, Guanabot, Rydel, Rama, YUL89YYZ, Roybb95~enwiki, Bender235, ESkog, Brian0918, Zenohockey, Kwamikagami, Mwanner,Adambro, Bill Thayer, Bobo192, Vervin, Defrosted, .:Ajvol:., Nk, Polylerus, Hagerman, Maniac British, Satanovski, Rich Lem, Alan-sohn, Gary, ZmiLa, Andrew Gray, Snowolf, Ksnow, Dhartung, Bucephalus, James Russiello, Tony Sidaway, Kusma, Ghirlandajo, RichardWeil, Ogambear, Sheynhertz-Unbayg, Woohookitty, Etacar11, Rocastelo, Jpers36, Asteiner, JeremyA, Kelisi, Isnow, Scm83x, Macad-dct1984, SDC, NightOnEarth, Emerson7, Mandarax, Graham87, Sparkit, BD2412, Monk, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Erebus555, Gryffindor,Lockley, Vary, Mick gold, Amire80, Josiah Rowe, JoshuacUK, Xosé, Lordkinbote, Nneonneo, Czalex, Bhadani, DoubleBlue, Gary Mor-gan, Rachelo84, Yamamoto Ichiro, Artlover, FlaBot, Eldamorie, Ground Zero, Crazycomputers, Alhutch, RachelBrown, Loui~enwiki,Anchorite, KFP, Introvert, King of Hearts, Chobot, DVdm, Bgwhite, Mississippifred, YurikBot, Wavelength, HG1, RussBot, Conscious,Hede2000, Splash, SpuriousQ, Van der Hoorn, CambridgeBayWeather, Alex Bakharev, Shanel, 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13.2 Images• File:Belarus-Vitsebsk-Marc_Chagall_Art-Center.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Belarus-Vitsebsk-Marc_Chagall_Art-Center.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Photo made by EugeneZelenko's brother, AlexZelenko. Original artist: Alex Zelenko

13.2 Images 25

• File:Ceramic_Moses.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/24/Ceramic_Moses.jpg License: Fair use Contributors:Book: Wullschlager, Jackie. Chagall: A Biography Knopf, 2008Original artist: ?

• File:Chagall_-_Bestiaire.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/58/Chagall_-_Bestiaire.jpg License: Fair use Contrib-utors:Reuters Pictures, taken October 2010 Original artist: ?

• File:Chagall_Bella.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/bd/Chagall_Bella.jpg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Chagall_Circus.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a2/Chagall_Circus.jpg License: Fair use Contributors:Video: “Marc Chagall Slideshow” [1] Original artist: ?

• File:Chagall_parents.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4d/Chagall_parents.jpg License: Fair use Contributors:Video screenshot: Marc Chagall Slideshow Original artist: ?

• File:Chagall_windows_Reims_Cathedral.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Chagall_windows_Reims_Cathedral.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Peter Lucas

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Fraumünster_-_Chagallfenster_2010-08-27_17-06-00_ShiftN.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Fraum%C3%BCnster_-_Chagallfenster_2010-08-27_17-06-00_ShiftN.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Originalartist: Roland zh

• File:Image-Chagall_Fiddler.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Image-Chagall_Fiddler.jpg License: ? Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Marc_Chagall,_1911,_I_and_the_Village,_oil_on_canvas,_192.1_x_151.4_cm,_Museum_of_Modern_Art,_New_York.jpgSource: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d1/Marc_Chagall%2C_1911%2C_I_and_the_Village%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_192.1_x_151.4_cm%2C_Museum_of_Modern_Art%2C_New_York.jpg License: ? Contributors:Museum of Modern Art, New York Original artist:Marc Chagall

• File:Marc_Chagall,_1911,_Trois_heures_et_demie_(Le_poète),_Half-Past_Three_(The_Poet),_oil_on_canvas,_195.9_x_144.8_cm,_Philadelphia_Museum_of_Art.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/64/Marc_Chagall%2C_1911%2C_Trois_heures_et_demie_%28Le_po%C3%A8te%29%2C_Half-Past_Three_%28The_Poet%29%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_195.9_x_144.8_cm%2C_Philadelphia_Museum_of_Art.jpg License: ? Contributors:Philadelphia Museum of Art Original artist:Marc Chagall

• File:Marc_Chagall,_1911-12,_The_Drunkard_(Le_saoul),_1912,_oil_on_canvas._85_x_115_cm._Private_collection.jpg Source:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Marc_Chagall%2C_1911-12%2C_The_Drunkard_%28Le_saoul%29%2C_1912%2C_oil_on_canvas._85_x_115_cm._Private_collection.jpg License: ? Contributors:vertice Original artist:Marc Chagall

• File:Marc_Chagall,_1912,_Calvary_(Golgotha)_Christus_gewidmet,_oil_on_canvas,_174.6_x_192.4_cm,_Museum_of_Modern_Art,_New_York.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/89/Marc_Chagall%2C_1912%2C_Calvary_%28Golgotha%29_Christus_gewidmet%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_174.6_x_192.4_cm%2C_Museum_of_Modern_Art%2C_New_York.jpg License: ? Contributors:provenance_object.php?object_id=79365 Museum of Modern Art, New York Original artist:Marc Chagall

• File:Marc_Chagall,_1912,_still-life_(Nature_morte),_oil_on_canvas,_private_collection.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a1/Marc_Chagall%2C_1912%2C_still-life_%28Nature_morte%29%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_private_collection.jpg Li-cense: ? Contributors:http://www.wikipaintings.org/en/marc-chagall/still-life-1912 Original artist:Marc Chagall

• File:Marc_Chagall_1941_cut.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Marc_Chagall_1941_cut.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress, reproduction number LC-USZ62-42495 DLC (b&w film copy neg.) Original artist: CarlVan Vechten

• File:Popiersie_Marc_Chagall_ssj_20060914.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Popiersie_Marc_Chagall_ssj_20060914.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist:

• Photographer: Paweł Cieśla Staszek_Szybki_Jest• File:Sankt_Stephan_Mainz.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Sankt_Stephan_Mainz.jpg License:GFDL Contributors: self-made LDR Original artist: Matthias Zepper, LDR created with Qtpfsgui, tonemapped with the Mantiuk operator.

• File:Symbol_list_class.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:The_Prophet_Jeremiah_-_1968_-Wull.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6f/The_Prophet_Jeremiah_-_1968_-Wull.jpg License: Fair use Contributors:Book: Wullschlager, Jackie. Chagall: A Biography Knopf, 2008Original artist: ?

26 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:UN_Glass.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ee/UN_Glass.jpg License: Fair use Contributors:UN website [1] Original artist: ?

• File:VitebskVKhU.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/VitebskVKhU.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-tributors: ru:Изображение:ВХУ.jpg Original artist: Шишанов В.А

• File:Vitraux_chagall_Metz.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c4/Vitraux_chagall_Metz.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:official Metz council websiteOriginal artist:Christian Legay

• File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.

• File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Wiktionary-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:WithBella.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b2/WithBella.jpg License: ? Contributors:Marc Chagall, An Intimate Biography, author Sidney Alexander, Paragon House Publ.Original artist:unknown photographer

• File:Yury_Pen_-_Portrait_of_Marc_Chagall.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Yury_Pen_-_Portrait_of_Marc_Chagall.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://artbelarus.by/be/gallery/61.html Original artist: Yehuda (Yury)Pen (1854—1937)

• File:_004אבישי_טייכר.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Gravestone_of_Marc_Chagall_and_his_wife_in_Saint-Paul_-_Alpes-Maritimes_-_france.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (my own picture) Original artist: dr.avishai teicher

13.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0