The waterfall model is a sequential software development process, in which progress is seen as flowing steadily downwards (like a waterfall l) through the phases of Conception, Initiation, Analysis, Design (validation), Construction, Testing and maintenance.

The unmodified "waterfall model". Progress flows from the top to the bottom, like a waterfall.

It should be readily apparent that the waterfall development model has its origins in the manufacturing and construction industries; highly structured physical environments in which after-the-fact changes are prohibitively costly, if not impossible. Since no formal software development methodologies existed at the time, this hardware-oriented model was simply adapted for software development. Ironically, the use of the waterfall model for software development essentially ignores the 'soft' in 'software'.

The first formal description of the waterfall model is often cited to be an article published in 1970 by Winston W. Royce (1929-1995), although Royce did not use the term "waterfall" in this article. Ironically, Royce was presenting this model as an example of a flawed, non-working model (Royce 1970). This is in fact the way the term has generally been used in writing about software development-as a way to criticize a commonly used software practice.

Waterfall Model Diagram

Waterfall Model Diagram - Explained

Let us now take a look at the different phases of the waterfall model diagram. One important aspect that is worth mentioning before we start off with the waterfall model life cycle is that the waterfall model is designed such that, until the preceding phase is complete, you cannot move over to the next phase of development.

RequirementUnless you know what you want to design, you cannot proceed with the project. Not only big projects, but even a small code of adding two integer numbers also needs to be written with the output in mind. Here, in this stage, the requirements which the software is going to satisfy is specified. All requirements are presented to the team of programmers. If this phase is completed successfully, it ensures a smooth working of the remaining waterfall model phases, as the programmer is not burdened to make changes at later stages because of changing requirements.

AnalysisAs per the requirements, the software and hardware for the proper completion of the project is analyzed in this phase. Right from the point of which computer language should be used for the designing of the software, to the database system that can be used for the smooth functioning of the software is decided at this stage.

DesignThe algorithm or flowchart of the program or the software code to be written in the next stage is created now. It is a very important stage, which relies on the previous two stages for its proper implementation and the proper execution of the same ensures a smooth working of the next stage. If during the design phase it can be made out that there are some more requirements for designing the code, it is added up to the list in the analysis phase and the design phase is carried out according to the new set of resources.

CodingBased on the algorithm or flowchart designed, the actual coding of the software is carried out. This is the stage where the entire idea of the software of program to be designed is materialized. A proper execution of the previous stages ensures a smooth implementation of this stage.

TestingWith the coding complete, the testing department now comes into scene. It checks out if there are any flaws in the designed software and if the software has been designed as per the specifications. A proper execution of this stage ensures that the client for which the software has been designed, will be satisfied with the work. If there are any flaws, the problem is reverted back to the design phase. In the design phase, the changes are implemented and then its succeeding stages, coding and testing are again carried out. Read more on software testing.

AcceptanceThis is the last stage of the software development, using the waterfall model. A proper execution of all the preceding stages ensures a software as per the requirements and most importantly, it ensures a satisfied client. However, at this stage you may need to provide the client with some support regarding the software you have developed. If the client demands some further enhancements to be made to the existing software, then the process again needs to be started, right from the first phase, i.e., requirements.

Manual Testing Interview Questions for Freshers

The following are some of the interview questions for manual testing. This will give you a fair idea of what these questions are like.

What is the accessibility testing? What is Ad Hoc Testing? What is the Alpha Testing? What is Beta Testing? What is Component Testing? What is Compatibility Testing? What is Data Driven Testing? What is Concurrency Testing? What is Conformance Testing? What is Context Driven Testing? What is Conversion Testing? What is Depth Testing? What is Dynamic Testing? What is End-to-End testing? What is Endurance Testing? What is Installation Testing? What is Gorilla Testing? What is Exhaustive Testing?

What is Localization Testing? What is Loop Testing? What is Mutation Testing? What is Positive Testing? What is Monkey Testing? What is Negative Testing? What is Path Testing? What is Ramp Testing? What is Performance Testing? What is Recovery Testing? What is the Regression testing? What is the Re-testing testing? What is Stress Testing? What is Sanity Testing? What is Smoke Testing? What’s the Volume Testing? What’s the Usability testing? What is Scalability Testing? What is Soak Testing? What’s the User Acceptance testing?

These were some of the manual testing interview questions for freshers, let us now move on to other forms of manual testing questions.

Software Testing Interview Questions for Freshers

Here are some software testing interview questions that will help you get into the more intricate and complex formats of this form of manual testing.

Can you explain the V model in manual testing? What is the water fall model in manual testing? What is the structure of bug life cycle? What is the difference between bug, error and defect? How does one add objects into the Object Repository? What are the different modes of recording? What does 'testing' mean? What is the purpose of carrying out manual testing for a background process that does

not have a user interface and how do you go about it? Explain with an example what test case and bug report are. How does one go about reviewing a test case and what are the types that are available? What is AUT? What is compatibility testing? What is alpha testing and beta testing? What is the V model? What is debugging? What is the difference between debugging and testing? Explain in detail. What is the fish model? What is port testing? Explain in detail the difference between smoke and sanity testing. What is the difference between usability testing and GUI? Why does one require object spy in QTP? What is the test case life cycle? Why does one save .vsb in library files in qtp winrunner? When do we do update mode in qtp? What is virtual memory? What is visual source safe? What is the difference between test scenarios and test strategy? What is the difference between properties and methods in qtp?

Software testing is an integral part of the software development life cycle (SDLC). Effectively and efficiently testing a piece of code is equally important, if not more, than writing it. So what is software testing? Well, for those of you who are new to software testing and quality assurance, here's the answer to this question.

Software testing is nothing but subjecting a piece of code to both, controlled as well as uncontrolled operating conditions, in an attempt to observe the output and examine whether it is in accordance with certain pre-specified conditions. Different sets of test cases and testing strategies are prepared, all of which aim at achieving one common goal - removing all the bugs and errors from the code and making the software error-free and capable enough of providing accurate and optimum outputs. There are different types of software testing techniques and methodologies. A software testing methodology is different from a software testing technique. We will have a look at a few software testing methodologies in the later part of this article.

Software Testing MethodsThere are different types of testing methods or techniques as part of the software testing process. I have enlisted a few of them below.

White box testing Black box testing Gray box testing Unit testing Integration testing Regression testing Usability testing Performance testing Scalability testing Software stress testing Recovery testing Security testing Conformance testing Smoke testing Compatibility testing System testing Alpha testing Beta testing

The above software testing methods can be implemented in two ways - manually or by automation. Manual software testing is done by human software testers who manually i.e. physically check, test and report errors or bugs in the product or piece of code. In case of automated software testing, the same process is performed by a computer by means of an automated testing software such as WinRunner, LoadRunner, Test Director, etc.

Software Testing MethodologiesThese are some commonly used software testing methodologies:

Waterfall model V model Spiral model RUP Agile model RAD

Let us have a look at each one of these methodologies one by one.

Waterfall ModelThe waterfall model adopts a 'top down' approach regardless of whether it is being used for

software development or testing. The basic steps involved in this software testing methodology are:

1. Requirement analysis2. Test case design3. Test case implementation4. Testing, debugging and validating the code or product5. Deployment and maintenance

In this methodology, you move on to the next step only after you have completed the present step. There is no scope for jumping backward or forward or performing two steps simultaneously. Also, this model follows a non-iterative approach. The main benefit of this methodology is its simplistic, systematic and orthodox approach. However, it has many shortcomings since bugs and errors in the code are not discovered until and unless the testing stage is reached. This can often lead to wastage of time, money and valuable resources.

V ModelThe V model gets its name from the fact that the graphical representation of the different test process activities involved in this methodology resembles the letter 'V'. The basic steps involved in this methodology are more or less the same as those in the waterfall model. However, this model follows both a 'top-down' as well as a 'bottom-up' approach (you can visualize them forming the letter 'V'). The benefit of this methodology is that in this case, both the development and testing activities go hand-in-hand. For example, as the development team goes about its requirement analysis activities, the testing team simultaneously begins with its acceptance testing activities. By following this approach, time delays are minimized and optimum utilization of resources is assured.

Spiral ModelAs the name implies, the spiral model follows an approach in which there are a number of cycles (or spirals) of all the sequential steps of the waterfall model. Once the initial cycle is completed, a thorough analysis and review of the achieved product or output is performed. If it is not as per the specified requirements or expected standards, a second cycle follows, and so on. This methodology follows an iterative approach and is generally suited for very large projects having complex and constantly changing requirements.

Rational Unified Process (RUP)The RUP methodology is also similar to the spiral model in the sense that the entire testing procedure is broken up into multiple cycles or processes. Each cycle consists of four phases namely; inception, elaboration, construction and transition. At the end of each cycle, the product or the output is reviewed and a further cycle (made up of the same four phases) follows if necessary. Today, you will find certain organizations and companies adopting a slightly modified version of the RUP, which goes by the name of Enterprise Unified Process (EUP).

Agile ModelThis methodology follows neither a purely sequential approach nor does it follow a purely iterative approach. It is a selective mix of both of these approaches in addition to quite a few new developmental methods. Fast and incremental development is one of the key principles of this methodology. The focus is on obtaining quick, practical and visible outputs and results, rather than merely following theoretical processes. Continuous customer interaction and participation is an integral part of the entire development process.

Rapid Application Development (RAD)The name says it all. In this case, the methodology adopts a rapid development approach by using the principle of component-based construction. After understanding the various requirements, a rapid prototype is prepared and is then compared with the expected set of output conditions and standards. Necessary changes and modifications are made after joint discussions with the customer or the development team (in the context of software testing). Though this approach does have its share of advantages, it can be unsuitable if the project is large, complex

and happens to be of an extremely dynamic nature, wherein the requirements are constantly changing. Here are some more advantages of rapid application development.

This was a short overview of some commonly used software testing methodologies. With the applications of information technology growing with every passing day, the importance of proper software testing has grown multifold.

In order to overcome the cons of "The Waterfall Model", it was necessary to develop a new Software Development Model, which could help in ensuring the success of software project. One such model was developed which incorporated the common methodologies followed in "The Waterfall Model", but it also eliminated almost every possible/known risk factors from it. This model is referred as "The Spiral Model" or "Boehm’s Model".

There are four phases in the "Spiral Model" which are: Planning, Evaluation, Risk Analysis and Engineering. These four phases are iteratively followed one after other in order to eliminate all the problems, which were faced in "The Waterfall Model". Iterating the phases helps in understating the problems associated with a phase and dealing with those problems when the same phase is repeated next time, planning and developing strategies to be followed while iterating through the phases. The phases in "Spiral Model" are:

Plan: In this phase, the objectives, alternatives and constraints of the project are determined and are documented. The objectives and other specifications are fixed in order to decide which strategies/approaches to follow during the project life cycle.

Risk Analysis: This phase is the most important part of "Spiral Model". In this phase all possible (and available) alternatives, which can help in developing a cost effective project are analyzed and strategies are decided to use them. This phase has been added specially in order to identify and resolve all the possible risks in the project development. If risks indicate any kind of uncertainty in requirements, prototyping may be used to proceed with the available data and find out possible solution in order to deal with the potential changes in the requirements.

Engineering: In this phase, the actual development of the project is carried out. The output of this phase is passed through all the phases iteratively in order to obtain improvements in the same.

Customer Evaluation: In this phase, developed product is passed on to the customer in order to

receive customer’s comments and suggestions which can help in identifying and resolving potential problems/errors in the software developed. This phase is very much similar to TESTING phase.

The process progresses in spiral sense to indicate iterative path followed, progressively more complete software is built as we go on iterating through all four phases. The first iteration in this model is considered to be most important, as in the first iteration almost all possible risk factors, constraints, requirements are identified and in the next iterations all known strategies are used to bring up a complete software system. The radical dimensions indicate evolution of the product towards a complete system.

However, as every system has its own pros and cons, "The Spiral Model" does have its pros and cons too. As this model is developed to overcome the disadvantages of the "Waterfall Model", to follow "Spiral Model", highly skilled people in the area of planning, risk analysis and mitigation, development, customer relation etc. are required. This along with the fact that the process needs to be iterated more than once demands more time and is somehow expensive task.

What is Software Testing? Software Testing is a process of verifying and validating whether the program is performing correctly with no bugs. It is the process of analyzing or operating software for the purpose of finding bugs. It also helps to identify the defects / flaws / errors that may appear in the application code, which needs to be fixed. Testing not only means fixing the bug in the code, but also to check whether the program is behaving according to the given specifications and testing strategies. There are various types of software testing strategies such as white box testing strategy, black box testing strategy, grey box software testing strategy, etc.

Need of Software Testing TypesTypes of Software Testing, depends upon different types of defects. For example:

Functional testing is done to detect functional defects in a system. Performance Testing is performed to detect defects when the system does not perform

according to the specifications Usability Testing to detect usability defects in the system. Security Testing is done to detect bugs/defects in the security of the system.

The list goes on as we move on towards different layers of testing.

Types of Software TestingVarious software testing methodologies guide you through the consecutive software testing types. Those who are new to this subject, here is some information on software testing - how to go about for beginners. To determine the true functionality of the application being tested, test cases are designed to help the developers. Test cases provide you with the guidelines for going through the process of testing the software. Software testing includes two basic types of software testing, viz. Manual Scripted Testing and Automated Testing.

Manual Scripted Testing : This is considered to be one of the oldest type of software testing methods, in which test cases are designed and reviewed by the team, before executing it.

Automated Testing : This software testing type applies automation in the testing, which can be applied to various parts of a software process such as test case management, executing test cases, defect management, reporting of the bugs/defects. The bug life cycle helps the tester in deciding how to log a bug and also guides the developer to decide on the priority of the bug depending upon the severity of logging it. Software bug testing or software testing to log a bug, explains the contents of a bug that is to be fixed. This can be done with the help of various bug tracking tools such as Bugzilla and defect tracking management tools like the Test Director.

Other Software Testing TypesSoftware testing life cycle is the process that explains the flow of the tests that are to be carried

on each step of software testing of the product. The V- Model i.e Verification and Validation Model is a perfect model which is used in the improvement of the software project. This model contains software development life cycle on one side and software testing life cycle on the other hand side. Checklists for software tester sets a baseline that guides him to carry on the day-to-day activities.

Black Box Testing It explains the process of giving the input to the system and checking the output, without considering how the system generates the output. It is also called as Behavioral Testing.

Functional Testing: In this type of testing, the software is tested for the functional requirements. This checks whether the application is behaving according to the specification.

Performance Testing: This type of testing checks whether the system is performing properly, according to the user's requirements. Performance testing depends upon the Load and Stress Testing, that is internally or externally applied to the system.

1. Load Testing : In this type of performance testing, the system is raised beyond the limits in order to check the performance of the system when higher loads are applied.

2. Stress Testing : In this type of performance testing, the system is tested beyond the normal expectations or operational capacity

Usability Testing: This type of testing is also called as 'Testing for User Friendliness'. This testing checks the ease of use of an application. Read more on introduction to usability testing.

Regression Testing: Regression testing is one of the most important types of testing, in which it checks whether a small change in any component of the application does not affect the unchanged components. Testing is done by re-executing the previous versions of the application.

Smoke Testing: Smoke testing is used to check the testability of the application. It is also called 'Build Verification Testing or Link Testing'. That means, it checks whether the application is ready for further major testing and working, without dealing with the finer details.

Sanity Testing: Sanity testing checks for the behavior of the system. This type of software testing is also called as Narrow Regression Testing.

Parallel Testing: Parallel testing is done by comparing results from two different systems like old vs new or manual vs automated.

Recovery Testing: Recovery testing is very necessary to check how fast the system is able to recover against any hardware failure, catastrophic problems or any type of system crash.

Installation Testing: This type of software testing identifies the ways in which installation procedure leads to incorrect results.

Compatibility Testing: Compatibility Testing determines if an application under supported configurations perform as expected, with various combinations of hardware and software packages. Read more on compatibility testing.

Configuration Testing: This testing is done to test for compatibility issues. It determines minimal and optimal configuration of hardware and software, and determines the effect of adding or modifying resources such as memory, disk drives and CPU.

Compliance Testing: This type of testing checks whether the system was developed in accordance with standards, procedures and guidelines.

Error-Handling Testing: This software testing type determines the ability of the system to properly process erroneous transactions.

Manual-Support Testing: This type of software testing is an interface between people and application system.

Inter-Systems Testing: This type of software testing method is an interface between two or more application systems.

Exploratory Testing: Exploratory Testing is a type of software testing, which is similar to ad-hoc testing, and is performed to explore the software features. Read more on exploratory testing.

Volume Testing: This testing is done, when huge amount of data is processed through the application.

Scenario Testing: This type of software testing provides a more realistic and meaningful combination of functions, rather than artificial combinations that are obtained through domain or combinatorial test design.

User Interface Testing: This type of testing is performed to check, how user-friendly the application is. The user should be able to use the application, without any assistance by the system personnel.

System Testing: System testing is the testing conducted on a complete, integrated system, to evaluate the system's compliance with the specified requirements. This type of software testing validates that the system meets its functional and non-functional requirements and is also intended to test beyond the bounds defined in the software/hardware requirement specifications.

User Acceptance Testing: Acceptence Testing is performed to verify that the product is acceptable to the customer and it's fulfilling the specified requirements of that customer. This testing includes Alpha and Beta testing.

1. Alpha Testing: Alpha testing is performed at the developer's site by the customer in a closed environment. This testing is done after system testing.

2. Beta Testing: This type of software testing is done at the customer's site by the customer in the open environment. The presence of the developer, while performing these tests, is not mandatory. This is considered to be the last step in the software development life cycle as the product is almost ready.

White Box Testing It is the process of giving the input to the system and checking, how the system processes the input, to generate the output. It is mandatory for a tester to have the knowledge of the source code.

Unit Testing: This type of testing is done at the developer's site to check whether a particular piece/unit of code is working fine. Unit testing deals with testing the unit as a whole.

Static and Dynamic Analysis: In static analysis, it is required to go through the code in order to find out any possible defect in the code. Whereas, in dynamic analysis the code is executed and analyzed for the output.

Statement Coverage: This type of testing assures that the code is executed in such a way that every statement of the application is executed at least once.

Decision Coverage: This type of testing helps in making decision by executing the application, at least once to judge whether it results in true or false.

Condition Coverage: In this type of software testing, each and every condition is executed by making it true and false, in each of the ways at least once.

Path Coverage: Each and every path within the code is executed at least once to get a full path coverage, which is one of the important parts of the white box testing.

Integration Testing: Integration testing is performed when various modules are integrated with each other to form a sub-system or a system. This mostly focuses in the design and construction of the software architecture. Integration testing is further classified into Bottom-Up Integration and Top-Down Integration testing.

1. Bottom-Up Integration Testing: In this type of integration testing, the lowest level components are tested first and then alleviate the testing of higher level components using 'Drivers'.

2. Top-Down Integration Testing: This is totally opposite to bottom-up approach, as it tests the top level modules are tested and the branch of the module are tested step by step using 'Stubs' until the related module comes to an end.

Security Testing: Testing that confirms, how well a system protects itself against unauthorized internal or external, or willful damage of code, means security testing of the system. Security testing assures that the program is accessed by the authorized personnel only. Read more on brief introduction to security testing.

Mutation Testing: In this type of software testing, the application is tested for the code that was modified after fixing a particular bug/defect.

Software testing methodologies and different software testing strategies help to get through this software testing process. These various software testing methods show you the outputs, using the above mentioned software testing types, and helps you check if the software satisfies the requirement of the customer. Software testing is indeed a vast subject and one can make a successful carrier in this field. You could go through some software testing interview questions, to prepare yourself for some software testing tutorials.

A perfect software product is built when every step is taken with full consideration that ‘A right product is developed in a right manner’. ‘Software Verification & Validation’ is one such model, which helps the system designers and test engineers to confirm that a right product is build right way throughout the development process and improve the quality of the software product.

‘Verification & Validation Model’ makes it sure that, certain rules are followed at the time of development of a software product and also makes it sure that the product that is developed fulfills the required specifications. This reduces the risk associated with any software project up to certain level by helping in detection and correction of errors and mistakes, which are unknowingly done during the development process.

What is Verification?The standard definition of Verification goes like this: "Are we building the product RIGHT?" i.e. Verification is a process that makes it sure that the software product is developed the right way. The software should confirm to its predefined specifications, as the product development goes through different stages, an analysis is done to ensure that all required specifications are met.

Methods and techniques used in the Verification and Validation shall be designed carefully, the planning of which starts right from the beginning of the development process. The Verification part of ‘Verification and Validation Model’ comes before Validation, which incorporates Software inspections, reviews, audits, walkthroughs, buddy checks etc. in each phase of verification (every phase of Verification is a phase of the Testing Life Cycle)

During the Verification, the work product (the ready part of the Software being developed and various documentations) is reviewed/examined personally by one ore more persons in order to find and point out the defects in it. This process helps in prevention of potential bugs, which may cause in failure of the project.

Few terms involved in Verification:Inspection:Inspection involves a team of about 3-6 people, led by a leader, which formally reviews the documents and work product during various phases of the product development life cycle. The work product and related documents are presented in front of the inspection team, the member of

which carry different interpretations of the presentation. The bugs that are detected during the inspection are communicated to the next level in order to take care of them.

Walkthroughs:Walkthrough can be considered same as inspection without formal preparation (of any presentation or documentations). During the walkthrough meeting, the presenter/author introduces the material to all the participants in order to make them familiar with it. Even when the walkthroughs can help in finding potential bugs, they are used for knowledge sharing or communication purpose.

Buddy Checks:This is the simplest type of review activity used to find out bugs in a work product during the verification. In buddy check, one person goes through the documents prepared by another person in order to find out if that person has made mistake(s) i.e. to find out bugs which the author couldn’t find previously.

The activities involved in Verification process are: Requirement Specification verification, Functional design verification, internal/system design verification and code verification (these phases can also subdivided further). Each activity makes it sure that the product is developed right way and every requirement, every specification, design code etc. is verified!

What is Validation?Validation is a process of finding out if the product being built is right?i.e. whatever the software product is being developed, it should do what the user expects it to do. The software product should functionally do what it is supposed to, it should satisfy all the functional requirements set by the user. Validation is done during or at the end of the development process in order to determine whether the product satisfies specified requirements.

Validation and Verification processes go hand in hand, but visibly Validation process starts after Verification process ends (after coding of the product ends). Each Verification activity (such as Requirement Specification Verification, Functional design Verification etc.) has its corresponding Validation activity (such as Functional Validation/Testing, Code Validation/Testing, System/Integration Validation etc.).

All types of testing methods are basically carried out during the Validation process. Test plan, test suits and test cases are developed, which are used during the various phases of Validation process. The phases involved in Validation process are: Code Validation/Testing, Integration Validation/Integration Testing, Functional Validation/Functional Testing, and System/User Acceptance Testing/Validation.

Terms used in Validation process:Code Validation/Testing:Developers as well as testers do the code validation. Unit Code Validation or Unit Testing is a type of testing, which the developers conduct in order to find out any bug in the code unit/module developed by them. Code testing other than Unit Testing can be done by testers or developers.

Integration Validation/Testing:Integration testing is carried out in order to find out if different (two or more) units/modules co-ordinate properly. This test helps in finding out if there is any defect in the interface between different modules.

Functional Validation/Testing:This type of testing is carried out in order to find if the system meets the functional requirements. In this type of testing, the system is validated for its functional behavior. Functional testing does not deal with internal coding of the project, in stead, it checks if the system behaves as per the expectations.

User Acceptance Testing or System Validation:In this type of testing, the developed product is handed over to the user/paid testers in order to test it in real time scenario. The product is validated to find out if it works according to the system specifications and satisfies all the user requirements. As the user/paid testers use the software, it may happen that bugs that are yet undiscovered, come up, which are communicated to the developers to be fixed. This helps in improvement of the final product.

What is Software Development Life Cycle?The Software Development Life Cycle is a step-by-step process involved in the development of a software product. It is also denoted as Software Development process in certain parts of the world. The whole process is generally classified into a set of steps and a specific operation will be carried out in each of the steps.

ClassificationThe basic classification of the whole process is as follows

Planning Analysis Design Development Implementation Testing Deployment Maintenance

Each of the steps of the process has its own importance and plays a significant part in the product development. The description of each of the steps can give a better understanding.

PlanningThis is the first and foremost stage in the development and one of the most important stages. The basic motive is to plan the total project and to estimate the merits and demerits of the project. The Planning phase includes the definition of the intended system, development of the project plan, and Parallel management of the plan throughout the proceedings of the development.

A good and matured plan can create a very good initiative and can positively affect the complete project.

AnalysisThe main aim of the analysis phase is to perform statistics and requirements gathering. Based on the analysis of the project and due to the influence of the results of the planning phase, the requirements for the project are decided and gathered.

Once the requirements for the project are gathered, they are prioritized and made ready for further use. The decisions taken in the analysis phase are out and out due to the requirements analysis. Proceedings after the current phase are defined.

DesignOnce the analysis is over, the design phase begins. The aim is to create the architecture of the total system. This is one of the important stages of the process and serves to be a benchmark stage since the errors performed until this stage and during this stage can be cleared here.

Most of the developers have the habit of developing a prototype of the entire software and represent the software as a miniature model. The flaws, both technical and design, can be found and removed and the entire process can be redesigned.

Development and ImplementationThe development and implementation phase is the most important phase since it is the phase where the main part of the project is done. The basic works include the design of the basic

technical architecture and the maintenance of the database records and programs related to the development process.

One of the main scenarios is the implementation of the prototype model into a full-fledged working environment, which is the final product or software.

TestingThe testing phase is one of the final stages of the development process and this is the phase where the final adjustments are made before presenting the completely developed software to the end-user.

In general, the testers encounter the problem of removing the logical errors and bugs. The test conditions which are decided in the analysis phase are applied to the system and if the output obtained is equal to the intended output, it means that the software is ready to be provided to the user.

MaintenanceThe toughest job is encountered in the maintenance phase which normally accounts for the highest amount of money. The maintenance team is decided such that they monitor on the change in organization of the software and report to the developers, in case a need arises.

The information desk is also provided with in this phase. This serves to maintain the relationship between the user and the creator.

What is a Test Case?

A test case is a set of conditions or variables and inputs that are developed for a particular goal or objective to be achieved on a certain application to judge its capabilities or features.It might take more than one test case to determine the true functionality of the application being tested. Every requirement or objective to be achieved needs at least one test case. Some software development methodologies like Rational Unified Process (RUP) recommend creating at least two test cases for each requirement or objective; one for performing testing through positive perspective and the other through negative perspective.

Test Case Structure

A formal written test case comprises of three parts -1. Information

Information consists of general information about the test case. Information incorporates Identifier, test case creator, test case version, name of the test case, purpose or brief description and test case dependencies.

2. ActivityActivity consists of the actual test case activities. Activity contains information about the test case environment, activities to be done at test case initialization, activities to be done after test case is performed, step by step actions to be done while testing and the input data that is to be supplied for testing.

3. ResultsResults are outcomes of a performed test case. Results data consist of information about expected results and the actual results.

Designing Test Cases

Test cases should be designed and written by someone who understands the function or technology being tested. A test case should include the following information -

Purpose of the test Software requirements and Hardware requirements (if any) Specific setup or configuration requirements

Description on how to perform the test(s) Expected results or success criteria for the test

Designing test cases can be time consuming in a testing schedule, but they are worth giving time because they can really avoid unnecessary retesting or debugging or at least lower it. Organizations can take the test cases approach in their own context and according to their own perspectives. Some follow a general step way approach while others may opt for a more detailed and complex approach. It is very important for you to decide between the two extremes and judge on what would work the best for you. Designing proper test cases is very vital for your software testing plans as a lot of bugs, ambiguities, inconsistencies and slip ups can be recovered in time as also it helps in saving your time on continuous debugging and re-testing test cases.

Industry experts usually conclude the definition of software testing as:

Software Testing = Software Verification + Software Validation

Going by this equation, let us try to see the answers to some of the prime questions aimed to elaborate the concept a bit deeper.

What software Testing is?Testing is very important but an expensive activity. It is more than just running a program with the intention of finding faults. Every project is a new project with different parameters. No single yardstick may be applicable in all circumstances. This is a unique and critical area with altogether different problems. Since principles of software are not fully understood, software testing is essentially an art which describes the adequacy of the software quality. More complex is our software, more difficult becomes its testing. The prime objective of software testing is ascertaining its reliability by way of structured verification / validation activities & this can be termed as quality assurance as well.

We can use software testing as a generalized metric for quality. Depending upon the project time frame, financial constraints & quality expectations, software testing activities can be planned.

What is the Testing Process?Software testing is an important phase of Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC). We execute the program with given inputs and note down the observed outputs. These are then compared with the expected outputs. If there is a match between observed and expected outputs then the program is said to be as per user's specifications, else there is something wrong somewhere in the program. It is seen that in complex and large software projects 40% to 70% of development time is spent on testing. It is partly intuitive but largely systematic.

Distinct Levels of Testing: Following five primary levels of testing have been defined

1) Debugging: It is defined as the successful correction of a failure.

2) Demonstrating: The process of showing that major features work with typical input.

3) Verifying: The process of finding as many faults in the application under test (AUT) as possible.

4) Validating: The process of finding as many faults in requirements, design and AUT.

5) Preventing: To avoid errors in development of requirements, design and implementation by self-checking techniques, including "test before design".

Various industry experts have provided different definitions of testing that are described as under

Definition - 1: (As per IEEE 83a) "Testing is defined as the process of exercising or evaluating a

system or system component by manual or automated means to verify that it satisfies specified requirements".

Definition - 2: (As per Myers) "Software testing is defined as the process of executing any program or a system with an intent of finding errors in it."

Definition - 3: (As per Hetzel) "Software testing involves an activity aimed at evaluating a capability or an attribute of any program or a system and determining that it meets the required results"

Remember that Testing is not a process which:

a) Demonstrates that errors or defects are absent.

b) Demonstrates that the program is functioning correctly according to the intent.

c) Establishes adequate confidence in the program that it will do what it is expected to do.

Thus all these statements are ambiguous, reason being – bound with the blocks of such guidelines, we develop a natural tendency to operate our system in a conventional/normal way so that it functions well. Unintentionally our natural instinct of feeding correct or normal testing data compels us due to which the system does not fail. Moreover it is very difficult to certify that the system has become free of defects at any particular stage – the reason being it is virtually impossible to find out all the defects in any system with 100% accuracy.

Hence in nutshell, it can be said that - "Testing is an activity aimed at identifying errors."

Testing can be either of the following:

a) Positive Testing: means an application is operated, as it should have been. Check if it functions normally. It involves use of legally correct or proper test data, which includes testing at boundary condition data values to confirm if the test fails or not. Actual test results are compared with the results expected by us. Here we see if the results are in order or not & whether the application behaves correctly or not?

b) Negative Testing: means an application is to be operated & tested under abnormal conditions to see if the system crashes or fails or not. It involves use of illegal or incorrect test data with an aim to cause the system misbehavior Intentionally so that we are able to detect the defects. In short, here we see that whether our system performs the way it should not. Or whether it fails to behave in a manner the way it is expected to?"

c) Positive aspect of Negative Testing: The prime objective of testing effort is to unearth the errors or defects well before the actual user discovers them. Sometimes this may be a cause of embarrassment for the testers or even the code-developers. A key attribute of a good tester is that he is able to make a system fail successfully. A good tester’s attitude must be destructive & must have a mentality to always hunt for negative aspects in any system. A tester attitude of a tester is exactly in contrast with that of a developer or an author, who is always expected to be positive & constructive.

Keywords: Software Testing, Software Verification & Validation, QuickTest Professional, Positive Testing, Negative Testing, V&V

What is a Bug Life Cycle?The duration or time span between the first time bug is found (‘New’) and closed successfully (status: ‘Closed’), rejected, postponed or deferred is called as ‘Bug/Error Life Cycle’.

(Right from the first time any bug is detected till the point when the bug is fixed and closed, it is

assigned various statuses which are New, Open, Postpone, Pending Retest, Retest, Pending Reject, Reject, Deferred, and Closed. For more information about various statuses used for a bug during a bug life cycle, you can refer to article ‘Software Testing – Bug & Statuses Used During A Bug Life Cycle’)

There are seven different life cycles that a bug can passes through:

< I > Cycle I:1) A tester finds a bug and reports it to Test Lead.2) The Test lead verifies if the bug is valid or not.3) Test lead finds that the bug is not valid and the bug is ‘Rejected’.

< II > Cycle II:1) A tester finds a bug and reports it to Test Lead.2) The Test lead verifies if the bug is valid or not.3) The bug is verified and reported to development team with status as ‘New’.4) The development leader and team verify if it is a valid bug. The bug is invalid and is marked with a status of ‘Pending Reject’ before passing it back to the testing team.5) After getting a satisfactory reply from the development side, the test leader marks the bug as ‘Rejected’.

< III > Cycle III:

1) A tester finds a bug and reports it to Test Lead.2) The Test lead verifies if the bug is valid or not.3) The bug is verified and reported to development team with status as ‘New’.4) The development leader and team verify if it is a valid bug. The bug is valid and the development leader assigns a developer to it marking the status as ‘Assigned’.5) The developer solves the problem and marks the bug as ‘Fixed’ and passes it back to the Development leader.6) The development leader changes the status of the bug to ‘Pending Retest’ and passes on to the testing team for retest.7) The test leader changes the status of the bug to ‘Retest’ and passes it to a tester for retest.8) The tester retests the bug and it is working fine, so the tester closes the bug and marks it as ‘Closed’.

< IV > Cycle IV:1) A tester finds a bug and reports it to Test Lead.2) The Test lead verifies if the bug is valid or not.3) The bug is verified and reported to development team with status as ‘New’.4) The development leader and team verify if it is a valid bug. The bug is valid and the development leader assigns a developer to it marking the status as ‘Assigned’.5) The developer solves the problem and marks the bug as ‘Fixed’ and passes it back to the Development leader.6) The development leader changes the status of the bug to ‘Pending Retest’ and passes on to the testing team for retest.7) The test leader changes the status of the bug to ‘Retest’ and passes it to a tester for retest.8) The tester retests the bug and the same problem persists, so the tester after confirmation from test leader reopens the bug and marks it with ‘Reopen’ status. And the bug is passed back to the development team for fixing.

< V > Cycle V:1) A tester finds a bug and reports it to Test Lead.2) The Test lead verifies if the bug is valid or not.3) The bug is verified and reported to development team with status as ‘New’.4) The developer tries to verify if the bug is valid but fails in replicate the same scenario as was at the time of testing, but fails in that and asks for help from testing team.5) The tester also fails to re-generate the scenario in which the bug was found. And developer rejects the bug marking it ‘Rejected’.

< VI > Cycle VI:1) After confirmation that the data is unavailable or certain functionality is unavailable, the solution and retest of the bug is postponed for indefinite time and it is marked as ‘Postponed’.

< VII > Cycle VII:1) If the bug does not stand importance and can be/needed to be postponed, then it is given a status as ‘Deferred’.

This way, any bug that is found ends up with a status of Closed, Rejected, Deferred or Postponed.

Introduction to Software Testing Life Cycle

Every organization has to undertakes testing of each of its products. However, the way it is conducted differs from one organization to another. This refers to the life cycle of the testing process. It is advisable to carry out the testing process from the initial phases, with regard to the Software Development Life Cycle or SDLC to avoid any complications.

Software Testing Life Cycle Phases

Software testing has its own life cycle that meets every stage of the SDLC. The software testing life cycle diagram can help one visualize the various software testing life cycle phases. They are

1. Requirement Stage 2. Test Planning 3. Test Analysis 4. Test Design 5. Test Verification and Construction 6. Test Execution 7. Result Analysis 8. Bug Tracking 9. Reporting and Rework 10. Final Testing and Implementation 11. Post Implementation

Requirement StageThis is the initial stage of the life cycle process in which the developers take part in analyzing the requirements for designing a product. Testers can also involve themselves as they can think from the users' point of view which the developers may not. Thus a panel of developers, testers and users can be formed. Formal meetings of the panel can be held in order to document the requirements discussed which can be further used as software requirements specifications or SRS.

Test PlanningTest planning is predetermining a plan well in advance to reduce further risks. Without a good plan, no work can lead to success be it software-related or routine work. A test plan document plays an important role in achieving a process-oriented approach. Once the requirements of the project are confirmed, a test plan is documented. The test plan structure is as follows:

1. Introduction: This describes the objective of the test plan.2. Test Items The items that are referred to prepare this document will be listed here such

as SRS, project plan.3. Features to be tested: This describes the coverage area of the test plan, ie. the list of

features that are to be tested that are based on the implicit and explicit requirements from the customer.

4. Features not to be tested: The incorporated or comprised features that can be skipped from the testing phase are listed here. Features that are out of scope of testing, like incomplete modules or those on low severity eg. GUI features that don't hamper the further process can be included in the list.

5. Approach: This is the test strategy that should be appropriate to the level of the plan. It should be in acceptance with the higher and lower levels of the plan.

6. Item pass/fail criteria: Related to the show stopper issue. The criterion which is used has to explain which test item has passed or failed.

7. Suspension criteria and resumption requirements: The suspension criterion specifies the criterion that is to be used to suspend all or a portion of the testing activities, whereas resumption criterion specifies when testing can resume with the suspended portion.

8. Test deliverable: This includes a list of documents, reports, charts that are required to be presented to the stakeholders on a regular basis during testing and when testing is completed.

9. Testing tasks: This stage is needed to avoid confusion whether the defects should be reported for future function. This also helps users and testers to avoid incomplete functions and prevent waste of resources.

10. Environmental needs: The special requirements of that test plan depending on the environment in which that application has to be designed are listed here.

11. Responsibilities: This phase assigns responsibilities to the person who can be held responsible in case of a risk.

12. Staffing and training needs: Training on the application/system and training on the testing tools to be used needs to be given to the staff members who are responsible for the application.

13. Risks and contingencies:This emphasizes on the probable risks and various events that can occur and what can be done in such situation.

14. Approval: This decides who can approve the process as complete and allow the project to proceed to the next level that depends on the level of the plan.

Test AnalysisOnce the test plan documentation is done, the next stage is to analyze what types of software testing should be carried out at the various stages of SDLC.

Test DesignTest design is done based on the requirements of the project documented in the SRS. This phase decides whether manual or automated testing is to be done. In automation testing, different paths for testing are to be identified first and writing of scripts has to be done if required. There originates a need for an end to end checklist that covers all the features of the project.

Test Verification and ConstructionIn this phase test plans, the test design and automated script tests are completed. Stress and performance testing plans are also completed at this stage. When the development team is done with a unit of code, the testing team is required to help them in testing that unit and reporting of the bug if found. Integration testing and bug reporting is done in this phase of the software testing life cycle.

Test ExecutionPlanning and execution of various test cases is done in this phase. Once the unit testing is completed, the functionality of the tests is done in this phase. At first, top level testing is done to find out top level failures and bugs are reported immediately to the development team to get the required workaround. Test reports have to be documented properly and the bugs have to be reported to the development team.

Result AnalysisOnce the bug is fixed by the development team, i.e after the successful execution of the test case, the testing team has to retest it to compare the expected values with the actual values, and declare the result as pass/fail.

Bug TrackingThis is one of the important stages as the Defect Profile Document (DPD) has to be updated for letting the developers know about the defect. Defect Profile Document contains the following

1. Defect Id: Unique identification of the Defect.2. Test Case Id: Test case identification for that defect.3. Description: Detailed description of the bug.4. Summary: This field contains some keyword information about the bug, which can help in

minimizing the number of records to be searched.5. Defect Submitted By: Name of the tester who detected/reported the bug.6. Date of Submission: Date at which the bug was detected and reported.7. Build No.: Number of test runs required. 8. Version No.: The version information of the software application in which the bug was

detected and fixed.9. Assigned To: Name of the developer who is supposed to fix the bug.10. Severity: Degree of severity of the defect.11. Priority: Priority of fixing the bug.12. Status: This field displays current status of the bug.

The contents of a bug well explain all the above mentioned things.

Reporting and ReworkTesting is an iterative process. The bug once reported and as the development team fixes the bug, it has to undergo the testing process again to assure that the bug found is resolved. Regression testing has to be done. Once the Quality Analyst assures that the product is ready, the software is released for production. Before release, the software has to undergo one more round of top level testing. Thus testing is an ongoing process.

Final Testing and ImplementationThis phase focuses on the remaining levels of testing, such as acceptance, load, stress, performance and recovery testing. The application needs to be verified under specified conditions with respect to the SRS. Various documents are updated and different matrices for testing are completed at this stage of the software testing life cycle.

Post ImplementationOnce the tests are evaluated, the recording of errors that occurred during various levels of the software testing life cycle, is done. Creating plans for improvement and enhancement is an ongoing process. This helps to prevent similar problems from occuring in the future projects. In short, planning for improvement of the testing process for future applications is done in this phase.

Manual Testing Interview Questions Set-

What's a 'test plan'? (OSAF)A software project test plan is a document that describes the objectives, scope, approach, and focus of a software testing effort. The process of preparing a test plan is a useful way to think through the efforts needed to validate the acceptability of a software product. The completed document will help people outside the test group understand the 'why' and 'how' of product validation. It should be thorough enough to be useful but not so thorough

that no one outside the test group will read it. The following are some of the items that might be included in a test plan, depending on the particular project:TitleIdentification of software including version/release numbersRevision history of document including authors, dates, approvalsTable of ContentsPurpose of document, intended audienceObjective of testing effortSoftware product overviewRelevant related document list, such as requirements, design documents, other test plans, etc.Relevant standards or legal requirementsTraceability requirementsRelevant naming conventions and identifier conventionsOverall software project organization and personnel/contact-info/responsibiltiesTest organization and personnel/contact-info/responsibilitiesAssumptions and dependenciesProject risk analysisTesting priorities and focusScope and limitations of testingTest outline - a decomposition of the test approach by test type, feature, functionality, process, system, module, etc. as applicableOutline of data input equivalence classes, boundary value analysis, error classesTest environment - hardware, operating systems, other required software, data configurations, interfaces to other systemsTest environment validity analysis - differences between the test and production systems and their impact on test validity.Test environment setup and configuration issuesSoftware migration processesSoftware CM processesTest data setup requirementsDatabase setup requirementsOutline of system-logging/error-logging/other capabilities, and tools such as screen capture software, that will be used to help describe and report bugsDiscussion of any specialized software or hardware tools that will be used by testers to help track the cause or source of bugsTest automation - justification and overviewTest tools to be used, including versions, patches, etc.Test script/test code maintenance processes and version controlProblem tracking and resolution - tools and processesProject test metrics to be usedReporting requirements and testing deliverablesSoftware entrance and exit criteriaInitial sanity testing period and criteriaTest suspension and restart criteriaPersonnel allocationPersonnel pre-training needsTest site/location

Outside test organizations to be utilized and their purpose, responsibilties, deliverables, contact persons, and coordination issuesRelevant proprietary, classified, security, and licensing issues.Open issuesAppendix - glossary, acronyms, etc.

What makes a good test engineer?A good test engineer has a 'test to break' attitude, an ability to take the point of view of the customer, a strong desire for quality, and an attention to detail. Tact and diplomacy are useful in maintaining a cooperative relationship with developers, and an ability to communicate with both technical (developers) and non-technical (customers, management) people is useful. Previous software development experience can be helpful as it provides a deeper understanding of the software development process, gives the tester an appreciation for the developers' point of view, and reduce the learning curve in automated test tool programming. Judgment skills are needed to assess high-risk areas of an application on which to focus testing efforts when time is limited.

What makes a good Software QA engineer?The same qualities a good tester has are useful for a QA engineer. Additionally, they must be able to understand the entire software development process and how it can fit into the business approach and goals of the organization. Communication skills and the ability to understand various sides of issues are important. In organizations in the early stages of implementing QA processes, patience and diplomacy are especially needed. An ability to find problems as well as to see 'what's missing' is important for inspections and reviews.

What makes a good QA or Test manager?A good QA, test, or QA/Test(combined) manager should:be familiar with the software development processbe able to maintain enthusiasm of their team and promote a positive atmosphere, despitewhat is a somewhat 'negative' process (e.g., looking for or preventing problems)be able to promote teamwork to increase productivitybe able to promote cooperation between software, test, and QA engineershave the diplomatic skills needed to promote improvements in QA processeshave the ability to withstand pressures and say 'no' to other managers when quality is insufficient or QA processes are not being adhered tohave people judgement skills for hiring and keeping skilled personnelbe able to communicate with technical and non-technical people, engineers, managers, and customers.be able to run meetings and keep them focused

What's the role of documentation in QA?Critical. (Note that documentation can be electronic, not necessarily paper.) QA practices should be documented such that they are repeatable. Specifications, designs, business rules, inspection reports, configurations, code changes, test plans, test cases, bug reports, user manuals, etc. should all be documented. There should ideally be a system for easily finding and obtaining documents and determining what documentation will have a

particular piece of information. Change management for documentation should be used if possible.

What's the big deal about 'requirements'?

ne of the most reliable methods of insuring problems, or failure, in a complex software project is to have poorly documented requirements specifications. Requirements are the details describing an application's externally-perceived functionality and properties. Requirements should be clear, complete, reasonably detailed, cohesive, attainable, and testable. A non-testable requirement would be, for example, 'user-friendly' (too subjective). A testable requirement would be something like 'the user must enter their previously-assigned password to access the application'. Determining and organizing requirements details in a useful and efficient way can be a difficult effort; different methods are available depending on the particular project. Many books are available that describe various approaches to this task. (See the Bookstore section's 'Software Requirements Engineering' category for books on Software Requirements.)Care should be taken to involve ALL of a project's significant 'customers' in the requirements process. 'Customers' could be in-house personnel or out, and could include end-users, customer acceptance testers, customer contract officers, customer management, future software maintenance engineers, salespeople, etc. Anyone who could later derail the project if their expectations aren't met should be included if possible.Organizations vary considerably in their handling of requirements specifications. Ideally, the requirements are spelled out in a document with statements such as 'The product shall.....'. 'Design' specifications should not be confused with 'requirements'; design specifications should be traceable back to the requirements.In some organizations requirements may end up in high level project plans, functional specification documents, in design documents, or in other documents at various levels of detail. No matter what they are called, some type of documentation with detailed requirements will be needed by testers in order to properly plan and execute tests. Without such documentation, there will be no clear-cut way to determine if a software application is performing correctly.'Agile' methods such as XP use methods requiring close interaction and cooperation between programmers and customers/end-users to iteratively develop requirements. The programmer uses 'Test first' development to first create automated unit testing code, which essentially embodies the requirements.

What's a 'test case'?

A test case is a document that describes an input, action, or event and an expected response, to determine if a feature of an application is working correctly. A test case should contain particulars such as test case identifier, test case name, objective, test conditions/setup, input data requirements, steps, and expected results.Note that the process of developing test cases can help find problems in the requirements or design of an application, since it requires completely thinking through the operation of the application. For this reason, it's useful to prepare test cases early in the development cycle if possible.

What should be done after a bug is found?The bug needs to be communicated and assigned to developers that can fix it. After the problem is resolved, fixes should be re-tested, and determinations made regarding requirements for regression testing to check that fixes didn't create problems elsewhere. If a problem-tracking system is in place, it should encapsulate these processes. A variety of commercial problem-tracking/management software tools are available (see the 'Tools' section for web resources with listings of such tools). The following are items to consider in the tracking process:Complete information such that developers can understand the bug, get an idea of it's severity, and reproduce it if necessary.Bug identifier (number, ID, etc.)Current bug status (e.g., 'Released for Retest', 'New', etc.)The application name or identifier and versionThe function, module, feature, object, screen, etc. where the bug occurredEnvironment specifics, system, platform, relevant hardware specificsTest case name/number/identifierOne-line bug descriptionFull bug descriptionDescription of steps needed to reproduce the bug if not covered by a test case or if the developer doesn't have easy access to the test case/test script/test toolNames and/or descriptions of file/data/messages/etc. used in testFile excerpts/error messages/log file excerpts/screen shots/test tool logs that would be helpful in finding the cause of the problemSeverity estimate (a 5-level range such as 1-5 or 'critical'-to-'low' is common)Was the bug reproducible?Tester nameTest dateBug reporting dateName of developer/group/organization the problem is assigned toDescription of problem causeDescription of fixCode section/file/module/class/method that was fixedDate of fixApplication version that contains the fixTester responsible for retestRetest dateRetest resultsRegression testing requirementsTester responsible for regression testsRegression testing resultsA reporting or tracking process should enable notification of appropriate personnel at various stages. For instance, testers need to know when retesting is needed, developers need to know when bugs are found and how to get the needed information, and reporting/summary capabilities are needed for managers.

What is 'configuration management'?Configuration management covers the processes used to control, coordinate, and track: code, requirements, documentation, problems, change requests, designs,

tools/compilers/libraries/patches, changes made to them, and who makes the changes. (See the 'Tools' section for web resources with listings of configuration management tools. Also see the Bookstore section's 'Configuration Management' category for useful books with more information.)

What if the software is so buggy it can't really be tested at all?The best bet in this situation is for the testers to go through the process of reporting whatever bugs or blocking-type problems initially show up, with the focus being on critical bugs. Since this type of problem can severely affect schedules, and indicates deeper problems in the software development process (such as insufficient unit testing or insufficient integration testing, poor design, improper build or release procedures, etc.) managers should be notified, and provided with some documentation as evidence of the problem.

What steps are needed to develop and run software tests?The following are some of the steps to consider:Obtain requirements, functional design, and internal design specifications and other necessary documentsObtain budget and schedule requirementsDetermine project-related personnel and their responsibilities, reporting requirements, required standards and processes (such as release processes, change processes, etc.)Identify application's higher-risk aspects, set priorities, and determine scope and limitations of testsDetermine test approaches and methods - unit, integration, functional, system, load, usability tests, etc.Determine test environment requirements (hardware, software, communications, etc.)Determine testware requirements (record/playback tools, coverage analyzers, test tracking, problem/bug tracking, etc.)Determine test input data requirementsIdentify tasks, those responsible for tasks, and labor requirementsSet schedule estimates, timelines, milestonesDetermine input equivalence classes, boundary value analyses, error classesPrepare test plan document and have needed reviews/approvalsWrite test casesHave needed reviews/inspections/approvals of test casesPrepare test environment and testware, obtain needed user manuals/reference documents/configuration guides/installation guides, set up test tracking processes, set up logging and archiving processes, set up or obtain test input dataObtain and install software releasesPerform testsEvaluate and report resultsTrack problems/bugs and fixesRetest as neededMaintain and update test plans, test cases, test environment, and testware through life cycle

What is 'Software Quality Assurance'?Software QA involves the entire software development PROCESS - monitoring and

improving the process, making sure that any agreed-upon standards and procedures are followed, and ensuring that problems are found and dealt with. It is oriented to 'prevention'. (See the Bookstore section's 'Software QA' category for a list of useful books on Software Quality Assurance.)

What is 'Software Testing'?Testing involves operation of a system or application under controlled conditions and evaluating the results (eg, 'if the user is in interface A of the application while using hardware B, and does C, then D should happen'). The controlled conditions should include both normal and abnormal conditions. Testing should intentionally attempt to make things go wrong to determine if things happen when they shouldn't or things don't happen when they should. It is oriented to 'detection'. (See the Bookstore section's 'Software Testing' category for a list of useful books on Software Testing.)? Organizations vary considerably in how they assign responsibility for QA and testing. Sometimes they're the combined responsibility of one group or individual. Also common are project teams that include a mix of testers and developers who work closely together, with overall QA processes monitored by project managers. It will depend on what best fits an organization's size and business structure.

What are some recent major computer system failures caused by software bugs?? A major U.S. retailer was reportedly hit with a large government fine in October of 2003 due to web site errors that enabled customers to view one anothers' online orders.? News stories in the fall of 2003 stated that a manufacturing company recalled all their transportation products in order to fix a software problem causing instability in certain circumstances. The company found and reported the bug itself and initiated the recall procedure in which a software upgrade fixed the problems.? In August of 2003 a U.S. court ruled that a lawsuit against a large online brokerage company could proceed; the lawsuit reportedly involved claims that the company was not fixing system problems that sometimes resulted in failed stock trades, based on the experiences of 4 plaintiffs during an 8-month period. A previous lower court's ruling that "...six miscues out of more than 400 trades does not indicate negligence." was invalidated.? In April of 2003 it was announced that the largest student loan company in the U.S. made a software error in calculating the monthly payments on 800,000 loans. Although borrowers were to be notified of an increase in their required payments, the company will still reportedly lose $8 million in interest. The error was uncovered when borrowers began reporting inconsistencies in their bills.? News reports in February of 2003 revealed that the U.S. Treasury Department mailed 50,000 Social Security checks without any beneficiary names. A spokesperson indicated that the missing names were due to an error in a software change. Replacement checks were subsequently mailed out with the problem corrected, and recipients were then able to cash their Social Security checks.? In March of 2002 it was reported that software bugs in Britain's national tax system resulted in more than 100,000 erroneous tax overcharges. The problem was partly attibuted to the difficulty of testing the integration of multiple systems.? A newspaper columnist reported in July 2001 that a serious flaw was found in off-the-shelf software that had long been used in systems for tracking certain U.S. nuclear materials. The same software had been recently donated to another country to be used in

tracking their own nuclear materials, and it was not until scientists in that country discovered the problem, and shared the information, that U.S. officials became aware of the problems.? According to newspaper stories in mid-2001, a major systems development contractor was fired and sued over problems with a large retirement plan management system. According to the reports, the client claimed that system deliveries were late, the software had excessive defects, and it caused other systems to crash.? In January of 2001 newspapers reported that a major European railroad was hit by the aftereffects of the Y2K bug. The company found that many of their newer trains would not run due to their inability to recognize the date '31/12/2000'; the trains were started by altering the control system's date settings.? News reports in September of 2000 told of a software vendor settling a lawsuit with a large mortgage lender; the vendor had reportedly delivered an online mortgage processing system that did not meet specifications, was delivered late, and didn't work.? In early 2000, major problems were reported with a new computer system in a large suburban U.S. public school district with 100,000+ students; problems included 10,000 erroneous report cards and students left stranded by failed class registration systems; the district's CIO was fired. The school district decided to reinstate it's original 25-year old system for at least a year until the bugs were worked out of the new system by the software vendors.? In October of 1999 the $125 million NASA Mars Climate Orbiter spacecraft was believed to be lost in space due to a simple data conversion error. It was determined that spacecraft software used certain data in English units that should have been in metric units. Among other tasks, the orbiter was to serve as a communications relay for the Mars Polar Lander mission, which failed for unknown reasons in December 1999. Several investigating panels were convened to determine the process failures that allowed the error to go undetected.? Bugs in software supporting a large commercial high-speed data network affected 70,000 business customers over a period of 8 days in August of 1999. Among those affected was the electronic trading system of the largest U.S. futures exchange, which was shut down for most of a week as a result of the outages.? In April of 1999 a software bug caused the failure of a $1.2 billion U.S. military satellite launch, the costliest unmanned accident in the history of Cape Canaveral launches. The failure was the latest in a string of launch failures, triggering a complete military and industry review of U.S. space launch programs, including software integration and testing processes. Congressional oversight hearings were requested.? A small town in Illinois in the U.S. received an unusually large monthly electric bill of $7 million in March of 1999. This was about 700 times larger than its normal bill. It turned out to be due to bugs in new software that had been purchased by the local power company to deal with Y2K software issues.? In early 1999 a major computer game company recalled all copies of a popular new product due to software problems. The company made a public apology for releasing a product before it was ready.

How can it be known when to stop testing?This can be difficult to determine. Many modern software applications are so complex, and run in such an interdependent environment, that complete testing can never be done. Common factors in deciding when to stop are:

? Deadlines (release deadlines, testing deadlines, etc.)? Test cases completed with certain percentage passed? Test budget depleted? Coverage of code/functionality/requirements reaches a specified point? Bug rate falls below a certain level? Beta or alpha testing period ends

What if there isn't enough time for thorough testing?Use risk analysis to determine where testing should be focused.Since it's rarely possible to test every possible aspect of an application, every possible combination of events, every dependency, or everything that could go wrong, risk analysis is appropriate to most software development projects. This requires judgement skills, common sense, and experience. (If warranted, formal methods are also available.) Considerations can include:? Which functionality is most important to the project's intended purpose?? Which functionality is most visible to the user?? Which functionality has the largest safety impact?? Which functionality has the largest financial impact on users?? Which aspects of the application are most important to the customer?? Which aspects of the application can be tested early in the development cycle?? Which parts of the code are most complex, and thus most subject to errors?? Which parts of the application were developed in rush or panic mode?? Which aspects of similar/related previous projects caused problems?? Which aspects of similar/related previous projects had large maintenance expenses?? Which parts of the requirements and design are unclear or poorly thought out?? What do the developers think are the highest-risk aspects of the application?? What kinds of problems would cause the worst publicity?? What kinds of problems would cause the most customer service complaints?? What kinds of tests could easily cover multiple functionalities?? Which tests will have the best high-risk-coverage to time-required ratio?

What if the project isn't big enough to justify extensive testing?Consider the impact of project errors, not the size of the project. However, if extensive testing is still not justified, risk analysis is again needed and the same considerations as described previously in 'What if there isn't enough time for thorough testing?' apply. The tester might then do ad hoc testing, or write up a limited test plan based on the risk analysis.

What can be done if requirements are changing continuously?A common problem and a major headache.? Work with the project's stakeholders early on to understand how requirements might change so that alternate test plans and strategies can be worked out in advance, if possible.? It's helpful if the application's initial design allows for some adaptability so that later changes do not require redoing the application from scratch.? If the code is well-commented and well-documented this makes changes easier for the developers.? Use rapid prototyping whenever possible to help customers feel sure of their

requirements and minimize changes.? The project's initial schedule should allow for some extra time commensurate with the possibility of changes.? Try to move new requirements to a 'Phase 2' version of an application, while using the original requirements for the 'Phase 1' version.? Negotiate to allow only easily-implemented new requirements into the project, while moving more difficult new requirements into future versions of the application.? Be sure that customers and management understand the scheduling impacts, inherent risks, and costs of significant requirements changes. Then let management or the customers (not the developers or testers) decide if the changes are warranted - after all, that's their job.? Balance the effort put into setting up automated testing with the expected effort required to re-do them to deal with changes.? Try to design some flexibility into automated test scripts.? Focus initial automated testing on application aspects that are most likely to remain unchanged.? Devote appropriate effort to risk analysis of changes to minimize regression testing needs.? Design some flexibility into test cases (this is not easily done; the best bet might be to minimize the detail in the test cases, or set up only higher-level generic-type test plans)? Focus less on detailed test plans and test cases and more on ad hoc testing (with an understanding of the added risk that this entails).

What if the application has functionality that wasn't in the requirements?It may take serious effort to determine if an application has significant unexpected or hidden functionality, and it would indicate deeper problems in the software development process. If the functionality isn't necessary to the purpose of the application, it should be removed, as it may have unknown impacts or dependencies that were not taken into account by the designer or the customer. If not removed, design information will be needed to determine added testing needs or regression testing needs. Management should be made aware of any significant added risks as a result of the unexpected functionality. If the functionality only effects areas such as minor improvements in the user interface, for example, it may not be a significant risk.

How can Software QA processes be implemented without stifling productivity?By implementing QA processes slowly over time, using consensus to reach agreement on processes, and adjusting and experimenting as an organization grows and matures, productivity will be improved instead of stifled. Problem prevention will lessen the need for problem detection, panics and burn-out will decrease, and there will be improved focus and less wasted effort. At the same time, attempts should be made to keep processes simple and efficient, minimize paperwork, promote computer-based processes and automated tracking and reporting, minimize time required in meetings, and promote training as part of the QA process. However, no one - especially talented technical types - likes rules or bureacracy, and in the short run things may slow down a bit. A typical scenario would be that more days of planning and development will be needed, but less time will be required for late-night bug-fixing and calming of irate customers.

What if an organization is growing so fast that fixed QA processes are impossible?This is a common problem in the software industry, especially in new technology areas. There is no easy solution in this situation, other than:? Hire good people? Management should 'ruthlessly prioritize' quality issues and maintain focus on the customer? Everyone in the organization should be clear on what 'quality' means to the customer

How does a client/server environment affect testing?Client/server applications can be quite complex due to the multiple dependencies among clients, data communications, hardware, and servers. Thus testing requirements can be extensive. When time is limited (as it usually is) the focus should be on integration and system testing. Additionally, load/stress/performance testing may be useful in determining client/server application limitations and capabilities. There are commercial tools to assist with such testing. (See the 'Tools' section for web resources with listings that include these kinds of test tools.)

How can World Wide Web sites be tested?Web sites are essentially client/server applications - with web servers and 'browser' clients. Consideration should be given to the interactions between html pages, TCP/IP communications, Internet connections, firewalls, applications that run in web pages (such as applets, javascript, plug-in applications), and applications that run on the server side (such as cgi scripts, database interfaces, logging applications, dynamic page generators, asp, etc.). Additionally, there are a wide variety of servers and browsers, various versions of each, small but sometimes significant differences between them, variations in connection speeds, rapidly changing technologies, and multiple standards and protocols. The end result is that testing for web sites can become a major ongoing effort. Other considerations might include:? What are the expected loads on the server (e.g., number of hits per unit time?), and what kind of performance is required under such loads (such as web server response time, database query response times). What kinds of tools will be needed for performance testing (such as web load testing tools, other tools already in house that can be adapted, web robot downloading tools, etc.)?? Who is the target audience? What kind of browsers will they be using? What kind of connection speeds will they by using? Are they intra- organization (thus with likely high connection speeds and similar browsers) or Internet-wide (thus with a wide variety of connection speeds and browser types)?? What kind of performance is expected on the client side (e.g., how fast should pages appear, how fast should animations, applets, etc. load and run)?? Will down time for server and content maintenance/upgrades be allowed? how much?? What kinds of security (firewalls, encryptions, passwords, etc.) will be required and what is it expected to do? How can it be tested?? How reliable are the site's Internet connections required to be? And how does that affect backup system or redundant connection requirements and testing?? What processes will be required to manage updates to the web site's content, and what are the requirements for maintaining, tracking, and controlling page content, graphics, links, etc.?? Which HTML specification will be adhered to? How strictly? What variations will be

allowed for targeted browsers?? Will there be any standards or requirements for page appearance and/or graphics throughout a site or parts of a site??? How will internal and external links be validated and updated? how often?? Can testing be done on the production system, or will a separate test system be required? How are browser caching, variations in browser option settings, dial-up connection variabilities, and real-world internet 'traffic congestion' problems to be accounted for in testing?? How extensive or customized are the server logging and reporting requirements; are they considered an integral part of the system and do they require testing?? How are cgi programs, applets, javascripts, ActiveX components, etc. to be maintained, tracked, controlled, and tested?Some sources of site security information include the Usenet newsgroup 'comp.security.announce' and links concerning web site security in the 'Other Resources' section.Some usability guidelines to consider - these are subjective and may or may not apply to a given situation (Note: more information on usability testing issues can be found in articles about web site usability in the 'Other Resources' section):? Pages should be 3-5 screens max unless content is tightly focused on a single topic. If larger, provide internal links within the page.? The page layouts and design elements should be consistent throughout a site, so that it's clear to the user that they're still within a site.? Pages should be as browser-independent as possible, or pages should be provided or generated based on the browser-type.? All pages should have links external to the page; there should be no dead-end pages.? The page owner, revision date, and a link to a contact person or organization should be included on each page.Many new web site test tools have appeared in the recent years and more than 280 of them are listed in the 'Web Test Tools' section.

How is testing affected by object-oriented designs?Well-engineered object-oriented design can make it easier to trace from code to internal design to functional design to requirements. While there will be little affect on black box testing (where an understanding of the internal design of the application is unnecessary), white-box testing can be oriented to the application's objects. If the application was well-designed this can simplify test design.

What is Extreme Programming and what's it got to do with testing?Extreme Programming (XP) is a software development approach for small teams on risk-prone projects with unstable requirements. It was created by Kent Beck who described the approach in his book 'Extreme Programming Explained' (See the Softwareqatest.com Books page.). Testing ('extreme testing') is a core aspect of Extreme Programming. Programmers are expected to write unit and functional test code first - before the application is developed. Test code is under source control along with the rest of the code. Customers are expected to be an integral part of the project team and to help develope scenarios for acceptance/black box testing. Acceptance tests are preferably automated, and are modified and rerun for each of the frequent development iterations. QA and test personnel are also required to be an integral part of the project team.

Detailed requirements documentation is not used, and frequent re-scheduling, re-estimating, and re-prioritizing is expected. For more info see the XP-related listings in the Softwareqatest.com 'Other Resources' section.

Why is it often hard for management to get serious about quality assurance?Solving problems is a high-visibility process; preventing problems is low-visibility. This is illustrated by an old parable:In ancient China there was a family of healers, one of whom was known throughout the land and employed as a physician to a great lord. The physician was asked which of his family was the most skillful healer. He replied,"I tend to the sick and dying with drastic and dramatic treatments, and on occasion someone is cured and my name gets out among the lords.""My elder brother cures sickness when it just begins to take root, and his skills are known among the local peasants and neighbors.""My eldest brother is able to sense the spirit of sickness and eradicate it before it takes form. His name is unknown outside our home."

Why does software have bugs?miscommunication or no communication - as to specifics of what an application should or shouldn't do (the application's requirements).software complexity - the complexity of current software applications can be difficult to comprehend for anyone without experience in modern-day software development. Windows-type interfaces, client-server and distributed applications, data communications, enormous relational databases, and sheer size of applications have all contributed to the exponential growth in software/system complexity. And the use of object-oriented techniques can complicate instead of simplify a project unless it is well-engineered.programming errors - programmers, like anyone else, can make mistakes.changing requirements (whether documented or undocumented) - the customer may not understand the effects of changes, or may understand and request them anyway - redesign, rescheduling of engineers, effects on other projects, work already completed that may have to be redone or thrown out, hardware requirements that may be affected, etc. If there are many minor changes or any major changes, known and unknown dependencies among parts of the project are likely to interact and cause problems, and the complexity of coordinating changes may result in errors. Enthusiasm of engineering staff may be affected. In some fast-changing business environments, continuously modified requirements may be a fact of life. In this case, management must understand the resulting risks, and QA and test engineers must adapt and plan for continuous extensive testing to keep the inevitable bugs from running out of control - see 'What can be done if requirements are changing continuously?' in Part 2 of the FAQ.time pressures - scheduling of software projects is difficult at best, often requiring a lot of guesswork. When deadlines loom and the crunch comes, mistakes will be made.egos - people prefer to say things like:'no problem''piece of cake''I can whip that out in a few hours''it should be easy to update that old code'instead of:

'that adds a lot of complexity and we could end upmaking a lot of mistakes''we have no idea if we can do that; we'll wing it''I can't estimate how long it will take, until Itake a close look at it''we can't figure out what that old spaghetti codedid in the first place'

If there are too many unrealistic 'no problem's', the result is bugs.

poorly documented code - it's tough to maintain and modify code that is badly written or poorly documented; the result is bugs. In many organizations management provides no incentive for programmers to document their code or write clear, understandable, maintainable code. In fact, it's usually the opposite: they get points mostly for quickly turning out code, and there's job security if nobody else can understand it ('if it was hard to write, it should be hard to read').software development tools - visual tools, class libraries, compilers, scripting tools, etc. often introduce their own bugs or are poorly documented, resulting in added bugs.

How can new Software QA processes be introduced in an existing organization?A lot depends on the size of the organization and the risks involved. For large organizations with high-risk (in terms of lives or property) projects, serious management buy-in is required and a formalized QA process is necessary.Where the risk is lower, management and organizational buy-in and QA implementation may be a slower, step-at-a-time process. QA processes should be balanced with productivity so as to keep bureaucracy from getting out of hand.For small groups or projects, a more ad-hoc process may be appropriate, depending on the type of customers and projects. A lot will depend on team leads or managers, feedback to developers, and ensuring adequate communications among customers, managers, developers, and testers.The most value for effort will be in (a) requirements management processes, with a goal of clear, complete, testable requirement specifications embodied in requirements or design documentation and (b) design inspections and code inspections.

What is verification? validation?Verification typically involves reviews and meetings to evaluate documents, plans, code, requirements, and specifications. This can be done with checklists, issues lists, walkthroughs, and inspection meetings. Validation typically involves actual testing and takes place after verifications are completed. The term 'IV & V' refers to Independent Verification and Validation.

What is a 'walkthrough'?A 'walkthrough' is an informal meeting for evaluation or informational purposes. Little or no preparation is usually required.

What's an 'inspection'?An inspection is more formalized than a 'walkthrough', typically with 3-8 people including a moderator, reader, and a recorder to take notes. The subject of the inspection

is typically a document such as a requirements spec or a test plan, and the purpose is to find problems and see what's missing, not to fix anything. Attendees should prepare for this type of meeting by reading thru the document; most problems will be found during this preparation. The result of the inspection meeting should be a written report. Thorough preparation for inspections is difficult, painstaking work, but is one of the most cost effective methods of ensuring quality. Employees who are most skilled at inspections are like the 'eldest brother' in the parable in 'Why is it often hard for management to get serious about quality assurance?'. Their skill may have low visibility but they are extremely valuable to any software development organization, since bug prevention is far more cost-effective than bug detection.

What is 'good design'?'Design' could refer to many things, but often refers to 'functional design' or 'internal design'. Good internal design is indicated by software code whose overall structure is clear, understandable, easily modifiable, and maintainable; is robust with sufficient error-handling and status logging capability; and works correctly when implemented. Good functional design is indicated by an application whose functionality can be traced back to customer and end-user requirements. (See further discussion of functional and internal design in 'What's the big deal about requirements?' in FAQ #2.) For programs that have a user interface, it's often a good idea to assume that the end user will have little computer knowledge and may not read a user manual or even the on-line help; some common rules-of-thumb include:the program should act in a way that least surprises the userit should always be evident to the user what can be done next and how to exitthe program shouldn't let the users do something stupid without warning them.

What is SEI? CMM? ISO? IEEE? ANSI? Will it help?SEI = 'Software Engineering Institute' at Carnegie-Mellon University; initiated by the U.S. Defense Department to help improve software development processes.CMM = 'Capability Maturity Model', developed by the SEI. It's a model of 5 levels of organizational 'maturity' that determine effectiveness in delivering quality software. It is geared to large organizations such as large U.S. Defense Department contractors. However, many of the QA processes involved are appropriate to any organization, and if reasonably applied can be helpful. Organizations can receive CMM ratings by undergoing assessments by qualified auditors.

Level 1 - characterized by chaos, periodic panics, and heroic efforts required by individuals to successfully complete projects. Few if any processes in place; successes may not be repeatable.

Level 2 - software project tracking, requirements management, realistic planning, and configuration management processes are in place; successful practices can be repeated.

Level 3 - standard software development and maintenance processes are integrated throughout an organization; a Software Engineering Process Group is is in place to oversee software processes, and training programs are used to ensure understanding and compliance.

Level 4 - metrics are used to track productivity, processes, and products. Project performance is predictable, and quality is consistently high.

Level 5 - the focus is on continouous process improvement. The impact of new processes and technologies can be predicted and effectively implemented when required.

Perspective on CMM ratings: During 1997-2001, 1018 organizations were assessed. Of those, 27% were rated at Level 1, 39% at 2, 23% at 3, 6% at 4, and 5% at 5. (For ratings during the period 1992-96, 62% were at Level 1, 23% at 2, 13% at 3, 2% at 4, and0.4% at 5.) The median size of organizations was 100 software engineering/maintenance personnel; 32% of organizations were U.S. federal contractors or agencies. For those rated atLevel 1, the most problematical key process area was in Software Quality Assurance.

ISO = 'International Organisation for Standardization' - The ISO 9001:2000 standard (which replaces the previous standard of 1994) concerns quality systems that are assessed by outside auditors, and it applies to many kinds of production and manufacturing organizations, not just software. It covers documentation, design, development, production, testing, installation, servicing, and other processes. The full set of standards consists of: (a)Q9001-2000 - Quality Management Systems: Requirements; (b)Q9000-2000 - Quality Management Systems: Fundamentals and Vocabulary; (c)Q9004-2000 - Quality Management Systems: Guidelines for Performance Improvements. To be ISO 9001 certified, a third-party auditor assesses an organization, and certification is typically good for about 3 years, after which a complete reassessment is required. Note that ISO certification does not necessarily indicate quality products - it indicates only that documented processes are followed. Also see http://www.iso.ch/ for the latest information. In the U.S. the standards can be purchased via the ASQ web site at http://e-standards.asq.org/

IEEE = 'Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers' - among other things, creates standards such as 'IEEE Standard for Software Test Documentation' (IEEE/ANSI Standard 829), 'IEEE Standard of Software Unit Testing (IEEE/ANSI Standard 1008), 'IEEE Standard for Software Quality Assurance Plans' (IEEE/ANSI Standard 730), and others.

ANSI = 'American National Standards Institute', the primary industrial standards body in the U.S.; publishes some software-related standards in conjunction with the IEEE and ASQ (American Society for Quality).

Other software development process assessment methods besides CMM and ISO 9000 include SPICE, Trillium, TickIT. and Bootstrap.

What is the 'software life cycle'?The life cycle begins when an application is first conceived and ends when it is no longer in use. It includes aspects such as initial concept, requirements analysis, functional design, internal design, documentation planning, test planning, coding, document preparation, integration, testing, maintenance, updates, retesting, phase-out, and other aspects.

Will automated testing tools make testing easier?Possibly. For small projects, the time needed to learn and implement them may not be worth it. For larger projects, or on-going long-term projects they can be valuable.A common type of automated tool is the 'record/playback' type. For example, a tester could click through all combinations of menu choices, dialog box choices, buttons, etc. in an application GUI and have them 'recorded' and the results logged by a tool. The 'recording' is typically in the form of text based on a scripting language that is interpretable by the testing tool. If new buttons are added, or some underlying code in the application is changed, etc. the application might then be retested by just 'playing back' the 'recorded' actions, and comparing the logging results to check effects of the changes. The problem with such tools is that if there are continual changes to the system being tested, the 'recordings' may have to be changed so much that it becomes very time-consuming to continuously update the scripts. Additionally, interpretation and analysis of results (screens, data, logs, etc.) can be a difficult task. Note that there are record/playback tools for text-based interfaces also, and for all types of platforms.Other automated tools can include:code analyzers - monitor code complexity, adherence to standards, etc.coverage analyzers - these tools check which parts of the code have been exercised by a test, and may be oriented to code statement coverage, condition coverage, path coverage, etc.memory analyzers - such as bounds-checkers and leak detectors.load/performance test tools - for testing client/server and web applications under various loadlevels.web test tools - to check that links are valid, HTML code usage is correct, client-side and server-side programs work, a web site's interactions are secure.

other tools - for test case management, documentation management, bug reporting, and configuration management.

What are 5 common solutions to software development problems?solid requirements - clear, complete, detailed, cohesive, attainable, testable requirements that are agreed to by all players. Use prototypes to help nail down requirements.realistic schedules - allow adequate time for planning, design, testing, bug fixing, re-testing, changes, and documentation; personnel should be able to complete the project without burning out.adequate testing - start testing early on, re-test after fixes or changes, plan for adequate time for testing and bug-fixing.stick to initial requirements as much as possible - be prepared to defend against changes and additions once development has begun, and be prepared to explain consequences. If changes are necessary, they should be adequately reflected in related schedule changes. If possible, use rapid prototyping during the design phase so that customers can see what to expect. This will provide them a higher comfort level with their requirements decisions and minimize changes later on.communication - require walkthroughs and inspections when appropriate; make extensive use of group communication tools - e-mail, groupware, networked bug-tracking tools and change management tools, intranet capabilities, etc.; insure that documentation is

available and up-to-date - preferably electronic, not paper; promote teamwork and cooperation; use protoypes early on so that customers' expectations are clarified.

What is software 'quality'?Quality software is reasonably bug-free, delivered on time and within budget, meets requirements and/or expectations, and is maintainable. However, quality is obviously a subjective term. It will depend on who the 'customer' is and their overall influence in the scheme of things. A wide-angle view of the 'customers' of a software development project might include end-users, customer acceptance testers, customer contract officers, customer management, the development organization's management/accountants/testers/salespeople, future software maintenance engineers, stockholders, magazine columnists, etc. Each type of 'customer' will have their own slant on 'quality' - the accounting department might define quality in terms of profits while an end-user might define quality as user-friendly and bug-free.

What is 'good code'?'Good code' is code that works, is bug free, and is readable and maintainable. Some organizations have coding 'standards' that all developers are supposed to adhere to, but everyone has different ideas about what's best, or what is too many or too few rules. There are also various theories and metrics, such as McCabe Complexity metrics. It should be kept in mind that excessive use of standards and rules can stifle productivity and creativity. 'Peer reviews', 'buddy checks' code analysis tools, etc. can be used to check for problems and enforce standards.

For C and C++ coding, here are some typical ideas to consider in setting rules/standards; these may or may not apply to a particular situation:minimize or eliminate use of global variables.use descriptive function and method names - use both upper and lower case, avoid abbreviations, use as many characters as necessary to be adequately descriptive (use of more than 20 characters is not out of line); be consistent in naming conventions.use descriptive variable names - use both upper and lower case, avoid abbreviations, use as many characters as necessary to be adequately descriptive (use of more than 20 characters is not out of line); be consistent in naming conventions.function and method sizes should be minimized; less than 100 lines of code is good, less than 50 lines is preferable.function descriptions should be clearly spelled out in comments preceding a function's code.organize code for readability.use whitespace generously - vertically and horizontallyeach line of code should contain 70 characters max.one code statement per line.coding style should be consistent throught a program (eg, use of brackets, indentations, naming conventions, etc.)in adding comments, err on the side of too many rather than too few comments; a common rule of thumb is that there should be at least as many lines of comments (including header blocks) as lines of code.no matter how small, an application should include documentaion of the overall program function and flow (even a few paragraphs is better than nothing); or if possible a separate

flow chart and detailed program documentation.make extensive use of error handling procedures and status and error logging.for C++, to minimize complexity and increase maintainability, avoid too many levels of inheritance in class heirarchies (relative to the size and complexity of the application). Minimize use of multiple inheritance, and minimize use of operator overloading (note that the Java programming language eliminates multiple inheritance and operator overloading.)for C++, keep class methods small, less than 50 lines of code per method is preferable.for C++, make liberal use of exception handlers