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Manual of Museum Planning

Manual of Museum Planning Sustainable Space, Facilities, and Operations

THIRD EDITION

Edited by Barry Lord, Gail Dexter Lord, and Lindsay Martin

A division ofROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC.

Lanham • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK

Published by AltaMira PressA division of Rowman & Littlefi eld Publishers, Inc.A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefi eld Publishing Group, Inc.4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706www.rowman.com

10 Thornbury Road, Plymouth PL6 7PP, United Kingdom

Copyright © 2012 by AltaMira Press

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Manual of museum planning : sustainable space, facilities, and operations / edited by Barry Lord, Gail Dexter Lord, and Lindsay Martin. — 3rd ed. p. cm. ISBN 978-0-7591-2145-4 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-7591-2146-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-7591-2147-8 (electronic) 1. Museums—Planning—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Museums—Management— Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Lord, Barry, 1939– II. Lord, Gail Dexter, 1946– III. Martin, Lindsay, 1982– AM121.M37 2012 069'.068—dc23 2011049828

™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of Ameri-can National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.

Printed in the United States of America

v

Contents

Acknowledgments xv List of Contributors xvii Preface xxvii

1 Introduction 1 1.1 What to Look for in This New Edition 1 Gail and Barry Lord and Lindsay Martin 1.2 Using This Manual 3 1.3 Dimensions of Sustainability 6 Lindsay Martin

2 Museum Planning 9 2.1 The Need for Museum Planning 9 Gail and Barry Lord 2.2 Preplanning 14 Gail and Barry Lord 2.3 The Facility Planning Process 21 Lindsay Martin 2.4 The Planning Team 30 Barry Lord and Lindsay Martin

PART 1: PLANNING FOR PEOPLE39

3 Museums as Social Institutions 41 3.1 Institutional Evolution 41 Gail Dexter Lord 3.2 Foundation Statements 45 Gail Dexter Lord 3.3 Museums in Service to Society 47 Gail Dexter Lord 3.4 Planning Goals, Principles, and Assumptions 61 Lindsay Martin

v i CONTENTS

4 Planning the Visitor Experience 66 4.1 Planning for Community Needs 66 Joy Bailey 4.2 Market Analysis 73 Ted Silberberg 4.3 Exhibitions, Interpretation, and Public Programs 88 Maria Piacente and Barry Lord 4.4 Planning Space for Learning 109 Heather Maximea 4.5 Integrating Social Spaces 121 Amy Kaufman and Chris Lorway 4.6 Planning Amenities for Visitors 139 Lindsay Martin 4.7 Planning for Universal Design and Diversity 153 Craig Thompson and Phillip Thompson

PART II PLANNING FOR COLLECTIONS187

5 Understanding Collections 189 Brad King 5.1 Collection Basics 189 5.2 The Policy Framework 196 5.3 The Planning Process for Collections 202

6 Planning for Display 212 6.1 Modes of Display 212 Barry Lord 6.2 Long-Term Permanent Collection Display 220 Barry Lord 6.3 Temporary Exhibition Galleries 225 Barry Lord 6.4 Planning for Exhibition and Collections

Support Space 230 Heather Maximea

7 Planning for Collections Care 246 7.1 The Life of Collections and the Cost

of Keeping Them 246 Barry Lord 7.2 Planning for Collections Storage 250 Heather Maximea

CONTENTS v i i

7.3 Digitization of Collection Records 285 Steven A. LeBlanc 7.4 Planning a Conservation Laboratory 291 Samuel M. Anderson 7.5 Planning for Research 300 Barry Lord

8 Preventive Conservation 305 Steven Weintraub with Lindsay Martin and James Cocks 8.1 Preventive Conservation and the Museum

Planning Process 305 8.2 Categorizing Risk 307 8.3 Strategies for Mitigation of Catastrophic

and Severe Events 308 8.4 Impact of Environmental Conditions

on the Preservation of Collections 315 8.5 The First Line of Defense: The Passively

Buffered Environment 334 8.6 The Second Line of Defense: The Actively

Controlled Environment 338 8.7 Environmental Monitoring Systems 344 8.8 Implications for Building Design and Construction 344

PART III: PLANNING FOR OPERATIONS351

9 The Museum in Action 353 Amy Kaufman 9.1 Twenty-Four Hours in the Life of a Museum 353 9.2 Organizing the Action 355 9.3 Management of Operations 363 9.4 Everyday Challenges 364

10 Safety and Security 365 Ronald M. Ronacher Jr. 10.1 Risk Management 365 10.2 General Security Strategy 370 10.3 Protecting People 376 10.4 Protecting Collections 382 10.5 Protecting Buildings 395 10.6 Continuous Evaluation and Improvement 399 10.7 Security Advice 399

v i i i CONTENTS

11 Services and Support 408 Vincent D. Magorrian and Lindsay Martin 11.1 Facility Management 408 11.2 Support Spaces for Exhibitions, Programs,

and Events 414 11.3 Deliveries, Supplies, and Garbage Removal 415

12 Planning for Staff 417 12.1 Staff Growth and Change 417 Amy Kaufman 12.2 Developing Staffi ng Plans 419 Amy Kaufman 12.3 Staff Spaces 426 Lindsay Martin

13 Attendance, Operating Revenue, and Expense Projections 439

Ted Silberberg 13.1 Operating Assumptions 440 13.2 Attendance Projections 442 13.3 Revenue Projections 445 13.4 Expense Projections 451 13.5 The Bottom Line: A Realistic Approach 453

PART IV: PLANNING FOR THE BUILDING455

14 Essential Planning Documents 457 14.1 Museum Building Zones and Functional Areas 457 Barry Lord 14.2 From Net to Gross Area 468 Lindsay Martin 14.3 Facility Strategies and Functional Programs 473 Lindsay Martin 14.4 Using the Essential Planning Documents 487 Lindsay Martin

15 Environmental Sustainability 495 Sarah Brophy and Elizabeth Wylie 15.1 The Cost of “Green” 495 15.2 Mission Alignment 496 15.3 A Quadruple Bottom Line 499

CONTENTS i x

15.4 Providing Leadership in Sustainability 501 15.5 Taking the Long View of the Planning Process 502 15.6 Sustainability Policy and Action Plan 504 15.7 Sustainability Standards and Metrics 506

16 Establishing a Project Budget and Schedule 509 16.1 Right Sizing 510 Catharine Tanner and Barry Lord 16.2 Capital Cost Estimates 516 Breck Perkins and Victoria Cabanos 16.3 Fund-Raising and Feasibility 519 Melody Kanschat 16.4 Priorities and Phasing 530 Barry Lord 16.5 Schedules 532 Tom Seiler

PART V: IMPLEMENTATION

539

17 Project Management 541 Tom Seiler 17.1 Defi nition of Project Management 541 17.2 The Project Manager (PM) 541 17.3 The Role of the Project Manager 542 17.4 Duties of the Project Manager 545 17.5 Project Manager Engagement 548

18 Site Selection 549 18.1 The Site Selection Process 549 Ted Silberberg 18.2 New Build versus Adaptive Reuse 556 Peter Wilson

19 Design and Construction 561 19.1 The Design and Construction Team 561 Tom Seiler 19.2 Stages of Design and Construction 566 Tom Seiler 19.3 The Architect Selection Process 570 Catharine Tanner

x CONTENTS

19.4 Selection of an Exhibition Development Process and Designer 586

Joy Bailey 19.5 Contracting Options for Building Construction 594 Tom Seiler

20 Managing Costs and Cash Flow 600 20.1 Role of the Cost Consultant 600 Breck Perkins and Victoria Cabanos 20.2 Cost Factors Specifi c to Museums 604 Breck Perkins and Victoria Cabanos 20.3 Life-Cycle Costing 605 Breck Perkins and Victoria Cabanos 20.4 Value Engineering 606 Lindsay Martin 20.5 Cash Flow 609 Ashley Mohr 20.6 Financing Options 613 Ashley Mohr

21 Ramping Up to Opening Day 616 Amy Kaufman 21.1 Critical Milestones 616 21.2 Operations During Construction 623 21.3 Opening Day—and the Day After 627 Conclusion 635 Gail and Barry Lord and Lindsay Martin Notes 637 For Further Reading 639 Brenda Taylor Glossary 655 Brenda Taylor Index 671

x i

List of Figures and Tables

FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Dimensions of Sustainability 7

Figure 2.1 The Centrality of Museum Planning 10

Figure 2.2 Proportion of Capital Budget Incurred at Each Stage of the Project 14

Figure 2.3 Museum Planning Process 22

Figure 2.4 Roles and Responsibilities in a Museum Capital Project 31

Figure 3.1 Two-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional Design Object 65

Figure 4.1 Understanding Your Community 67

Figure 4.2 The Museum and Its Community 68

Figure 4.3 Snack at SFMOMA’s Rooftop Café 130

Figure 4.4 Agee Restroom at the John Michael Kohler Arts Center 150

Figure 4.5 T-Shaped Turning Radius 165

Figure 4.6 Detectable Barrier at Protruding Object 167

Figure 4.7 Accessible Door Confi guration 168

Figure 4.8 International Symbol for Accessibility Signage 173

Figure 4.9 Accessible Stair System 176

Figure 4.10 Accessible Passenger Elevator 179

Figure 4.11 Accessible Toilet Facility 180

Figure 5.1 Spectrum of Collection-Based Interpretation 194

Figure 6.1 Critical Adjacencies: Collections and Exhibitions 241

Figure 7.1 Regular vs. Compact Storage 270

Figure 8.1 Risk Management Process 306

Figure 8.2 Relative Humidity and Material Risk 325

Figure 8.3 Relative Humidity Moisture Content for Organic Material 326

x i i LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 8.4 Relationship of Relative Humidity and the Rate of Corrosive Activity 327

Figure 8.5 Relationship of Relative Humidity and Risk of Damage 332

Figure 8.6 Cost-Benefi t Ratio 333

Figure 8.7 Benefi t of a Layered Approach 335

Figure 10.1 Risk Management and Mitigation 367

Figure 10.2 Holistic Security Strategy 371

Figure 10.3 Layered Security Approach 372

Figure 10.4 Integration of Systems and Staff Response Time to Protect Assets 375

Figure 10.5 Field of Vision from Security Cameras 391

Figure 12.1 Four Pillars Organizational Structure for a Museum 420

Figure 14.1 Four-Zone Diagram 460

Figure 14.2 Normative Distribution of Museum Zones 467

Figure 14.3 Net and Gross Area Diagram 469

Figure 14.4 The Museum Planning Process 474

Figure 14.5 Space Use Analysis 479

Figure 14.6 Space Block Diagram Zones A and B 480

Figure 14.7 Space Block Diagram Zones C and D 481

Figure 14.8 Access, Adjacency, and Circulation Diagram 484

Figure 16.1 The Right-Sizing Triangle: Program Area, Budget, and Functionality 515

Figure 16.2 Ranking of Priorities per Capital Project by Potential Donors 526

Figure 21.1 A Five-Year Process 617

Figure 21.2 Major Milestones 618

TABLES

Table 2.1 Capital Project Cost Flow 13

Table 2.2 Stages in the Museum Planning Process 26

Table 2.3 Roles and Responsibilities in Museum Planning 33

Table 2.4 People Involved in Planning 35

Table 3.1 Four Types of Institutional Status for Museums 50

Table 4.1 Learning Styles and Programs for Different Age Groups 114

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES x i i i

Table 4.2 Museum Learning Spaces 116

Table 4.3 Arrival, Amenities, and Food and Retail Spaces for Education Programs 119

Table 4.4 Support Spaces for Learning 122

Table 4.5 Design for Learning Spaces 124

Table 4.6 Spaces Required to Support Performance 140

Table 4.7 Sample Parking Projections 145

Table 4.8 Requirements for Reach Ranges 166

Table 4.9 Accessible Lighting Levels 169

Table 4.10 Accessible Viewing Distances for Signs 172

Table 4.11 Guidance for Circulation Space 177

Table 4.12 Guidance for Passenger Elevators/Lifts 178

Table 4.13 Guidance for Wash-Hand Basins 181

Table 4.14 Guidance for Toilets 181

Table 4.15 Guidance for Common-Use Ablutions 181

Table 4.16 Planning Accessible Museum Theaters 184

Table 4.17 Accessible Viewing Spaces 185

Table 5.1 Collection Management Functions 203

Table 6.1 Examples of Gallery Areas Needed for Collection Growth and Changed Modes of Display 218

Table 6.2 Shipping/Receiving Exhibition Support Space 240

Table 6.3 Exhibition Production Space 245

Table 7.1 Comparison of 1990 U.S. and 1988 U.K. Surveys of Museum Operating Costs 248

Table 7.2 Storage Locations within the Museum Building 253

Table 7.3 Step 1: Grouping Collections by Organic, Inorganic, or Composite Materials 262

Table 7.4 Steps 2–4: Grouping Collections by Medium and Storage Mode 263

Table 7.5 Steps 3–4: Another Option for Grouping Collections by Storage Mode 265

Table 7.6 Results of a Collection Review Identifying Storage Equipment Needs 268

Table 7.7 Order-of-Magnitude Calculation of Collection Storage Needs 276

Table 7.8 Order-of-Magnitude Calculation Storage Needs by Storage Density 278

x i v LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Table 7.9 Storage Requirements by Item Dimensions 280

Table 7.10 Collection Storage Requirements by Size Categories for Artifact Cabinets 281

Table 7.11 Collection Storage Projection for 5–10 Years for Large Artifact Racks or Pallets 282

Table 7.12 Advantages and Disadvantages of On-Site and Off-Site Storage 284

Table 8.1 Key Considerations to Enhance Preventive Conservation through Design 345

Table 8.2 Evaluation of Common Finishes from a Preventive Conservation Value and Risk Management Perspective 347

Table 9.1 Typical Day in the Life of a Museum 354

Table 10.1 Building Materials Options for Different Security Levels 400

Table 12.1 Drivers Affecting Staff Projections 424

Table 12.2 Offi ce Requirements by Department 434

Table 13.1 Attendance Projections for a Hypothetical Museum 446

Table 14.1 Analysis of Space Use in the Winnipeg Art Gallery before Expansion 464

Table 14.2 Space Use Compared to Space Needs for the Winnipeg Art Gallery 466

Table 14.3 Possible Distribution of Types of Spaces Included in Grossing Factor 471

Table 14.4 Sample Summary Building Program 472

Table 14.5 Example of Part of a Zoned Space Program 478

Table 14.6 Example of a Room Data Sheet from a Functional Program 488

Table 16.1 Fund-Raising Feasibility Study Report Matrix 525

Table 16.2 Hypothetical Gift Table 528

Table 18.1 Site Evaluation Template 555

Table 19.1 Duration of Museum Building Projects 571

Table 19.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of In-House and Out-Sourced Exhibition Design 589

Table 19.3 Personnel and Positions Needed for an Exhibition Design Team 591

x v

Acknowledgments

Gail and Barry Lord

As always, our fi rst acknowledgments go to our colleagues in the museum pro-fession around the world who have contributed to the development of museum planning, and to those with whom we have worked in our own planning prac-tice. We must also acknowledge the contributions to museum planning of the dedicated professionals of many related disciplines—architects, engineers, cost consultants, exhibition designers, management consultants, urban planners, and others with whom we have worked on museum planning and manage-ment assignments on all the inhabited continents. We wish, in particular, to acknowledge the expertise, creativity, and diligence of the contributors to this third edition, and to thank them for their cooperation and patience throughout the editing process—both those who are Lord Cultural Resources employees, and those from other companies or institutions who have associated with us to produce this twenty-fi rst-century edition of the Manual.

Further, we wish to acknowledge contributors to previous editions of this Manual. Although we have tried to give credit for diagrams or tables that originated in previous editions, we may not have realized that some idea, organization, or prose may have started life in a previous edition. If this is so, we extend an apology to any contributors whose previous contribution has not been noted here. As noted in the preface, this edition is the latest in an ongoing series that has been developed over almost three decades now.

Special thanks for this third edition go to Lindsay Martin, whose man-agement of our team for this edition and whose perceptive contribution to the reorganization and editing of the text and diagrams gives the book its dis-tinctive character, continuing the classic character of the previous editions but updating it and making it more relevant to the present practice of our own fi rm and the museum planning practice of others. Lindsay’s name deservedly joins ours on the title page as editor of this publication.

Many other Lord Cultural Resources personnel have assisted with the Manual. Our thanks go to all of them, in particular to Andrea Kezdi for her

x v i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

assistance with the new diagrams for the book, and for formatting the entire volume, with assistance from Chelsea Canlas and Luca Vetere. Also to Aaron Cator for his assistance with project management and preparing the fi nal manuscript.

At AltaMira Press and its parent company, Rowman & Littlefi eld Publishers, our thanks go to Marissa Parks, Wendi Schnaufer, and Robert Hayunga for their commitment in seeing this third edition of the Manual through to publication. We appreciate their grace and professionalism.

x v i i

List of Contributors

Samuel M. Anderson is principal of Samuel Anderson Architects, established 1991. He has designed conservation laboratories, galleries, collections storage, and other projects for a variety of clients including the Harvard University Art Museums, The Museum of Modern Art, the Colonial Williamsburg Founda-tion, the Morgan Library & Museum, the Guggenheim Museum (New York and Abu Dhabi), the Whitney Museum, the Barnes Foundation, and the Isa-bella Stewart Gardner Museum. His fi rm has completed feasibility studies for the Institute of Fine Arts at New York University, the Denver Art Museum, the Dallas Museum of Art and the Dia Foundation among others. Sam teaches Design Studio and Building Technology at The Cooper Union in New York City. He has a lifelong commitment to fi nding elegance through the effi cient use of space, material, and energy in close collaboration with clients.

Joy Bailey is a senior consultant in Lord Cultural Resources’ New York offi ce where she leads the company’s public engagement practice. A skilled facili-tator, outreach specialist, and certifi ed interpretive planner, Joy works with institutional leaders, city offi cials, developers, architects, and planners to discover new ways to cultivate audiences for public institutions. A native of Atlanta, Joy honed her skills working at the Institute of Museum and Library Services in Washington, the Albany Civil Rights Institute, and in leader-ship positions on notable projects like the National September 11 Memorial and Museum, the Schomburg Center of the New York Public Library Sys-tem, and the National Museum of African American History and Culture in Washington. Joy is a graduate of Florida A&M University and holds an MA in arts management from American University in Washington. She serves on the board of the Association of African American Museums (AAAM) and the leadership advisory board of the Girl Scouts of Greater New York.

Sarah Brophy, LEED-AP, is a consultant for organizations pursuing envi-ronmental sustainability in their fund-raising, buildings, operations, and programming. She works with clients across the country: gardens, zoos, aquariums, and historic sites as well as natural resource and higher education

x v i i i LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

organizations. She has a BA from Sweet Briar College and an MA from the College of William & Mary with a certifi cate in history administra-tion from the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. Sarah is coauthor of The Green Museum: A Primer on Environmental Sustainability, and author of Is Your Museum Grant-Ready? Her articles on sustainability have appeared in AAM’s Museum News and Museum magazines, and The American Public Garden Association’s journal Public Garden. Currently she is a co-chair of the American Association of Museums’ Professional Interest Committee on Environmental Sustainability. Sarah is bent on demonstrating that museums must be leaders in sustainable living and learning.

Victoria Cabanos, principal of the Stuart-Lynn Company, is an architect and construction professional with a broad range of experience in design, project management, and all aspects of the building process. She has over twenty-three years of experience in the construction industry directing bud-geting, scheduling, resource management, and vendor contracts. Victoria is a graduate of Cornell University with a bachelor of science degree in design and environmental analysis. She is a New York State licensed real estate appraiser and an active member of the American Institute of Architects, the American Society of Professional Estimators, the Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering, the Real Estate Board of New York, and the National Association of Women Business Owners. Victoria is also a trustee of the Bronx Museum of the Arts and a member of the board of managers of the Chinatown YMCA in New York City.

James Cocks, Toronto-based consultant with Lord Cultural Resources, is a planner with over fi ve years of practical experience. His work in facility plan-ning includes complex developments such as the visual arts facilities of the West Kowloon Cultural District in Hong Kong. James also brings direct, hands-on perspectives on preventive conservation from his experience in planning and treating a range of historic sites and institutions along the U.S. west coast. He has presented and published his work through the American Institute for Conservation, where he is also a member of the Collections Emergency Response Team, and through the Western Association for Art Conservation. James is a LEED Accredited Professional with a bachelor’s degree in architecture from Yale University and a master’s degree in urban planning from Columbia University.

Melody Kanschat is an arts professional with broad experience in manage-ment, communications, fund-raising, and master plan development. She consults with a variety of nonprofi t institutions across the country and is known for bringing a perspective to every project that synthesizes a drive for excellence with a practical sensibility. In 2011, Ms. Kanschat concluded

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS x i x

a twenty-two-year career with the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA), where she served in a variety of executive capacities. Most recently she served as the museum’s president and chief operating offi cer and was responsible for the day-to-day operations of the museum, oversee-ing a total annual expense budget of over US$60 million, as well as leading a ten-year capital expansion campaign and strategic planning process. Melody holds a BS degree in radio, television, and motion pictures from Ball State University in Muncie, Indiana.

Amy Kaufman is the managing director for Lord Cultural Resources in the United States. Her work focuses on institutional, business, and strategic plan-ning; organizational development; marketing; staff training; and operational implementation. Amy has worked with institutions ranging from art museums to heritage sites to botanic gardens. She was the project manager for the Heri-tage, Education and Tourism development at Constitution Hill in Johannes-burg, the renowned site of South Africa’s Constitutional Court and a mixed-use development. Before joining Lord in 2003, Amy was director of planning and operations for special projects at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York, where she planned and launched a series of initiatives and feasibil-ity studies. Originally hired as the director of visitor services during a period of major expansion, she revamped operational and fi nancial procedures, projected attendance and revenue, and analyzed market conditions. Amy has a master of arts in Latin American studies from New York University and a bachelor of arts cum laude in art history from Tulane University.

Brad King, vice president responsible for Lord Cultural Resources’ man-agement consultancy stream, holds a PhD in history from the University of Toronto, where he lives. Brad has led or contributed to a wide variety of planning projects since joining Lord over ten years ago. He has analyzed many museum collections, from the holdings of specialized institutions such as military and maritime museums to the more comprehensive collections of large urban institutions and entire museum systems. He regularly employs his widespread knowledge to recommend display and storage-space allocations, plan for future collection growth, and facilitate exhibition development. From the Saadiyat Island projects in Abu Dhabi to the development of a cultural district in Hong Kong and the planning for a major multicomponent cultural center in Saudi Arabia, Brad has been involved in some of the most interesting and ambitious cultural projects of our time and brings a wealth of international experience to his work.

Steven A. LeBlanc is director of collections at Harvard University’s Peabody Museum in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He attended Pomona College, Uni-versity of California Santa Barbara, and Washington University in St. Louis,

x x LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

and did postdoctoral work in human genetics at the University of Michigan. He was a curator at the Southwest Museum in Los Angeles and the Maxwell Museum in New Mexico. He has done fi eld work in the Middle East and the American southwest with a focus on the Mimbres culture of southwestern New Mexico, which has been published in seven books and numerous arti-cles. He has worked with numerous museums in automating their collection records and is currently working on identifying artists in Mimbres pottery by using and expanding the Mimbres Online Database, while helping the Ari-zona State Museum build a similar database of prehistoric Hopi yellow ware.

Barry Lord, co-president of Lord Cultural Resources, is internationally known as one of the world’s leading museum planners. Based in Toronto but working globally, Barry brings over fi fty years of experience in the management and planning of museums, galleries, and historic sites to the hundreds of projects he has directed. With a BA in philosophy from McMaster University followed by graduate work at Harvard University’s Center for the Study of World Religions, Barry cofounded Lord Cultural Resources with his wife, Gail Lord, in 1981. Together they edited and wrote the world’s fi rst book on the subject, Planning Our Museums (1983) and two previous editions of The Manual of Museum Plan-ning (1991 and 1999). Barry also coauthored The Cost of Collecting (1989) and The Manual of Museum Management (1997, 2nd edition, 2009); coedited The Manual of Museum Exhibitions (2002); and wrote and edited The Manual of Museum Learning (2007). Gail and Barry’s most recent book is Artists, Patrons, and the Public: Why Culture Changes (AltaMira Press, 2010).

Gail Dexter Lord, co-president of Lord Cultural Resources, is one of the world’s foremost museum planners. With a BA in history and graduate work at the University of Toronto, Gail has extensive experience in the museum and cultural sector and brings exceptional vision and knowledge to each of the projects she leads. She cofounded Lord Cultural Resources with her hus-band, Barry Lord, in 1981 and has led hundreds of projects over thirty years. She has been instrumental in developing the fi eld of museum planning, hav-ing coauthored with Barry Lord The Manual of Museum Exhibitions (2002); The Manual of Museum Management (1997, 2nd edition 2009); two previous editions of The Manual of Museum Planning (1991, 1999); and The Cost of Collecting (1991). Gail coauthored with Kate Markert The Manual of Strate-gic Planning (2007) and has published numerous articles on a wide range of museum topics. Gail and Barry’s most recent book is Artists, Patrons, and the Public: Why Culture Changes (AltaMira Press, 2010).

Chris Lorway is the Executive Director of Soundstreams and Lord Cul-tural Resources’ preferred partner for Festivals and Performing Arts. He was the founding artistic director of the Luminato Festival in Toronto, where he

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS x x i

helped shape and implement the festival’s overall artistic vision and program. Chris has over twenty years of experience in the arts and cultural fi eld as an administrator, producer, presenter, and performer. He holds an MA in arts administration from Columbia University and a Bachelor of Music Educa-tion from the University of Western Ontario. He has lectured at the Uni-versity of Toronto, Columbia University, New York University, the Ontario College of Art and Design, and Humber College, and is a regular lecturer on strategic planning and fi nancial modeling for the Clore Duffi eld Leadership Program in the United Kingdom.

Vincent D. Magorrian retired as the director of building operations from the Museum of Modern Art in New York, a position he held for sixteen years. He worked in building operations for twenty-seven years with an emphasis on fi re safety in health institutions. While at MoMA he participated in major construction projects such as the development of a Moving Image Preserva-tion Center at MoMA Queens and the museum’s new facility in Manhat-tan, where he advised on the equipment and machine room layout. He was a founding member and past president of the International Association of Museum Facility Directors as well as serving in other positions such as chair of the education committee. He is a past member of the Building Owners and Managers Association and BOMI International as well as the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.

Lindsay Martin, senior consultant in Lord Cultural Resource’s New York City offi ce, is a skilled arts strategist with ten years of experience in the fi eld. A critical thinker, she is committed to working with clients to develop cre-ative and effective strategies for their institutions, while serving day-to-day operational needs. Using an integrated approach, she identifi es long-range solutions focused on all aspects of sustainability—social, economic, and cul-tural as well as environmental. Lindsay specializes in strategic, organizational, and facilities planning. With Lord she has advised a wide range of organiza-tions from public gardens to art museums and private collections. She also serves on the board of PIC-Green, a professional interest committee of the American Association of Museums, as well as on the planning committee for the Building Museums Conference.

Heather Maximea is a museum planner with over thirty years of experi-ence in the fi eld. As a senior consultant at Lord Cultural Resources, Heather participates in collections, exhibition, and facility planning projects for cul-tural institutions worldwide, contributing an understanding of the needs of all users from collections to staff and visitors. Based on Canada’s west coast, she is the author of over thirty Functional Programs for successful complex building projects for museums, galleries, and cultural centers worldwide, and

x x i i LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

advises on strategic facilities interventions that help cultural organizations optimize their facilities for current programming. She holds an Honours BA in anthropology from the University of British Columbia and went on to the graduate program in Museum Studies at the University of Toronto.

Ashley Mohr is an independent consultant who has most recently worked on projects for Lincoln Center, the Battery Conservancy, and the Olympic Park Legacy Committee in East London. Prior to consulting, Ashley was the fi nance director at the Whitney Museum in New York, developing the muse-um’s US$30 million operating budget and conducting strategic and fi nancial planning for a $680 million new building project. Ashley began her career as a credit analyst and underwriter at JPMorgan Chase, working with nonprofi t institutions to structure loans and bond fi nancing. Ashley holds an under-graduate degree from Georgetown University in fi nance and government and an MBA from New York University’s Stern School of Business.

Breck Perkins, principal of the Stuart-Lynn Company, is a veteran construc-tion industry executive based in New York with over thirty years of experience on projects of all sizes and types in many geographic locations. He began his career as a journeyman welder and continued on with a formal education in Construction Management at the Pratt Institute. He has been a registered professional construction estimator for over six years and is a member of the American Society of Professional Estimators. Breck has also served as an expert witness in construction arbitration and mediation cases, representing clients in disputes with contractors. In this capacity he has helped to bring a clearer understanding of claims to be made, assessed distinct responsibility for such claims, and assisted in the recovery of unnecessary expenditures to the satisfaction of all parties involved.

Maria Piacente, vice president for exhibitions and events at Lord Cultural Resources, specializes in interpretive planning, content development, and project management for cultural projects of all sizes, ranging in scope from art to science and history. Grounded in current museological theory, Maria’s global experience enables her to incorporate both conceptual and curato-rial aspects with leading-edge technological applications, ensuring an excit-ing and enriching visitor experience within operational realities. Based in Toronto, she works effectively with museum staff, architects, designers, engi-neers, and multimedia experts around the world to coordinate and plan all communicative elements of exhibitions, and to oversee fabrication and mul-timedia production while maintaining quality, schedule, and budget. Maria holds a bachelor of arts degree in archaeology and Near Eastern History and a master’s degree in museum studies, both from the University of Toronto.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS x x i i i

Ronald M. Ronacher Jr., an associate in the Resilience, Security and Risk group at Arup, is responsible for maintaining and developing the security skill sets of others. With a degree in mechanical engineering, he is also an accredited physical security professional, certifi ed master anti-terrorism spe-cialist and certifi ed institutional protection manager. Ron has also received training from such sources as the New York Police Department, the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency, and the International Foundation of Cultural Property Protection. While providing security consulting and engineering services for a wide range of projects and clients, he has a particu-lar focus on cultural properties ranging from fi ne art museums to memorials. Ron has a strong belief in a holistic approach to security—how each element of the built environment, such as architecture, landscape, building systems, policies, and procedures infl uence the overall safety and security provided for people, collections, and the building.

Tom Seiler is a registered architect and LEED Accredited Professional. He is a highly experienced senior project manager and design director who has led diverse teams of professionals in geographically dispersed locations, fast-paced environments, and a variety of project typologies. His strong technical and man-agerial qualifi cations have resulted in an impressive track record of more than twenty-eight years of hands-on experience in master planning, facility planning, architectural design, construction administration, project management, and sys-tems delivery strategies. He lives in Baltimore, Maryland, but has worked as a project manager in the Middle East and elsewhere around the world. Tom holds a bachelor of design in architecture from the University of Florida.

Ted Silberberg is the senior principal responsible for market and fi nancial planning at Lord Cultural Resources, the world’s largest fi rm specializing in the planning and management of museums and other cultural institutions. He has worked in the fi eld for over thirty years, is a certifi ed management consul-tant, and the author of various articles associated with business planning for museums. His business plans and feasibility studies are known to be reliable and realistic, and he is often asked to review institutions’ projections in order to recommend ways to increase revenues or decrease expenses. Ted has spoken at a variety of conferences on issues associated with revenue generation, cost con-trol, market analysis, site evaluation, and other related business planning topics. He holds an MA from York University and lives in Toronto.

Catharine Tanner is a registered architect with over thirty years of profes-sional and management experience as a respected consultant in the cultural fi eld. As vice president at Lord Cultural Resources based in Toronto, Catha-rine applies her facility planning skills and experience to a wide range of

x x i v LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

projects around the world. She is dedicated to identifying requirements and solutions that meet client and visitor needs and to developing enhanced sys-tems and practices for the facility planning process. Catharine has provided particular leadership in developing functional museums that are welcoming, and has directed lobby reviews and visitor services and circulation studies for museums in Asia, Europe, and North America. She has also participated as an advisor and managed a wide range of national and international archi-tectural competitions and selection processes for museums. Catharine is a graduate of the School of Architecture at the University of Toronto.

Brenda Taylor joined Lord Cultural Resources in 2011 as librarian and knowledge management director. As an information professional with over eight years of experience in government and corporate libraries, she brings considerable expertise in planning and implementing effective knowledge and information management services. Now living in Toronto, Brenda previ-ously managed a provincial government management and information tech-nology library in Victoria, BC, and worked as an information specialist at The Conference Board of Canada in Ottawa. She holds a master of library and information studies with a specialization in knowledge management from McGill University in Montreal, a library and information technician diploma from Algonquin College in Ottawa, and a bachelor of arts in psy-chology from Queen’s University in Kingston, Ontario.

Craig Thompson has read for philosophy at Rhodes University, and is cur-rently engaged by IDC Consultants in South Africa.

Phillip Thompson has a background in architecture and property develop-ment in southern Africa, North America, and the Caribbean. Having returned to South Africa in 1985, he held a partnership in another architectural consul-tancy before forming his own fi rm, IDC Consultants, in 1993 with a focus on community participation in development, environmental management, and universal design. In 1992 he started South Africa’s National Environmental Accessibility Program, the country’s fi rst comprehensive approach to acces-sibility, and served as an executive member of Disabled People South Africa from 1991 to 1999. He chaired the South African Federal Council on Disabil-ity from 1994 to 1999, and was its executive director until 2003. He served on the South African Tourism Board from 1997 to 2000, chaired its Satour Stan-dards and Grading Committee, and is currently a council and board member of the South African Tourism and Sport Standard Education and Training Authority. Phillip has provided universal access consulting throughout Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America, and is currently the Africa chairperson for the International Commission on Technology and Accessibility.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS x x v

Steven Weintraub, a principal at Art Preservation Services, consults with museums as an environmental preservation specialist. Past and current proj-ects include consulting on the conservation practices of the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington and the preservation of World Trade Center artifacts for the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey as well as for the National September 11 Memorial and Museum in New York City. Prior to founding APS in 1988, Steven was an objects conservator at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and a conservation/environmen-tal researcher at the Getty Conservation Institute in Los Angeles. Steven’s pioneering work on museum microclimates includes the development of leakage testing equipment and high-performance silica gel for showcases. Actively involved in innovative research on color perception and illumination of museum collections, Steven has lectured internationally and is currently teaching preventive conservation at the Conservation Center of the New York University Institute of Fine Arts.

Peter Wilson gained an MA in natural sciences from the University of Cambridge before training as an art conservator at Tate Gallery in London. He joined Tate’s staff as, successively, a conservator, the head of collections management, and the Gallery’s project director for the planning, design, and construction of Tate St. Ives (1993), Tate Liverpool (1998), Tate Modern (2000), and Tate Britain’s Centenary Development (2001). He moved from the visual to the performing arts when he was appointed project director for the transformation of the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in 2005. That project was completed to considerable acclaim in 2010, earning the Royal Shake-speare Company the accolade “Client of the Year” from the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA), of which Peter is an Honorary Fellow. Peter has acted as associate to Lord Cultural Resources’ European company, Lordcul-ture, in the United Kingdom for several years, contributing his expertise to a number of museum capital projects in Europe and the Middle East.

Elizabeth Wylie, LEED AP, is an art historian and former museum curator and director with more than twenty years of museum experience. With Sarah Brophy, Elizabeth is coauthor of The Green Museum: A Primer on Environ-mental Practice (AltaMira Press, 2008). She is a frequent speaker at regional and national conferences on museums, preservation, and environmental prac-tice and was on the founding board of PIC-Green, a professional interest committee of the American Association of Museums. Elizabeth currently serves on the board of an eighteenth-century house in her Boston neighbor-hood, and is director of business development at Finegold Alexander, a Bos-ton-based national architecture practice that focuses on sustainable design and the revitalization and reuse of existing buildings and sites.

x x v i i

Preface

Gail and Barry Lord

Museums are means of communication. They communicate the meanings of nature and humanity past and present to their visitors today and tomorrow. Comprised of three-dimensional objects housed in large buildings, they seem very different from all the other communication media, but in fact they have been and remain very successful participants in the communications revolution.

As such, museums are constantly involved in change. In most cases their collections are constantly growing, resulting in a recurring quantitative need for renovation, expansion or new construction of space and facilities. In all museums their visitors’ expectations for more advanced ways of telling their stories augments the pressure for qualitative change as well, in their exhib-its and by extension in their storage, documentation, and conservation prac-tices. As they constantly implement such enhancements, museums are not only participants in the communication revolution in themselves, but also must utilize the advances constantly being made in all the other communica-tions media—as the current development of online exhibitions and the use of social media attest. Thus museums are a “meta-communications” medium, communicating the natural and cultural heritage and contemporary arts with the aid of the most advanced communications media of their time.

This manual and its precursor publication, Planning Our Museums, have been in use for almost thirty years, during which time the standards of museum building and management have improved dramatically. At the same time, the complexity of the roles that the museum is expected to fulfi ll as an institution and therefore the complexity of the museum building have increased exponentially. The number of stakeholders in a museum building project has expanded, with the result that many new buildings, additions, and renovations disappoint in the details. We still see new museums where the main elevator for art works opens onto a low-ceilinged corridor with a wall too close to its doors to permit enough turning room, so that artifacts can-not be effi ciently or safely moved to where they need to be. We also see new buildings that have not provided adequate collection storage, so the museum must continue to pay for costly off-site storage, and where retail and food services cannot be accessed directly from the street.

x x v i i i PREFACE

So while the need for the Manual remains self-evident, we are delighted that the concept of museum planning has spread widely in the past three decades, especially through the inclusion of museum planning courses in university museum studies programs, and very much due to the gradually growing number of good examples of construction or renovation projects for which qualifi ed and experienced museum planners have developed a detailed functional program (or brief ) in advance of or in collaboration with architects and engineers. Our part in this very gradual and still admittedly partial trans-formation of museum practice began in 1977, when Barry became respon-sible for the Capital Assistance funding projects of the National Museums of Canada’s Museum Assistance Programs (MAP). Assuming that responsibil-ity at a time when MAP had encountered problems of the kind described above with the outcomes of its grants for bricks and mortar, he initially pro-posed that funding should go fi rst to planning, with the much larger contri-butions to actual construction, expansion, or renovation to be held back until plans were approved. Thus began an experience in planning museum projects across Canada, working with architects, engineers, urban planners, museum professionals, and their governing boards, during which many of the pro-cesses and much of the analysis presented here was roughed out.

In the early 1980s Gail and Barry edited a connected collection of chap-ters by those who had participated in these projects, published by the National Museums of Canada in 1983, in English as Planning Our Museums, and in French as La planifi cation de musees. The global reception that this book received astonished us: a grants administrator in New South Wales (Australia) bought a hundred copies to give to his grant recipients, and the International Con-servation Committee in Rome (ICCROM) ordered numerous copies in both languages. About a quarter of a century later it was gratifying to fi nd a dog-eared copy of the French version still in use at the Louvre, when our European company, Lordculture, began our fi rst planning project for them.

With unexpected demand from abroad, that initial book was out of print within a few years. Meanwhile Gail and Barry, together with John Nicks (then a Principal at Lord Cultural Resources, now enjoying retirement), had written The Cost of Collecting, a 1988–1989 study of museum collection management costs based on a survey of a hundred British museums of all kinds commissioned by the U.K. Offi ce of Arts and Libraries, at that time responsible for museum funding throughout Great Britain. The book’s pub-lisher, Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce (HMSO Books, or later, simply The Stationery Offi ce), was surprised to discover the extent of the market for such specialized books within the museum sector, and suggested following the success of that publication with another. With Planning Our Museums out of print, this next book became the fi rst edition of The Manual of Museum Planning (HMSO, 1991). Content and format evolved from our experience

PREFACE x x i x

with the original Canadian publication, with contributors drawn from our growing experience with museum planning in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada, along with signifi cant contributions from the grow-ing roster of Lord Cultural Resources’ personnel.

The response to that fi rst edition of the Manual—the fi rst systematic treatise on museum planning with global relevance—further confi rmed the pressing need for such a volume, and it quickly became a standard refer-ence tool, not only for museum professionals but also for architects, engi-neers, and designers, as well as the more conscientious of museum trustees. A few years later in London, Gail was delighted to fi nd a copy on the shelf behind the desk of Tate Director Sir Nicholas Serota when he was working on Tate Modern, in the same week that a woman directing a tiny museum on Wrangell Island in Alaska earned a grant from the Bank of Alaska by using the book to demonstrate her systematic approach to museum planning. Throughout all editions we have endeavored to make the Manual ’s analysis and recommendations as useful to small museums as it is to large, complex institutions.

That fi rst edition of The Manual of Museum Planning was so widely used that demands to keep it updated to refl ect current practice had to be met by a second edition, published by The Stationery Offi ce in England in 1999 and by AltaMira Press in the United States in 2001. Gail and Barry again edited contributions from U.S., U.K., and Canadian experts, including senior Lord Cultural Resources’ staff. There were many improvements in the second edi-tion, which was informed by our growing experience worldwide; yet the for-mat of the second edition remained much the same as the fi rst. As outlined in chapter 1 of this third edition, this book refl ects far more change, not only with new content added, but also in the very organization and structure of the Manual.

As one result of the cultural change that is sweeping the world, the audience for the Manual is today much broader than it was for the previous editions. Especially throughout Asia, from Saudi Arabia in the southwest through India and China to Korea in the northeast, museums, their visitors, sponsors, staff, and supporters have grown apace in the past two decades. Comparable developments in Eastern Europe, Africa, and Latin America are already underway. This third edition is written with these new, emerging, or renewed institutions in mind, as well as the longer-established museums of Western Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and North America.

We commend this edition of The Manual of Museum Planning to new readers and old, confi dent in the knowledge that the book, the museums it describes, and all those who work in them will continue to evolve in this age of rapid and widespread cultural change. We hope this guidebook to change will remain useful.

INTRODUCTION

This third edition of The Manual of Museum Planning has been updated and expanded to meet the needs and conditions of professional museum practice in the twenty-fi rst century. The fi rst section of this opening chapter explains the most signifi cant changes that make this edition more useful and relevant to building sustainable space and facilities for museums today. Section 1.2 tells readers how they can best make use of this edition of the Manual, while 1.3 provides a context for the entire volume by exploring the meanings of sustainability for museums.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN THIS NEW EDITION

Gail and Barry Lord and Lindsay Martin

This twenty-fi rst-century edition of The Manual of Museum Planning main-tains the qualities that have made it “a classic” of museum literature, as the International Council of Museums (ICOM) journal Museums International hailed its fi rst edition; but as a glance at the table of contents indicates, this edition has been substantially updated and signifi cantly reorganized to refl ect current practice in museum planning, both at our fi rm, Lord Cultural Resources, and in the museum profession generally.

This third edition, prepared for museums of the twenty-fi rst century with Lindsay Martin, a young and talented senior consultant in our New York offi ce, joining Gail and Barry as editors, marks a signifi cant change in the way that museum planning is presented. The fi rst and second editions were comprised of three parts:

• Planning for People• Planning for Collections• Planning for Construction

We have retained the most important feature of this structure—giving priority to planning for people and for museum collections before beginning

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2 THE MANUAL OF MUSEUM PLANNING

work on the building. As in the previous editions, part I, Planning for People, focuses fi rst on foundation statements (mission, vision, and purpose) and the institutional planning that fl ows from them. Gail’s sections in chapter 3 place a new emphasis on the emergence of museums as civil society institutions, while Lindsay’s section 3.4 shows how these fundamentals are refl ected in planning goals, principles, and assumptions. Chapter 4 then turns to visitor surveys, market analysis, planning for exhibitions and educational facilities, the need for Universal Design, a new section 4.1 on understanding the com-munity by Joy Bailey, and another (4.5) by Amy Kaufman on integrating social spaces into museums.

Part II, Planning for Collections, maintains the importance of col-lection analysis and collection development strategy as the basis for any projection of space needs. Chapters 6 and 7 unpack the implications of collection planning respectively for exhibition galleries and their support space (6), and for collection care (7). The latter chapter adds new sections on collection storage, the impact of digitization, planning for conservation labs, and research policy and plans, while chapter 8 focuses on preventive conservation requirements.

Thereafter, this third edition expands the book’s former tripartite struc-ture by inserting two new parts, on operations and implementation, before and after the part focused on the building. The third edition is therefore organized into fi ve parts:

• I. Planning for People• II. Planning for Collections• III. Planning for Operations• IV. Planning for the Building• V. Implementation

This change very much accords with our own fi rm’s current practice, and the experience of many museums around the world. It has become apparent that a systematic approach to museum planning today must incorporate explicit provisions for successful and sustainable operations as an essential part of any plan for new construction, renovation, or expan-sion, whether of a gallery, a wing, a building, or an entire complex. Of the fi ve chapters in part III, only one subject (safety and security) was to be found in the previous edition, and even that chapter has been completely reconceived.

With the operational and implementation stages separated into parts III and V, we have been able to utilize part IV, Planning for the Building, to focus more clearly on the essential planning documents—facility strategies, Functional Programs (or Briefs), and the utility of these tools for review of

INTRODUCTION 3

design and specifi cations as they emerge (chapter 14). Here we have empha-sized sustainability (chapter 15), and have linked capital costs to questions of funding capability, schedules, and phasing (16). A new section 16.1 sum-marizes the need for “right-sizing” of new facilities that is a recurrent theme throughout the book.

Part V on implementation shows how these essential planning tools are referenced throughout the design and construction process. Site selection is considered in this ideal context (chapter 18), even though it may occur much earlier in the process for many projects. Detailed consideration is given to project management (chapter 17), the design and construction process (19), and managing costs and cash fl ow (20), culminating in a new chapter 21 focused on the run-up to opening day.

Perhaps the most obvious change to the previous editions’ conceptual framework will already have been observed on the cover of the book in our new subtitle, “Sustainable Space, Facilities, and Operations,” proclaiming the importance of rethinking some aspects of museum planning with reference to sustainability of all kinds—economic, social, and cultural as well as envi-ronmental. Section 1.3 in this chapter, entitled Dimensions of Sustainability, establishes this context for the entire book, with the theme being emphasized again with regard to environmental sustainability in chapter 15.

Thus the new edition is intended to be even more useful to all those engaged in the planning, design, and provision of museum facilities. From the essential preplanning through the intricacies of space-needs analysis, the process should prepare the museum’s governors and director to arrive at a decision-making point when they approve the building requirements in the essential planning documents and relate them to a feasible budget and sched-ule; thereafter a Project Management Team well informed by the process and these documents can guide the design and construction process through to opening day. It will never be easy: but we hope that this third edition can make the process more rational, more attuned to the requirements of muse-ums in the twenty-fi rst century, more relevant to the needs of society, and more effective for all those involved.

USING THIS MANUAL

All editions of The Manual of Museum Planning are intended to be used as a guide for museum professionals, board members or trustees, government agencies, architects, designers, engineers, cost consultants, or other specialist consultants embarking on a capital project—expansion, renovation, or new construction of museum space. Contributions to the Manual are by museum professionals experienced in planning, and by planners knowledgeable about museums. Individual contributors are identifi ed in the byline for each section

1.2


(or in some cases an entire chapter), with a short biographical note on each provided in the list of contributors.

Books are linear. Planning processes are iterative. As explained in section 1.1, we have organized this book in fi ve parts:

I. Planning for PeopleII. Planning for CollectionsIII. Planning for OperationsIV. Planning for the BuildingV. Implementation

Because planning processes are iterative, this linear structure is not meant to provide a beginning, middle, and end, but rather to situate people, col-lections, and operations as the drivers for the museum planning process. In other words, it is the activity of a museum that should dictate its facility needs. Planning for space and facilities should occur only after the policy and planning framework for people, collections, and operations is in place. Plan-ning for the Building therefore belongs in part IV, following on parts I–III. Part V, Implementation, is the fruit of the planning process.

However, users of the Manual will be more effective in planning for people, collections, and operations if they also understand from the begin-ning the planning documents, the need for cost control, and the eventual implementation process, as well as other topics discussed in parts IV and V. Thus the Manual may be used as a reference and checklist in its various components, but should be read as a whole as the optimal preparation for a planning and development project.

This chapter and the next precede the fi ve parts with this introduction and a description of the planning process itself in chapter 2. In particular, the diagram of the museum planning process in section 2.2 is intended to facili-tate readers’ use of the Manual, confi rming where they are in the planning process, and how any specifi c part, chapter or section of the book relates to all the others. Steps that may be needed prior to the planning process dis-cussed in this book—strategic planning, concept plans or feasibility studies, for instance—are also considered in chapter 2, as is the composition of the ideal Museum Planning Team.

Part I then addresses planning for people—fi rst in general, considering museums as social institutions in chapter 3, prior to a detailed consideration of planning the intended visitor experience. Particularly useful here for read-ers engaged in a museum planning process is the articulation of planning goals, principles, and assumptions in section 3.4.

Part II applies these principles and assumptions to the needs of the museum’s collections. Beginning from collection analysis and a collection

INTRODUCTION 5

development strategy in chapter 5, we proceed through provisions for per-manent collection display and temporary exhibitions, both front and back of house, to projecting the need for collection storage space (section 7.2). New sections on the impact of digitization (7.3) and planning a conservation lab (7.4) are particularly interesting. Policy questions are considered through-out, and collection management costs are noted in section 7.1. Concluding chapter 8 focuses on the crucial considerations of environmental controls and preventive conservation in collection zones.

As explained in section 1.1, in this edition we have brought together all issues affecting the museum’s operations in part III. Museum professionals and others familiar with the day-to-day life of these institutions will not be surprised at the intense and varied level of activity behind the scenes as well as in their public areas that is described in chapter 9. Chapters 10 through 13 examine all the vital issues that affect how sustainable the museum space and facilities are—from security provisions, services, and support functions through staffi ng requirements to projections of attendance, revenue, and expenses. These issues are the ones too often neglected in the enthusiasm for a renovated, new or larger building or a striking architectural design.

Readers will fi nd part IV pivotal, as chapter 14 draws the results of all the foregoing analyses into a concise description of the essential planning docu-ments that must be developed—ideally prior to architectural design. Consis-tent with our emphasis on sustainability, the following two chapters review implications of these documents for environmental stability and for capital costs, funding capability, and the possible need for phasing the project in order to ensure its viability.

Part V on Implementation continues this practical orientation from proj-ect management through design and construction to opening day—and the day after. Along the way attention is paid to site selection (chapter 18) and to the critical process of managing costs and cash fl ow (chapter 20). Although the order in which each of these concerns affects any individual project may vary, familiarity with all of them will enable museum planners, designers, and operators to anticipate and meet them as and when they arise.

In addition to the indispensable index, a glossary of technical terms as used in this volume is provided for readers’ convenience. In addition to ref-erences throughout the text, we have also assembled a list of relevant pub-lications for further reading—concentrating on sources published or placed online since the year 2000, a year after the previous edition of this Manual fi rst appeared.

We hope the reader will fi nd this twenty-fi rst-century edition not only comprehensive, but also readable and practicable, despite its length—a true manual for daily use throughout the life of a museum development project, and long after.


DIMENSIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY

Lindsay Martin

Sustainability is increasingly a primary concern of our society due to aware-ness of climate change, shifts in the global economy, and a growing under-standing that there are limits to growth. Museums have a complex relation-ship to sustainability issues: On the one hand, mandated to preserve tangible and intangible heritage in perpetuity, museums are one of the main tools for communicating sustainability; on the other, the building and climate controls required for this preservation process are energy-intensive and fi nancially challenging. In other words, museums must be sustainable in order to fulfi ll the promise of their mission; but in the twenty-fi rst century museums must be highly innovative in fi nding ways to mitigate environmental, social, and economic risks inherent in this mission.

Throughout this edition, therefore, you will fi nd a discussion of the full spectrum of sustainability issues. Sustainability requires the reconciliation of social, environmental, and economic demands—the “three dimensions” of sustainability. These dimensions are not mutually exclusive, but rather can and should be mutually reinforcing.1 Figure 1.1 depicts this concept.

For cultural or heritage organizations the dimensions of sustainability take on special meanings:

• Social Sustainability: Museums are social benefi t organizations; they serve the public and benefi t from public investment. Service to society is essential to being a sustainable organization and works to ensure that a museum is seen as a relevant, contributing, and vital member of the com-munity. This means working to serve patrons; enhancing quality of life in communities; addressing pressing societal problems; and generating knowledge that provides a better understanding of the past, defi nes our present, and shapes the future.

• Environmental Sustainability: Environmental sustainability is one of the most pressing global issues of our time. Museums must be leaders in their communities as well as globally on this issue—encouraging dia-logue and discussion, educating the public, and exemplifying best prac-tices. The environment touches every aspect of human culture and his-tory as well as nature. Each museum, with its specialization and unique programming, has the ability to make a meaningful contribution to cul-tivating a sustainable future.

• Economic Sustainability: Financial resources are always limited at muse-ums. Spending money wisely is key to maintaining public, donor, and governmental trust. A museum must invest in its future with each and every dollar, rupee, pound, or euro it spends. Through smart choices

1.3

INTRODUCTION 7

and careful planning a museum can ensure that growth can be achieved and—more importantly—maintained over time.

As the diagram indicates, combining any two of these factors can pro-duce acceptable, equitable, or even viable results. To achieve complete sus-tainability, however, all three factors must be optimized in the planning and operation of cultural or heritage institutions.

Cultural Sustainability: While the United Nations has adopted this “three dimensions” defi nition, it should be noted that thinking by leaders in the fi eld has advanced, and some now incorporate a fourth dimension that is specifi c to the fi eld of work of specifi c institutions. For museums as cul-tural institutions this fourth dimension might be called “cultural”—meaning sustainability within the culture of the museum’s community, whether this is local, regional, national, or a global community of interest.

Cultural sustainability should be refl ected in the museum’s mission. The mission should be a driving force in all decisions, especially those that involve signifi cant investment of social, environmental, and economic resources. A museum that fails to deliver on its mission is intrinsically unsustainable, since

Figure 1.1 Dimensions of Sustainability


a cultural institution’s mission is its reason to exist in the fi rst place. And a successful museum mission must be rooted in its community’s culture.

Whether we distinguish three or four dimensions of sustainability, in embracing a sustainable approach a cultural organization commits to achiev-ing what has been called a “triple” (or rather quadruple) “bottom line” (Elk-ington, 1998), optimizing all dimensions of sustainability. A “bottom line” analogy from accounting is apt in the context of the fi nancial metaphor of museums “creating cultural capital.” Museums create cultural capital from their community’s natural or cultural resources, and must aim for sustain-ability in achieving a positive (or at least break-even) “bottom line” in all four dimensions. For museum development projects—new construction, renova-tion or expansion—this means that the facility that is ultimately produced best serves the needs of the whole organization. It does not look to expand profi le or physical space through compromising fi nancial or environmental resources. Nor are social or cultural factors to be sacrifi ced. Making museums sustainable and keeping them that way are worthy objectives for all the plan-ning and implementation that is detailed throughout the rest of this book.

MUSEUM PLANNING

What is museum planning? Why and when do we need it? Is it worth the trouble? This chapter addresses these questions in section 2.1, suggests alter-nate ways of preparing for the planning process in 2.2, outlines the entire facility planning process in 2.3, and recommends the position players we need on the Museum Planning Team in section 2.4.

THE NEED FOR MUSEUM PLANNING

Gail and Barry Lord

Museums collect, record, display, and interpret to their present, past, and future public the meanings of the material culture of our lives—of our arts, histories, and sciences. Museum planning may be defi ned in this context as:

the study and practice of facilitating the preservation and interpretation of material culture by ordering all those components that comprise a museum into a constructed or renovated whole that can achieve its func-tions in a sustainable way with optimal effi ciency.

The goals of museum planning are:

• to provide space and facilities that are both aesthetically pleasing and effective in preserving and interpreting museum collections for museum visitors;

• to establish and/or maintain an institution which can perform these functions effi ciently and sustainably.

Like all complex institutions today, museums require planning if they are to meet both the demands within their walls—the inherently grow-ing collections—and the changing needs of their public, both actual and potential. New museums, or museum expansions, relocations, or renovations make these planning needs explicit, and then provide a result (often all too

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1 0 THE MANUAL OF MUSEUM PLANNING

concrete) in which the nature and limitations of the planning process in that institution are revealed.

Museum planning should be a continuing process, in which the strategic plan is periodically reviewed and revised to meet the changing needs of the institution and its community. Instead, museums often seek to plan hurriedly and out of a sense of urgency occasioned by pressing space constraints, the glaring inadequacy of facilities, or an unexpected opportunity to expand.

The conventional response has been to call in an architect. Many trust or board members and even museum professionals assume that an architect will know how to plan a museum, and many architects are delighted to be given the opportunity. Yet when one considers the growing sophistication of the museum as a building type, not to mention complex non-architectural issues such as an institution’s mandate and its relationship with its changing com-munity and its market—issues that are often vital to the planning process—it is evident that even the most sympathetic architect cannot be expected to be suffi ciently knowledgeable to do the museum planning as well as his or her own professional work.

Figure 2.1 indicates that museum planning is neither architecture nor design, neither management and operations planning nor communications strategy. Although it may borrow from all four disciplines, and certainly works cooperatively with each, it has its own contribution to make. Museum planning is a specifi cally museological discipline, rooted not only in the sci-ence and art of the preservation and protection of collections, but also in their presentation and interpretation. Thus it is allied to, but distinct from,

Figure 2.1 The Centrality of Museum Planning

MUSEUM PLANNING 1 1

the other specializations of museology, such as curatorship, conservation, interpretation, or museum education. The diagram illustrates that museum planning is at the center of the process of building and renovating space and facilities for museums. The museum planner, whether he or she is on the museum staff or works as an outside consultant, focuses the contributions of the other disciplines.

A frequent response to the need for museum planning has been eclecti-cism, based on the premise that what works well in one museum should work equally well in another. So we see a skylight control system transposed from a temperate climate to a much colder northern one, with the ensuing leaks and buckets. Or a high-tech display technique is installed where it isn’t justi-fi ed by the market or can’t be cost-effectively maintained. Clearly, it is always useful to consider good ideas from elsewhere, but the unique needs of each collection, each institution, and each community must be understood before its facilities can be planned.

It may be suggested that a simple solution is to consult the museum professionals and others who are going to have to work in the building—and certainly this is part of the answer. It falls short, however, if museum workers are asked simultaneously to lead a planning process and to carry on with their normal responsibilities. The attempt to utilize regular museum staff to conduct major facility planning may refl ect management’s confi dence in its employees, a lack of funds to retain outside consultants, a reluctance to expose the institution’s problems to others—or a combination of all of these! Unfortunately it is seldom accompanied by relief from other duties; adequate support staff; full and free access to records and information; or a reasonable budget for travel, resource materials, or specialist advice. The result is too often the further burdening of an already overloaded staff with the added responsibility for planning.

Museum standards can easily suffer in this situation, especially in the demanding atmosphere of a planning and building process. When trustees have to choose between in-house staff advice and an architect who tells them that a certain standard is “unattainable” for aesthetic, technical, or fi nancial reasons, they are likely to be strongly constrained to accept the architect’s advice. Museum professionals who (sometimes timidly, sometimes stridently) raise questions about how relative humidity will be controlled, or other such matters affecting the functions of the building, may often be told that “it’s too early” for such concerns, only to be informed when they raise the issues again later that “it’s too late for changes now.”

The professional practice of museum planning arose in response to the need for expertise in comprehensive planning to avoid this “it’s too early/it’s too late” syndrome. Museum planners assist the museum’s professional leadership to ensure that the museum’s needs remain the focus of the capital


project—whether this is a new museum building, an expansion, or a renova-tion. They are advocates for museum standards who are suffi ciently familiar with the planning and building process to intervene appropriately and at the right time, and who are seen to be an objective third party.

In summary, there are four main reasons why specialist museum planners are needed:

• Most museum professionals are involved in only one or two capital proj-ects in their careers and therefore are not familiar with the design and construction process.

• Many architectural practices are not familiar with the museum as a build-ing type, and those that are familiar with the building type are often not aware of functional museum requirements. Architects with museum experience cannot be expected to appreciate the differences in func-tional requirements between one museum and another; errors due to eclecticism—misapplying solutions from another museum in a differ-ent climate or for a different public or a different collection or discipline to this one—are rife.

• Museums usually maintain most if not all of their services during a capi-tal project and therefore have limited staff time to devote to the planning process. This results in staff burnout and dropout of the process (or staff more easily being pushed out). Without careful organization, staff may either burn themselves out—trying to work on both the planning for the museum project and maintaining their normal duties—or may drop out (or be pushed out) of the planning process.

• The professional museum planner, who understands both museology and the building process, facilitates staff input into the process, thereby maxi-mizing communication between the museum’s professional leadership, its trustees and its architects in a comprehensive planning process.

But what will it cost? And do we have time for it? Once a museum project obtains funding and is given the go-ahead, meetings to “plan the planning” seem tedious in comparison to the “real work” of design and construction. Comprehensive planning is often seen as time-consuming and expensive, even though it is far less expensive than change orders during construction, and still less costly than wasted opportunities or ill-suited facilities over the ensuing years.

Since museum projects have a higher unit construction cost than other building types, museum planning is in fact a very cost-effective investment. Opportunities for cost saving in any capital project are greatest in the earliest planning stage; they diminish rapidly once detailed design is under way; are present only to a degree of 10 percent during the tender stage; and deteriorate

MUSEUM PLANNING 1 3

to zero during construction. Table 2.1, originally developed by Chris Davies, the leading British cost consultant for cultural institutions, indicates the pro-portion of the project budget incurred at each stage of a typical museum’s capital project:

Figure 2.2, also developed originally by Chris Davies, shows the same accumulation of costs, graphically illustrating two conclusions from the pre-ceding table:

• The total cost of museum planning prior to design is only 1 percent of total project costs; even if additional expenditure on planning review through schematic and detailed design costs an additional 1 percent, dis-bursements for museum planning are minor compared to the cumulative cost of design and construction.

• Comprehensive museum planning at the outset is cost-effi cient, because it occurs at a time when decisions can be made, reconsidered or reversed, with relatively minor cost implications. Redesign and change orders dur-ing construction are far more costly.

Just one example: almost twenty years ago Barry Lord attended a planning meeting for a new permanent collection gallery at the Australian Museum in Sydney, at which the exhibition designer was presenting his drawings for the gallery. Because Des Griffi n (then director) had a lively appreciation of the value of planning and consulting with all members of his staff, the chief of security was present at the meeting; he observed that the proposed design

Table 2.1. Capital Project Cost Flow

Stage of the ProjectProject Budget Required

Cumulative Percentage of Project Budget

Preliminary planning 0.5 0.5Brief or Functional Program 0.5 1Schematic design 7 8Detailed design 3 11Construction documentation 5 16Tender action 6 22Construction 76 98Commissioning/evaluation 2 100


massed exhibits in the center of the large gallery, obstructing sightlines so that he would have to assign two security guards to patrol it during all pub-lic hours. The designer immediately responded by opening two breaches in the central mass so that diagonal sightlines through the gallery were pro-vided; the chief of security concurred that this would enable him to patrol the gallery satisfactorily with only one guard. The cost of that adjustment at that stage of planning was negligible; the savings of the additional security guard’s salary over many years in the lifetime of that gallery are far greater. Decisions made in the early planning stage, even before design is begun, are always cost-effective, and can go on saving money long after the new build-ing, expansion or renovation are complete.

PREPLANNING

Gail and Barry Lord

Is the museum ready for facilities planning? Do all agree on the concept? Can the institution sustain higher annual operating costs? Are there oppor-tunities to increase revenue in the proposed development? These and other

Figure 2.2 Proportion of Capital Budget Incurred at Each Stage of the Project

2.2

MUSEUM PLANNING 1 5

conceptual, strategic, and sustainability issues should be resolved prior to embarking on the Facilities Master Plan that is the central subject of the Manual. In this section we describe four of the most commonly encountered approaches to these issues—strategic plans, concept plans, feasibility studies, and business plans. They are all valuable planning exercises in themselves, as well as preparing the way for the Facilities Master Plan that is the subject of the following section 2.3.

2.2.1 Strategic Plans

The most important preplanning tool prior to space and facilities planning for an existing cultural institution is strategic planning, the subject of our Manual of Strategic Planning for Museums (Lord and Markert, AltaMira Press, 2007). In this section we summarize the process and show how it can prepare the way for a Facilities Master Plan.

For an organization intent on building a new museum, undertaking a strategic planning process may sound as exciting as a visit to the dentist. Nev-ertheless it is recommended as a means to ensure that all stakeholders share the same vision, and have taken account of all factors, internal and external, that may affect the achievement of their vision.

For an existing cultural institution strategic planning is even more impor-tant, and should be an ongoing exercise. An organization in a steady state should conduct or update its strategic plan on a regular basis, at least every three to fi ve years. If a museum has been doing this, then it is highly likely that the need for a new building, expansion, or renovation has been identifi ed as a goal, and much of the ground work among funders and stakeholders may have been established in the course of these updates. Once museum leader-ship has decided to go ahead with the building project, it is very worthwhile to update the strategic plan because it is really the “ignition” for getting all the other planning processes in place. A few years ago we assisted Long-wood Gardens, the largest public garden in America, in a highly successful process that began with strategic planning, then focused on a Conceptual Facilities Master Plan that was implied by the strategic planning process, fi nally returning to complete the Strategic Plan with the Longwood Board and senior staff, who were now conscious of all the implications of the plan for their 1,000-plus-acre site and its many buildings and gardens.

Strategic planning provides a structure for conducting the following types of helpful processes:

a) SWOT Analysis: This is an institutional situation analysis, identifying the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats affecting or likely to affect the institution.


• The strengths of a museum are likely to be those functions that the institution already performs well, or those resources, such as the rich-ness of its collections, on which it can build. They may include less material strengths, such as the museum’s reputation among its visi-tors, or its traditions of community service or scholarly research and publication.

• The weaknesses, by contrast, are those functions that are suffering from inadequate funding, space, or staff, or those resources, such as less well-represented areas of the collection or an inadequate building, that require improvement. Again, weaknesses may be found among immaterial factors such as a lack of cooperation with other government departments, or an absence of contacts with some ethnic communities.

• Opportunities may be presented by many factors, such as shifts in the museum’s population base, technological change, a major new dona-tion to the collections, or a new funding program.

• Threats may be external, such as new attractions in the area competing for tour groups, or internal, such as the dangers of fi re or deterioration of collections due to inadequate security or environmental controls. Again, they may be less material but still real enough—such as the imminent disappearance of the funding base for an education program.

The SWOT analysis is best conducted by an interdisciplinary group within the museum. In preparation for the SWOT analysis, or in addi-tion to it, a museum planner should undertake the following research projects and make the fi ndings available to the museum for discussion, debate, analysis, and action.

b) An external assessment discovers what people (opinion leaders, for exam-ple) think about the museum, and provides confi dential advice on any proposed expansion plan. The city’s economic development offi cer, for instance, may provide instrumental advice relevant to sustainable site selection in an area of the city scheduled for growth.

c) An environmental scan analyzes the many factors of change that impact the museum sector and the region including trends in technology, demo-graphics, psychographics, and the economy.

d) Benchmarking will compare the museum’s performance to like institu-tions and to unlike ones in relation to certain performance indicators (PIs) in order to better understand how the museum is performing and what it will take to operate at a new level. Benchmarking may also help to posi-tion the scale of the building project—part of the ongoing “right-sizing” exercise that is crucial to achieving sustainability.

e) An internal assessment includes interviews with staff and board members that can pinpoint issues in the structure and functioning of the museum, such as staffi ng, organization, institutional status, and governance.

MUSEUM PLANNING 1 7

A museum planner experienced with both buildings and operations can help the museum’s leadership to maintain an objective view of weaknesses as well as strengths, and to recognize threats as readily as opportunities. A skilled facilitator can work with the museum staff and board members in a structured way to analyze all the information collected, to determine the goals for the project and to revisit the mission, vision, and mandate statements if needed. It is critically important that there be broad consensus among board and senior staff around the goals and foundation statements. For this reason strategic planning workshops or retreats in which board and senior staff mem-bers participate need to be well planned, effective, and enjoyable.

Phasing a development plan to achieve the museum’s goals can be an important outcome of a strategic planning process. This is not yet the phas-ing of a construction program discussed in section 16.4, but phasing the achievement of the museum’s long-range objectives over a period of years.

The outcome of all these analyses, workshops, and retreats should be expressed in a defi nition of no more than fi ve key issues that all agree consti-tute the highest priority to be addressed in the life span of the strategic plan-ning period. A longer list of issues is counterproductive; three to fi ve enable the entire organization to focus on the achievement of real gains over the years for which the strategic plan is being prepared.

The next section of the strategic plan, to be developed by the museum planner in consultation with senior staff and the board, unpacks a series of long-term qualitative goals that must be achieved to resolve each of the key issues, and further details each goal into shorter-term quantitative objectives. The staff can then take on the project of creating the actual strategic plan document, with or without the assistance of museum planners. There should be two documents:

• An internal document, which systematizes the objectives and tasks of each department according to the main goals of the project in relation to the key issues, will be invaluable to keeping the museum staff on track and in alignment during the stressful years ahead.

• An attractive, easy-to-read public document highlighting the goals and how the museum arrived at them will be a valuable initial document for the community (especially all those consulted) and for stakeholders and funders.

2.2.2 Concept Plans

What is to be the new museum’s essential cultural or heritage resource? Or if you are planning for an expansion, relocation, or renovation, what is the cultural resource at the heart of the present museum, and how will it be


enhanced by the capital project under consideration? We sometimes call this simply the “what” of the planning process.

A concept plan defi nes and describes this “what” concisely and succinctly, but with enough character, color, and detail that all stakeholders, government or foundation funding agencies, and others can see clearly what the new or improved institution will offer. The concept outlines the visitor experience of the new or expanded museum—the meaning of the project in terms that everyone can understand. The concept should be inspiring (not yet because of its design—that comes later) but because of its relevance and positive impact. The concept plan should:

• demonstrate that the capital project is based on sound research such as audience surveys, market analysis, and benchmarking;

• address the museum’s collection, its growth, and development; • present the new benefi ts that the museum will provide the community

through its improved facilities; and • communicate the ideas and meanings that the museum will convey to the

public through its exhibitions, programs, and activities.

Concept plans are relatively brief but concrete statements of a vision for the project including major facility components like a theater, major tem-porary exhibition gallery, or enhanced visitor services. But the concept plan does not get into attendance or fi nancial projections, because these need to be developed once the concept has support, justifying the next step, which is a feasibility study or business plan that tests the concept for sustainability. The concept plan (or vision) can be very valuable as a strong statement of the ultimate impact of the capital project—a kind of “benchmark” against which each stage of the project can be evaluated. Of course, as the project is “right-sized” or made progressively more “sustainable,” it will be important to constantly revisit the concept plan to determine whether it has evolved to become more realistic or whether it has lost its way. For example, does the elimination of the theater undermine the entire concept? Or is it simply a logical cost cutting effort that places the budget on the bigger priority of the collection? During the planning process, the planning team must be prepared both to fi ght for the original concept and to amend the original vision or concept when appropriate to do so.

2.2.3 Feasibility Studies

Feasibility studies are routinely required for new initiatives, whether these are entire new institutions or simply a new wing added to an existing structure. They are often conceived in analogy to feasibility studies for new business

MUSEUM PLANNING 1 9

initiatives in the private sector. However, it is important to note that the defi nition of feasibility for a cultural institution is radically different from its meaning for a commercial enterprise. Whereas feasibility for a profi t-making enterprise can be defi ned in terms of return on investment, the feasibility of a cultural institution must be determined in relation to the amount of subsidy projected: a feasible cultural initiative is one whose contribution to heritage preservation, cultural creativity, public education, or research justifi es the projected subsidy required from public or private sources. Of course, the feasibility study should show how the project can be realized as effi ciently and cost-effectively as possible, but ultimately the question of feasibility will be answered by reference to a bottom line that must be derived either from gov-ernment subsidy, foundation grants, donations, sponsorships, and/or other private sector fi nancial support.

To arrive at a defi nitive answer to this question, some of the same tech-niques as noted for concept plans and strategic planning are useful, along with components that are common to both feasibility studies and business plans:

• an analysis of the essential cultural resource—collections, archaeologi-cal site, heritage building, scientifi c research, or whatever—on which the new institution or expansion will be based, together with a development strategy for the collections or other resources if needed;

• a clear statement of the concept that is to be achieved by transforming this “cultural resource” into “cultural capital,” including a public program plan for the proposed institution’s exhibitions, research and learning pro-grams, special events, entertainment features, and visitor services;

• a market analysis (see section 4.2), including visitor surveys or other data on existing visitation if the museum is already operating, testing the con-cept against market realities, and identifying target markets;

• an external assessment, identifying changes affecting the existing or pro-posed museum and evaluating them in relation to relevant trends, com-parable institutions, or best-practice examples relevant to the proposed concept;

• an internal assessment, identifying not only material issues of collections care, space, and facilities, but also governance and staffi ng concerns;

• a SWOT analysis summarizing both internal and external strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats relevant to realization of the concept;

• an identifi cation of the key issues shown by the foregoing assessments and analysis to be affecting the proposed or existing museum, together with phasing recommendations for resolving the three to fi ve issues iden-tifi ed in priority order;


• a preliminary projection of capital cost not only for building construction but for both permanent collection displays and exhibitions; site develop-ment and landscaping; the cost of “ramping up” to opening day; and all licenses, architects’ and planners’ fees, and soft costs (see chapter 20), with the bottom line related to funding capability (see section 16.3);

• a projection of staff required for the operation of the new facility; • a projection of potential attendance based on the market analysis;• projected annual operating expenses (see chapter 13), and projected rev-

enue, related to both self-generated earnings and the “feasibility” bottom line of the amount to be provided by government subsidy; foundation grants; or from some combination of subsidies and grants with sponsor-ships, donations, fundraising, or other private sector support; and

• a clear statement of feasibility based on the above defi nition, possibly identifying risk factors and in some cases projecting variances if atten-dance and revenues are higher or lower.

The feasibility study is usually a hefty document requiring an Executive Summary, and may add a visualization or concept (see 3.2.2 above) to clarify the vision—although this may be misleading, since neither facility planning nor architecture has yet been done. If the study is positive, it should both guide the project and impress potential supporters with the seriousness of the organi-zation’s dedication and intent. Both the strategic plan and the feasibility study should be reviewed and updated on an annual basis so that they refl ect major changes in the museum’s situation or the evolution of the project.

2.2.4 Business Plans

If the feasibility of the project is already agreed, it may be more suitable to develop a business plan for the museum as it will operate after completion of the capital project. Such a business plan will contain much the same content as a feasibility study, but will not be aimed at proving feasibility, but at dem-onstrating how expenses, earned revenues, and the bottom line of subsidy or donations balance out.

All those enlisted in supporting the museum building project will want to be assured that there is a plan to sustain the museum’s operations at the level of excellence envisioned in the concept, mission, and vision. Therefore there needs to be a business plan that takes account of the increased costs the museum will experience as well as the increased revenues. Experience shows that despite the energy and staff effi ciencies that a new building can facilitate, the costs of operating the expanded museum will always exceed increased revenues—even if there are more visitors and new revenue sources, such as facility rentals and a bigger shop (see chapter 13).

MUSEUM PLANNING 2 1

This situation is challenging enough, but becomes in most cases impos-sible if in addition the museum tries to pay down debts incurred through the building project itself. Museums that fail to take this reality into account are those that often “lose” their director immediately following the opening; and then require major operational and fi nancial restructuring. Business plans for museums must not attempt to sustain debt fi nancing.

The sooner the museum’s fi nance department embarks on business planning the better, because the operational business plan should infl uence the space planning and design. Here museum planners can be instrumen-tal because they have the experience of knowing many of the challenges and pitfalls an expanded or new museum will face in the opening years and beyond. An accurate feasibility study or business plan is essential to ensuring sustainability.

2.3 THE FACILITY PLANNING PROCESS

Lindsay Martin

Since the essence of a manual is to make a relatively complex undertaking easier (if not easy) to do, we have designed a relatively simple and hopefully memorable diagram (fi gure 2.3) to represent the key stages in the museum planning process. Readers can use the diagram as a map to steer through the process and as a kind of “GPS” system to locate where you are—when you get lost in the details, which happens to the best of us. This section relates the phases of the museum planning process to the parts, chapters, and sections of this book.

Figure 2.3 illustrates the four main phases of museum planning—Institu-tional Plan, the Facility Master Plan, Implementation, and Opening Day. Each phase informs those that follow. By tackling the careful work at the beginning of the process, the latter phases will run more smoothly and the end result will be more effective.

Of course, rules are meant to be broken. And there are many situations when it is not possible to conduct each stage in proper sequence. By under-standing the optimal process, you can strive to get your project on track. If you have all the elements in the end, even if they were done in a different order, your project will be better positioned for success.

Each phase is marked by a distinct focus and nature of activity. They are as follows:

Institutional Plan: This phase focuses on the identity and future direction of the institution. It is critical that the organization has a clear sense of itself and its strategy for the future so that its true capital needs can be determined. A donation may have been offered for a new wing to be named after the donor—but does its subject matter serve the museum’s


Figure 2.3 Museum Planning Process

MUSEUM PLANNING 2 3

mission? What are the priorities for this opportunity? Only by reference to the museum’s fundamental values and sense of direction can these decisions be made.

These values are expressed in foundation statements—vision, mission, and mandate statements, as discussed in section 3.2—which may be given direc-tion in a strategic plan, described in the previous section 2.2. The process to arrive at these documents depends on creating alignment among governing body, leadership team, staff, major donors, and audience. This alignment is the foundation of facility development, because it ensures that everyone is working toward shared goals.

In this phase, the fi rst round of right-sizing occurs. Right-sizing is addressed in this book in section 16.1, but work on it begins here, and con-tinues until a realistic budget is struck. Right-sizing means balancing three complex factors:

• the onetime costs of developing new or expanding programs, ramping up operations, and construction of the facility;

• the projected ongoing operating costs associated with programmatic and physical growth;

• the capacity to fund the project over the short and long term.

Only rough estimates may be possible at the outset, to be refi ned throughout the planning process. All of the numbers must work in order for the project to be sustainable—while it may be relatively easy to raise funds for new buildings, ongoing operational costs will need to be funded every year. In order to do this the organization must understand what its program-matic activity will be, by developing a public program plan (as discussed in section 4.3), projecting revenue and expenses associated with the operation of a new facility in a feasibility study or business plan (described in the previous section 2.2), and determining what the contributed income sources for the museum could be through a funding capacity study (section 16.3). Then each plan needs to be refi ned in an iterative process until the level of activity and growth is aligned with the ability to fund it. Right-sizing in this fi rst phase ensures that going into the next phase of planning, expectations are realistic and that neither energy nor goodwill is wasted on planning for something that cannot be realized.

Facility Master Plan: In this phase, which is the subject of parts I–IV of this book, the museum determines what it will do moving forward and, even more importantly, how it will be achieved. Focused by the clear direction emerging from the Institutional Plan, more detailed planning can begin for the facility. This begins with the development of planning goals, principles, and assumptions (section 3.4) that capture the desired impacts of the project and the values that are to be infused into the project, as well as certain agreed


quantitative measures that will shape planning, such as the dimensions of the largest design object to be moved within the building, design day occupancy levels, and the “design year” that is the planning horizon.

Guided by these goals, principles, and assumptions, the planning process continues with a careful analysis of the needs of people (part I), collections (part II), and operations (part III). As the chapters in each of these sections manifest in detail, the purpose of these analyses is to determine the require-ments of each of these three crucial components of a sustainable museum. For example, the building occupancy levels will require a certain number of covers in the restaurant and spaces in the parking lot; the collections will require a certain number of storage rooms maintained at specifi c temperature and rela-tive humidity levels; and the operation of the new or enlarged museum will require offi ces and a lunchroom to accommodate additional staff.

The building requirements (part IV) are thus generated from the needs of the people, collections, and operations of the institution. These require-ments are stated in a set of essential planning documents (chapter 14) that translate the results of the foregoing analyses into specifi c space and techni-cal requirements. Now it becomes possible to project a more accurate bud-get (chapter 16) for construction, project expenses, and ramp-up operations needed to get to opening day, along with a schedule (section 16.5) for the entire project through to that day and beyond, if time is allocated for adjust-ments and an evaluation after opening.

Throughout this phase the Project Team will continue to work iteratively to right-size the project. This is essential to the success of the project, as this is the phase where changes big and small can be made easily, with little to no cost. Before the project moves to implementation, the Project Team must be confi dent that the funds can be secured to invest in and sustain both the capital development and the programmatic growth necessary for its actual operation.

Implementation: This phase (part V) is marked by heightened activity in every aspect of the project.

The location for the facility must be carefully chosen through site selec-tion (chapter 18), which may have happened earlier in the process but ideally should be undertaken only when the requirements of the project are well known so that all factors may be considered in choosing the right site. Even if the site is a “given,” the positioning of the building on the site will be a major task of the implementation phase. A recent example of why fl exibility should be maintained in site selection as long as possible is furnished by the National Art Museum of China. They initially planned to expand on the museum’s existing site in central Beijing; but after an analysis of their require-ments, they decided to keep their present building for some functions and to

MUSEUM PLANNING 2 5

relocate most of their activities to a new building on a new site near Beijing’s Olympic stadium.

The new or expanded or renovated building takes shape both conceptu-ally and physically through the design and construction process (chapter 19). Key to ensuring that fi scal needs are met, cost and cash fl ow (chapter 20) must be monitored carefully to ensure that the museum is fi scally respon-sible in deploying its resources appropriately and honoring obligations in a timely fashion. During the implementation phase the Museum Planning Committee will be working closely with architects, designers, engineers, and contractors, with a period during actual construction when they will have limited access to the building site only by prior arrangement with the builders.

Meanwhile, museum staff will be focused on the operational ramp-up (chapter 21). This means preparing the organization for the new facility—developing the new permanent collection displays or temporary exhibitions, acquiring collections, growing public programs, launching new initiatives, hiring and training staff, reviewing and revising policies and procedures, and training staff for an expanded operation. If the project includes new permanent collection displays or temporary exhibitions, it will be neces-sary to integrate the schedule for their planning, design, fabrication, and installation with the building design and construction schedule; construc-tion management must then be combined with project management of the exhibitions.

Opening Day (section 21.3): The opening celebrations have a big impact on the future success of the museum because they provide an occasion to welcome the community, gain extensive media coverage, and thank all those who worked so hard to achieve the building project. The opening period also inaugurates a more extensive period of testing and refi nement to fi nd the solutions that work best for the new, renovated, or expanded facility and to provide the optimal visitor experience.

The preceding fi gure 2.3 provides a visual image of the museum plan-ning process, intended to help readers orient where they are in the process throughout the Manual—and throughout their actual experience. The fol-lowing table 2.2 details the stages in the museum planning process as com-prehensively as possible. Together with fi gure 2.3 it can serve as a checklist to ensure that the purpose of each stage in the process and the activities necessary to it are fully understood. The table includes reference to the pre-planning steps described in the previous section, as well as those outlined in this section. Although each stage is described summarily in the table, detailed discussions of each stage will be found in the relevant chapters or sections throughout the rest of the Manual.


Table 2.2. Stages in the Museum Planning Process

1. PreplanningPurpose: To prepare the way for a museum-led planning and implementation process that will result in a facility that meets the museum’s needs

1.1 Preliminary PlanningPurpose: To defi ne the basic objectives and parameters of the project

• opportunity and/or need

• planning process

• planners and their roles

• project stages

• key decision points

• key decision-making committees

• information and policy requirements and recommend methods for data gathering and analysis and policy formulation in preparing for the briefi ng process

1.2 Institutional PlanningPurpose: To establish the appropriate institutional context for the development

• museum’s foundation documents

• mission, mandate, purpose

• status and organizational structure

• relations with government

• relations with other institutions

• redraft all the above as required

1.3 Collection Analysis and Collection Development StrategyPurpose: To project space and facilities requirements for future collections

• undertake qualitative analysis in relation to collecting fi eld, scope, and disciplines

• review criteria of collecting and collection policies

• classify collection into “Display,” “Study,” and “Reserve”

• undertake quantitative analysis by category and subcategory, materials, size

• quantify documentation and conservation needs

• calculate past and project future growth rates by category and size

• calculate present and project future display storage ratio

• calculate exhibition and storage densities

• project collection development strategy and the resulting changes to all factors above

• project staff, space, and facilities requirements to care for these collections

1.4 Market Analysis and Marketing StrategyPurpose: To determine the existing and potential users of the museum

• conduct visitor surveys and evaluation

• analyze demographic and behavioral data

• draw profi les of existing and potential markets

• analyze market segments

• develop a marketing strategy

• project attendance, sales, and revenue

MUSEUM PLANNING 2 7

1.5 Public Program PlanPurpose: To project space and facilities requirements for the public use of the museum

• determine principles of public access

• project communications strategy

• position museum in its market

• draft or review research policy and plan

• draft or review exhibition policy and plan

• draft or review policies for museum activities or programs:

• develop an Interpretation Plan

• develop an Education Plan

• consider potential for extension programs

• consider potential for outreach

• determine publications policy for both print and media

• review and agree public relations and social media policies

• project special events program requirements

• project food service (catering) space and facilities provision

• project retail sales potential and requisite space and facilities

• project requirements for visitor amenities

• project staff, space, and facilities requirements to provide all of these public programs as sustainably as possible.

1.6 Feasibility StudyPurpose: To summarize the feasibility of the development

• study alternative types of solution (e.g. lease, buy, build, mixed-use, relocate, renovate, site options)

• test the feasibility of the preferred solution

• establish the budget (for both capital and operating costs)

• project fund-raising targets and evaluate them

• schedule target dates

• state operational feasibility in terms of potential for self-generated income; government, foundation, or other subsidy; and sponsorship or donation requirements

2. Briefi ng (Functional Program)Purpose: To defi ne the museum’s requirements

2.1 Functional Program or BriefPurpose: To describe in the user’s language the museum’s requirements

• access, adjacencies, and circulation

• zoning and functional areas

• site requirements

• performance criteria for building systems and standards

• facilities

• room data sheets: requirements for all factors for all spaces

• (with cost consultant) unit cost plan

(continued)


2.2 Technical Specifi cationsPurpose: To defi ne technical requirements to meet the Functional Program:

• site development

• foundation and structure

• materials and surfaces

• building systems

• equipment and facilities

• prepare elemental cost plan

• refi ne implementation schedule

Note: The Exhibition Brief for new or renovated displays is developed in parallel to the Brief or Functional Program for the building. Similarly, exhibition design should be scheduled parallel to building design. Exhibition fabrication and show production will take place off-site during building construction; and installation of exhibits will generally be scheduled after the building is commissioned (handed over to the museum) at stage 6 below.

3. DesignPurpose: To design the museum according to the Functional Program or Brief

3.1 Schematic DesignPurpose: To develop an initial design concept which seeks to defi ne general scope, scale, and relationships of building components

• identify the preferred concept

• prepare fl oor plans, sections, and elevations of the preferred concept

• prepare site plan

• prepare preliminary exhibition and display design

• test against requirements of the brief

• check against budget and schedules

• refi ne program

• refi ne costs, budget, and schedules

3.2 Detailed DesignPurpose: To prepare a set of detailed fl oor plans, sections, wall sections, integrated systems, and detailed elevations

• prepare site plans showing landscape design

• design special systems (e.g., heating, ventilation and air-conditioning, lighting, etc.)

• test against requirements of brief

• check compliance with regulations, by-laws, and building codes

• obtain cost quotations from specialist suppliers as necessary

• refi ne elemental costs, budget, and schedules

4. Construction DocumentationPurpose: To prepare the technical drawings and detailed specifi cations needed to get the building constructed: the fi nal dimensional, coded, comprehensive plans describing all aspects of the architectural, structural, mechanical, electrical, communications, and other systems

Table 2.2. Continued

MUSEUM PLANNING 2 9

4.1 Tender (bid) ActionPurpose: To invite contractors to submit bids to build the museum

• analyze and compare bids and make a recommendation to the building committee

• if the quotations exceed the museum’s budgeted fi nancial capability, the architect may be instructed to reject the bid and terminate the work, or the board may instruct the architect to rework the design and negotiate the quoted prices down

4.2 Contract NegotiationPurpose: To fi nalize a contract for construction that includes specifi cations, conditions of work, schedules, and fi nancial procedures

5. ConstructionPurpose: To build (or renovate) the building according to the plans, specifi cations, and schedule

• prepare the site

• construct the building

• monitor and control expenditure

• monitor compliance with the Design Intent and with the Functional Program or Brief

Note: It should be remembered that the client has no authority on the job site. Site visits during construction are usually arranged through the architect, who communicates with the contractor. The combined team—consisting of key representatives of the Museum Project Team (museum staff and specialist consultants) and the Building Design Team (the architect and specialist consultants)—monitors the construction via the architect by means of regular meetings at which alternatives can be considered as required, especially if necessary to meet budget constraints.

6. CommissioningPurpose: To turn the completed building over to the owner for move-in

• conduct detailed inspection

• prepare list of defi ciencies (snagging list) and assign responsibility for them

• reduce list of defi ciencies to zero to the Building Committee’s satisfaction

• ensure effective operation of environmental controls and all other building systems, ideally for at least a few months

• declare contract complete and sign off

• agree fi nal accounts

• museum takes control of building

• exhibition and display contractors commence on-site installation work

• building operators and other museum staff are trained in the new systems and facilities

• museum operation and maintenance commences

7. EvaluationPurpose: To improve museum planning and building performance for future projects

• study and document the performance of the building against the original objectives

• analyze actual costs against cost plan

• disseminate information to the museum profession


THE PLANNING TEAM

Barry Lord and Lindsay Martin

Teamwork is essential to realize a museum capital project—and effective teamwork is critical to a successful project! Understanding who should be involved when, and how they will work together, is necessary if the planning process is to succeed. Agreeing on who constitutes the Planning Team at each point in the process ensures that each team member is clear on her or his role and responsibility, so that appropriate reporting and communications lines can be put in place as the project evolves and becomes more complex over time.

The following fi gure 2.4 identifi es the structure for the Planning Team and how each group works with one another. The Planning Team will be comprised of members of the museum’s leadership and staff as well as outside professionals with specialized skills.

Figure 2.4 graphically illustrates the need for coordination of two related but separate teams—the Museum Project Team and the Building Team. Many museum projects are hobbled from the outset because the Building Committee, the museum director or the project manager believe that their task is to select and manage only the Building Team—the archi-tect and other engineering, landscape, or design specialists, and the contrac-tor—neglecting or subordinating the vital planning work that is needed by the Museum Project Team. The latter group may be assisted by professional museum planners and advised by cost consultants, but must involve museum personnel as well in a wide range of relevant Functional Task Groups—curatorial, conservation, exhibitions, security, fi nancial management, and an operations task force that will plan the operation of the new or expanded museum after opening day. The museum planner should work with all of these groups to develop a Functional Program (as it is called in the United States), programmation (in France) or a Brief (as it is called in Great Britain, Germany, and elsewhere), which communicates the museum’s requirements to the Building Team. The Design Team has the responsibility to design a building that serves the functions identifi ed in this document, so that the Construction Team can build it: the architect translates the requirements of the Program or Brief into drawings, while the engineers answer them with specifi cations.

Of course there is a great deal of back-and-forth between the Museum Project Team and the Building Team. Collaboration, cooperation, and a spirit of compromise between both teams, tempered by an informed appreciation of the relative importance of the requirements under consideration, are cru-cial to a successful museum planning process, especially if “value engineering”

2.4

MUSEUM PLANNING 3 1

Figure 2.4 Roles and Responsibilities in a Museum Capital Project


becomes necessary as a result of cost escalations or fundraising shortfalls (or both). In order to facilitate such informed collaboration, however, both teams must continue to participate equally throughout the entire planning and design process. Too often members of the Museum Planning Team, whether they are museum planning professionals or museum staff, are consulted only at the outset and then are not present when critical decisions have to be made.

The requirements specifi ed in the Functional Program or Brief may need to be modifi ed for reasons of design, budget, schedule, availability of materials, or other considerations. So the Project Coordination Group must remain at the center of the process, as shown in fi gure 2.4, reporting via the museum director to the Building Committee and the governing body that has appointed it, and transmitting its decisions via the project manager to both the Museum Project Team and the Building Team. For larger projects an owner’s representative may also be a useful member of this group, espe-cially if the Construction Team is headed by a construction manager.

The following table 2.3 defi nes the roles and responsibilities of each group depicted in the preceding fi gure 2.4.

One of the most important aspects of museum planning is assembling the right group of people around the planning table. Complementary yet dif-fering perspectives and skill sets are essential as one assembles and appoints members of the Planning Team. Members should be collaborative problem solvers who are effective communicators. As you build your team, make sure that each individual will be able to contribute knowledge and experience while remaining fl exible and open to new ideas and alternative solutions. Museum planning is challenging enough, without being made more diffi -cult by dominating personalities, unprofessional behavior, or unproductive conversations.

The people who will make up these groups, teams, or committees are described in table 2.4.

MUSEUM PLANNING 3 3

Table 2.3. Roles and Responsibilities in Museum Planning

Title & Members Role Responsibilities

Governing Body: Museum director reports to it, and may or may not also be a member of it.

To set strategy, establish policies and make major legal and fi nancial decisions. To receive reports from the museum director and the Building Committee.

Formally establishing the initial project scope, budget, and schedule; deciding whether or not the project goes forward at key decision points; and approving major changes to project. The governing body would also approve all key legal and fi nancial commitments incurred as part of the capital project such as real estate purchases, major contracts, debt fi nancing, and partnership agreements.

Building Committee:A subcommittee of the Governing Body, which may invite external members to ensure it includes all relevant expertise.

To provide oversight to the capital project and bring key items for discussion and approval before the governing body. Makes decisions needed between Governing Body meetings.

To ensure project is executed as directed by Governing Body and identify issues to be elevated to the Governing Body for discussion and direction. To utilize members’ expertise in key areas such as fi nance, legal, real estate, capital project development, and construction management.

Project Coordination Group (key institutional decision makers, museum director,fi nance offi cer, project manager, owners’ representative, and chairs of the Building Committee, the Museum Project Team and the Building Team).

To guide the project from planning through design and construction. To ensure that each aspect of the project is aligned with and informed by the others and that coordination, collaboration, and communication are maximized.

This is the central project management committee, working from the construction stage through to completion. There are many contractors and staff involved in the project thus this group must steer the decision-making process, ensure coordination between planning elements, and facilitate effi cient and effective communication among all parties. Manages budget, scope, and schedule and adjusts as needed. Chaired by the museum director or the project manager, with representatives on it who direct and coordinate each of the planning elements.

(continued)


Museum Project Team:

Functional Task Groups: established by and report to the Project Management Team as needed, with relevant staff expertise and specialist consultants as appropriate. Museum planner should coordinate their input into a Functional Program or Brief, stating museum’s requirements to the Building Team.

To investigate and plan discrete elements of the project. To provide information to be incorporated into the larger planning process. May be focused on items such as collections, earned income, education, or other issues that required additional study emerging from the planning process. Must include an Exhibitions and Operations Planning Group to prepare for future operations.

To drill down on a focused area of study while striving for the larger institutional vision and working in alignment with the overall priorities of the project. Study and recommend the best solutions for the subject area assigned by the Project Management Group. Work collaboratively and iteratively with other parts of the planning team to develop strategies that best serve the museum’s long-term needs. Ensure that the Functional Program or Brief meets the museum’s operational requirements.

Building Team:

Design Team: Led by the architect and supported by engineers, landscape architects, and museum planners.

To design the capital project according to the museum’s brief and budget.

Develop a design that meets the museum’s functional requirements, design aspirations, and capital budget.

Construction Team: led by the contractor, supported by relevant trades, in consultation with the architect, engineers, and landscape architects.

To build the capital project, execute the architect’s design, work within the budget, and maintain the schedule identifi ed by the project manager.

Realize in physical form the vision of the architect and museum. Work collaboratively with the design team to ensure that design may be constructed within the budget and schedule identifi ed. Deliver project on time and on budget.


MUSEUM PLANNING 3 5

Table 2.4. People Involved in Planning

Title Role

Trustees Trustee is a term used to denote the members of a museum’s board, who may be called “board members” or “governors” elsewhere. If it is a governing board, they are responsible for the legal and fi nancial decisions of the museum; an advisory board is not directly responsible, but recommends on the same subjects to the government or other authority that appointed it. Trustees’ oversight is therefore essential for a capital project. Additionally, if the board is a fundraising or giving board, trustees will be responsible for providing and/or securing the majority of the philanthropic support required to execute the project. Board members may also lend their professional expertise on a volunteer basis. For a capital project it may be desirable to have board members knowledgeable about real estate, fi nance, construction, and legal issues. However, confl icts of interest must be avoided—for example, if a board member’s fi rm is being considered for a professional service contract, he or she should resign from the board, or at least not participate in that decision.

Museum Director The museum director is responsible for oversight of the entire process, providing the link between the governing body and its Building Committee, to whom he or she reports, and the Project Coordination Team and its components that report to the director. Above all, the museum director must provide the inspired leadership based on consistent focus on the museum’s mission and the project concept that will be required throughout the planning, design, and construction process.

Museum Staff A capital project requires a signifi cant effort by the museum’s professional staff—not only the museum director but also senior leadership of all departments (deputy directors and department heads). Museum staff should be well represented on the Museum Project Team and its functional groups: the deputy director for collections management might be on the central Museum Project Team, with curators of the specifi c artifacts involved on the Collections Task Force reporting to it. Some of the ongoing responsibilities of museum staff assigned to the project may have to be reassigned to allow for suffi cient involvement with the planning project.

(continued)


Project Manager The project manager may be a member of the museum staff, but if so must be hired specifi cally for the project or else reassigned from an existing position and relieved of all nonproject responsibilities. This person is responsible for coordinating and aligning all activity of both the Museum Project Team and the Design Team, working with the chairs or managers of each of the constituent groups. The project manager is focused on keeping to the schedule and the budget, and is likely to call special meetings if he or she sees that there may be a need to reconsider either. The project manager should not be confused with the “construction manager,” which is a company or an individual hired during the implementation process to manage the construction of the building.

Owner’s Representative In larger projects it may be advisable to appoint an experienced professional owner’s representative, who will supervise and coordinate the work of the Building Team, responding to questions of the architect, engineers, or contractor. In such cases the project manager will focus on the Museum Project Team while the owner’s representative will be primarily concerned with the Design Team. Clearly the two positions must work closely together.

Architect The architect usually heads the Design Team. He or she is responsible for meeting the requirements of the Museum Project Team with a design that also realizes the aesthetic ambitions of the project. Museum buildings today are in some cases as important as their contents in expressing the meaning or signifi cance of the institution, and in attracting public interest.

Engineers Engineers are usually members of the Design Team who report through and work with the architect. Civil, structural, mechanical, electrical, acoustic and other engineering specialists may be included in a museum project. They are responsible for translating the requirements of the Functional Program or Brief set by the Museum Project Team into engineering specifi cations.

Exhibition Designer The exhibition designer has the responsibility to translate the museum’s Exhibition Design Brief into drawings that can be built and installed in the galleries. The museum’s exhibition planning team will develop the Design Brief, often with the aid of a professional museum planner, who may develop the Interpretative Plan (see section 4.3). Some museums have an exhibition designer on staff; others prefer to contract exhibition design separately, especially for a major new project. In some instances architect and exhibition designer may be contracted together, although it is usually preferable to contract them separately. If they are engaged separately, it is important to do so at about the same time, so that architect and exhibition designer can work together from the outset.


MUSEUM PLANNING 3 7

Consultants In a complex museum project there will be consultants or sub-consultants directly contracted by the museum, and sub-consultants contracted by the architect or other major players. There is no rule of thumb as to which consultants may be hired by whom. It depends on the nature of the project and the resources of the museum. It is of paramount importance that all those with whom the museum has contracted (directly or indirectly) are mutually compatible and complementary and have clearly defi ned responsibilities through legal agreements.

Museum Planner A professional museum planner, a specialist consultant or fi rm, should understand and have experience in the operation of museums, as well as in the planning and building process. In addition to having an important role in the preplanning steps described in the previous section 2.2, a museum planner should be engaged to determine feasibility and to develop the Functional Program or Brief in consultation with the museum’s governing body, director, and staff in the Museum Project Team. In order to facilitate subsequent cooperation, the museum planner should continue to work with the architect and the rest of the Design Team through to engagement of the contractor, monitoring the completion of the planning and design process in order to ensure that at each stage the project continues to meet the requirements stated in the Functional Program or Brief as far as possible, given the inevitable compromises due to budget constraints, the need to meet deadlines, or other factors. The museum planner may also develop the Interpretative Plan for the exhibitions, and should work closely with the exhibition designer through to fabrication and installation of the exhibits.

Cost Consultant or Quantity Surveyor

It is best to engage a cost consultant (often called a quantity surveyor in the U.K.) early in the planning process, and to establish those landmarks when more and more refi ned cost estimates will be made. This process is critical to “right-sizing” and should be sustained throughout the planning and design process.

PLANNING FOR PEOPLE

Museums seem to be about objects but they are really about people. A sus-tainable museum is culturally sustainable within its community, whether that is a local resident population or a global community of scientists interested in its discipline. The fi rst part of this Manual explores the underlying issues of museum planning that have to do with the museum’s relationship with its communities—global, national, or local—whether people arrive in person or virtually.

Planning for people is fundamental to whether a museum is truly effec-tive in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting and communicating the meanings of its collections, the collections of others, and their place and role in the world. The role of museums is extensive, and becoming more so daily:

• In their capacity as collectors of works of art and artifacts in every fi eld of human endeavour, museums are mediators of cultural, social, and sci-entifi c change. People consult museums to better understand the world, past, present and future.

• In their capacity as presenters of new content, museums are accelerators of cultural change. People visit museums to fi nd and debate their place in the world.

• In their capacity as sources of wonder and beauty, museums are unique lei-sure destinations for pleasure and enjoyment.

• In their capacity as builders of new structures or renovations or expan-sions of existing ones, museums are patrons of architecture, promoters of urban or countryside renewal, and placemakers—even “branders” of cities and regions. People increasingly expect museum building projects to help solve some of the economic and social challenges facing their community.

This means that planning for people refers not only to projecting the number of visitors so there are enough cafe, auditorium, and toilet seats (although getting these details right is important); but also to getting the

PAR

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strategy right so that the museum can fulfi ll its many new societal func-tions. This means conducting extensive research to enable museum planners to respond imaginatively to the needs and expectations of present and future visitors—whether in person or online. It means engaging with communities to ensure that the museum can meet their needs, and equally to ensure that communities understand not only the opportunities presented by a museum building project, but also the limitations of what the museum project can deliver.

The following chapters 3 and 4 explore this territory—from institutional planning through market analysis to the actual visitor experience. Planning for people encompasses the stories behind the building and beyond the building—accounting therefore for the ultimate success or failure of the museum build-ing project.

4 1

MUSEUMS AS SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Museums today are more than ever inherently social institutions. They have become places where people like to gather, preferred venues for memorable personal events like weddings or anniversaries, and forums for public debate of aesthetic or scientifi c concepts. Yet at the same time museums continue to fulfi ll their primary social responsibility: conveying meaning to their visitors by displaying and interpreting three-dimensional objects in built space.

The fi rst three sections of this chapter focus on the elements of planning that are essential for the museum to fulfi ll its social role: institutional evolu-tion (3.1), foundation statements (3.2), and the broader issues of governance and the role of museums in service to society (3.3). Section 3.4 demonstrates how these elements (which may seem abstract at this point) are made con-crete in the form of planning goals, principles, and assumptions, the fi rst step in the development of a Facility Master Plan.

INSTITUTIONAL EVOLUTION

Gail Dexter Lord

Many people still think of museums as nice, quiet, perhaps dusty places that exist outside the frenetic pace of contemporary society. Nothing could be fur-ther from the reality of museum work. Museums are social institutions, and as such they are challenged with all the issues of change that impact other institutions—technology, diversity, sustainability, competing demands, rising costs, and economic downturns—to name just a few.

Museums are also great success stories, and have been for about two cen-turies. In our era, which is dominated by the communications revolution, museums have become highly valued outside the traditional cultural realm as providers of content, leisure destinations, community forums, magnets for knowledge workers, and brandable entities that can revitalize communities large and small.

It is not unusual for a museum to be approached by a developer who wants the museum to relocate and rebuild as an “icon” for a waterfront

3.1.

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development, for instance. Another type of museum growth may be precipi-tated by the donation of a major collection by a collector who expects (and might even help) the museum to build a new wing in which to display it. There are an increasing number of museums being created in countries and communities that require new institutions as building blocks for the knowl-edge economy and for cultural tourism.

A growing sense of cultural identity among formerly marginalized peo-ple has motivated many new museum projects, including children’s museums and culturally specifi c museums. New content, such as human rights, climate change, or worldwide migration, has stimulated the building of new muse-ums based on ideas rather than collections.

The tens of thousands of existing museums each have reasons for build-ing, expanding, or renovating, such as:

• accommodating collection growth; • taking a bigger role in education;• new ways of conducting research or conservation;• serving greater community needs;• meeting new safety or environmental standards;• raising money and public attention for longer-term fi nancial sustainability.

In each of these scenarios, some leaders will immediately want to call in an architect and start building as soon as possible. But others will understand (especially after reading this book) that there are quite a few “people issues” to sort out fi rst, such as:

• Who is the museum for? And how will people use the museum?• Will the mission and mandate of the museum post-construction be the

same as in the past, or will they be different?• What leadership will be needed for the museum to be successful in its

new location, new building, or newly renovated or expanded premises?• What type of governance will be most effective for guiding the museum

and the building process?• How might this new, renovated, or expanded museum relate to other

museums and other institutions or attractions—and how do those rela-tionships impact the building and the way it operates?

Museums do not stay the same. They are constantly evolving institutions, and a museum building project is an occasion to assess the state of museum governance and to adapt it to the new situation. If it is an entirely new museum, then a governance model needs to be formulated; if the museum already exists, the capital project provides the occasion to consider whether

MUSEUMS AS SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 4 3

the museum’s institutional status and governance can be made more effective for the new or enlarged institution to come. If this is not done, the old mode of governance may be unable to sustain the enhanced institution—fi nancially, socially, or culturally.

This checklist presents six key institutional factors that need to be addressed when planning a capital project for a museum in order to assess the museum’s governance and its stage of evolution:

1. Are the goals of the capital project clearly articulated (see section 3.4)? How are they linked to the museum’s mission, vision, and mandate; or should some of these foundation statements be updated to refl ect the goals of the capital project (see section 3.2)?

2. Is the museum’s governance appropriate for leading and funding the proj-ect and for sustaining the expanded institution (see section 16.3)?

3. Is there leadership at the governance and staff levels to achieve the capital project and be the public voice of the project? Are they adequate to the challenge? If not, what actions should be taken?

4. Does the museum have the management capacity to direct the capital project while operating the existing museum or creating the programs for the new museum or new extension? If the capacity is lacking, what steps need to be taken to strengthen it?

5. Have the museum’s many communities of users, stakeholders, and sup-porters been engaged and are they supportive of the project? Where are the weak points? How will they be addressed—by changing the concept, or by winning hearts and minds, or both?

6. Is there a robust business plan that accounts for how the occupancy and operating costs of the capital project will be met? Who is responsible for making sure that the building project fulfi lls that plan?

Most of these issues are best addressed through a strategic planning pro-cess such as is described in section 2.2.1 and in our Manual of Strategic Plan-ning for Museums (AltaMira, 2007). In this chapter we explain how and why each of these seven key factors should be addressed early in the museum planning process.

The objectives of a new or expanded museum may appear obvious enough to those who want to achieve them—but it’s highly likely that different peo-ple have different goals: the developer wants that iconic building; the city wants tourism; the museum staff want more storage; and the director wants the museum to be recognized for innovation. If priorities are not set prior to design, confl icting pressures of alternative uses will be refl ected in the space allocation process, and much time and money will be wasted making changes. If, for example, the museum’s long-range goal is to preserve its collection,


then storage rooms with adequate environmental controls and security or a conservation laboratory might seem to be obvious priorities; but if the purpose of preserving the collection is to educate visitors about it, the need for enough space for staff and volunteers to prepare and deliver such educational programs would appear to be paramount. On the other hand, if very little of the collec-tion is on view to the public, or if the museum’s temporary exhibition facilities are inadequate, new or improved exhibition galleries and the associated support space are essential; yet again, the addition of an auditorium, or of a restaurant with a good kitchen that can also serve as a multifunctional room suitable for corporate hospitality may be instrumental in enabling the museum to meet the inevitable increased operating costs of the expansion.

Nor is the determination of priorities usually a mere matter of making a list and adding it up, for it is necessary for the museum to anticipate impend-ing changes in the institution’s needs for the future—which may range from the impact of new electronic means of documentation and interpretation of the collection to visitor demands for improved amenities. Furthermore, the attempt to prioritize is likely to reveal differences, or at least alternative visions, among those who may be described as stakeholders in the institution or project, such as board members, donors, political leaders, government or foundation funding offi cers, and economic development or tourism offi cers, as well as museum professionals and educators.

In order to ensure that the project priorities are meaningful to people both inside and outside the museum, it is worthwhile to determine the muse-um’s essential cultural or heritage resource. The notion of a cultural resource, parallel in concept to a natural resource such as a mineral, timber or energy, is an important one for the planners of museums and other cultural institu-tions to grasp and utilize fully. The essential cultural resource of a museum may be a physical phenomenon, such as a remarkable feature of the landscape (e.g., mountains, caves or waterfalls); a historic or archaeological site; or a heritage building or neighborhood. It is very likely to consist primarily of the museum’s collections. But it may also be less material—an ecological impera-tive, the survival of an ethnic community, a determination to bring outstand-ing works of art to the people of a city that has been deprived of them, or an enthusiasm for the communication of artistic creativity or an appreciation of the scientifi c method to a community’s children. In some instances (such as at the Canadian Museum for Human Rights in Winnipeg, Canada), the essential cultural resource may even be an idea or an attitude that the museum intends to foster.

Identifi cation of the essential cultural resource is by no means always obvious or easy. The northern English city of Salford, for instance, wanted to build a cultural landmark to promote both the urban regeneration of the disused Manchester ship canal and education of its community, which was in the 1990s one of the most deprived in Europe. Like many waterfront


cities, Salford had been inspired by the “Sydney Opera House effect,” but it was having diffi culty raising enthusiasm or funds for an Opera House. When museum planner Gail Lord noted that the city’s museum included in its collections (mostly in storage) the world’s largest group of works by the well-loved British artist L. S. Lowry, who had lived and worked most of his life in Salford, the idea for the institution now known as The Lowry was born. With its new focus of a multi-arts cultural center, and grounded on the community’s own cultural resources, Salford’s concept was strongly supported by the local community and found favor with all three of the major British funding agencies, the European Union, and private donors. The resultant cultural center (which opened to the public in 2000) has been well attended and has served as a magnet for three billion pounds of addi-tional development, including shopping malls, condos, hotels, and the relo-cation of the BBC’s northern production branch, creating new jobs, many of them knowledge based and part of the creative economy. Thus defi ning the unique cultural resource in Salford both immeasurably enhanced the project’s chances for funding and directly affected the programs and facili-ties on offer, including galleries, collection storage, and children’s education spaces that had not been considered priorities in the original unsuccessful concept. The larger of the two theaters has even been used for the presenta-tion of opera!

FOUNDATION STATEMENTS

Gail Dexter Lord

Once the goals, priorities, and concept for the building project have been agreed upon, it is important to verify whether these are anticipated by the founda-tion statements of the museum—or if those statements need to be amended to somehow incorporate the intent of the building project and the next stage of the museum’s life. Mission, mandate, and vision statements, collectively known as foundation statements, may form part of the museum’s legislative framework (if a government institution), or part of its charter (if a nonprofi t), or part of the by-laws if the museum is a line department of a larger institution such as a university. Making the changes (if changes are needed) may be complex (if legislation is needed), or relatively easy if just a change in by-laws—but it must be done if the expanded museum is to present itself with one voice. Of course the other alternative of altering the project concept to fi t better with the current mission, mandate, or vision statement should also be considered.

A mission statement concisely expresses the essential purpose or raison d’être for which the museum exists, the rationale that justifi es the very con-siderable efforts needed to establish or maintain it. The mission of a local his-tory museum might be to preserve, display, and interpret the heritage of that

3.2


region, for instance, while the mission of a museum of glass or ceramic art might be to stimulate an appreciation of the specifi c qualities and potential of that artistic medium. If a donor offers a collection of contemporary art to either museum, the museum’s leadership has to consider whether accepting the donation and building a wing to display the collection is “on mission,” or whether to change the mission in order to lay the groundwork for new directions.

The museum’s mandate establishes the framework for the museum’s activities: the fi elds or disciplines for which the museum claims responsibility, particularly with respect to collections, research, and exhibition. The mandate should state clearly the geographical and chronological extent and limits of the museum’s collection or exhibition program (which may not be the same). The mandate will also defi ne the museum’s audience focus: Everyone? Chil-dren and youths? Residents and tourists? The world, via the Internet? The mandate will indicate the level of signifi cance to which the museum aspires—local, regional, national, or international. The mandate of a national museum might be to represent a complete range of its collection discipline (such as art, archaeology, history, zoology, or paleontology) within its nation’s borders, but it might also reach out to embrace a representative range of the entire world of that discipline, as do many of the major European and American museums. The mandate of a historic house or a heritage village, by contrast, might be very tightly focused on a particular historical period or event. As with the mission statement, changes to a museum’s mandate should not be considered lightly, but may be needed if the museum’s leadership decides to serve a broader public with a broader range of disciplines, as often occurs with a new building project.

A museum’s statement of purpose articulates its functions in relation to its mandated discipline, geographical, and chronological range, identifying as well the community whom these functions are intended to serve. Six funda-mental museum functions are usually included:

• collecting• documentation• preservation• research• display• interpretation

A seventh function—administering these six vital museological pursuits—may be either implicitly or explicitly included. Such a statement of purpose is evidently fundamental to what a museum is and does. Normally, its six core functions should not be altered, even when their object may change due to a


shift in mandate. The role of the statement of purpose in the planning pro-cess, especially in relation to space and facilities planning, is often to function as a checklist, reminding the planners to ask such questions as: “Are research provisions adequate?” “Is the building able to preserve the collections as well as it might?” and so on. Thus it should be used as a corrective, to ensure that some short-term enthusiasm or urgency does not defl ect the institution’s development from fulfi lling its long-range goals.

A vision statement describes the impact that the museum aspires to make in the world or in the community that it is serving or proposes to serve. It should be short, sharp, and inspiring. The vision statement will often sum up the impact of the capital project—and is the most often-used of the founda-tion statements, summing up the “what” of the project—what it will essen-tially achieve.

To summarize by example for a hypothetical Museum of Blank County:

• The mission of the museum is to preserve the natural and cultural heri-tage of Blank County, and to nourish the development of its culture.

• The mandate of the museum is the natural and cultural history of the county from its geological origins to today, and the contemporary culture of Blank County residents wherever they may be.

• The purpose of the museum is to collect, document, preserve, study, dis-play, and interpret to residents and visitors of the county their natural and cultural heritage, and to foster the visual, performing, and literary arts of today with exhibitions of works of art or design not only by county resi-dents, but also works of art, specimens, or artifacts from elsewhere that may inspire or interest creative Blank County residents.

• The vision of the museum is to stimulate creativity among Blank County residents of all ages.

MUSEUMS IN SERVICE TO SOCIETY

Gail Dexter Lord

Agreeing on a mission and mandate, a statement of purpose, and a vision for the future of the institution lays a fi rm foundation for the museum and enables its leaders to consider space and facilities needs in a context of sus-tainability. For the museum to optimize its potential for service to its society, achieving the mission and realizing the vision require selecting the right gov-ernance model, exercising leadership, and providing management for what can best be described as “civil society institutions.” This section explores the museum’s capacity to realize its full potential service to society in planning for its growth.

3.3


3.3.1 Governance

In planning a new or expanded museum, it is important to determine what type of governance will be most effective not only to lead the building proj-ect but also to ensure its long-term sustainability once the museum opens or reopens. In the example of The Lowry described above, the initial project was led by the planning department of the City of Salford. As the project grew in concept, mission, and mandate, the City realized that it could not provide the long-term leadership to sustain the project, and so it estab-lished the Lowry Trust, which is an independent foundation that governs the Lowry to this day.

Despite the infi nite variety in detail, there are only four types of insti-tutional status that are frequently encountered among museums around the world:

• line departments • institutions “at arm’s length” from governing authorities • not-for-profi t associations • privately owned museums

3.3.1.1 Line Departments

This type of museum is a constituent part of its governing authority, which very often is a government department, but may equally be a university or a corporation. Many national, state, provincial, city, county, and local author-ity museums are line departments, administered through and reporting to whatever ministry, department, or agency has been assigned responsibility for them. University and corporate museums are similarly often integrated with their governing bodies. If such museums have boards, they are likely to be advisory only, since their governance is invested in the administrative structure of which they are an integral part. Personnel of these museums are direct employees of that governing authority—civil servants in many gov-ernment museums, or employees of the university or corporation in those examples.

Their operating budgets are usually annual allocations within the larger budget of their governing ministry or department, and they may have dif-fi culty attracting private donations for that reason. Their earnings from shop or cafe often do not directly benefi t the museum but are absorbed as rev-enue in the governing departmental budget. In some instances around the world, these museums may have diffi culty maintaining academic freedom for their research, exhibitions, interpretation, and publications, since they may be required to take an offi cial “government position” on certain subjects.


3.3.1.2 Arm’s-Length Institutions

With the decline in government funding for museums in many countries over recent years, there has been a tendency even for many national and civic museums to be administratively separated from government, with boards that may be either governing or advisory being established to operate them. Gov-ernment funding is no longer a departmental appropriation but is derived instead from annual grants that must be reviewed and approved each year, supplemented by earned revenues. Cafe and shop revenues now become very important, with profi ts staying with the museum for use in operations. Staff may be classifi ed as civil servants, or may enjoy equivalent working conditions while being employed directly by the museum. Private donations are usu-ally easier to obtain—and more necessary. Nevertheless, government often maintains a close connection, sometimes by being represented on the govern-ing board. These museums are therefore often called museums at arm’s length from government, since they have been set apart in order to be more self-suf-fi cient, but are still vitally connected to the appropriate level of government.

3.3.1.3 Not-for-Profi t Organizations—the Civil Society Model

Not-for-profi t or charitable associations are civil society institutions, which are independent from government and large corporations. This form of gov-ernance is based on a plural funding model—which includes government grants, corporate sponsorship, private fund-raising, endowment, and earned income. Earned revenue and private donations become even more important than for arm’s-length institutions, and that is why civil society institutions tend to be more responsive to their many publics. Their not-for-profi t sta-tus is usually essential to their obtaining some level of tax forgiveness and to their ability to give tax-deductible receipts to donors, under such legisla-tion as section 501 (c) (3) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Act, The Charities Commissioners in England, and equivalent tax laws elsewhere. These inde-pendent associations elect or appoint governing boards, and their personnel are employees of the associations. Although it used to be common for these associations to be actually constituted by museum members who directly elected the board, now it is more usual for museum membership to be main-tained as a program, without conferring any voting status in the association on museum members.

While the majority of the world’s museums are line departments of government, universities, or other public institutions, independent not-for-profi t entities are the fastest-growing type of museum. Some would say this is because governments, with less money than before, are divesting social and cultural responsibilities so that many former national, state, and city-owned


museums are being made independent so they can seek private funding. Per-haps a bigger impetus especially for new museums is that a civil society model places museum governance closer to people and provides more opportunities for participation and engagement. When considering this governance model for a new museum project, the planners need to consider many factors in the constitution of the board, such as capacity for fi nancial support and for leadership and representing the diversity of the community. When muse-ums transition from government or line-department status to a civil society not-for-profi t model, the leaders need to carefully consider managing the institutional change process and how best to include funders, community, and stakeholders.

3.3.1.4 Privately Owned For-Profi t Museums

These may be the property of individuals, families, or corporations that aim to operate them as profi table businesses. As such, they are governed directly by those owners. Although they are included here for reasons of completeness, they do not meet the defi nition of a museum as a public not-for-profi t insti-tution, as prescribed by such bodies as the International Council of Muse-ums (ICOM) or the Museums Association in Great Britain. Accordingly, we need not consider them further here, except to note that they should not be confused with corporate museums that are usually established as line depart-ments by corporations engaged in other profi t-making pursuits, but which establish a museum for image, marketing, educational or other reasons, not as a profi t center in itself. Table 3.1 summarizes the defi ning characteristics of these four types of museum institutional status.

Although the distinctions between these four types of governance are clear enough, they may also be seen as points along a spectrum that refl ects

Table 3.1. Four Types of Institutional Status for Museums

Status Board Staff Funding

Line Department None; or Advisory Civil servants (or univer-sity orcorporation staff )

Primarily departmental appropriations

Arm’s Length Advisory orGoverning

Equivalent tocivil service

Annual grants plus self-generated funds

Not-for-profi t association

Governing Board Association employees Self-generated funds, endowment, sponsorship, project grants

Privately owned None Museum employees Private


the process of institutional change that may be either the cause or the result of a museum expansion. For example, a line department museum may begin a transformation into an arm’s-length institution by altering its constitution so that a formerly advisory board becomes a governing board. Or an inde-pendent not-for-profi t association may qualify for an annual grant by open-ing its board structure to include appointed government representatives, in which case it may be on the way to becoming an arm’s-length institution. And among arm’s-length museums there is every degree of “arm’s length,” with some being far more reliant on government support than others.

Although the terminology varies widely, these types of governance are found in almost all countries around the world. Consider India, where the three options for governance of public museums exemplify our fi rst three modes:

• Direct Government Departments: These museums are line departments of the national government (such as the National Museum of India) or of state governments (such as the Patna Museum). Their funding is an annual government allocation, and any revenues they earn are returned to their government departments, so that there is no incentive to improve revenue-generating visitor services. Their employees are civil servants, and their directors report to the relevant government departments.

• Act-of-Parliament Museums: These museums, such as the Indian Museum in Kolkata, created by the Indian Museum Act of 1910, or the Salarjung Museum in Hyderabad, receive “gap funding” from the national govern-ment to bridge the gulf between their earned income and their annual operating expenses. They have greater freedom from government direc-tion, but any institutional change requires an amendment to their parlia-mentary Acts. They are thus an excellent example of what we have called “arm’s-length” museums.

• Registered Societies: The Registered Societies Act dates from the colonial period (1860), providing for autonomous institutions that can benefi t directly from their own revenue-generating programs, but are still eligible for “gap funding” from national or state governments. They are not-for-profi t associations. An outstanding example is Mehrangarh, the historic fort and palace at Jodhpur, governed by an impressive board chaired by the Maharaja of Marwar, and maintaining sophisticated architectural and artifact conservation while offering a fi ne audio guide, high-quality retail, good food services, and appropriately costumed traditional musi-cians in its magnifi cent heritage site.

Determining which governance model is most suitable for a new museum, or whether to adjust an existing museum’s position along the spectrum, can be


an important part of the planning process that precedes development, since it may provide the organizational and especially the funding base for the reno-vated or expanded institution. In Singapore, for instance, the old National Museum, which had been a government line department, was reorganized in 1991 as the National Heritage Board, so that the museum could be devolved into three arm’s-length institutions: the Singapore Art Museum, the Asian Civilizations Museum, and the Singapore History Museum. Although shop revenue had formerly been treated as general government revenues, the board’s new institutional status made those revenues available for museum purposes: as a result, the NHB began its expansion with a separate high-quality National Museum Shop installed in a restored heritage building, and has incorporated good-quality cafes and shops in each subsequent museum development. Although the Singapore government remains the principal funding source for the three museums, the change in their institutional status not only resulted in the major museum development intended, but directly affected the way in which space is used and retail services are provided to visi-tors, and the new arm’s-length institutions are now more fi nancially viable.

One very common effect on space planning that often derives from the museum’s institutional status is the size and character of its temporary exhi-bition galleries. If the museum is to be operated by an independent not-for-profi t association, it is likely to be very dependent on attendance-based revenues. Even if the museum has a strong collection in its own fi eld, such dependence may indicate the need for signifi cant temporary exhibition facili-ties, possibly large enough to accommodate the occasional “blockbuster,” along with the requisite back-of-house support space. If, on the other hand, an arm’s-length status can be arranged, with consequent less dependence on self-generated revenues derived from visitors, it may not be necessary to increase temporary or traveling exhibition capacity.

One situation in which determination of the most appropriate insti-tutional status has important ramifi cations for the museum’s development plan are those instances where there is a substantial reduction in the level of government funding for what has formerly been a line-department museum. Planners responsible for such a museum need to determine whether it is feasible for the museum to retain an arm’s-length status with a diminished annual grant (rather than the former allocation), or whether it would be more advantageous for the museum to establish instead a not-for-profi t associa-tion, possibly gaining greater private fi nancial support for both capital devel-opment and operating support, along with an enhanced capability (but also a responsibility) to generate revenues from attendance, sales, food services, rentals, and other sources. The answers to these questions will have a direct effect on projections of the museum’s space and facility needs and priorities.

Still another common instance is the university museum that has been a line department, but for which the hard-pressed educational institution


now may have insuffi cient funds. Can such a museum, which may have had a strong commitment to research, transform itself into an independent not-for-profi t organization, with all the reliance on self-generated revenue and donations that this status implies? Or is some arm’s-length status possible, either with the parent university or with some level of government? Resolv-ing these issues is imperative before space and facilities planning can proceed.

What is the appropriate level for government funding of museums? Answers of course vary from country to country, state to state and city to city. It is however possible to generalize that a well-managed museum with control of its own fi nances (so that it benefi ts directly from self-generated revenues) can be expected to earn about 30–35 percent of its annual operat-ing budget. The remaining two-thirds of the budget may be derived from government subsidy where this is available, or from some combination of government funding with foundation support, private sector sponsorships, fund-raising campaigns, individual donations, and the interest earned by invested endowments (where these have been raised). Since our 1989 study The Cost of Collecting (published by HMSO) showed that all costs associated with preserving the heritage amount to two-thirds of most museums’ operat-ing budgets, the answer to this question may be simply put at two-thirds of the annual operating budget if the museum is enfranchised to benefi t from its own self-generated earnings from admissions, memberships, retail, food services, rental of its facilities, and other sources. Another common for-mula is one-third government subsidy; one-third self-generated from pub-lic programs; and one-third to be raised from donations, sponsorships, or endowments.

3.3.2 Leadership

Assuming that the concept, foundation statements, and governance are all in order, museum building projects can still founder if there is not adequate leadership at the board and staff levels. Leadership is said to be “doing the right thing” while management is “doing the thing right.”

In a museum building project, the director and board chair must be able to inspire the museum’s many stakeholders and the broader community to support the project, to raise funds, and above all to keep the project on track to achieve the goals and the concept in the face of continual budget and schedule pressures. At the outset of the project there needs to be a frank and open evaluation process of the strengths and weaknesses of the leadership capabilities in both board and staff. If there are concerns, several options should be considered, such as:

• training to improve areas of weakness; • enhancing the role of the building committee (see section 3.4);


• supplementing the leadership of the board chair or director;• reorganizing assignments so that individuals with the requisite leadership

skills can become the public face of the project and guide its strategy.

3.3.3 Management

One of the biggest challenges for both staff and board leadership during a building project is operating the museum during the planning and imple-mentation of the capital project. This is also a challenge for a new museum project because, while most of the founding staff will have been hired to realize the project, some staff need to be planning what will happen in the building. In all cases, there is a tendency to collapse the entire museum opera-tion into the building project, which can have disastrous results: the quality of the museum programs decline, line workers become discouraged, commu-nity support wanes, and operating funds are plundered to supplement soaring building costs.

One proven approach to this challenge is to distinguish between the Capital Project Team and the Operations Team, appointing talented lead-ers to head up both. Since operations and building project must talk to each other on a regular basis, an appropriate process needs to be put in place for teamwork. Museum planners experienced in both building projects and oper-ations can be extremely helpful in recommending an appropriate organiza-tional structure for each stage of the museum building process.

3.3.4 Community Engagement

Museums are inherently social institutions, not only in the many ways that they serve the public, but also in the sense that they seldom achieve their objectives alone but almost always in relation to many other educational and cultural institutions within their community, their nation, and globally. The museum’s relationships with this network of institutions at all levels can have a direct effect on its needs for space and facilities. Planning to maintain, expand, diminish, or alter the institutional context of the museum is therefore another vital step in the museum planning process that should precede any planning for new or renovated space and facilities.

There are at least eight broad categories of people, organizations, or insti-tutions that museums need to engage for a successful building project and a successful operation after opening:

• individuals and communities• government at all levels• foundations


• educational institutions• other museums, and museum associations• special-interest organizations• the tourism industry• the private sector

3.3.4.1 Individuals and Communities

People want to be heard. If the museum expects to build attendance and sup-port, it needs to listen and respond. This has always been true to a degree, but never more so than in the age of social media. Long gone are the days when the museum could be the silent authority, hidden behind the pillars fl anking the entrance. If historically the museum has been remote from the public, there is no better time to change its relationship with the public than during a building project—waiting until after the building opens or reopens may be too late.

The terms public and community are somewhat misleading because they suggest a homogeneity that does not exist. Individuals identify with and participate in many different communities, so museum planners need to be both sensitive and strategic in reaching out to them. People living near the museum building site will be very concerned about the future of their neigh-borhood, so their engagement will be as local citizens. Some neighbors will be regular visitors; others have not darkened the doors since the forced march of a childhood school visit. Individuals who live far from the museum may still feel close to it because of its programs or its collections or because it is a place they like to visit with friends and family. So some components of the museum’s “community” may be concentrated around its location, whereas others may be widespread.

Many people will have a special connection to the collections or theme of the museum. For example, the African American community of San Fran-cisco had and continues to have a strong relationship with the Museum of the African Diaspora (MoAD), which opened in 2006 downtown, far from the original African American neighborhoods. Because the concept of the museum is to communicate that all humanity originated in Africa, its loca-tion in the city, where everyone feels welcome, has been important. It is also where the San Francisco Redevelopment Agency provided the museum with a free site! In the early planning stages, the museum held a series of public workshops featuring experts who explored subjects such as the African dias-pora, cultural adaptation, and the legacy of slavery. The ideas that emerged from the workshops evolved into the themes of the museum with ongoing input from hundreds of people over a two-year period.

In Salford, England, the Lowry project engaged strongly with local schools and those descendant communities of workers in the ship canal. There


were events, poetry competitions, and a community-based project to record the stories of this area—now gentrifi ed beyond recognition—in a walking tour with permanent markers of the community’s working-class heritage.

For the Canadian Museum for Human Rights, which is the fi rst national museum outside that country’s capital city, all of Canada is the community. So, with the help of museum planners and the Internet, the museum orga-nized workshops and public meetings in twenty-two cities across Canada with the purpose of gathering stories about human rights and human wrongs in order to inform the exhibition development process. These stories will be part of the museum’s archives and the museum will conduct this type of public engagement process on a regular basis. When Canadian school groups are brought to the museum in Winnipeg, the hope is that they will recognize some of their own community’s stories in the displays.

The Internet and social media provide tremendous new opportunities for engaging with the public and their many different community manifesta-tions. There is a very real question as to whether “civil society”—by which is meant the capacity of people to solve problems together—can thrive through technology alone. Most likely, museums require both actual physical nonme-diated engagement with the public and the power of social media to ensure that their aspirations for growth and development will actually meet those of the people they plan to serve. Nevertheless, social media offer new opportu-nities to achieve what has been called “the participatory museum.”

3.3.4.2 Governments

Line department civil service museums evidently have their most important relationships with the ministries or government departments that administer them, whether these are national, state, provincial, county, or civic. Arm’s-length institutions may have even more important, often more complex, rela-tionships with those government agencies on which they depend for grants. New grant programs, which are often linked with political initiatives or his-toric and sporting events such as a centennial or other anniversary, the Olym-pics, or a World’s Fair, can have tremendous effects on the scale and shape of museum growth. The European Union offers a range of funding programs in the cultural sector; especially noteworthy are museums that promote col-laboration among several countries. At the local level, responsibility for pre-serving a city’s records or for storing the archaeological artifacts that result from construction projects can lead to museum growth. Local government can stimulate museum growth by offering development planning gains in return for providing space or even funding for a museum. Almost all muse-ums everywhere have a relatively intense relationship with government, often with several tiers of government at once, and the directions of government policy may be decisive in determining the museum’s space and facilities plans.


3.3.4.3 Foundations

Funding programs of family, private, or corporate foundations may be signifi -cant providers of capital and operating funds that can facilitate development for museums. Some foundations, such as the Ford Foundation in New York or the Pew Charitable Trusts in Philadelphia, for instance, may provide fund-ing for studies that lead to major institutional change affecting the future development of the museum. Others, such as the Gulbenkian Foundation, are the source of awards as well as grants, and thus have a role in setting stan-dards of best museum practice.

3.3.4.4 Educational Institutions

Museums are major centers of informal education, and as such have constant relationships with the providers of more formal education—public and pri-vate schools, colleges, and universities. Expansion and renovation projects may depend directly on the continued or expanded provision of education services, which may also serve as justifi cation for expected government fund-ing, both capital and operating.

While museums’ strengths are in informal education, there may be advantages to partnerships with formal educational institutions at all levels—from preschool to graduate school. Partnership involves a deeper relationship mutually benefi ting both partners. In some instances this has led to the devel-opment of actual museum schools—an approach that evidently has a major impact on space and facility planning for the museum. Some museums, such as the Art Institute of Chicago or the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washing-ton, D.C., include an art college. Even if the partnership is not this extensive, provision of the right quality and number of learning facilities is a major deci-sion to be made when considering an expansion, renovation, or new building.

Thus it is usually important at the outset of a museum planning process to review the museum’s relationships with all levels of educational institutions, those educators’ degrees of satisfaction or dissatisfaction (or in some cases even awareness!) of the museum’s educational programs, and the dimensions of projected growth or decline in many aspects of these institutions, ranging from enrollment levels through such material factors as funding for school buses to forthcoming changes in the curriculum. In many countries and edu-cation jurisdictions, there has been a steep decline in arts education provided by schools at the very time that research is demonstrating the positive impact of the arts on children’s ability to learn. Many art museums have stepped into this breach by providing more and better facilities for art education programs. In a time when education is increasingly important but also less affordable, the learning mandate of museums, whether of art, history, or science, is cur-rently seen as an important justifi cation for museum expansion or creation.


Questions such as whether or not to provide a separate entrance for school groups, and what facilities are needed for youth in different age cohorts, are just two of the many planning and development issues typically arising from the museum’s relationships with schools.

Museums are joining with universities and other research institutions to promote the “creativity agenda” of many countries and regions. The creative economy—which includes the arts and cultural industries like publishing, animation, fashion, and design—continues to grow. Museums are also rele-vant to the “knowledge economy” which refers more broadly to the scientifi c, medical, and fi nancial sectors, which have outstripped manufacturing as a source of jobs and wealth in many advanced economies. “The Lab” at Har-vard University is a great example of this new type of partnership: established by Professor David Edwards in 2010, it is a hub for creative students and professors to work together on new projects in the sciences, medicine, or the arts. Edwards had already established a successful model in Paris, Le Labo-ratoire, a cultural center where artists and scientists work together to solve problems, create and patent new inventions, and display work in progress (often as experiments rather than exhibits) to a greater public.

The implications for museum planning are to understand the nature of potential education partnerships, to be aware of new site and location oppor-tunities afforded on university campuses locally and worldwide, and to ana-lyze how a museum expansion can complement facilities available in nearby universities and research institutes and ensure that buildings are complemen-tary and not competitive. In this way such partnerships can enhance sustain-ability for both the museum and the educational institution.

3.3.4.5 Other Museums and Museum Associations

A museum’s defi nitive relationship with other museums are usually estab-lished either geographically (in a city like New York or London with many art museums, for instance), politically (where there are national, state, and civic museums with overlapping mandates, for instance), or within a discipline (such as the museum’s relationships with its international colleague institu-tions in a scientifi c discipline). Issues of confl icting or overlapping mandate are typically set in one or another of these contexts of the relationship of the institution with other museums. The planning process should aim at ensur-ing that the museum will retain or develop a mandate that will preserve or develop a unique role, on the basis of which it can sustain healthy relation-ships with other museums in its fi eld or in its community.

These relationships may also be mediated through the various national or regional museum associations and the International Council of Museums (ICOM), with many of the leading national organizations, such as the Amer-ican Association of Museums’ Accreditation Program, effectively setting


standards for the facilities and programs being planned. A signifi cant recent development in inter-museum relations directly affecting space planning has been the sharing or leasing of collections from one museum to another. The affi liate program of the Smithsonian Institution proposes over time to relocate some collections from storage in Washington to museums around the United States—as has already been done as part of the expansion of the Anchorage Museum in Alaska. The Museum Loan Network also seeks to move museum objects from storage in large U.S. museums into public view in the galleries of smaller museums. Evidently all such developments will affect the space and facilities requirements of recipient institutions, as well as their annual operating budgets.

3.3.4.6 Special-Interest Organizations

Many museums were established by or have an ongoing relationship with history, archaeology, or science organizations; others might benefi t from for-malizing relations that have until now not realized their full potential. At the outset of a planning and development process, it is wise to explore these rela-tionships and partnerships by means of consultation to determine whether they should be sustained as they are, or if there are ways in which the organi-zation and the museum might benefi t from loosening or tightening such ties.

3.3.4.7 The Tourism Industry

Museums are a vital part of the world’s largest industry, tourism. As a result, they need to be recognized—and to recognize themselves—as signifi cant economic development generators within many communities. It is vital in advance of any capital development that museum planners determine the extent to which the museum can play such a role and the degree to which its role is recognized by the private tourism sector and by tourism or economic development agencies. In some situations, exploring this relationship may open up major new facilities development questions, such as the potential for the museum or science center to add such a feature as a large-format fi lm theater or a simulator in order to enhance its tourism appeal. Such possible developments need to be carefully weighed against the museum’s other pri-orities as the planning process continues.

Another aspect of enhancing tourism appeal with an expansion or a new building is the attraction of striking new architecture that the new structure may introduce to the cityscape. The “Bilbao effect” of Frank Gehry’s Museo Guggenheim Bilbao has come to symbolize the ability of a landmark building to transform the image or “brand” of a city. As described above, The Lowry has had a comparable effect in Salford. Determining whether this approach is right for a particular museum or city is a major museum planning question


to be carefully considered at the very outset of the planning process, and to be reevaluated as the process continues.

3.3.4.8 The Private Sector

The private sector is a source of wealth creation and therefore a major source of patronage for museums. The private sector is itself diverse and changing: it includes wealthy individuals, private corporations and public corporations. Once any of these become major participants in a museum building project, they become highly infl uential in the direction, timing and scale of the project. The concept of “curatorial independence” is generally well accepted and can be explained, especially in relation to new exhibitions, storage facilities, documen-tation or conservation projects. But a capital development project for a new building is different, and all the patrons may want to have something to say.

Many wealthy collectors, especially collectors of contemporary art, are themselves starting to establish their own museums or museum-like institu-tions. However, many more—once they understand the complexities, costs, and restrictions of sustaining their own museums—opt instead to donate their collections to existing museums that agree to build a wing or house the collection in dedicated galleries.

Corporations that have collections may be motivated to partner with museums that present opportunities to display them to a broader public and on the prestigious platform that a well-respected museum or art gallery pro-vides. By far the most common form of corporate participation is related either to marketing, in which case the museum project needs to impact the priority markets of the company; or to the corporate social responsibility (CSR) mandate of the company, in which case the museum needs to help the company fulfi ll its CSR goals, such as education or social development. Both types of funding will usually come in the form of a sponsorship, although many companies prefer to call these “partnerships” because large sums of money are involved and the relationship will be multiyear. Timing the spon-sorship or partnership proposal in relation to the planning process is essential because the corporate partner will need to know what the museum is deliv-ering, where it will be delivered in the new wing or building, and how or to what extent the company’s brand will be associated with it.

On the museum operating side, a corporate membership program is a way to keep corporate partners and their employees engaged. The various privileges accorded to the different levels of membership can also affect space planning, indicating a need for a good kitchen, lounges, an auditorium, or other facilities to make such programs attractive.

Undoubtedly there are still other relationships and partnerships that may be explored by particular museums in their specifi c situations. A regimental museum, for instance, will be directly affected by the relocation or disbanding


of its regiment, and a culturally specifi c museum may have to face the impli-cations of the aging or dispersal of that ethnic population. Because museums are for people, analyzing and understanding the complex and ever-changing institutional context is a vital step in the early stages of the planning process.

PLANNING GOALS, PRINCIPLES, AND ASSUMPTIONS

Lindsay Martin

Once the museum concept, institutional plan, and relationships with its many communities have been established, they need to be simplifi ed and concret-ized in the form of planning goals, principles, and assumptions for easy reference during the development of the Facility Master Plan. This allows museum staff to focus effi ciently on key items of study. Once developed and approved, the planning goals, principles, and assumptions should be distrib-uted widely to all staff and consultants working on the project.

3.4.1 Planning Goals

Planning goals are the high-level aspirations and priorities for the project. They articulate the institutional vision for what the facility will accomplish and how the project will deliver on the mission, vision, and long-range strategy. They are to remain constant as the project evolves. They are the measures of success.

Key factors to address when formulating planning goals include:

• mission;• vision;• long-range strategy; • desired benefi ts; • impact of the capital project.

Sample (simplifi ed) planning goals:

• Establish museum as international leader.• Become a community hub.• Support permanent collection development and expansion.• Achieve museum-quality conservation standards.• Promote and enhance education.• Improve visitor service.• Accommodate an expanded staff.• Grow earned income.

Goals should be stated clearly, with suffi cient generality to provide inspired direction as above; and wherever possible with measurable objectives.

3.4


3.4.2 Planning Principles

Planning principles provide defi nition for the planning goals. They articulate the standards to be achieved through the project. They may evolve slightly as the planning process informs thinking and planning, but in general they are intended to remain in place for the life of the project. As more information is acquired, new principles may be developed to refl ect an increased under-standing of the project.

Key factors to address when formulating planning principles include:

• programmatic aspirations; • relationship to existing museum facilities;• key design strategies to be employed (e.g., welcoming lobby, visible stor-

age, or sightlines for galleries from lobby);• accessibility aspirations;• environmental sustainability aspirations;• adherence to accrediting body and/or other governing body standards

(e.g., Association of Zoos and Aquariums, parent university, or local gov-ernment standards).

Sample (simplifi ed) planning principles:

• The new facility will focus on supporting research and will feature collec-tions storage, a library, research labs, and associated staff spaces.

• Locate museum staff offi ces on-site, replacing the existing ones, which are rented and located off-site.

• Collections will be stored separately by medium or materials: oil paint-ings, works on paper, textiles, ferrous metals, and mixed materials.

• Visitors should be able to enjoy views out to the garden in public spaces.• Promote universal access to accommodate visitors with the full range of

physical and mental abilities. • Environmental sustainability will be maximized where appropriate.• University design standards will be respected.

3.4.3 Planning Assumptions

Planning assumptions are the base set of project conditions that will be used to inform planning. Assumptions are to be tested and refi ned in the develop-ment of the Facility Master Plan. As research is conducted and new infor-mation is developed, it is important that the assumptions are updated and circulated to the Planning Team. This will ensure that all planning is coordi-nated and aligned. Thus unlike goals and principles, “planning assumptions” are adopted with the understanding that they will be tested and reconsidered


in the course of the planning process, and may change as conditions change or as a result of new research.

For example, a project might start out with an assumption that special events will accommodate up to 200 people. However, if the institutional Planning Team fi nds that by accommodating groups up to 300 the museum could double its income from rentals, then this assumption may be changed. Once the decision to accommodate events up to 300 people is made, it must be communicated to rest of the team so that in the space plan the event space and events support spaces are sized to accommodate 300, and the business plan carries the new rental revenue. Not only the size of the multipurpose room where the events will be held must be reconsidered, but also the adja-cent chair and table storage will likely need to be bigger.

Key items to address when formulating planning assumptions include:

• facility size and right-sizing;• Design Year (the year in which the building will serve the capacity that is

planned for);• requirements for events sizes (receptions, lectures, dinners);• Design Object dimensions (the largest collection items to be moved

throughout the facility);• Design Day occupancy—an assumption that determines the size of such

services as parking, toilets, and café seats.

Sample (simplifi ed) planning principles:

• 90–120,000 gross square feet (9–12,000 gross square meters) of space will be added to the existing building.

• This facility will be planned to reach capacity in twenty years, when a new space solution will be implemented. The Design Year is therefore twenty years from now.

• Receptions for 300, dinners for 50, and lectures for 200 will be accom-modated in the building.

• An object the size of a mini-van (with dimensions) should be able to be moved from the loading bay to the galleries.

• Design Day occupancy will be 8,000 people per day, with a two-hour average length of stay, resulting in a peak crowd of 3,200 in the peak two hours of the Design Day, with parking for up to 800 cars, 10 buses and 100 staff cars, with a requirement to serve up to 600 persons seated for lunch in three to four half-hour servings in the café between noon and 2 PM.

Three of these assumptions—the Design Year, the Design Day, and the Design Object—are especially important:


• Design Year: This is the last year for which the building being planned will provide suffi cient space and facilities. It is necessary to determine this year in order to provide a planning horizon: for instance, the Collec-tion Development Strategy enables the planner to project the need for collection storage space—but how far into the future will the projection be made? Is the intention to accommodate fi fteen or twenty or twenty-fi ve years’ collection growth? If the new building is scheduled to open four or fi ve years from now, planning to accommodate just ten years’ col-lection growth is not cost-effective; on the other hand, planning for fi fty years’ collection growth would mean building far more space than can be afforded—space that would sit empty for years to come. Thus the plan has to begin with a determination of the Design Year, the last year for which the space and facilities will be adequate; the most common Design Year is twenty years from the date of planning.

• Design Day: The occupancy level for which space and facilities are to be designed is not the peak day, which might occur only once every few years. It is instead a busy day, often a weekend day, which may occur per-haps twenty or twenty-fi ve times a year, for which the space and facilities should be adequate. Within that Design Day it is necessary to determine peak hour visitation level, since that is the largest number of people who must be served at once. As noted above, Design Day and peak visitation on that day are critical to determining requirements for parking, café capacity, theater throughput, occupancy levels in the galleries, and toilet provision. As an example: if the market analysis projects attendance of 1,000,000 people a year, with 40 percent expected in the two summer months—about 200,000 people each summer month, or 50,000 each summer week—and assumes that 40 percent of that weekly total (20,000 visitors) will come on the two weekend days, the Design Day will be one of those weekend days, when 10,000 visitors would be expected. If 40 percent of the Design Day attendance is there at peak time, and if the length of stay is two hours, then 4,000 people for two hours is the peak occupancy level on the Design Day. It is then necessary to assume what percentage of that peak crowd will drive—assuming again three persons per car, and allowing for those who arrive by tour bus or school bus and those who walk in—to arrive at a projection of parking requirements. Other assumptions are involved in projecting the other requirements for that peak occupancy level on the Design Day.

• Design Object: the Design Object is the largest artifact, specimen or work of art that must be accommodated not only in galleries and storage rooms but also in corridors, elevators, and loading docks—anywhere that the collections may be moved, displayed, studied, or treated. The follow-ing fi gure 3.1 illustrates both two-dimensional and three-dimensional Design Objects.


As the Facility Master Plan is developed, the planning assumptions will become more robust and accurate. This will include information such as: col-lection storage needs, staffi ng requirements, public programming formats, and attendance fi gures. Once complete, the assumptions will each be sup-ported by research and analysis; ensuring that the organization is poised to move forward with a realistic and achievable plan for the building and its future operation.

Figure 3.1 Two-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional Design Object


PLANNING THE VISITOR EXPERIENCE

The experience of visitors to the museum is the ultimate test of the success of any museum planning process. Does the museum communicate effec-tively? Do the visitors have access to the best of the collections and—more importantly—to the information that they need in order to enjoy them and learn from them? Are all our visitors’ needs being met?

This chapter addresses these questions and many others related to them, initially by addressing the potential for the museum to heighten comprehen-sion of the community it serves (section 4.1) and the need for a market analy-sis (4.2). Planning for exhibitions (4.3) and education programs (4.4) follow, and a separate section 4.5 focuses on the growing importance of museums as social spaces that incorporate performing arts, entertainment, events, retail, food services—and fun!—together with their more traditional offerings. The fi nal two sections address the requisite visitor amenities (4.6) and the need for a universal design approach to provide universal accessibility to all visitors in 4.7.

PLANNING FOR COMMUNITY NEEDS

Joy Bailey

All cultural institutions seek to share a story with their community. Per-forming arts centers do this through dance, music, and theater; libraries and archives do this through collection, preservation, and documentation. As hybrid institutions that exhibit, collect, document, preserve, research, and educate, museums bear the responsibility of communicating vast—often intricate—stories to an array of audiences, many of whom may not be well acquainted with the museum setting. This section examines a range of ways to understand your community by gathering information. By understanding we mean relating to an audience’s interests, level of knowledge, background, or characteristics.

4.1

CH

APT

ER 4

PLANNING THE VISITOR EXPERIENCE 6 7

Figure 4.1 graphically depicts the process of gaining and gleaning useable information to understand your audience and community interests. The larg-est circle—information—represents all of the body of knowledge that can be learned about your audience. As understanding is refi ned the circles become smaller and the information becomes more useful until it is distilled to rep-resent the knowledge that is most relevant: information that can be used to accomplish your mission. The three steps in this process of refi nement are the following:

• Meaningful information for the community—the second circle repre-sents what is most important to the museum’s audience.

• Actionable by the institution—the next circle addresses what you do with the information obtained: Can you move this data forward in a useable way?

• Relevant to the community—the fourth and smallest circle, about rele-vance, addresses how the museum can have a signifi cant impact on—and connection to—the community.

Figure 4.1 Understanding Your Community


This section considers how a museum can achieve a meaningful, action-able and relevant discourse with its community, and how this discourse can affect its plans for the future.

4.1.1 Meaning for the Community

Everyone owns a piece of the truth—Quaker proverb

In one of its most famous vignettes, the TV show Sesame Street featured a song encouraging children to speak to people they encounter to get to know their community. The song, “Who Are the People in Your Neighborhood?” told children, “If by chance you’re feeling sick, speak to the doctor real quick. She works . . . long to help you feel well and strong.”1 The instructions are clear: (1) go to the doctor; (2) share your symptoms with the doctor; (3) she will help you right whatever is wrong. This is the same process to follow when getting to know a museum community.

Figure 4.2 The Museum and Its Community


As illustrated in fi gure 4.2, engaging directly with the community in a two-way conversation gives both museum and community the opportunity to share meaningful information. This output of data allows the museum to:

• communicate its mission and vision to the public;• raise the visibility of the institution;• manage public expectations of the institution;• attract a range of individuals and groups.

Simultaneously, the museum can seek input from the community to:

• discover the community’s needs; • understand the awareness of, interest in, and/or expectations for your

institution; • gauge a level of interest in proposed content, storylines, themes, and

collections; • identify opportunities for partnerships, collaborations, activities, and

programs; • inform the planning process with visitor motivation and psychographics;2

• establish metrics regarding outreach intiatives.

This process goes by many names—community consultation, public engagement, audience input—but the meaning is the same: dedicated efforts to listen to, understand, and respond to the communities that the institution seeks to serve. No matter the name, establishing a goal of gaining informa-tion that is most actionable by the institution ensures that the planning pro-cess leads to (1) a project, product, or results that matter; and (2) a framework for returning to the community in a sustainable, ongoing relationship.

4.1.2 Action by the Museum

Vision without action is a daydream; action without vision is a nightmare.—Japanese proverb

In the mid-2000s, O’Reilly Media popularized the term “Web 2.0” to refer to shifts in the World Wide Web from being a primarily fl at resource to a two-way communication tool between web programmers and users.3 The term has been adopted in many sectors, including culture, and now refers to any participatory information-sharing platform—whether technological or not—to gain input and share output. Innovation is alive and well in the museum setting.

Although information-gathering can take many forms, two of the most common techniques are simply observation and conversation:


• Observation takes into account the perceptions of museum staff about the community. Although it is highly subjective, observation is a good place to start, because it allows for the use and investigation of information that staff may have noticed about the community over time. The best observa-tion processes use anecdotal information—informal accounts pertaining to the preferences of visitors and the community—from knowledgeable individuals to enlighten the information-gathering process. Just as in the scientifi c world, when dealing with anecdotal information, there are structured and unstructured observation processes. In a structured obser-vation, specifi c actions are recorded over a prescribed period of time. An unstructured method records whatever actions happen at a given point of time. In both of these methods, be aware of any observational bias that may occur—when researchers only look where they think they will fi nd positive results, or where it is easy to record their perceptions.

• The other form of information gathering, conversation, is a way of seek-ing feedback from communities with which the museum wishes to con-nect. In this age of hyper-information gathering, there are many tools of conversation that can assist the museum in understanding the needs, wants, and desires of its community. Civic or public engagement, indi-vidual and collective action to identify opportunities and concerns, is one of the most effective information gathering tools because it allows the public to speak for itself. This method is not without hazard. Public con-sultation processes that do not suffi ciently consider the rights, interests, or concerns of their participants can endanger an institution’s current standing in its established community and fail to meet its objectives with any new communities because they tend to confuse or frustrate the very public they are intent on reaching. And of course if the institution has no intention of implementing the recommendations of its public, it would be better not to ask for their thoughts. Any engagement process must consider the diversity of a community, the forum to optimize feedback, and a schedule in line with a project’s lifespan that gains strength in tan-dem with community input.

The following are basic guidelines for successful community engage-ment, no matter what technique is used. An engagement process must be:

• Open: Ensure that all interested persons feel welcomed and are aware of and understand how they can contribute and participate. Meeting loca-tions, formats, and times should be adapted to suit the people or groups whose opinion is being sought.

• Accessible: Improve access to the planning process through a variety of communication tools and outlets. These can be digital and/or physical interaction and communication at community hubs.


• In-depth: Deepen the dialogue with the community by facilitating smaller focus groups that are targeted and specifi c to particular needs.

• Expansive: Develop options to extend the reach of the museum, engaging new publics as they grow incrementally through the process. The more feedback you receive, the larger the circle of contacts will grow.

Getting people talking about themselves is the easiest and, at times, one of the most enjoyable parts of this process, asking participants how they par-take or contribute to culture, what motivates or deters them from attending a cultural event or visiting a cultural venue, and what opportunities they per-ceive. Questions should be purposely broad and open-ended—not leading participants in any way. When used for information gathering either conver-sation or observation should be:

• unbiased;• statistically signifi cant—make sure you have a large enough sample with

big enough subgroups represented;• and representative of “stable” operations—not just observed during a

“blockbuster” exhibition, for example.

Here are a few suggestions of the most common ways (listed in order of simplicity) to engage in conversation with a museum audience:

• Digital engagement: Approximately 15 percent of adults in the United States participate in the arts via electronic media only,4 and the propor-tion is already large and growing daily elsewhere. There are currently many platforms like Facebook or WordPress that can assist, and as technology evolves, more will certainly emerge. The only requirements for participa-tion should be registration, giving participants access to view and comment on conversations and key topics, as well as topics of their own.

• Individual interviews: One-on-one, intimate conversations between the museum and individual relevant community members are critical in understanding the community and soliciting guidance about future action. Individual interviews should address people that represent the community or its recognized leaders, who may be political fi gures, neigh-borhood advocates, business owners, or active private citizens. Interviews should be confi dential, representative, and allowing for varying opinions.

• Surveys: The most common form of gaining audience feedback, surveys can also be used to expand the potential for participation among all types of people—no matter where they may be physically. This format of com-munication is amenable to fl exible schedules and alternative methods of feedback, particularly among teenagers and working professionals, two groups who are not regularly represented in public forums.


• Workshops: These small, informal gatherings are a forum for exploring levels of access and barriers to participation at a cultural institution. Workshops seek open and frank dialogue with diverse groups of people, in a welcoming setting, frequented by the audiences the museum is try-ing to reach. The museum can also do focused group workshops which allow for engagement of small conversation groups of a particular type to share information and gather feedback. This format is helpful because it allows participants to come in affi nity groups, teachers with teachers, musicians with musicians, or grandparents with grandparents, creating a brainstorming opportunity for the groups.

• Focus Groups: These group discussions are closely monitored and con-trolled. Everything from the age-range to occupation and usage patterns may be considered when deciding the makeup of the group. Moreover, conducting focus groups presents an opportunity to gather information from members who may not attend or would feel uncomfortable at large public forums.

• Town Hall Style Meetings: Community-wide convening in the form of facilitated town hall meetings is a labor-intensive endeavor most suited for positioning the institution on a large stage. Meetings should be arranged to fi t the schedules of community members, from families to youth to commuting professionals. These events focus on key points of output and the format for collecting input.

4.1.3 Relevance: What Does the Museum Do with the Information Obtained?

“Any solution for the people’s problems cannot be reached without the people’s participation.”—Amr Moussa

Understanding your visitors is an ongoing process. Many people express frus-tration after an in-depth engagement process resulting in a specifi c project is concluded and the targeted audience departs, only returning for the next con-centrated engagement. Why is this surprising? Engagement is both an art, using intuition and creativity,5 and a science, involving research and response to empirical data that, depending on the institution’s purpose, can result in a defi nitive product.

After the museum has completed the “getting to know you” phase, it can continue the relationship with the community by:

1. Sharing the fi ndings: For people to contribute civilly and in good faith, they need to know that their opinions are at least being listened to, and that they might have the ability to actually help create a better outcome.


Present the museum’s fi ndings to those that participated in the process, using the same previously designated platforms—physical, virtual, or other.

2. Prioritizing the results and addressing the most immediate opportunities or concerns: Based on the number of times an opportunity or issue is raised, create an order of importance list. Respond to present opportunities and needs by moving forward or communicating a process for moving forward.

3. Leveraging the good rapport established to build capacity and nurture future audiences: Cultural institutions rarely succeed when they stand alone. Seek opportunities for collaborations and partnerships with new contacts. These could be marketing, funding, private/public partnerships, or shared service opportunities with other cultural or educational institutions.

4. Maintaining contact: Project the needs that will arise as the population matures. Inspire a community discussion board that is ongoing.

At the conclusion of this process the community may feel about the museum the way they would about a person, a person with a compelling story about whom they care deeply. Through this process, the museum will have equipped its community with the tools to learn and connect to this compelling story, each in his or her own way. The facility planning process will have been immeasurably enriched by a deeper understanding of how the museum’s goals and the needs of its community interact. A pathway to sustainability within the community will have been opened up. The museum can benefi t from the wholehearted support of its community as it reaches out to stakeholders to sup-port its aspirations. And both museum and community can rest assured in the knowledge that every effort has been made to ensure that the museum’s plans are meaningful, actionable, and relevant to everyone concerned.

MARKET ANALYSIS

Ted Silberberg

The planning of sustainable museums is very much about achieving a bal-ance between the needs of collections and people, and in both cases there is a need for consistency with mission, educational, and fi nancial objectives. The focus of market analysis is on people/audiences/markets and may be defi ned as the process by which existing and potential markets for a museum may be understood and/or predicted. This understanding of who existing and potential visitors are and what motivates them to attend or not attend may then provide a sound basis for development of strategies to boost fi rst-time and repeat visitation levels, as well as length of stay, visitor satisfaction,

4.2


and expenditures. Market analysis enhances revenue generation and thus the operational sustainability of a museum. And it provides the basis for predict-ing, or projecting, how many persons are likely to attend in the future.

The need for and benefi ts of market analysis extend as well into inform-ing the development of visitor experience content and the “right-sizing” of museum facilities and amenities. Since the focus of this book is on sustainable museum facilities, market analysis should contribute to better facility plan-ning decisions regarding the following:

• The size and nature of public spaces most capable of attracting visitors to a new or expanded museum in both peak and off-peak periods: This would include the size of permanent and temporary exhibition spaces, classrooms, theater/auditorium, and related public spaces, as discussed further in sections 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5. The size of those spaces depends on anticipated attendance levels that are informed by market analysis and comparisons with other museums and their utilization of public space. It is not only the sizes of spaces but also the visitor experience within them that may be informed by an analysis of what various visitor market seg-ments want and expect.

• The size and type of other public spaces: These may range from lobby, food service, retail, and other revenue-generating spaces to public ame-nities such as restrooms, discussed in 4.5 and 4.6. A primary objective should be to get sizing, adjacencies, and features right the fi rst time.

• Adjacency and design concepts: A market analysis will provide useful input into the design concept and layout of a new or expanded museum. The location of a proposed new auditorium is one example. If located near the entrance, the auditorium may serve also as an orientation to the museum. If located in the middle of the exhibition area, the auditorium becomes an extension of the exhibitions, a participatory area, or a place to rest and refl ect.

• Parking requirements: Not every museum has its own dedicated park-ing, but for those that do, market analysis and attendance projections help to determine parking space requirements and allocations for buses and automobiles, as discussed in greater detail in 4.6.

4.2.1 Analysis of Existing Markets

“Existing markets” refers to the persons who have already attended a particu-lar museum. Knowing who visits and why is important to help the market analyst and museum management to strategize how to get existing visitors to attend more often and to encourage friends and relatives to join them. And since there are many more persons who have not attended, understanding existing markets is helpful to attracting new visitors.


Existing visitors may be grouped into smaller, homogenous segments that have similar characteristics that may be identifi ed and catered to. Primary market segments are residents, school groups, and tourists, but within these main segments it is possible to classify them in many different ways. Three common methods of segmentation that are appropriate to museums are:

• demographic/socioeconomic (age, gender, ethnicity, education and income);• geographic and travel pattern (origin, season, mode of travel, visitor party

composition);• psychographic (purpose of visit, behavioral patterns, lifestyle, special

interests).

Using research techniques such as those described below it is possible to develop generalizations about the profi les, preferences, and activity patterns of various market segments. These generalizations help the market analyst and museum management to understand what each segment wants and to attract more of them to visit and revisit the museum.

Two primary types of research are used to identify and understand vari-ous existing market segments:

• museum-specifi c data analysis (4.2.1.1)• contextual analysis (4.2.1.2)

The fi rst is based on learning from the experience of the subject museum, while the second seeks to learn from the experience of similar or comparable museums.

4.2.1.1 Museum-Specifi c Data Analysis

There are four primary ways of obtaining data that can be used to develop generalizations about the market for an existing museum:

• attendance records (4.2.1.1.1)• observations of visitor behavior (4.2.1.1.2)• visitor surveys (4.2.1.1.3)• interviews or focus groups (4.2.1.1.4)

4.2.1.1.1 Attendance Records

It is a common perception that visitor surveys are the best way to know one’s market. While certainly valuable, the fi nancial reality at most museums is that such surveys may be conducted only periodically and are thus not necessarily representative of the market on a year-round basis, and they may sometimes


be subject to bias and error. A simple daily record of museum attendance can produce valuable information to supplement periodic visitor surveys without burdening visitors with a single survey question.

Daily attendance records, if properly maintained, allow for the analysis of data by ticket category, time of day, day of week, weather conditions, special-event and nonevent days, and by gender and for visible minorities, without asking any questions. By analyzing the data one may learn much about exist-ing markets—information which could lead to the following hypothetical planning decisions:

• Low weekday attendance might lead to a decision to reduce operating hours on weekdays and increase them during weekends, or it might lead to a decision to stay closed one day a week. Alternatively, depending upon the objectives or priorities of the museum, it might lead to a decision to open for a weekday evening and the ability to promote it as a great time to visit when fewer children will be present. The amount of public space to be built in an expansion project should refl ect these management decisions.

• The popularity of special events could lead to a decision to increase the number of special-event days and thereby meet attendance objectives in relatively few days. The success of the special events would then allow for an emphasis on heritage preservation and education on most other days. A greater orientation toward special events might, however, lead to crowding during these peak days, and thus lead to a decision to pro-vide for more public space or more outdoor space in a new or expanded museum. This might also infl uence the size of cloakroom, restrooms, and retail and food service facilities in an expansion project.

• High attendance during poor weather weekends could lead to a deci-sion to develop and publicize special programming during all peak-sea-son poor-weather weekends. Volunteers would know to come into the museum on these days to complement existing staff, while the museum itself could encourage local hotels and campsites to let their guests know about this special programming.

• Low attendance by early-twenties could lead to a decision to change the “youth” or “student” admission ticket category from the currently com-mon thirteen-to-eighteen- or twenty-one-range to thirteen- to twenty-four-year-olds. This recognizes that those in their early twenties are often less likely to receive money from parents and are more price-conscious in the early stages of careers. Maintaining attendance among early-twenties can help to encourage visitation when they are future parents.

Most computerized ticketing systems used by museums today facilitate this type of analysis and allow for comparative evaluation from year to year on a monthly or quarterly basis.


4.2.1.1.2 Observations of Visitor Behavior

Simply observing visitor behavior, including the amount of time spent at specifi c exhibits, within particular galleries, or circulation among them, may be used to better understand similarities and differences among market seg-ments. This may be done on a periodic basis by staff or volunteers and is not intrusive for visitors.

Planning decisions to emerge from an observation process could include selection of specifi c future exhibitions or public programs, and it may infl u-ence facility design in a potential expansion.

4.2.1.1.3 Visitor Surveys

Visitor surveys are a common method of understanding existing markets. A survey allows the market analyst or museum management to fi nd out a lot about visitor profi les, preferences, and activity patterns and to do so in a way that is more scientifi c than perception, observation, and attendance records. The value of surveys is evident in considering a familiar saying: “I’m a person. I know what people want.” But although we can guess, we really do not know until we ask. On the other hand, care is needed to avoid spoiling visitors’ memories of a visit to a museum by asking them to spend time answering poorly conceived survey questions. Staff may also be so busy asking people to spend “a few” minutes answering “a few” questions that they forget that the survey process itself may have a negative impact on visitors.

The key to the successful use of surveys is that they should be focused and therefore not too lengthy. In designing survey questionnaires, one must assess the purpose of each question and how one potential response versus another will provide the museum with information to help in planning and decision making. If the research designer cannot answer this, the survey ques-tion should be eliminated.

Visitors may be surveyed on a periodic basis to avoid being too intrusive or could be asked if they took part in a survey at the museum within the past year. If so they would be excluded from the sample. Ideally, however, sur-veys should be conducted each season for greater year-round accuracy. And sample sizes need to be large enough (at least 200–300) to allow for cross-tabulation of results to allow for useful comparison.

Visitor surveys enable the gathering of data that is both quantitative and qualitative, but are less effective in qualitative analysis than the one-to one interviews or focus groups discussed below. Surveys may be conducted as visitors are exiting the museum or incentives could be provided for online responses within a few days of the visit. With extensive use of smart phones and other mobile technology along with now common museum participation in social networking it is also possible for feedback to be immediate while within the museum. And in the context of virtual access to museums through


increasingly sophisticated websites it is also possible to survey people who didn’t actually attend on-site, but who are provided access to museum content in virtual ways.

4.2.1.1.4 Interviews or Focus Groups

One-to-one interviews or focus groups with a variety of museum visitor mar-ket segments allows for more in-depth analysis than possible from obser-vation or attendance records. And visitor surveys are more effective in the gathering of quantitative data. On the other hand, individual interviews and focus groups are far more expensive to administer and thus tend to be carried out less often. Interviews or focus groups may be used to achieve a variety of objectives. These include:

• follow-ups to in-gallery observations to help understand likes and dis-likes associated with specifi c exhibitions or programs;

• front-end evaluation to test ideas associated with facility or exhibition planning before they are implemented;

• formative evaluation to allow representatives of various market segments to provide input at the detailed planning and design stages of facility, exhibition, marketing, or operational plans;

• summative evaluation to learn about visitor perceptions and preferences after a facility, exhibition, or program is operational.

The focus groups or interviews described above are with persons who are representative of various market segments. It is also useful to conduct inter-views with people who are knowledgeable about a variety of market segments and who may therefore provide overview insights. These market-knowl-edgeable persons may include the Visitor and Convention Bureau, school curriculum consultants, directors or marketing directors of other museums/attractions, and others.

4.2.1.2 Contextual Analysis

The museum-specifi c data analyses described above help to understand the size, profi les, preferences, and activities of existing visitors to a par-ticular museum. However, context provides far more meaning to the data. What does it mean, for example, if 60 percent of the museum’s visitors are women or that 20 percent are from other countries? Comparison is cen-tral to any valid use of statistics. And if it is a new museum that is being planned, then there are no existing market data to analyze and it is thus


even more important to learn from the experience of similar museums, as discussed below.

The key to knowing specifi c museum market segments is management’s ability to compare its museum data with the experience of other museums, and to draw logical and relevant conclusions that will lead to practical strat-egies. The market research program described below can be conducted by museum staff, by consultants, or by a combination of both.

Contextual analysis—learning from the experience of others—involves knowing about the:

• overall museum marketplace (4.2.1.2.1);• performance of other museums of the same type (4.2.1.2.2);• performance of other museums and visitor attractions in the area (4.2.1.2.3).

4.2.1.2.1 The Museum Marketplace

Without comparison, numbers often have little meaning. To take a few com-mon market examples: is 20,000 a good attendance attainment, or should it be 200,000? Should school groups represent 10 percent or 30 percent of all visitors? What is an appropriate number of tourists who should be attracted? Comparison is also essential for fi nancial analyses. Is it appropriate for a museum to require an operating subsidy of 70 percent of the operating budget, or 50 percent, or 30 percent? A meaningful and realistic context for analysis of attendance, of the market and of fi nancial data for a specifi c museum, may be established by reviewing comprehensive survey and trend data for museums in general. These usually categorize museums by ownership, mandate, or collec-tion type and are therefore helpful in establishing general trends.

Articles on these subjects are published regularly in museum and other specialist journals and relevant presentations are made at conferences. These help to profi le the types of persons most likely to visit museums. The market analyst needs to be familiar and up-to-date with this material so that he or she can give meaning to specifi c market data for a particular museum by plac-ing it in the context of the overall museum marketplace.

4.2.1.2.2 Museums of the Same Type

National surveys of museums such as those conducted by the American Association of Museums (AAM) are rarely as comprehensive in other coun-tries and the results are also aggregated so one cannot compare data for spe-cifi c museums. Some museum associations such as the Association of Art Museum Directors produce substantial data listing fi gures for individual art


museums, but the data is confi dential to the membership. Others like the Association of Children’s Museums and the Association of Science-Technol-ogy Centers do publish documents with comparative fi gures that are more widely available. However, none have as much market detail as is possible by conducting primary “comparables” research with museums identifi ed as offering the most similarities to a subject museum. Of course, no two institu-tions are fully comparable, but there are always a number of museums that are worth comparing with the subject museum because they share with it some or all of the following characteristics:

• specialization or theme• size (within a range of plus or minus 25 percent in size of exhibition

space)• budget (within a range of plus or minus 20 percent in operating budget)• geographic location • size of resident population or census metropolitan area• nature of market served (mainly resident or mainly tourist)

Having selected some of these “comparables,” the analyst sets out to learn as much about their markets as possible in the context of their facilities, pro-gramming, operations, and fi nances. Typically, this involves designing a ques-tionnaire that might include requests for such information as:

• the year in which the museum opened;• its operating schedule (months, days, hours);• the size of its main facilities (permanent and temporary exhibition space,

lobby or other space for facility rentals, retail, food service, etc.);• its main programming features and those that are most/least popular;• admission charges (by category);• total attendance over the past three years;• school groups as percentage of total visitors;• breakdown of non-school attendance in the most recent year for which

statistics are available:• paid/free admission• resident and tourist• male and female• by age categories• weekday and weekend• by month or season• visiting with or without children• during special-event days vs. non-event days


• coach parties as a proportion of the total• fi rst-time/repeat visitors• membership categories, rates, and numbers

• number of staff and volunteers• total operating budget and breakdowns by revenue and expense categories• future plans• advice for subject museum.

Some of the data are available online from museum websites, so ideally some of the survey questions should be fi lled in before a questionnaire is forwarded to a comparable institution. Since the comparable museums are unlikely to have detailed year-round survey data to lead to these fi gures it is important to emphasize that estimates or approximations are acceptable. The point of the exercise is to identify any patterns among these comparable museums that could be helpful in understanding the subject museum’s mar-ket. For example, from four comparable railway museums one might fi nd:

• substantially more male than female visitors;• a particularly high level of repeat visitors (mainly rail enthusiasts);• few coach tour visitors (because these typically include more women than

men);• few school groups (because of limited direct curriculum links and likely

not enough opportunities for hands-on activities);• both members and volunteers are primarily male.

Armed with this information about the other railway museums, one may either make a strategic decision to focus on or target the male and rail enthu-siast markets through facility, design, programming, and marketing methods, or to develop alternative approaches so that the subject railway museum has greater appeal to women and children.

4.2.1.2.3 The Market for Nearby Museums/Other Attractions

How does a museum’s attendance and market compare to the experience of nearby museums and other visitor attractions? Representatives of other attractions are usually willing to cooperate and share information about their attendance and market segments, particularly if the museum’s own atten-dance and market data are offered in return.

Comparison of data may reveal a number of similarities and differences among market segments. For example, it might be found that, compared to other nearby attractions, the museum attracts:


• a higher percentage of visitors in the older market segments;• more couples and fewer families;• more residents and school groups and fewer tourists.

This type of information could lead to the introduction of children’s pro-gramming at the museum to attract younger family markets, or it could lead to a decision to differentiate the museum by identifying ways and means to attract a higher percentage of older visitors. In both strategies there are facil-ity implications for the planner to consider.

The market study should also include an extensive interview process; this will provide the analyst with the opinions of knowledgeable persons, and in addition serve as a sounding board to test preliminary perceptions and conclusions.

4.2.2 Identifi cation and Analysis of Potential Markets

In theory anyone in the world could be part of the potential market for a museum. In reality, the closer a person lives or is staying to a museum the greater the likelihood of their attendance. Therefore, if one were to seek to fi nd out through surveys, interviews, and focus groups why people do not attend a museum it would logically be with regional residents. And one would also wish to interview market-knowledgeable persons, as discussed above.

Methods to identify and analyze potential markets include:

• surveys of nonvisitors (4.2.2.1);• analysis of demographic, socioeconomic, psychographic, and other data

and interview feedback associated with potential resident, school, and tourist market segments for the area (4.2.2.2).

These are discussed below, including some implications for facility plan-ning and operational sustainability.

4.2.2.1 Surveys of Nonvisitors

Many museums survey their own visitors only and sometimes receive a dis-torted picture of the perceived quality of the institution, since many of the people approached may be enthusiasts. What typically happens is that basically honest people will exaggerate a little because they believe that a response that rates the museum as “better than any other” they have visited will somehow help the museum. But it does not. It is just as important to fi nd out why people do not attend. This means surveying people in shopping malls or hotel lob-bies, for example, or by telephone or online. Comparing periodic surveys of


nonvisitors with visitor surveys can result in data that will be meaningful and usable both in the planning process and in identifying target market segments.

4.2.2.2 Analysis of Potential Market Segments

There are a variety of market segments for museums. Here we focus on the primary resident, school, and tourist market segments. Data sources include census and school enrollment data and projections as well as community leisure surveys and tourism studies/surveys. Interviews with market-knowl-edgeable persons are very important to supplement the available data.

4.2.2.2.1 Resident Markets

The resident market is often defi ned geographically. That is, residents are persons who live within, say, a fi fty-mile radius of the museum. According to this defi nition, a tourist is anyone from beyond this radius, so that persons living seventy miles away would be considered day-trip tourists.

Resident markets are often taken for granted by museums in their rush to attract tourists, but are in fact particularly important for the following main reasons:

• The resident market is readily accessible and available on a year-round basis.• Residents are most likely to be repeat visitors, volunteers, members, and

donors.• Residents often select attractions for visiting friends and relatives (which

is a major tourist market segment) and often accompany their visitors to area attractions.

• Residents support the museum through their taxes and can also support it politically.

Through research and experience the market analyst develops knowledge about all market segments, which will help to identify ways and means for a museum to meet their needs. Among the general points he or she might make about the resident market are the following:

• Residents will visit museums when they travel but often ignore their own.• Surveys show a pattern whereby residents plan more visits than they

actually make.• Although there are variations by museum type, persons most likely to

attend are in higher education and income categories, and more women than men.

• People are more likely to attend if they did so as children.


• Key stimuli that trigger higher levels of museum attendance among resi-dents are:• visiting friends and relatives, who expect to be accompanied to local

or nearby attractions;• parents’ desire to spend “quality time” with their children;• a free admission period attracts people who normally do not attend

and motivates people who do attend to take advantage of the free-admission opportunity;

• a special event or exhibition that creates a sense of urgency to visit, and promises to offer more value for time and money spent.

If museum-specifi c research substantiates these or other generalizations for the subject museum, management can develop programming, operational, and marketing strategies to maximize attendance by residents. For example:

• introduction of a “family plus” membership category encouraging residents to provide free museum guest passes to their visiting relatives and friends

• programming oriented to adults not accompanying children offered dur-ing one evening per week

• the use of special events to motivate attendance and concentrate it over a few particular days, making it easier for staff to give their attention to preservation and education the rest of the time

• incentive marketing, offering admission or retail discounts, prizes, or packages in collaboration with complementary attractions such as hotels or restaurants

Residents may attend as visitors or also during evening rentals/events. A facility planning issue is thus about the size of the lobby space if it is to be both a gathering space and the primary rentals venue. Another facility issue is the size of temporary exhibition space, since changing exhibitions are a primary motivator of repeat visitation to museums and are attended primarily by regional residents.

4.2.2.2.2 School Groups

School groups may attend a variety of museums and related institutions in various locations. However, because of cost factors and a limited “window of opportunity” when school buses are available, most school fi eld trips tend to be taken in or near their own communities.

Museums seek to attract school groups for the following main reasons:

• Education is part of the mandate of museums. Fulfi lling an educational role helps to justify operating subsidies that museums require from gov-ernment and private sources.


• School groups represent a substantial source of visitors.• For children in lower-income families, attending on a school fi eld trip

may be the only opportunity to attend a museum.• Children brought to museums as part of school groups may convince

parents to take them again.

One may generalize that school fi eld trips are selected on the basis of the following main criteria. Identifying these criteria may lead to the marketing strategies described in each case:

• Relationship to curricula: Develop special programming that is recog-nized to fi t the curriculum closely. This requires knowing the curricula and meeting regularly with school curriculum offi cials.

• Perceived student enjoyment: Offer the type of hands-on, interactive programming generally expected today.

• Proximity: Seek to develop cooperative arrangements with another nearby attraction in order to encourage school parties to economize by visiting both on the same trip.

• Cost: Offer larger discounts during lower attendance periods or seek corporate sponsorship.

Facility planning issues related to school groups include whether to have a separate school entrance, storage lockers, and lunchroom.

4.2.2.2.3 Tourist Markets

There are many different tourist market segments that may be potential visi-tors to a museum. For example, segmentation may be by any of the following:

• Time spent in the area: This includes day-trip or overnight visitors, and among overnight visitors, whether they are in the community for short or longer periods. In general the greater the length of stay, the greater the opportunity to attend.

• Origin: At a minimum from other parts of the state, elsewhere in the country, or international. It is often the case that the number of tourists diminishes by distance but the length of stay and likelihood for attending museums increases among those from farther distances.

• Purpose of Trip: Leisure, business/convention, and visiting/friends and relatives (VFR), are primary categories segmented by purpose of trip. In general, those traveling for leisure purposes have more time to attend museums.

• Type of accommodation used: Options include the home of friends and relatives (VFR), hotels/motels, or campgrounds. There are often


particular opportunities for a museum’s success in attracting residents to infl uence the strong VFR market because it is the residents who identify places to visit and usually accompany their visitors.

• Museum/Cultural Orientation: Cultural tourists or people who are enthusiasts for a particular type of museum are more likely to attend.

The market analyst seeks to understand the size, profi les, preferences, and activity patterns of these and other tourist market segments. A museum with strong appeal to coach tour passengers might develop larger than oth-erwise needed restroom facilities, and focused tour opportunities might be given limited available time in the museum.

4.2.3 Selection of Target Markets

Target markets are not those that are most likely to visit. Rather target mar-kets refer to the market segments on which a museum focuses its fi nancial resources to seek to attract. That is, the museum should always seek to offer appeal to a wide variety of market segments, and thus offer mass market appeal. However, strategic approaches and fi nancial resources need to be tar-geted. The determination of which market segments to target may be made on the basis of a simple assessment of benefi ts and costs by applying criteria such as the following:

• The size of the market and its growth potential: The larger the par-ticular market segment, the greater the potential number of visitors who might be attracted to the museum. For example, it only makes sense to target conference delegates and/or their spouses if the community attracts a signifi cant number of conferences. Information that a conference hotel is to be constructed across the street means that the museum would tar-get the conference market in the future.

• The time spent by the market segment in the area: The greater the length of stay in the area, the greater the likelihood of visitors to have time to visit the museum. Hotel guests are thus a better target market than tourists simply passing through the area.

• The contribution a particular segment can make to attendance: Atten-dance levels, rightly or wrongly, are an important measure of the success of museums. Higher levels of attendance help to justify government sub-sidies, foundation grants, and private sponsorships. Higher attendance may lead to a larger volunteer and membership base and may also lead to a greater level of corporate funding, because corporations wish their company name to be exposed to as many of their potential customers as possible.


• The contribution of a particular segment to visitor-generated rev-enues: Analysis of market research may reveal that certain market seg-ments spend more money in the retail store or for food services, or are more likely to join in higher membership categories. With growing pres-sure on museums to increase visitor-generated revenues, some museums are developing strategies to attract upper-income markets and increasing admission charges to levels that would never have been contemplated in the past. The emphasis is thus on revenue over attendance, with part of the rationale to lower overcrowding, which imperils the collection. An alternative view of this particular approach is that it limits accessibility to lower-income groups and presents the museum as an elitist institution, thus limiting some foundation or government funding.

• The contribution of a segment to meeting the tourism objectives of the area: There is a growing awareness of the role of museums as attrac-tions contributing to the tourism infrastructure of an area. Museums help to increase length of stay at hotels and campsites and expenditures at local stores, restaurants, and service stations. Museums enhance visitor satisfaction and the likelihood of repeated visits to an area. Many muse-ums target tourist market segments, despite the higher costs of doing so, in order to cooperate with local businesses and government, and meet the area’s overall economic and tourism objectives. Balanced against the benefi ts associated with attracting each market segment are the costs. Tourist coach tour groups may contribute to higher levels of attendance, but if they receive substantial admission discounts, require guided tours, and overwhelm restroom and food service capabilities, they may cost the museum more than the revenue earned.

• The contribution one particular segment can make in meeting the museum’s mandate: Most museums focus on attracting school groups despite the fact that the costs of developing and staffi ng special school programming usually exceed revenues, as a result of the very low admis-sion rates charged to school groups and their limited food and retail expenditures. The emphasis on school groups relates both to issues of audience development and to the museums’ educational mandate. Simi-larly, meeting the needs of minorities and the underserved is costly, but it is fundamental to the community service mission of many museums.

The choice made with respect to the target markets may have impor-tant facility implications for the design of a new or expanded museum. For example:

• Choosing to target school groups often means that classroom space will need to be provided, as well as a place for children to leave their coats


and boots, and a place for them to eat packed lunches. It could also mean more hands-on exhibitions, larger cloakrooms and more restroom toilets, and parking spaces for buses and places for bus drop-off and pick up.

• Coach tour groups will require most of the facilities and services listed above. However, since these often involve older people, there will also be a need for increasing the provision of seats, ensuring that visitors do not have to climb too many stairs (including providing wheelchair ramps), and facil-ities that can be enjoyed while seated (a small auditorium, for example).

• Targeting visitors from an overseas country or a large ethnic minority such as persons for whom the fi rst language is Spanish may require the addition of signing and labeling in the language of the target market.

Selection of target markets may also have implications for operating hours, admission rates, programming methods, and other aspects of museum operations and marketing.

The discovery through market research that a particular market segment is being underserved could lead to a decision to develop new programs, facili-ties, or services to attract that segment; or it could confi rm a decision to con-tinue to neglect it because the museum’s priorities and resources should be directed elsewhere.

Market weaknesses may lead to advice to limit the size of the new facility or expansion in order to help control staffi ng and other operating expenses. This is an “expense minimization strategy” rather than the more common strategy of focusing on attendance and revenue generation.

This section has focused on analysis of existing and potential markets, leading to identifi cation of target markets and strategies to attract them. The data for market analysis emerge from the market research that is conducted, whether that refers to review of attendance records, visitor and nonvisitor sur-veys, interviews, or focus groups. Market research is useful only if it leads to market analysis. Research creates data to be analyzed but it is analysis of that research and other available data that leads to strategies to boost attendance and revenue. Having the data without the ability to interpret its meaning and implications is not enough, pointing to the importance of the knowledge, skill, and experience of the analyst in the process of market analysis.

EXHIBITIONS, INTERPRETATION, AND PUBLIC PROGRAMS

Maria Piacente and Barry Lord

Public programs and exhibitions are the primary means by which museums and galleries interpret collections, build heritage, and convey complex ideas.

4.3


For many planning processes, the exhibitions and other public programs are the results by which the success of the enterprise is judged. This section aims to weave the planning of exhibitions and other public programs into the facil-ity planning process.

4.3.1 What Is an Exhibition?

How we defi ne an exhibition and its role in an institution is often the key cri-terion for determining its nature and success. It is therefore useful to consider what is meant by “an exhibition.”

A comprehensive history of exhibitry would have to be a cross-cultural study as well as a historical one. Should we include structures such as ances-tor huts of the native peoples of the Cameroon? These often held collections and displays of tools and weapons of earlier generations that were used in the education of young people. What about the systematic ethnographic displays of the Pitt-Rivers Museum in England? Eco-museums and living-history sites such as Ironbridge Gorge in the United Kingdom? Are they classic, aesthetic displays of art and sculpture like those in the Louvre? How do we defi ne the historic applications of advanced exhibition media at EXPO ’67 in Montreal, or the Darwin Centre at the Natural History Museum in London in the 1990s? When we speak of exhibitions, there are many diverse phenomena to consider.

Looking at the planning for the Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace in London in 1851, we discover that contrary to our belief that IMAX theaters, ride simulators, and virtual reality exhibits are “the latest thing,” exhibition developers have proposed special effects and advanced exhibition technology to attract and educate the public for well over a century. Charles Babbage, the creator of the early computer, The Difference Engine, was also scien-tifi c adviser to the Great Exhibition of 1851. In this role, as recorded in The Exposition of 1851 (2nd edition, published in London in that year), Babbage describes an early form of exposition people mover to the Academy of Moral Science of the Institute of France:

Now if the (exhibit) stalls were placed back to back along the centre of the great longitudinal avenues, a railway formed of wooden planks placed edgeways might be raised above the middle of them. . . . On this open railway cars mounted on wheels bound with India-rubber, in order to avoid all noise, might travel at the rate of from one to two, per-haps three, miles an hour. These cars might have luxurious cushions, and hold parties of different numbers. . . . (Railway) lines should take parties slowly along, so as to allow time to see the crowd below and the wonders of the exhibition, which might be rendered more distinct by means of opera glasses. (Babbage, 1851, 39)


In 1978, Jeremy Bugler, in The New Society, described how the Horniman Free Museum in London took steps to use technology to enhance apprecia-tion of its exhibits at the end of the nineteenth century:

By 1892 Frederick Horniman had established himself as a man who had collected curios and antiquities with passion if not coherence. He had stuffed one large mansion full of objects and artefacts, the whole “bril-liantly illuminated by an installation of the Electric Light” [my italics] as one of the local papers said. Although this may seem quite mundane today, the idea was revolu-tionary in meeting the needs of the museum-going public. Adding electric lighting to the Horniman’s galleries increased public access to the displays and collection by extending the opening hours of the institution—it also gave visitors a better look at the exotic ethnographic and biological speci-mens assembled by Mr. Horniman and his curators. The use of electric light probably also posed conservation issues—a fore-taste of museologi-cal challenges to follow in the 20th Century. (Bugler, 1978)

These historical accounts reveal an ongoing relationship between an institution’s collections and mandate, the needs of the public for access, and the application of different media to provide both physical and intellectual access. The accounts also suggest that many issues currently associated with contemporary exhibitions, such as the application of advanced media or the use of theme-park interpretation techniques have been part of our museo-logical heritage for well over a century.

Because exhibitions can take a variety of forms—permanent, temporary, or virtual—with different purposes, it is useful to apply some basic criteria to defi ne them:

• Exhibitions are about meaning: they are intentional creations, planned and installed to express something—ideas, impressions, experiences or even just visual access to objects and ideas. Exhibitions may be more or less successful in expressing their meanings, but they exist to express those meanings.

• Exhibits are one of the principal ways that a museum or institution com-municates with its public: exhibitions are often how people fi nd out about the mission and mandate of a museum, the kinds of research and services the institution is working on, and the collections of the museum. Exhibi-tions are one of the most important ways that museums establish their relationship to different communities.

Whether large or small, exhibitions are comprehensive groupings of elements—artifacts, specimens, works of art, ideas, multimedia or interactive


devices, models, mannequins, replicas, graphics—that form a complete pre-sentation for the public to enjoy and learn from. Today these components often extend to an online exhibit as well.

4.3.2 The Exhibition Planning Process

Exhibition development is a complex and growing fi eld, as evidenced by the millions of dollars spent on new exhibitions every year. The planning of exhi-bitions is often the focus of much debate for several reasons:

• the public character of exhibitions; • the resources needed to create and operate them; • the multiple disciplines represented in their creation; • the intricate nature of new technologies and social media; • the efforts of various professionals and specialists to defi ne their roles.

As such, the methods, skills, and personnel involved in the creation of an exhibition can vary widely. Art exhibitions differ greatly from science or his-tory displays, and blockbuster shows borrowed from other museums present challenges very different from those of an exhibition selected from storage.

It is useful, however, to list some of the phases and decision points for exhibition planning in more general terms for a range of institutions and facilities. It is also instructive that the phases of exhibition development par-allel the phases of building and institutional development.

The phases of exhibition planning can be summarized under the follow-ing headings:

• Research (4.3.2.1)• Exhibition Proposal or Brief (4.3.2.2)• Exhibition Planning and Design (4.3.2.3)• Evaluation (4.3.2.4)• Production (4.3.2.5)• Operation (4.3.2.6)

4.3.2.1 Research

A collection that is not well researched cannot be meaningfully interpreted to the public. Research is a fundamental activity in exhibition development because without research there can be no meaningful exhibition communica-tion. It is vital that the research activities of a museum and the direction of its exhibition projects complement and support each other. Research at the institution should be carried out according to a coordinated research plan that includes the anticipated long-term needs for exhibitions. The institution


needs to support these plans with a robust commitment to research in a research policy that identifi es such factors as:

• the museum’s policy on intellectual property; • rights to research done on the employee’s own time;• a position on staff taking contracts for publishing research in other

publications;• the provision of funds, time, and a travel budget;• support for grant applications.

Research on the permanent collection must be planned in order to avoid two opposite errors:

• continually redirecting curatorial staff to meet short-term temporary exhibition and programming priorities on the one hand;

• or pursuing academic research that is not related to public programs on the other.

One of the key outcomes of research at a museum is the capacity to gen-erate ideas for exhibitions that can be tested against the institution’s mission and its audiences. Such research may be conducted by curators, educators, or the museum’s interpretation department, sometimes with the involvement of conservators or registrars if their disciplines are part of the story to be told.

During exhibition planning and design, the research function becomes more focused toward artifact selection, image sourcing, text and label writing, and scripting for multimedia. A team approach that combines academics with educators and interpretive planners ensures that the exhibition is both accurate and accessible to audiences of all ages and learning styles. Inclusion of still other personnel such as conservators, registrars, the head of security, the public relations or marketing director, operations and visitor services personnel, the retail man-ager, and fi nancial offi cers may be well advised, especially if the exhibition is to be a permanent collection display with a substantial budget and a long life span.

4.3.2.2 Exhibition Proposal or Brief

The fi rst product of the exhibition development process is the articulation of an idea or concept in the form of an Exhibition Brief or Proposal. Exhibition Proposals can emerge from:

• an opportunity identifi ed from research into the collections;• the institution’s desire to respond to the needs and interests of new and

specifi c audiences;• an initiative by the institution to fulfi l its mission or mandate.


The exhibition proposal should include:

• a statement of how the project will help the institution better fulfi ll its mission and mandate;

• a statement of how the proposed exhibition will make use of the collec-tions and resources of the institution;

• a statement of how the proposed exhibition will make use of collections and resources from outside the institution (e.g., borrowing collections from other museums or engaging with the artist);

• a statement of the subject matter of the exhibition, its primary thesis, and main communication objectives;

• a description of the projected audience for the exhibition: for whom the exhibition is intended, in terms of market segments identifi ed in the museum’s market analysis;

• a summary treatment of the overall theme, approach, and visual and interpretation strategies envisioned for the project;

• a description of required space for the exhibition; • a projected milestone schedule outlining key development dates and the

opening day;• a summary of proposed costs to complete the project from initial plan-

ning to opening day; • any other information or insight that has inspired the need to make this

proposal.

Those senior levels of management within the museum that have ulti-mate responsibility for exhibitions and programs should evaluate exhibition proposals and determine which ones should be taken forward into develop-ment. The exhibition proposal will organize curators, educators, and inter-preters to begin the process of developing the exhibition, and can become the basis for a request for qualifi cations for exhibition design and production services, or for a grant application.

4.3.2.3 Exhibition Planning and Design

Once the Exhibition Brief is agreed, planning for the exhibition will be con-ducted in fi ve key areas:

• Curatorial Brief—is a document or a series of focused works prepared by the institution’s Curatorial Team. This brief, which should be appended to the main Exhibition Brief, identifi es the collections that will be drawn upon and the subject matter of the exhibition. Essays, annotated bibliog-raphies, and primary and secondary sources identify and support the exhi-bition’s “thesis.” The Curatorial Brief should facilitate the development


of a list of the artifacts, specimens, or works of art to be included in the exhibition; this list is needed very early in the process, since some of the objects to be included may require conservation treatment, and all will require preparation, that must be scheduled far in advance (months, sometimes years ahead) of the exhibition installation.

• Interpretive Planning—The word interpretation can mean many things, such as translating foreign languages, the meaning of poems, or the sig-nifi cation of a person’s body language. For cultural institutions, inter-pretation is a communication process, designed to reveal meanings and relationships of our cultural and natural heritage through involvement with objects, art, landscapes, and sites. It is through this process that visi-tors create meaning and make connections that result in affective learn-ing and true engagement.

The intentional conveyance of meaning can be quite challenging and is not always successful. We may believe we are communicating certain content to our visitors, only to learn that our messages as they receive them are con-fused, or that exhibits using advanced technologies are getting in the way of learning from the collections. A well-written and imaginatively conceived interpretive plan can ensure success by creating a narrative or storyline that brings together collections and other available resources, design and creative requirements, and the needs of diverse audiences. The Interpretive Plan describes, in words, what the visitor will do, see, hear, and experience.

A good plan includes the following:

• thematic framework;• communication objectives;• assignment of collections and resources;• modes of interpretation;• “Wow!” or anchor experiences;• visitor learning styles;• a summary of the visitor experience.

An Interpretive Plan should minimally identify three key factors:

• Themes and Subthemes: The Exhibition Brief or Proposal should establish the general subject matter of the exhibition. The Interpretive Plan should analyze this subject matter into a thematic structure, often enumerating themes and subthemes.

• Communication Objectives: The Interpretive Plan should then state clearly what the museum intends to communicate about each theme or subtheme. The objectives should be stated clearly and simply so that they


can be kept in view despite changes that may ensue due to design, budget, schedule, availability of materials, or other factors.

• Means of Expression: The Interpretive Plan should identify multiple means of expression for each communication objective. Optional means of expression for any one objective might include display of an artifact in a display case, an interactive multimedia program, or a fi lm showing in the auditorium, for instance. The museum might use all three, but more likely the planning process will necessitate replacement of one medium with another. Having multiple means of expression allows planners to respond to budget cuts, scheduling delays, or an evaluation test that indi-cates that a particular exhibit is not communicating.

These three components will enable the Interpretive Planners to deter-mine the other items in the foregoing list. The Themes and Subthemes will provide the categories for the list of collections needed for the show, which the curators and conservators should assemble. The Communication Objectives will point to the requisite modes of display—aesthetic, contextual, systematic, interactive, walk-in environments or others. And the Means of Expression must differentiate the “Wow!” highlights from the rest of the exhibits, estab-lishing relative priorities and space needs. Taking all these factors together, the Interpretive Planner should be able to evoke the essence of the desirable visitor experience—the ultimate object of the whole enterprise.

• Design—Design is the spatial and visual expression of the interpretive plan. Design occurs in phases, with each phase producing more detailed and refi ned documentation. The fi nal set of drawings includes a level of specifi cation that allows suppliers to produce the exhibition. In general, the phases of design include: • Concept or Schematic Design—sets out the look and feel of the exhibi-

tion and often includes artists’ or computer renderings, fl oor plans, and circulation diagrams. The concept begins to identify the spatial organization of the visitor experience as envisioned by the Interpre-tive Plan.

• Design Development or Detailed Design—begins to specify the design in three dimensions. Additional specifi cations for materials, graphic design, lighting, electrical, architectural integration, and multimedia hardware and software are identifi ed here. At this stage, sample and material boards are provided, showing the colors and textures pro-posed for use in the display.

• Final Design—sets the fi nal parameters and specifi cations for all aspects of the exhibition. The fi nal set of drawings should include artifact layouts, mounting systems, and schedules of quantities. The


Final Design is the documentation that fabricators and suppliers will use to build and install the exhibition. Such documentation can be incorporated into tender documents for competitive bidding by fab-ricators on the construction of the exhibit.

• Content Development—The content of the exhibition—the artifacts, specimens, or works of art; the text; and images—need to be developed and coordinated in tandem with design. Curators, educators, and inter-pretive specialists work together to ensure that the design is infused with rich and authentic content. When developing the curatorial material for exhibitions, it is ideal to organize them into packages aligned to the interpretive plan and keyed to the exhibition fl oor plan. • Artifacts, Specimens, or Works of Art: Lists and data sheets of artifacts,

specimens, or works of art should include key information such as photographs, accession numbers, locations, conservation and dis-play requirements, measurements, weight, and provenance for label requirements.

• Text: As a general guideline, exhibition text should be written to the reading level of a grade-eight student or thirteen-year-old visitor. Exhibition text should be organized according to “levels” which iden-tify word counts and organize the exhibitions according to primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of information. Attention to “levelling” can ensure that exhibitions are not too text heavy, and considered to be boring “books on a wall,” as the content can be effectively divided into primary thematic headings of a few words, secondary messages of a few sentences, and tertiary paragraphs of about sixty words.

• Images & Illustrations: Sourcing photographs requires detailed lists that identify copyright and location of original fi les for purposes of determining suitability for digitization. In many cases source mate-rial may be already digitized and may just require payment to the owner, if the image is not owned by the museum. Illustrations and maps must be referenced by providing the Design Team reference documentation with enough information to allow maps, graphs, drawings, and other illustrations to be re-created accurately. It is important that the level of resolution for images should be agreed at the outset.

• Multimedia Script Treatments: Exhibitions include a multitude of vid-eos, sound fi les, and touch-screens. The Exhibition Planning Team is responsible for outlining the objectives of each media system, and the information required to be communicated. For example, a quiz should include a list of questions. Each treatment should include reference to source material such as existing video and audio, archival materials, photographs, books, and more. These treatments will be


used by audiovisual or multimedia providers to create storyboards and scripts.

• Models, Dioramas, Maquettes, Replicas, & Interactive Exhibits: Refer-ence images, books, and other source materials will guide designers and fabricators in the construction of models, dioramas, replicas and interactive exhibits that are not based on media. Each information package to the suppliers of all such items should include the Exhibi-tion Brief and the Curatorial Brief to ensure that the objectives of the exhibition are met.

• Cost Planning—Estimating the cost of an exhibition begins with the Exhibition Brief or Proposal in which an overall budget for planning, design, and fabrication or production of the exhibition has been estab-lished. This budget may include other costs, such as marketing, website, educational materials, launches, and other related events. The planning, design, and fabrication budget will be refi ned as the design process con-tinues from concept to detailed and fi nal design. Throughout the pro-cess, it is advisable to maintain a 10 percent to 15 percent contingency fund to deal with variation orders or unforeseen events. Cost planning should also include funds assigned to operations so that breakdowns can be quickly repaired without interrupting public enjoyment of the exhibition.

4.3.2.4 Evaluation

Evaluation is a process that allows the Exhibition Team to test subject matter, exhibits, and concepts with the intended user using a multitude of techniques such as focus groups, surveys, observation, and prototypes. The purpose of the testing is to determine whether the exhibit meets the objectives estab-lished in the Exhibition Brief or Proposal, and whether it will communicate the content of the Interpretive Plan. Is this topic interesting to audiences? Does this exhibit target children or adults, or both? Will families enjoy this experience? Are visitors getting the message? Does this interactive exhibit really work? Can people read the font on these panels? These questions and more can be answered through the process of evaluation. Knowing your audi-ence is critical to successful design.

Evaluation can occur throughout the exhibition planning process and can be divided into three distinct but interrelated stages:

• Front-End Evaluation occurs at the beginning of the exhibition devel-opment process by testing the defi nition of the exhibition’s objectives in the Exhibition Brief or Proposal with the intended audience. This work can contribute signifi cantly to the creation of the Interpretive Plan.


• Formative Evaluation takes place during design, after completion of Concept Design, or at a more advanced level after Detailed Design. Specifi c components of the design may be mocked up or prototyped to ensure that they are conveying key messages. This evaluation can result in design changes that should be refl ected in the Final Design stage.

• Summative Evaluation occurs when the exhibition is complete and is tested with real visitors. If the schedule permits, it is best to plan for a “soft opening,” when the gallery may be opened on a controlled basis to school groups, or other test groups of visitors. The information gleaned from this process can result in the improvement of key exhibits that are underperforming, or may inform future exhibition projects by identifying subject matter, exhibit types, and collections of interest to visitors.

4.3.2.5 Exhibition Production and Installation

With the approval of the fi nal design, budget, and schedule, the fabrication of exhibit components and production of media elements may begin—although the lead time for fi lms or other audiovisual components may require that they begin production earlier. Specialist suppliers will be required to complete these works and install the exhibition. Once the exhibition has been installed a “soft opening” is advisable, providing an opportunity to test all the displays and correct any errors and omissions. Prior to offi cial opening, staff members must be trained on how to use and maintain the exhibits, and educators can begin preparing for public programming.

While specialist contractors and suppliers are responsible for the pro-duction of the exhibition, it is often advisable to maintain the participation of the Design and Planning teams through to opening day. The planners and designers act as resources to the project, maintaining continuity with the original specifi cations and intent of the design.

4.3.2.6 Exhibition Operation

Whether temporary or permanent, successful exhibition operation must include:

• Conservation: to ensure the continued good condition of all collections on display, and scheduling the replacement of environmentally sensitive objects such as works on paper, textile, or other materials that need to be rotated regularly, with replacements planned from storage.

• Public Programming: a lively program of events, presentations, and tours will enhance the visitor experience and encourage affective learning.

• Regular Monitoring: of the operation of all media and systems in the exhibition—working with media specialists and production team members


to ensure the speedy repair and replacement of exhibits that go down. One very basic housekeeping concern is not only to replace the lamps but also to maintain the focus and angle of adjustable spotlights, “wall washers,” or fl oodlights.

• Evaluation and Study: includes systematic studies of areas where the exhibition needs to be revised and updated, and determining when an exhibition or a component of it has completed its lifespan and should be replaced.

4.3.3 Roles and Responsibilities

A successful exhibition requires the involvement of staff, specialists, and sub-contractors working together in teams and advising the process along the way. The following types of personnel will be needed, and may be organized into a single large Exhibition Committee, or into several task forces to report to a central Exhibition Committee:

• Administration: to ensure that as the exhibition develops it remains within the mandate, scope, and resources of the institution. The main objectives for the exhibition should not deviate substantively from those originally approved; also the production and installation of the exhibition must be scheduled into the overall operation of the institution. Ultimately, the museum’s administration is responsible for the success of the exhibi-tion and its realization on time and on budget. One means for ensuring management of the process is for administration to create an Exhibition Committee consisting of key stakeholders and senior staff who will be responsible for the exhibition.

• Conservation: to ensure that exhibition proposals do not pose potential risks to the collections, and to review conservation implications such as duration of lighting, access to open exhibition components, case design, and other physical collections factors. Condition reports, both of objects in the collection and loans, are a vital contribution of conservators to the exhibition process. At a very early stage conservators need to be able to review lists of artifacts, specimens, or works of art that are to be included in the exhibition, to determine whether any of them need treatment, and if so to plan time, equipment, and budget to accomplish this treatment, either in-house or on contract, in time for the exhibition opening.

• Curatorial: as subject area specialists, as connoisseurs, and as those respon-sible for primary access to the collections and research resources for the exhibition project, curators are at the heart of the exhibition planning process. The selection of objects from the collection for the exhibition should be the curator’s responsibility. In the case of large-scale, multidis-ciplinary exhibitions, more than one curator may be needed for a project.

1 0 0 THE MANUAL OF MUSEUM PLANNING

• Interpretation: the primary concern of interpretative planning is to ensure that the exhibition communicates meaningfully to the public at all levels. Interpretive planners should be concerned with the development of a coherent and engaging exhibition script as well as the strategic use of var-ious exhibition media. Because of their concern with meaningful com-munication, interpretive planners are also often tasked with ensuring the integration of front-end and formative evaluation results into the project.

• Design: to provide expertise in visual communication and the develop-ment and use of three-dimensional space and objects. Design functions range from overall design concepts and visual treatments of an exhibition to the detailed specifi cation of particular exhibits and systems. Exhibi-tion design includes a range of skills such as space interpretation, graphic design, theatrical presentations, and drafting and documentation abili-ties. Design may be done in-house, or may be wholly or partially con-tracted to outside specialists.

• Media specialists: because of the new applications of advanced digital media in exhibitions, it is often desirable to include media specialists such as fi lm and video producers, optical experts, multimedia software creators, and even specialists such as robotics engineers during the plan-ning and design process. Consulting media specialists at an early stage can ensure that the exhibition pursues feasible and practical media options while not missing opportunities offered by these techniques and technologies. Initiating an early discussion with media specialists also promotes the appropriate integration of media, rather than using systems on an arbitrary basis.

• Production and installation: the museum’s capacity to produce and install an exhibition must be considered from the very outset—whether the institution is planning to produce the project in-house or to contract outside specialist services. It is often beyond the capacity of museums to provide all services in-house; in fact, it is usually more cost-effective to rely on specialist suppliers who can meet construction and material demands of the modern exhibitions from complexly integrated technolo-gies to state-of-the-art model-making and graphic production systems. However, the Exhibition Committee must ensure that it can meaning-fully evaluate the work of all outside suppliers, usually by requiring pro-totypes to be approved prior to fi nal production.

• Exhibition Project Management: to ensure that the exhibition develops according to the schedule and budget established by the Exhibition Com-mittee, an exhibition project manager (distinct from but collaborating with the project manager for the new building, renovation, or expansion) is required. Project managers are responsible for communication, report-ing, and team management. They ensure that key milestones are met and

PLANNING THE VISITOR EXPERIENCE 1 0 1

that approvals occur in timely and effi cient manner. Project management should be established at the very beginning of the exhibition project and continue to opening day. The exhibition project manager may be a staff member, but very often he or she is a specialist engaged on contract for this specifi c exhibition.

• Documentation: collections management must be an integral part of exhibi-tion development. The range of potential specimens, artifacts, or works of art to be used in an exhibition must be sourced, and the location and condi-tion of all collections on display must be obtainable at any time. Including accurate and up-to-date documentation records in a project is crucial for quantifying the scope and requirements of an exhibition. If objects are bor-rowed from other collections, the sequence of loan requests, confi rmations, indemnity or insurance arrangements, contracts with specialized museum shippers, condition reports, photography, and eventual return documen-tation must be scheduled and systematically executed. For lenders who require that couriers must accompany their loans, additional arrangements must be made to accommodate them. Replacement schedules for objects made of especially sensitive materials (works on paper, costume, textiles, and others) must also be maintained and implemented.

• Education: the integration of an exhibition into a museum’s educational programs should begin at the earliest planning phases, when the museum’s educators should be asked to comment on the learning potential of a pro-posed exhibition. As the project is developed, educators should review lay-outs and proposed designs to ensure that the spaces will include suffi cient access for regular groups, workable adjacencies to classrooms and work-shop areas, as well as suitable group gathering spaces within the exhibition. Educators may be deeply involved in the evaluation process as well.

• Public program managers: the potential of an exhibition to generate other public programs should be explored as the project itself develops. Public program managers should be asked to review proposals to ensure that they have suffi cient space and access to operate their programs. Public program managers should submit their proposals to the Exhibition Committee to ensure that what they are planning to offer the public is consistent with and complementary to the content and objectives of the exhibition. A relevant fi lm program, for example, may complement an art exhibition stylistically, thematically, or simply by illustrating a historical period.

• Publications: written material should accompany the exhibition as an important take-home addition to any exhibition. Visitors should have the opportunity to purchase some record of their experience of the muse-um’s exhibitions. These may be in the form of audiovisual, digital, or print materials of various kinds, directed at various age and educational levels, in addition to the traditional scholarly catalogue.


• Webmasters or IT specialists: An online version of the exhibition should be planned from the beginning, with text and images to be integrated with the material presented in the gallery, but transformed for use on line. The Exhibition Committee should ensure that the show’s online presence is entirely compatible with and reinforces the message in the galleries, while its format and organization may be very different in order to be effective in the digital medium.

• Public relations: the initiative for an exhibition may be the result of an institution’s relationship with the public. The exhibition will certainly have an impact on members of the public. Therefore, the relationship between the museum and the public should be maintained and developed as the exhibition project develops, possibly through formative evaluation and previews of exhibition components. Public relations representatives should also be considering how the exhibition will function within the broader community—but considering public sensitivities and concerns, as well as creating the best approaches for communicating the exhibition to the public. The bigger the exhibition, the more important it is for pub-lic relations personnel to be involved in the exhibition planning process early, so that they may make arrangements for television and other media.

• Security: as the exhibition is developed, the security of the museum’s col-lections, staff, and visitors must be maintained. This entails provision for security systems and procedures, the monitoring of exhibits, as well as ensuring that all exhibition proposals adhere to building safety and fi re codes. Security offi cers should be included in the planning process to review sightlines into the galleries for surveillance, closed-circuit TV camera locations, emergency escape, and circulation routes.

4.3.4 Public Programming

A robust and diverse program of events, classes, and tours can enhance the visitor’s experience of a cultural institution, attract membership, and establish a community of lifelong learners. Short-term and long-term public program-ming fall into two categories:

• Registered programs are reserved in advance by visitors and may include a fee. These programs encourage repeat visitation and membership, and generate revenue.

• Unregistered programs are usually free of charge and are part of the ongoing schedule of programs offered by museum staff on a regular basis.

Section 4.4 addresses the space and facility needs of museum education programs. Here we consider the broad range of other programs that may be on offer in museums today. Planners working on an expansion, renovation,


or new building project need to determine the kinds of public programs that will be offered in the new facility so that they may ensure that the space and facilities they require are available when the building is completed.

4.3.4.1 Registered Programs

Registered programs—those for which participants must enrol—are planned well in advance and often involve larger budgets and staff resources. They require careful planning and can take place over long periods of time. As such these events are usually tied to a fee, even in museums where general admis-sion is free of charge, and may have participation caps or a minimum level of uptake needed in order to control and recover costs. Some examples include:

• Specialized tours—The museum can develop specialized tours for groups who book them in advance. Seniors groups, families, and tour-ists often book tours that are developed to meet their special needs and requirements. These could be half-day or full-day events that incorporate lunch and off-site visits. Tour operators look for sites that offer custom-ized experiences for their clientele, thus encouraging bookings. A menu of tours organized by theme or market segment (e.g., seniors, families) can be offered for a small fee. Providing a theme for each tour will give the tours further distinction and identity.

• Children and youth clubs—Children and young people can join the museum after school or on their off days (such as weekends) to par-ticipate in organized classes. These types of clubs encourage community participation and provide a positive outlet for young people—an audi-ence that is notoriously diffi cult to attract to the museum. These clubs can be organized around yearly memberships, such as a Young Curator’s Club in which youth can create their own exhibitions. Other clubs and classes might revolve around art, reading, outdoor science experiments, or archaeology.

• Lectures—Adult and senior audiences may be attracted by the museum’s lecture series on a variety of topics of relevance to the museum’s mis-sion and mandate. These lectures will extend the educational impact of exhibitions by presenting more in-depth discussions of themes. Experts from the museum as well as guest speakers from around the world may be invited to lecture or give seminars. These presentations may be made available online, depending on the level of multimedia technology pro-vided at the site. Lectures can also be compiled into publications avail-able in the research center and/or sold in the museum’s retail store.

• Specialized rides—Some institutions such as heritage sites and trans-portation museums can provide visitors with the opportunity to take a ride in a military vehicle, a hot air balloon, airplane, or antique car. These


are unique opportunities that can generate large revenues but require careful operation and care of the collections. Insurance is sometimes an important consideration in planning these offerings.

• Master classes or courses—Master classes can be organized as one-day or multiple-day events in which participants can engage in a hands-on learning experience such as art or handicrafts. Courses for adults may be offered on a monthly or other regular basis.

• Organized trips—participants may be invited to experience the world through the eyes of the museum’s curators or senior staff. Trips can be planned around art, history, language, or science themes. Although this experience will appeal to a niche (and probably wealthy) audience, the museum is in a position to reap the benefi t of the increasing desire for unique excursions and one-of-a-kind experiences.

4.3.4.2 Nonregistered Programs

A regular schedule of programs and events may be readily available to visitors online, or when they purchase their tickets. Although these programs do not require registration, and in many instances may be offered free of charge, visi-tors may choose to sign up for experiences or plan ahead to visit the museum when a special event is taking place. Some examples include:

• Guided tours—The museum may offer a regular schedule of general tours through the exhibitions and some back-of-house spaces. These may be led by a staff member, or the visitor may pursue their own tour with the aid of an audio guide. Heritage sites and historical villages may have daily tours possibly involving rides on period conveyances, or encounters with costumed interpreters. These tours, ideally lasting one or two hours, will take place on select days of the week during peak visitation periods. Although many are for school groups, there is also a need for tours for many adult groups, especially at historic sites, and in countries like Bel-gium, where adult bus tour groups are popular. Planners must ensure that suffi cient circulation space is provided among exhibits if there are to be large numbers of visitors taking guided tours.

• Storytelling and performance—More and more exhibition galleries are designed to incorporate live performances and storytelling. These events bring the collections and displays to life, drawing on the rich, local tradi-tion of dance, music, and storytelling. Historical events can be re-created and costumed interpreters can create unexpected experiences for visitors. Along with professionally trained performers and costumed interpreters, museums may invite special guests to read stories and meet visitors. For example, military museums often invite veterans to participate in special events. Sharing stories and memories is a very effective way of creating


meaning, and visitors often enjoy encounters with real people as well as with real museum objects. In addition to ensuring that there is suitable public space for such events—a story circle in a children’s gallery, for instance—back-of-house space for costumes, storage or technical sup-port may be needed.

• Demonstrations and shows—Daily or weekly demonstrations ranging from science experiments to air shows can be a great way to encourage repeat visitation. These types of events may be seasonal and will depend on availability of space and resources. Art or craft demonstrations can take place in galleries or in classrooms, but air shows, parades, and musi-cal performances require access to large grounds and theaters. Often these types of demonstrations may be offered as special events related to national holidays when visitation will be high. Some museums and his-toric sites see 50 percent or even 75 percent of their visitors on a relatively limited number of days when these major events are held; planners must anticipate the space and facilities needed for the volume of visitors that are expected on these days.

• Special events—A yearly calendar of special events gives visitors and especially museum members something to look forward to. These events are often tied to national, seasonal, or religious holidays. The day will often be fi lled with free activities, ranging from demonstrations, special-ized tours, face painting, and children’s games or food and drink. If a number of such days are planned, they should be taken as the “Design Day,” the large attendance day for which space and facilities should be provided.

• Free day/night—An increasingly popular event at museums that charge admission is the creation of a regular weekly or monthly free day or night at the museum. If this is planned, again the Design Day occupancy levels should take it into account.

• Audio guides—Visitors are able to rent audio devices for specifi c tours of permanent and temporary exhibitions. Plans for the galleries should include space and facilities for a place where the equipment may be bor-rowed or rented—with provision for the retention of a visitor’s identifi ca-tion until the equipment is returned.

• Website—An important marketing and programming tool will be the Museum’s website. The site can host a variety of virtual exhibitions and fun activities, collections databases, lectures, and more. Electronic courses and online resources for teachers further the museum’s educational mandate. This will make the website a virtual “destination,” an interactive partner for the physical museum. The website can also be used to solicit dona-tions or sponsorship, as well as to encourage membership. Planners must provide staff and offi ce space and communications capability to facilitate operation of an active website.


• Social media—New technologies such as blogs, Facebook, or Twitter are creating online communities where ideas are shared, discussed, and disseminated. Forums create opportunities for audience and collections development. The experience is completely participatory, in which vir-tual visitors are equal partners with the museum in building and creating knowledge. Again, planners must provide staff, offi ces, and the com-munications capability for the museums’ participation in this important medium.

4.3.5 Planning Spaces for Exhibitions

Barry Lord

This section briefl y describes the spaces and facilities that should be consid-ered when planning to accommodate both permanent collection displays and temporary exhibitions in galleries or study centers. Exhibition support spaces are described in detail in section 6.4.

4.3.5.1 Galleries

A museum’s galleries are its main public areas—indeed, they are often the only areas evaluated in reviews of new or renovated museums. Establishing their character is critical to setting the entire public persona of the museum, as well as providing for one of the museum’s most important functions.

The dimensions and proportions of the galleries are therefore among the most important aesthetic decisions that the museum’s planners should require and that the architect should determine. Although galleries are convention-ally rectangular, contemporary architects like Frank Gehry have proved that they can be successfully designed in a wide range of shapes. However, there are important functional considerations that should be addressed by the entire Museum Planning Team, affecting the functional brief or pro-gram that should be given to the architect, rather than leaving these decisions entirely to the aesthetics of the building’s design. Some of the fundamental planning decisions that must be made about the galleries prior to determin-ing their shape are:

• linear progression or open-plan exhibits? • fi xed walls and/or panels? • open or suspended ceiling?• natural and/or artifi cial light?

Each of these questions is considered briefl y here.


4.3.5.1.1 Linear Progression or Open-Plan Exhibits?

The term storyline that is often used in planning thematic exhibitions indi-cates one exhibition communication strategy—a linear progression that the visitor is expected to follow from beginning to end. This is a useful approach for chronological storylines where it is important that the visitor discovers the development of an artist’s career through his or her lifetime, a historical series of events, or an evolutionary sequence.

Open-plan exhibits, on the other hand, allow the visitor to explore the subject of the exhibition as he or she chooses. This is a communication strat-egy better suited to many subjects where a linear sequence of events or ideas is immaterial or at least unimportant in comparison with the broader the-matic storyline. If the exhibition is expected to be crowded, an open plan will facilitate an easier visitor fl ow than the linear progression; this is particularly important if the exhibition is combined with a theater or audiovisual show that “pulses” visitors, gathering them from the preshow gallery during each presentation and then releasing them into a post-show gallery afterward. Of course many museums may use both strategies where appropriate, and may combine them for dramatic effect. It is often observed, however, that curators have assumed a linear storyline where an open-plan approach might have been more rewarding for visitors.

4.3.5.1.2 Fixed Walls and/or Panels?

Large open spaces are often preferred for galleries, since they are most read-ily adaptable to the changing demands that will be placed on them. Mov-able walls or panels are utilized to confi gure the ever-changing space. This approach does provide maximum fl exibility. Unfortunately, it also often results in noisy galleries—since the panels do not reach to the ceiling—and to a rather tattered appearance, as the panels age and begin to show the effects of their recurrent replacement. Fixed walls may be more appropriate for per-manent collection galleries, where fl exibility is less critical.

4.3.5.1.3 Open or Suspended Ceiling?

Still another fundamental consideration affecting exhibition galleries is whether the museum’s planners prefer to install a suspended ceiling, thereby concealing the ducting, sprinkler pipes, and lighting track suspension that is usually overhead, or whether they prefer to leave the ceiling open. For galler-ies exhibiting historical art, the fi nished look of a suspended ceiling is very often preferred, but for contemporary art and for history and science exhibi-tions the open ceiling is often chosen.


Open-ceiling galleries are often called “black boxes,” because their ceil-ings and all the ducts and pipes may be painted black or some other dark color, with the result that the visitor is often unaware—or only dimly aware—of what is overhead. Although this has the benefi t of concentrating attention on the exhibits below, a “white box” is an equally attractive alternative, which has the added advantage of maximizing the light available to the visitor in the gallery.

It is useful for the museum planners to consider these issues prior to the architect’s aesthetic suggestions, since important functional issues are also affected by the decision. Lighting track, sprinkler head positions, closed-cir-cuit TV camera locations and vents will all be affected by the choice of sus-pended or open ceilings. So will the question of fi xed versus movable gallery walls, since movable panels can fi t snugly under a suspended ceiling (thereby eliminating the noise problem), but will usually not go all the way up to an open ceiling. Here again, a combination of both ceiling types is certainly pos-sible within one museum.

4.3.5.1.4 Natural and/or Artifi cial Light?

The issue of fenestration in exhibition galleries is much debated. Completely artifi cial light facilitates the controls that are necessary both for conservation purposes and for lighting effects in the galleries. If works on paper or textiles are included in the exhibition, the recommended light level for conservation purposes of 50 lux (5 foot-candles) falling on their surfaces on the gallery walls means that the illumination at one foot above the gallery fl oor should be only 30 lux (3 foot-candles). This is virtually impossible to achieve or control if natural light is entering the gallery via windows or a skylight. In addition, dramatic effects required for a thematic display cannot be achieved if natural light is varying their effi cacy.

On the other hand, many curators, architects and museum visitors pre-fer to see some exhibits, especially certain works of art, in natural light. The natural light is usually introduced through overhead skylights or roof lights, which must be equipped with baffl es and fi lters to ensure that the light enters the gallery indirectly, with its ultraviolet rays suffi ciently reduced. Either manual or automatically adjusting louvers are often designed to respond to the variations of natural light—although the automatic devices are seldom satisfactory in practice.

Still another dimension of this issue is the question of the lighting of dis-play cases (vitrines). If the display of three-dimensional objects in glazed dis-play cases is to be an important part of the museum’s exhibitions, the museum planners should give consideration to the effective lighting of those cases, and then reconsider the issue of natural versus artifi cial light in that context. If the cases are to be lit externally, questions of glare and refl ection must be


carefully considered by a lighting specialist. If they are internally illuminated (as is generally preferable), the type of lamps and fi xtures is important to determine in advance. Too often the planning is done the other way around, with museum planners assuming that they can make those decisions at a later date, only to fi nd that the previous decisions about natural and artifi cial light in the galleries as a whole have severely circumscribed their options for light-ing the all-important display cases. The result is very often glare or refl ections that could have been avoided.

4.3.5.2 Study Centers

With the growing emphasis on intellectual access and learning in many muse-ums, study centers are increasingly found adjacent to exhibition galleries. A common earlier type is the Prints and Drawings Study Center, which usually provides study tables where visitors under staff supervision can request and study works on paper provided from adjacent map cabinets, often with small exhibitions featured in display cases set above the locked storage cabinets. This type of study center can be successful if the museum has the capacity to staff it with professionals or well-trained volunteers, and if the necessary security precautions are taken.

Multimedia programs have made other types of study centers possible. London’s National Gallery, for instance, allows visitors not only to scroll through images of the collection on screen in its micro-gallery, but also to plan their gallery visit and to take home a printout of selected images.

The advent of visible storage has resulted in another type of study center adjacent to the glazed drawers or vitrines in which the collections are arrayed. An outstanding example is the ceramics gallery on the sixth fl oor of the Vic-toria & Albert Museum in London. Either laminated cards or screened data can be used to provide information about the exhibits, extending full visitor access to all except the security and insurance fi les about each object. Down-loading and printing facilities can also be provided. Visible storage thus not only dramatically increases the proportion of the collection that visitors can see, it also provides the public with far more information about the collec-tions than would be available in a display gallery with signage and labels.

PLANNING SPACE FOR LEARNING

Heather Maximea

An integral part of the visitor experience in every museum is the opportunity to learn something new and to connect to the museum’s mission to advance the cause of knowledge. Learning is so intrinsic to the museum experience that it permeates the entire program, from collections and exhibitions to

4.4


lectures, events, and even retail. As a conscious part of the visitor’s motivation for attending, learning is one of the key goals of the museum visit.

Over more than 200 years, learning in museums has evolved through formal and informal structures to our understanding today that learning is an active pursuit that can be followed for a lifetime, and that engagement is the prerequisite. Engaging with the enterprise of exhibitions, publications, and ongoing research enables the museum visitor to connect with the museum as a carrier of culture.

Potential modes of learning in the museum setting also range widely, with modern museums adopting the widest range of learning styles in order to engage more visitors. Passive and contemplative activities where visitors listen and observe as a docent leads the tour, or where information is imparted by curator-written labels or catalogues, can be varied and enhanced by new interactive techniques that ask questions and provoke new thoughts. Offer-ing visitors the opportunity to fi nd out more for themselves is the essence of self-directed learning, at whatever age.

Among the myriad learning activities that museum visitors may engage in are:

• fi lms, lectures, performances, and storytelling;• demonstration of fi ndings and techniques;• paper or web-based investigation;• discovery exploration (hands-on and discovery stations and kits);• interactive exhibits;• art exploration—studio activities in any media;• internships and mentorships;• archival writing or oral history recording.

The range is limited only by the ingenuity of educators and their publics.Increasingly, museums in every country are developing an ethos of lifelong

learning, and extending the notion of education in museums to a wider audi-ence of all age groups, levels of literacy, and formal educational understand-ing. Inviting this wider audience into the museum and giving them the food for thought that they crave is the only real way to build a new museum-going public that supports museum ideals. In turn, this means that the demand for special spaces in museums with dedicated orientation to learning programs and needs is also on the increase.

Galleries, lobbies, theaters, outdoor trails, and sculpture gardens all pro-vide a setting for communication and for formal and informal learning as well as aesthetic and contemplative experiences. In addition to the spaces that house and interpret museum collections, museums increasingly invest in specialized spaces for education, ranging from seminar rooms, classrooms, and research laboratories to “discovery rooms”; libraries and resource centers;


theaters; and suites of auxiliary space including lunchrooms, cloakrooms, and preparation and storage facilities. Innovations such as railway “museum cars” or “museumobiles” have also long had their place as an extension of the muse-um’s learning programs. A primary distinction in museum spaces devoted to learning can be made between:

• in-gallery facilities;• education facilities that are external to the galleries;• auxiliary or support facilities.

4.4.1 Learning for Different Audiences

In order to plan facilities for learning, the museum needs to understand its target audiences, their age range, learning styles, and interests. Certain types of activities will appeal to specifi c age or interest groups, and can then be fi t-ted into the museum’s planned activity program, which will point to the most appropriate and feasible spaces for learning. Table 4.1 summarizes the main age and interest groups in terms of their learning styles and relevant activi-ties or programs; more details on ages and learning styles, and on many other aspects of education programs in museums, are available in The Manual of Museum Learning (AltaMira, 2007).

The following comments on each age group touch on some of the plan-ning principles relevant to each cohort.

4.4.1.1 Infants/Toddlers, Birth to Three

A learning environment for very small children need not be very large but should be a contained area where the children feel safe, can see their par-ents nearby, or be accompanied by parents. A low fence or barrier within a larger space can contain several play stations or a reading area with bean bag chairs or mattresses. Barriers and furnishings need to be free of sharp corners, with easily cleaned surfaces and nontoxic fi nishes, bearing in mind that the children may put almost anything in their mouths. Baby-changing facilities nearby are essential.

4.4.1.2 Children Aged Four to Seven

The learning environment needs to include lots of space and opportunity to do things, including more complex puzzles and matching games. Discovery boxes with simple tools, activity stations for working with clay or crayons, and dress-up or role-playing environments are popular. Children will know and come back to their favorite activities, so that their learning is reinforced by repetition. Peeking through a window into a fox’s den or turning a big crank


to play a music box can become “star attractions” for this group. Sitting in rows in a classroom setting should be avoided in favor of activities that incor-porate movement and participation.

4.4.1.3 Children Aged Seven to Twelve

Learning spaces for children at this stage need to take account of their need to “fi nd out” as well as to “do.” Using the museum galleries as the arena of exploration and carrying their fi ndings back to the studio or activity lab enables children to put new knowledge to use. Films and videos become important for holding the attention and conveying additional layers of information. In the art studio, more intensive technologies such as papier-mâché or block print-ing may be required. In the lab or “fi eld station,” children will want to exam-ine specimens up close, measure and weigh, take notes and make collections. The spaces used for these activities can be almost adult in scale and design, with some adjustments in table and counter height. Storage for equipment and supplies and ability to work on projects over a longer period of time is more important, as this age group loves activities such as a Saturday Morning Club.

4.4.1.4 Adolescents Aged Twelve to Eighteen

The galleries of the museum are the outward and most obvious resource for learning at this age, but in fact children and adolescents avidly seek more in-depth experiences and engagement in the disciplines they are attracted to, whether they are technology, sports, the arts, or archaeology. Although the museum library or media center, or the fi lm theater, may feed some of this hunger, more “behind the scenes” engagement will be very attractive. Teen groups, special classes and workshops, and opportunities to volunteer or intern working alongside museum professionals usually appeal to this cohort. The ability to bring teens into the world of the creative studio or laboratory and to give them their own “club” space in which to explore a chosen discipline can be an enabling factor for the museum to attract and hold a teen audience.

Museums experimenting with spaces to attract teens and young adults realize that the element of “cool” may distinguish the acceptable from the unacceptable space. The studio, media lab, seminar room, or amphitheater may be adult in format—but good design and capability to support “hot” new technology can bring it into the realm of “cool.” Thus, the museum library may need to morph toward a “digital café,” where study groups can meet over a latte. The ability of the space to allow teens to feel at least temporary “ownership” for the purposes of their meeting or project is equally key to acceptance: if space permits, a teen lounge, coffee room, or other hangout for young volunteers and visitors is highly recommended.


4.4.1.5 Adults

“Lifelong learning” for adults is self-driven and self-selected. Adults may choose to supplement their visit to the museum galleries as a source of learning by visiting the museum library or resource center; signing up for lectures, fi lms, and classes; or becom-ing volunteers, which in itself demands a training commitment. The opportunity to meet and socialize with like-minded individuals through lectures and classes may be an additional motivation. Adult spaces for learning in the museum, beyond the galleries, may thus include a theater, library, art or craft studio, activity room or laboratory, or a seminar room or lecture hall. The standards for these spaces for adults are well under-stood by planners and architects, and the aim should be to design them to refl ect the vision and needs of the specifi c institution in its environment.

4.4.1.5 Seniors

The major change for most seniors in their use of the museum’s many spaces is in dif-fi culties with access caused by decreased mobility, sight, and hearing. Thus designing for accessibility is a key issue in enabling senior users of the facility. In addition to improved accessibility to all normally accessible museum space, seniors will be grateful for atten-tion to visitor amenities and services such as tea rooms, lobby seating areas, and shaded outdoor seating.

4.4.1.6 Families—Multigenerational Groups

In designing each type of learning environment in the museum it is advisable to envi-sion the presence of parents and/or grandparents along with teens and children and to plan for their ability to share the museum experience. Small children and their caregiv-ers need to be able to maintain fairly close contact at all times—the adult should be as active a participant as possible in the play or storybook areas. As children grow and their sense of independence increases, the parent still should be able to keep an eye on active children and to step into the picture when needed. When designing play stations or computer terminal stations for multigenerational use, consideration must be given to the different size, height, and weight requirements of children, adults, and seniors. Though more formal museum learning programs may live in studios or activity rooms, these same facilities can double for family programs on holidays, evenings, and weekends.

4.4.1.7 Programs for Underserved Audiences

The museum’s market analysis and records of attendance and participation will bring up a pattern of those target audiences that are well served by the current facility and programs, and those audiences that may be underserved. Finding the reasons why certain age or interest groups do not attend is basic to understanding how to create or modify the pace and activities, plus the marketing method, to bring this audience


Table 4.1. Learning Styles and Programs for Different Age Groups

Age Group Learning StyleMuseum Activities and Programs

Infants and Toddlers—ages 1–3

Learn by play in a safe and familiar environment—hands-on large toys and puzzles—act out songs and stories, move and clap to music

1. Interact with Mom and Dad in a special tots enclosed play-learn area. 2. Museum-led programs of stories, music, and games, some of which promote parenting skills.

Children ages 4–7 Learning about self and the world by exploring and doing—using materials and tools, active physical movement, make-believe and role playing, songs and playing musical instruments

1. Tackle a wider range of “I can do it” activities. 2. Check out Dis-covery Boxes. 3. Join in guided art, music, and movement programs led by museum staff, related to museum themes.

Children ages 8–12 Learning with others (teams and clubs) and learning facts and information, discovering things for themselves, make collections and create things that show their discoveries

1. School Group Programs work in teams to solve challenges in exhibits, labs, and research room 2. Attend Summer History Camp 3. Visit with Families for fun interactive exhibits 4. Create a personal collection—fl owers, photos.

Adolescents ages 13–18 Learning and socializing with peers, with some adult guidance, need more in-depth “cool” expe-riences to tweak their developing interests. Need opportunities to create own projects, to assist and volunteer especially “behind the scenes,” building confi dence and responsibility

1. Use online and hard-copy resources independently for school projects, contact scientists with own questions. 2. Take workshops and studio courses, join peer inter-est groups. 3. Have fun taking interactives to advanced levels, creating new content. 4. Become a junior volunteer or intern.

Adults Adult learning cycle mov-ing from concrete experience through refl ection to abstract conceptualization to active experimentation and back to concrete experience. Lifelong learning—self-driven and self-selected, requiring more in-depth experiences, access to informa-tion and to experts.

1. Pursue professional or ama-teur research goals. 2. Take basic to advanced workshops. 3. Visit alone or with friends and family. 4. Join a special-interest group. 5. Become a volunteer, teacher, or mentor.


to the museum. Some examples are a family coupon program, a sponsored snack or lunch program, a drop-in space for seniors, a study hall for teens, or an after-school program for children whose parents both work. Each such program has space implications, but may require only minor tweaking of current space use.

When a new program requires new or signifi cantly redesigned space, the input of your program staff, plus educators and interior designers, can help ensure that the space fully responds to the needs of the program and its users.

4.4.2 Learning Spaces for Different Activities

Dedicated learning spaces within museums may include a wide range of space types. Table 4.2 outlines planning features of the most common ones.

4.4.3 Facilitating Learning—the Education Center

Increasingly museums are recognizing the value of clustering some or all of their learning spaces to create an “Education Center” or “Learning Center,” which has two purposes:

• to effectively receive and host groups coming to the museum for educa-tional activities;

• to separate “noisy and messy” educational activities from the more serene gallery environment.

Age Group Learning StyleMuseum Activities and Programs

Seniors Potentially incorporate all ages and learning styles, require design attention to accessibility issues. Exhibitions and activities must be designed to be “multi-level” to respond to different interests and abilities, attention span, mobility, etc., alternate activities for teens, allow adults and seniors to assist toddlers and younger children.

1. Pursue professional or ama-teur research goals. 2. Take basic to advanced workshops. 3. Visit alone or with friends and family. 4. Join a special-interest or elder group. 5. Become a volunteer, teacher, or mentor.


Table 4.2. Museum Learning Spaces

Museum Learning Space Planning Considerations

Meeting or Seminar Rooms

May provide a public service as well as serving museum needs. Flexible layout: seating for 10–50 adults with tables, blackboards or whiteboards, fl ip chart stands, an AV cart and projection screen, a podium, and online network connections.

Classrooms Fixed seating, fi xed blackboard, not fl exible. Ask: what is the value of repli-cating a classroom, and by inference a traditional classroom learning style, inside the museum? Useful for Museum Schools, but otherwise may not be the best use of the museum’s learning space.

Art Studios Enable museum goers to experience art production for themselves. Wet studios need sinks and drains for dyes, paints, and clay; dry studios are for drawing, weaving, spinning or other “clean” activities. Studios can be spe-cialized for printmaking, glass, ceramics, or textiles, or may be kept as fl ex-ible as possible. Pinnable walls allow the results to be displayed.

Labs or Discovery Centers

Planned with specifi c equipment for particular disciplines—e.g., computer workstations, or microscope viewing stations in a “bug room.” Natural his-tory labs may house living collections, for which adequate support space is important.

Dedicated Activity or Project Rooms

More fl exible than a dedicated lab. Sturdy surfaces, open fl oor space for performances or for work tables, sinks for messy projects, and pinnable walls for displaying works in progress are needed.

Lecture Halls, Theaters, or Auditoria

Important planning decisions depend on decisions as to the need for a lecture hall, an auditorium, a more fully equipped theatre, or a combination of several of these, and whether fi xed seating or a fl at fl oor with movable chairs is more appropriate. An Orientation Theatre with a dedicated show can also be available for evening fi lm programs or rentals, but not during the museum’s public hours. Capacity of each space is another major plan-ning decision: if too large, they will make small groups feel uncomfortable; if too small they will necessitate pulsing of visitor groups as audiences for repeated showings. Facilities needed are still other major issues: Will the programs presented be limited to slide-illustrated lectures, or should we provide also for fi lms, live drama, or music and dance that may range from chamber or jazz groups to full choirs, bands, or orchestras? A projection room is essential, with a sound booth in some cases; opportunities for recording should also be considered, along with attention to acoustics. A lobby will be needed in most cases, with a preshow exhibition to prepare visitors while they are waiting for the next presentation of an orientation fi lm. (see section 4.5.2 for more on theaters)


Museum Learning Space Planning Considerations

Multipurpose Rooms

Intended as optimally fl exible, but if the space is also to be used for events, rentals and other activities, scheduling becomes problematic, as materials must be cleared to facilitate the next usage. While multipurpose rooms can be valuable where space is truly at a premium, the real needs of each program that will be using the space need to be evaluated to determine whether this is the best option. If a multipurpose room with a fl at fl oor is planned, an adjacent chair and table storage room of suffi cient size is mandatory. If it is proposed to accommodate rentals in the multipurpose room, a catering kitchen, or at least a coffee bar, should also be adjacent.

Libraries Costs of acquisitions, staff, and operations are relatively high if public access and use is allowed, lower if usage is restricted to staff. May also accommo-date an archive. Needs reading rooms, stacks and library work rooms.

Resource Centers Information resource centers may be more effective than a library to serve today’s public. Online computers (some with specialized or large-scale media screens or earphones), small and intimate reading and viewing areas, work stations, media labs and back-of-house web support and production suites are useful.

Teachers’ Resource Center

Museums with a strong learning program for schools often fi nd it use-ful to provide a separate Resource Center where teachers can pick up kits prepared for the classroom. These may be useful materials in themselves, or may be used as preparation for class tours.

Community Galleries

May display work produced in the museum’s learning programs, or work pro-duced regionally that may not meet curatorial standards for the main exhibi-tion galleries but are of keen local interest. Security and environmental controls may be more relaxed, the scale of the space and materials more casual, and the gallery itself may be located either within a cluster of learning spaces, or near the lobby with meeting and other public access spaces, for maximum visibility to the community. Requirements for environmental or lighting controls may be less stringent than those for the museum’s other galleries.

Performing Arts Space

In addition to theaters and auditoria, informal areas may be made avail-able in the galleries or adjacent to them. Facilitates inclusion of intangible culture as well as material heritage. Open fl oor space rather than infl exible seating arrangements, small movable stages or folding puppet theaters, or screens that can hide costume change areas and from which actors or danc-ers can emerge, are all useful.

Audiovisual or Media Viewing Rooms

Videos accompany many exhibitions, and can best be viewed in a dedi-cated media room adjacent to the exhibition galleries. The Rubin Museum of Art in New York provides a room with digital information about the exhibits on monitors immediately behind each gallery.


Some institutions desire a separation between the gallery spaces, which they view as reserved specifi cally for quiet contemplation, and education spaces, which may be viewed as noisy, messy, and generally disruptive to the gallery experience. Other museums actively seek to relate educational activi-ties very closely to what is going on in the galleries and to make the gal-leries themselves as active as possible. Sometimes a compromise is reached, depending on the size of the museum, availability of space, and prioritization of components of the visitor experience, potentially including some or all of these elements:

• receiving and hosting space, such as a separate group entrance, orienta-tion area, toilets and lunchroom;

• small activity areas related to adjacent galleries;• a separate education wing or cluster of spaces including studios, labs,

classrooms, and so on;• connections to spaces shared with other functions, such as a library or

resource center, theater, or multipurpose and meeting rooms.

Where smaller museums must strategize to offer dedicated learning space, larger museums can afford a full range of facilities; in either case, it is necessary to thoughtfully assess who will use each type of space, at what time of day, and if there are likely to be concurrent demands from different museum departments. For example, the fundraising arm of the museum may wish to book the multipurpose rooms for luncheon parties—at the same time as it is being used by school groups. If operational solutions aren’t successful, it may be better for the museum to have a space dedicated for each purpose.

Planning the learning program for school classes, which involves manag-ing groups of children of different ages, requires a clear understanding of the sequence of a museum visit and the facilities which come into play at each stage of their museum experience. Although these are not instructional spaces per se, they are key to an effective education program. Some of the spaces museums have evolved for serving school groups in an education center are:

• arrival spaces;• amenities;• food and retail spaces.

Table 4.3 considers the planning issues related to each of these functional areas of the museum. Not all the spaces listed will be found in every museum, but provision for all of these functions should be considered during the plan-ning process:


Table 4.3. Arrival, Amenities, and Food and Retail Spaces for Educational Programs

Function Space Planning Issues

Arrivals Bus Drop-Off and Parking

Providing adequate parking for school and tour group buses is a critical planning need: how many groups can the museum serve at once? A safe drop-off and pick-up zone that does not require children to cross traffi c is essential. Rain or sun shelters are needed at drop-off and assembly points for queues.

Group Entrance and Lobby

A separate group entrance facilitates assembly and possibly subdivision of the class into groups, as well as a head count. A short orientation talk or fi lm may be part of the experience here. Coat rooms, toilets, and the place to store backpacks or lunches must be adja-cent. The area may be used for adult learners or other purposes outside of school tour hours.

Amenities Restrooms/washrooms/lavatories/ toilets

School groups may need them immediately after a long bus ride, so adequate provision must be accessible off the lobby. Facilities could be designed and sized specifi cally for children, and must refl ect Universal Design principles (see 4.7).

Sick Room or Emer-gency Response

Minimally a fi rst-aid room with supplies, where ill or injured visitors or staff may lie down, with a cot and a sink. Larger museums may need to accommodate an Emergency Response Team; planning for emergency response should be part of all facility planning projects.

Coats, boots, backpacks, or lunch storage

Facility to store the objects of a class together, so that they can be easily retrieved by that group without affecting others. Bins, tubs, or rolling racks are good solutions.

Food and Retail

School Groups Lunchroom

A dedicated space isolates noise and food odors from other visitors. Space allocation depends on projected capacity for school groups staying over lunch hour. Suffi cient child-sized seating and tables are needed, along with sinks and garbage receptacles so that school groups can begin cleanup themselves. Janitor’s closet and vending machines adjacent. Lunchroom can be gaily decorated so that it can serve as a revenue source, a Children’s Birthday Party space for rentals outside of school group hours.

(continued)


4.4.4 Outreach and Extension Programs

Programs that extend the museum visit and allow for a more intensive or enhanced experience are being developed by many museums. One goal of such programs is to reach out to underserved audiences, such as schools in inner-city neighborhoods, or schools at too great a distance to visit the museum for a day visit. Some options include:

• museum school;• overnight programs;• extension programs.

4.4.4.1 Museum School

We have seen two types of museum schools, one where a school has per-manent space in or adjacent to the museum, and an alternate, where local schools can arrange to have regular classes at the museum for certain peri-ods each week. In each case, the intent is to use the museum as a teaching environment on a regular basis. Where a school is actually attached to a museum, the school may have actual classrooms, used daily as in a normal school; however, the students also have the opportunity, for part of their school day, to move into the “exploration spaces” of the museum for dif-ferent and enhanced kinds of learning. In the alternate arrangement, the museum provides a classroom plus the exploration spaces, for an intensive study period of one or more weeks, with special projects guided by museum staff as one of the benefi ts.

Function Space Planning Issues

Vending machines Vending machines offer an alternative for drinks or snacks for school groups separate from the café. Should be located in a corridor accessible by the school groups that will not be locked off during activities. Adjacent to school lunchroom.

Children’s Retail An Education Center may include a separate Chil-dren’s Shop selling different merchandise from the adult visitors’ retail. Facilitates use of the group entrance and lobby for exit as well as entry, since school groups do not then have to go to adult retail located elsewhere.



4.4.4.2 Overnight Programs

Overnight programs for schools can benefi t schools too far away to make a single day visit feasible. They may also appeal to teenage groups, enabling them to spend a more extended time in the galleries. Science centers and planetaria especially have had success with “sleepovers.” Hosting such pro-grams may require special facilities such as dormitories and dining halls, or cooperative programs with existing student hostels; or (as in some science centers) the institution may invite the student visitors to bring sleeping bags into the galleries.

4.4.4.3 Extension Programs

Once the museum visit is over, students often take projects back to their home schools to share with others and develop further. To support extended projects with museum resources, some museums now have regular video-conference or Skype links to schools so that teachers and students on one end, and museum staff on the other, can talk and see each other in real time. For this purpose each learning space within the museum can benefi t from “smart” facilities for recording and broadcast of classes, demonstrations, and project interaction.

4.4.5 Support Space for Learning

Support spaces for museum educational facilities are in general back-of-house, invisible to the ordinary visitor, and accessible only to staff. Planning for them should ensure that they are adjacent to the spaces they support. Table 4.4 summarizes other planning issues or features of four of the most common types of support space.

4.4.6 Design for Learning

Spaces for learning have a common aim, to support and facilitate the learn-ing process for their users. Some basic design principles can be used to direct the design process and to assess and test the results. This section ends with table 4.5, summarizing some design considerations to enhance learning in the museum.

INTEGRATING SOCIAL SPACES

Amy Kaufman and Chris Lorway

The physical design and layout of museums has begun to refl ect cultural change and the evolving role of these institutions in our society. Formerly,

4.5


Table 4.4. Support Spaces for Learning

Type of Space Areas or rooms Planning Considerations

Preparation Space Work area to prepare hands-on projects, “dis-covery boxes” or self-guided tour materials, as close to areas of use as possible.

A wall of shelving or cabinets for supplies and equipment, large sturdy work tables, paper cutter, light table, and a counter with a utility sink. Carts to move materials into the areas where they will be used. Specialized equipment such as a kiln and a paint or clay drain may be needed.

Web Resource Space May be located with other web maintenance functions, or may be in Education Department.

Work stations for development and mainte-nance of learning programs on the museum’s website—the educational pages, links, and online resources for students and teachers. Should be able to support museum distance learning through hookups to activity areas in the museum.

Storage Space Multiple storage rooms for supplies and equipment.

Capacity for bulk storage should be planned. Closet for painting easels, sketch pads, clip boards, and folding stools should be adjacent to the galleries. Storage shelving for other items may be built into activity areas. Mov-able and stackable plastic bins or carts for moving materials to activity areas may be needed.

Learning collection storage.

Learning collection storage may or may not require museum standards of environmental controls or security, and should be accessible for education staff.

Staff and Volunteer Space

Offi ce space. May be grouped with other offi ces, but adja-cency to activity areas is usually more effi -cient. Education director’s offi ce should be private, with a small meeting table. Volun-teer coordinator also needs a private offi ce. Other areas can be open plan, with part-time staff possibly sharing desks, phones, or work stations.

Meeting rooms. May be shared with other departments, or may be dedicated to education in larger museums. Good IT and AV facilities are desirable, with capacity for participation in web seminars.


museums were fi rst and foremost places of learning—no matter who the audience. Now, museum-going has become increasingly mainstream—more of an intellectually stimulating leisure activity than a strictly educational experience. Museums are consistently learning through visitor surveys that spending quality time with family and friends is a primary motivation for visiting these institutions.

This shift in attitude coupled with intense competition for leisure time means museums are competing with other entertainment venues such as theaters, cinemas, and themed attractions for visitors. The situation is made even more complex by the drive to attract younger audiences that respond to event-based approaches, as well as the quest to maximize earned income that has become more urgent as government support has dwindled in many countries.

To survive in this new world, museum directors, architects, designers, and planners are looking for new and creative ways to be stronger competitors in the leisure-time marketplace. Some of the more interesting responses have been innovative concepts and design solutions that integrate social programs and spaces into the museum-going experience. This may include activating galleries and interstitial spaces in new ways; building dedicated event, project, and education spaces; or creating entirely new models such as art lounges and open artist studios.

In summary, an astute approach to incorporating social space into the museum can:

Type of Space Areas or rooms Planning Considerations

Copy and Print Facilities. Large numbers of copies are produced in some education programs, so ample paper storage and facilities dedicated to education may be advisable.

Lockers. Volunteers need a locker room with a coat rack, purse lockers, and a full-length mirror, adjacent to washrooms.

Lounge. A comfortably furnished area where educa-tion staff and volunteers can relax together is an important way of rewarding volunteers for their contribution to the museum. A kitchenette with a refrigerator and hot plate, a telephone, and a computer for volunteers’ convenience are desirable. This area can also be used for training of volunteers or larger meetings.


Table 4.5. Design for Learning Spaces

Design Feature Planning issues to consider

Accessibility Universal design (see section 4.7) is important for education spaces. So is intellectual access and the readability of labels and graphics.

Aesthetics Architecture can be supportive of learning. Color coding can enhance wayfi nding, and vibrant color can improve children’s learning spaces. Combine diffuse uniform lighting of education spaces with heightened task lighting where appropriate; natural light can be used to advantage in many museum learning spaces.

Cost Effectiveness Plan life cycle costing for education spaces, with increased capital invest-ment where necessary to achieve lower maintenance and replacement costs. Materials and fi nishes for children’s exhibits must be designed to endure hard usage. Specify materials and products that are easy to main-tain and replace.

Flexibility Education programs will change to meet new needs over time, so fl exibil-ity must be planned. Plan for day and night use of space by different mar-kets—school groups in the day, adult learners at night. Modularity may facilitate future changes in use. Operable walls enable staff to open space up for larger groups, or to close it off into two or more spaces for multiple smaller groups. An underfl oor and dropdown power and data grid should be accessible throughout much of the education space in the museum. Anticipate future technology changes.

Functionality Cluster visitor services at the entry lobby and provide wide corridors to accommodate fl ow of learners throughout the public education area. Proj-ect occupancy levels for education facilities, which may differ signifi cantly from general visitor occupancy both in volumes and in peak times. Ensure layout allows access to education spaces when galleries are closed. Make preparation, storage, and cleanup facilities adjacent to the relevant activity areas. Provide differing ceiling heights for learners of different ages. Fur-niture should be stable and appropriately sized to the age group of users.

Productivity Ensure that some spaces are suitable for quiet meditation, comprehension or reading, while others are sites for active learning-by-doing. Consider acoustic issues carefully throughout the learning areas, minimizing sound leakage from one area to another, and eliminating mechanical noises as far as possible. Use lighting systems that provide long-term visual comfort and can be adjusted in each area. A connection to the outdoors, with operable doors and windows, is desirable in learning spaces. A CO2 (carbon dioxide) monitor for air changes should ensure air quality suitable for sustained learning. Human comfort standards for heat and humidity, with adjustment possible in specifi c spaces. Provide for janitors’ closet, and cleanup and maintenance facilities for learners of all ages to use.


• attract more and different visitors;• enhance the quality of the experience;• increase length of stay; • drive earned revenue;• enliven the space and make it feel more welcoming.

The list of museums that are activating their galleries and buildings through the incorporation of social spaces is becoming longer every day. New buildings are being planned with these issues in mind, and existing museums are renovating and reconfi guring to meet the need. The Rubin Museum of Art, which opened to an already crowded cultural marketplace in New York City in 2004, designed a series of spaces to encourage casual use by neighbor-hood residents and workers; educational programming to promote learning and interest in the museum’s subject, the art of the Himalayas; and rentals to support earned income. Design solutions include an atrium with a shop and food bar, and a café-style theater on the lower level. These spaces have not only succeeded in activating the museum during the day, but also in sup-porting popular evening programs such as the Y2K Lounge, and “Jazz in the Himalayas,” a partnership with the National Jazz Museum of Harlem.

Across the East River lies another example: As part of an unwaver-ing commitment to refl ect the full diversity of its community, the Brook-lyn Museum recently undertook a major reconfi guration of its entry plaza and lobby. The massive lobby is now able to accommodate the thousands of people of all ages who fl ock to the Museum for “First Saturday” each month.

Design Feature Planning issues to consider

Security and Safety Maintain visual oversight of areas with young children by parents, teach-ers or museum staff, in addition to closed-circuit TV and security staff surveillance. Layout should enable restriction to staff and scheduled learners all access to education areas, including washrooms. Use nonslip surfaces on ramps, stairs, and activity fl oors. Design casework, millwork and furnishings with rounded corners, and no sharp edges. Ensure that storage units are accessible but safe, with anti-tipping devices. Place con-trols and operable fi ttings out of the reach of children. Ensure emergency egress provides adequate space for anticipated occupancy levels.

Sustainability Consider the recyclability of materials. Integrate passive solar design where appropriate, and make alternative energy sources part of the learn-ing program. Incorporate materials and products that are derived from sustainable-yield processes and/or manufactured locally. Use durable, eas-ily cleaned and nontoxic building and furnishing materials.


This program has been constructed with genius to attract families to art-making programs and children’s performances early in the evening, ramping up to a nighttime dance party with live music. The new entry plaza also pro-vides outdoor seating to encourage socializing and a glass exterior to promote the fact that all are welcome.

This section reviews the social spaces and facilities that planners need to consider when preparing for a new museum building, renovation or expan-sion. We consider in turn the lobby, theatre, events spaces, food services, lounges and interstitial spaces, shops, and the need to “get it right,” before Chris Lorway comments on the growing importance of the performing arts in museums in section 4.5.8.

4.5.1 Social Nexus: The Lobby

The tone of the visitor experience is set with the fi rst physical and social points of contact: generally, locating and entering the lobby and purchasing a ticket. Once these primary goals are met, visitors seek out any combination of secondary services and amenities. Lobbies are, by nature, the most multifunc-tional spaces in a cultural institution. They must balance the demands made by the full range of museum visitors, including members and nonmembers, adult tours and school groups, exhibition and public programming patrons, and special-events audiences.

Lobbies are the meeting place for friends and families who arrive sepa-rately, or who arrive together but split off from one another to purchase tick-ets or use amenities. The lobby is where everyone gets organized: picking up maps, dropping off coats, orienting themselves to what’s on offer, buying tickets, or seeking out guided or tech-based tours. The lobby is where deci-sions are made on where to go and what to do fi rst. It’s the space where the activities of the next several hours are considered and sometimes debated. If alone, one may discuss options with museum staff.

Lobbies that feel good are lobbies that provide comfortable space for these activities. When the Brooklyn Museum set out to redesign its entrance and lobby, it had the goal of becoming the most welcoming museum in New York City. The new lobby has been designed as a universally accessible and comfortable environment for visitors of all ages, races, ethnicities, and levels of experience with museums. The new entrance provides seating, space to breathe and gather together, public restrooms (in the free zone), coat check, and no pressure to hurry through and buy a ticket. Once inside, a large full-service desk provides visitors with tickets, information, and membership services. Bold signage and universal symbols help visitors quickly orient to services and circulation routes.


4.5.2 Entertainment and Learning: Theaters

In museums, theaters host a wide range of activities, including lectures, fi lm programs, performance art, musical events, and cultivation activities, as well as private event rentals. While a theater has many potential purposes, its most frequent use is typically knowledge-based activity that enhances visi-tors’ learning and furthers the mission of the museum—yet it can also be used for performing arts presentations or entertaining fi lms. Whatever their purpose, theaters should be technically superb as well as signature spaces that refl ect the museum experience as a whole. Flexibility of the space is key to optimize use, support a wide variety of programming, and allow for creative and innovative formats.

So museum theaters today are fl exible spaces used for a variety of activi-ties and purposes. Beyond lectures, symposia, fi lms, musical performances, and theatrical productions, theaters have become venues for events, rentals, hosting parties, and dinners. The Studio Theater at the Mondavi Arts Cen-ter of the University of California at Davis is an example of a fl exible space used for musical performances and events as well as lectures on art history or contemporary art.

Theater spaces are no longer necessarily “black boxes.” Recent advances in theater planning and technology have resulted in signature experiences and spaces. Theaters have expanded beyond traditional layouts and may some-times include natural light and views of cityscapes or gardens. Some theaters are designed to complement and frame views, while others intend to create a unique experience for the visitor. The Barbara Lee Family Theater at the Insti-tute of Contemporary Art in Boston offers stunning views of Boston Harbor.

Depending on the level of sophistication and size of the theater, it may be a good idea to engage a theater planning consultant to assist with the tech-nical specs. In terms of how the theater relates to the main museum space, consideration should be given to the following items:

• Functionality: What types of programs will be presented in the theater? The requirements for fi lm and lectures are very different from, for exam-ple, dance and live music, or an IMAX theater.

• Flexibility: Is fi xed raked seating optimal, or will movable chairs on a fl at fl oor or some other confi guration be needed? Can the theater be a multi-functional space that can also be used for events?

• Access: Has the theater been located for convenient after-hours access? • Proximity to street noise and loading dock: Can sounds (trucks, forklifts,

staff ) and smells (exhaust, garbage) transfer into the theater? If so, a change of layout may be needed. Acoustic design of the theater is of course crucial.


• Support space: Is there adequate dedicated preparatory space for staff and performers? Is there a convenient “VIP” room that a famous speaker or artist can reach discreetly, where he or she can prepare notes for an address? Does the theater need “fl ies” for raising and lowering scenery above the stage? How sophisticated should the lighting and sound sys-tems be? Where will sets, props, and costumes be stored? Where is the piano when not in use on stage? What format is preferred for fi lm or slide projection? Are the wings deep enough to allow a dance company to rush into and out of? Is a “green room” needed? What about dressing rooms? Makeup mirrors and toilets may be essential.

As these many questions indicate, theaters are one of the key areas for which “right-sizing” must be considered, not only with reference to the num-ber of seats in the auditorium, but with close attention to the essential pur-pose of the facility, which may range from a fl at fl oor with movable chairs stored next door to an IMAX theatre, or a proscenium arch or thrust stage with a sprung fl oor for dancers and an orchestra pit for musicians. The most common denominator is a lecture hall and cinema with a projection booth for PowerPoint slides and fi lms—but planners should carefully consider the multiple opportunities for both presentations and audiences.

4.5.3 Having Fun: Events and Parties

Event spaces are designated spaces that can be used for museum events or rented for private use to generate earned revenue. Events are also critical for establishing the museum as a cultural hub, introducing new audiences, welcoming new activities, and building relationships with potential donors.

Institutions with highly successful events businesses allow for a variety of size and space combinations. For example, a theater that has an ample prefunc-tion (or lobby) space is more likely to be rented for special events than a theater that lacks an adjacent social space. If planned correctly, the museum can offer a confi guration of spaces to accommodate large events such as those planned for conventioneers or small private parties. Events spaces may include:

• lobbies or atria; • theaters;• cafés and restaurants; • patios, plazas, and rooftops;• museum galleries (but with no food or drink allowed);• education and multifunctional spaces with adjacent chair storage and

catering;• conference rooms and boardrooms.


The planning goal for event spaces should be to enable fl exibility and cre-ativity. This will make the spaces more attractive to a wider range of potential renters, thereby maximizing the potential for revenue. Great rental spaces provide for:

• standing receptions or seated dinners;• innovative décor;• space for staging and advance setup (e.g., setting tables, plating food,

gift bag assembly, performer changing and warm-up, and other support functions);

• rigging and lighting;• audiovisual entertainment; • live speakers and performances;• dedicated entrance for after-hours entry and exit;• access to storage;• great sightlines;• space confi gurations that allow for concurrent events.

“Right-sizing” is also crucial here, and can be helped by a knowledgeable survey of alternate rental spaces available in the community and the extent to which they are booked, or possibly overbooked. Museum rental space conveys the prestige of the institution to the event, so it is usually best to plan for the museum to be at the “high end” of the range of facilities—and prices—on offer.

4.5.4 Taking a Break: Food

Restaurants and cafés in museums are a key component of the visitor expe-rience and traditionally function more as a public service than as a revenue generator. Visitors are likely to visit more often and for longer if there is an enjoyable place to eat, rest, socialize, and absorb what they’ve seen in the galleries.

While some museums operate their own food service, it is far more com-mon to select a vendor to run it as a concession. Modest operations such as a coffee cart may be run by volunteers or visitor services staff, but since the restaurant business is not generally a core competency of museum staff it is recommended for most that an appropriate partner be found to serve this need (see section 13.3).

In recent years, some museums have been using their dining establish-ments to attract visitors. Destinations in themselves, these venues offer mem-orable dining experiences featuring impressive design and cuisine by celebrity chefs. This, in turn, enhances the total visitor experience. As Washington Post


restaurant critic Phyllis Richman observed, “The museum restaurant should be another experience that would fi t into what the museum is meant to be.”

The most exciting dining experiences have a recognizable connection to institutional mission. The brand is often used to inspire the design of the restaurant, the feel of the space and the style of food. Connecting visitors to the culture explored in the museum through food is a tremendous oppor-tunity to enhance the experience and build word-of-mouth support for the institution. Two examples of cafés that successfully make the link to mission are the Smithsonian’s National Museum of the American Indian in Wash-ington, which has an extremely popular cafeteria that offers Native Ameri-can foods from every region, and the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art. SFMOMA has had particular fun creating distinctive dessert selections which relate to art objects in its permanent collection.

The restaurant business is not easy. Although rising in popularity, signa-ture fi ne-dining restaurants can be especially challenging, although they are often pursued as strategic decisions to enhance the overall brand. A detailed fi nancial plan with experienced restaurant planners should be undertaken to provide a full understanding of the potential opportunities and challenges of

Figure 4.3 Snack at SFMOMA’s Rooftop Café


a destination restaurant. Desirable as they may be, they are not feasible for every museum in every location.

A now widespread trend is to provide for a wide range of guests through a variety of dining options. Larger museums offer different levels of food ser-vice to meet the diverse needs of visitors. Experiences range from quick and family-friendly cafés to cocktails to upscale restaurants, from coffee carts and sandwich stands to self-service cafés to rooftop lounges. Again, a business plan with market study is crucial to verify which offerings are appropriate and sustainable.

4.5.5 Absorbing: Lounges and Interstitial Spaces

Spaces for lounging, sharing, and learning are being distributed throughout museums to allow visitors to engage in different ways throughout their visits. These types of spaces range from informal seating areas to activity stations to digital kiosks. Social touch-down spaces enhance the visitor experience by providing places to sit, ideally with views, or learning places with access to knowledge and information. These pause spaces might be interpretive areas integral to the gallery experience or social spaces nearby.

Reading areas have been an integral part of the museum experience, but in recent years some museums have taken this concept further to create lounges. After planning the Thai Creative and Design Center in Bangkok, we found that our most popular space was the library, simply because we had placed it beside the café, and encouraged the TCDC to allow users to take beautifully illustrated books on architecture and design into the café, or cof-fee into the bookshelves, with comfortable lounge furniture in each. Young people, who in Thailand generally avoid most museums, made the Center a popular downtown hangout.

In particular, museums have been taking notice of interstitial spaces, the spaces between key parts of the buildings or experience. These may include elevator lobbies, stairwell landings, and vestibules. These spaces are being lev-eraged to promote learning, to feature special installations, or as attractions in and of themselves. Examples include:

• Learning: The Rubin Museum of Art in New York has dedicated spaces to its ExploreArt program throughout the building, each with seating and a selection of books and/or computer stations.

• Installations: The Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto has used its stair-well to feature visible storage collections of remarkable specimens or arti-facts on each landing.

• Attractions: Longwood Gardens in Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, and the de Young Museum of Art in San Francisco have succeeded at making


attractions out of interstitial spaces—Longwood by creating the largest green wall in the world along a bank of composting washrooms, while the de Young Museum has permitted public access to its formerly staff-only tower, allowing visitors a great view of Golden Gate Park.

4.5.6 Personalizing and Sharing: Retail

Retail spaces have become an expected and central part of the visitor expe-rience. They enhance visitor enjoyment by providing educational materials and affording visitors the chance to personally connect with museum objects through reproductions. Retail spaces can also make the museum a destina-tion, while further extending its mission and unique brand.

Shopping is an intensely social activity: moving through a shop with a friend or family member, pointing out items of interest, sharing interesting books or posters, choosing gifts, selecting the most desired souvenir of the visit. For those shopping alone, a connection is often made with a salesperson or another visitor. The “feel” or sensibility of a shop is critical to its success. Shops that are welcoming and social are likely to attract more potential customers.

The most successful retail spaces are directly accessible to customers. As a result, some museums have explored the idea of integrated retail spaces. These spaces often lack walls that prohibit visitors from entering and are generally located between galleries or in high-traffi c areas. The Smithson-ian’s National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., integrates a large retail area into the space between the East and West buildings, adjacent to the café.

Another popular approach is the “pop-up shop,” a retail space built into a temporary exhibition experience. These stores are seen as an opportunity to offer unique merchandise relating specifi cally to the special exhibition or gal-lery display. They are known to be quite successful because visitors are most inspired and motivated to learn more or acquire a memento as they exit those galleries. Many museums choose to develop permanent satellite spaces since they can be quite successful while requiring little space and few staff.

These spaces often feature fl exible designs that can accommodate a vari-ety of retail objects. “Pop-up” or satellite shop spaces may be used for learning lounges, special installations, or food service when not in use for retail.

The primary factors that will make the retail shop a business success are:

• a location that provides ample footfall; • unique and enticing product assortment;• compelling merchandising; and • a solid business plan.

From the standpoint of physical planning, the following should be taken into consideration:


• visibility of the shop from external and internal approaches, so that vis-itors see the shop as they enter, can plan time for it, and are visually reminded of it as they prepare to leave;

• ample space for queuing and circulation;• sales desk that accommodates the point-of-sale system plus other activi-

ties that may take place (such as membership sales or gift wrapping);• adjacent private offi ce for counting cash and storing high value items;• fi xtures that are excellent for display and provide some fl exibility; • storage on the retail fl oor for items that need to be replaced often, as well

as storage for bags, receipt paper, and packaging materials;• direct connections to loading, garbage/recycling, and stock storage areas;• possible warehouse space to support high sales volume, as well as online sales;• security systems to protect against shrinkage and theft.

Although we usually recommend contracting food services to expe-rienced restauranteurs or caterers, the opposite is true of retail, which the museum should direct itself, ensuring the quality of the merchandise and optimizing its profi tability.

4.5.7 Getting It Right

In developing social spaces for a new or renovated museum, the fi rst step is to determine the target audience or the most likely users, as outlined in sec-tions 4.1 and 4.2. This will in turn facilitate the development of the public programs and events that will be on offer. Having a clear picture of these two variables—who will use the space and for what—will inform the range of needs that the social space must address. This becomes the Design Team’s mandate, ensuring the effective integration of these spaces with the rest of the program while taking into consideration circulation, adjacencies, and other operational concerns.

There is a series of issues and complexities to watch out for when devel-oping additional space and pursuing social programming. These include:

• ensuring that programming is mission based and content driven;• making smart decisions based on clear goals and credible business

planning; • providing the right size and kind of space for the right audience (for

example, a souped-up classroom will not pass as a desirable event space for adults);

• protecting collections against risk by controlling crowds and forbidding food and drink in galleries;

• matching the level of visitor services and amenities to the audience (espe-cially important when serving families);


• keeping family and nonfamily audiences relatively separate when appropriate;

• using the space to generate earned income where possible, but always with respect to the museum’s mission;

• designing to allow for concurrent events and programs to take place;• providing a realistic level of funding and staffi ng to produce top-notch

programs and events;• right-sizing based on attendance, revenue, and expense goals to protect

against overbuilding and unrealistically burdensome operating expenses.

This evolution of museum design is market driven. Accommodating a robust array of audiences and programmatic activity has inspired museum leadership to develop new types of space. However, the range of potential solutions is complex and must be carefully planned to ensure that the fi nal designs will enable effective program delivery, functionality, and fi nan-cial sustainability.

4.5.8 The Performing Arts in Museums

Chris Lorway

Museums are a constant work in progress and are constantly changing and transforming. That is the defi nition of contemporary art today. . . . Contem-porary art is performance, projection—we need to provide spaces for events, live arts, time-based arts, as well as small events such as lectures, symposiums and fi lms.

—Chris Dercon, Director, Tate Modern

Many museums today are incorporating live performance in some way into the visitor experience they offer. From performance art in contemporary art museums to reenactments on a small or large scale at historic sites, the lively arts are more and more integrated into the institutional program strat-egy. While some institutions are building or enhancing designated spaces for music, dance, and theater, others are using performance to animate sites, exhibitions and gallery spaces. Even science museums have found innovative ways to tell stories and educate visitors through the performing arts.

In addition to live performance there have also been a number of sig-nifi cant acquisitions linked to contemporary performance in an attempt to preserve the legacies of the world’s greatest artists. In addition, the world of fi lm and new media is more than ever blurring the lines between performance and object-based exhibitions.

Of course it has long been usual to fi nd an auditorium or a theater in many of the world’s museums. These spaces have traditionally been used


for lectures, panels, fi lms, and educational activities. Some museums have more comprehensive and sophisticated venues that allow them to program a broader range of work, including music, theater, dance, and the other lively arts. In New York, for example, for fi fty-seven years The Metropolitan Museum of Art has featured performing arts as part of its curated program. The Metropolitan’s Department of Concerts and Lectures is mandated to bring the museum’s collection to life though the performing arts and intel-lectual discourse.

Given the global nature of the Met’s collections and exhibitions, which cover every period from ancient to modern, there are countless opportunities for performance to be integrated here in organic and meaningful ways—in the concert hall, in gallery spaces, and beyond our walls through digital means to an international audience.

—Thomas P. Campbell, Director, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

In recent years performing arts have been extending their reach to occupy nontraditional theater spaces in collecting institutions. In March 2009, for instance, acclaimed German choreographer Sasha Waltz was invited to cre-ate a “choreographic exhibition” in David Chipperfi eld’s renovated Neue Museum in advance of the opening of the space. The empty galleries, stair-cases, and hallways gave the dancers and musicians who participated in the piece a chance to make their mark on the space though allegorical vignettes on human nature. This was the second time the company had been invited to choreograph a new opening for a museum in Berlin: in 2000, one year before its offi cial opening, they were invited to make a new piece in Daniel Libes-kind’s new Jewish Museum.

In the summer of 2010, the Michael Clark Company was in residency at Tate Modern. The company set up a rehearsal area in the immense Turbine Hall where they experimented and practiced with core company members and a group of seventy-fi ve non-dancers. Visitors to Tate were able to observe the creation process from the balconies and terraces overlooking the hall. At the end of the residency, there were a number of public showings of ideas developed to date and the following year (in June 2011) a new site-specifi c work entitled th was premiered in the space.

In some institutions acquisition policies and strategies have expanded to include objects and documentation from the world’s greatest performing artists. For example, in March 2011, the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis received the single largest acquisition in its history: the sets, props, costumes, and selected papers from the Merce Cunningham Dance Company. As per the founder’s wishes, the company was dissolved after a fi nal two-year legacy tour and a process was put in place to ensure the proper maintenance of Cunningham’s and his company’s legacy. The Walker’s acquisition played a major role in this.


The acquisition of these works is groundbreaking for the Walker and for the museum fi eld at large, affi rming our longstanding commitment to bring-ing together diverse artistic practices to form a cross-disciplinary blend of programs.

—Olga Viso, Director, Walker Arts Center

Theater spaces in museums can serve important purposes related to interpretation of the meaning of the objects in the collection. “Object the-aters” provide a short introduction to what visitors can expect during their visit. This experience runs in steady rotation during the museum’s operating hours and often employs a mix of multimedia, replicas, sets, and artifacts to tell a museum’s or an exhibition’s story. Most object theaters are designed specifi cally for the aforementioned type of program and are therefore often diffi cult to convert to other temporary uses, such as playing host to an outside theater company in the evenings.

For example, at the National Museum of the American Indian in Wash-ington, D.C., a thirteen-minute fi lm entitled Who We Are runs every thirty minutes in the Lelawi Theater. Beverly R. Singer, the fi lm’s associate pro-ducer, describes how the theater was built to be part of the overall experience:

As one enters the darkened theater it is not immediately apparent how detailed the theater has been designed to make the viewing of the fi lm a more engaging museum experience. The seating is relatively low to the fl oor, and the seats are ringed stone bench tiers in a circle directing the gaze to the center space. In the center four plain tapestry panels hang at eye level on four posts. The ceiling is a forty-foot dome fi lled with deep blue light. Also in the theater are object cases placed within the seating area that light up objects chosen by the curators from the communities appearing in the fi lm. The theater has seating for up to 125 but retains an intimate appeal.

The type of performances that can happen in a museum will be dictated by the building’s venues and supporting infrastructure. For example, a small auditorium with no support space will rule out most theater performances. If integrating the performing arts into the institution is a priority, here is a checklist of things to consider:

• Theater Location: Carefully consider where in the building the theater will be located. For example, if the theater is located deep within the museum, security will need to be in place to guide patrons to and from the performance, increasing operating costs. In many cases, museum theaters have a designated external entry to alleviate congestion for any


programming that happens during the museum’s normal operating hours and to deny access to other areas of the museum for performances that happen outside of operating hours.

• Produce, Present, or Rent? A wide spectrum of potential theater operat-ing scenarios may be considered when adding a theater into a building plan. Will the museum commission and produce new work for the space, invite existing work to be performed, or rent the space to outside users? Each of these options comes with very different resource requirements and should be carefully considered during the planning process.

• Establish a Curation Policy: Most visitors who attend a performance in a theater venue in a museum will assume that the museum is responsible for the programming decision. If the space is to be available for outside rentals, it is recommended that the museum’s policy should provide for curatorial review of the content to be presented in order to ensure that the overall performance quality is in line with the museum’s standards.

• Box Offi ce: Box offi ce facilities of some sort will be required if the museum or others are looking to sell tickets to performances in the museum. With recent technological advances, this could be as simple as having elec-tronic kiosks set up in the lobby where patrons can purchase or pick up tickets. The more traditional box offi ce is a staffed desk or kiosk where cash or card transactions occur in exchange for a physical ticket. External renters may have their own box offi ce or ticketing system, causing some logistical negotiation and compromise around the process of selling and honoring tickets.

• Sponsorship: As corporate sponsorship becomes more and more common for events, it is important to establish an internal sponsorship policy. For example, a rental client in the theater space may have corporate sponsor-ship from a bank for her dance company. The museum may have a com-peting bank as corporate partner. To avoid embarrassing situations and a potential loss of funding, the extent and the way in which sponsors are to be presented should be discussed and agreed in advance of any rental agreement.

• Acoustics and Sound: It is nearly impossible to design a theater or auditorium that is acoustically suited for all types of performances and events. Planners need to prioritize types of uses and work with an acoustical designer to ensure that the museum theater delivers the sound quality that is needed. The potential for recording live performances should not be forgotten. In addition to interior sound, it is important to think about how external sounds and vibrations (such as those from a nearby subway station) will impact the experience in the space. For museums it is also critical to ensure that the space can contain the sound of a performance so that it doesn’t impinge on the experience of visitors to other areas of the museum.


• Technical Requirements: Whether the proposed performance is in a des-ignated theater space or in one of the other museum spaces such as the lobby or a gallery, it is important to understand what the techni-cal requirements are. For designated theaters and auditoriums, it is very useful to have detailed specifi cations on the physical dimensions of the space and an inventory of technical equipment that is available. For other spaces in the building, it is important to know similar information such as stage fl oor area, height above the stage, rigging points, and loading areas to ensure that visiting artists know what they can and can’t do in the space.

• Production Facilities: With media, fi lm, and audio recording becoming more and more critical to the creation and dissemination of ideas, many institutions are including production space in building plans. Recording studios, editing rooms, and other on-site production facilities can provide valuable tools to visiting artists and visitors alike.

In planning an expansion or a new building that includes a theater or auditorium, careful planning and due diligence is needed to ensure that the performance space meets the needs of the organization and any potential outside users who are critical to the success of the theater business plan. Like museum planning, theater planning is a well-established discipline with spe-cialists in space and operations planning, theater design, and acoustic and sound design. Food-and-beverage and retail business models for theaters are very different than they are for museums. Specialized consultants in each of these areas can be of great value during the planning process.

The four zones described in section 14.1 for museum space planning are parallel to four zones in performance space. They are:

• Zone A: Public nonperformance area: Also commonly known in the theater world as “front-of-house,” this is the space where audiences gather prior to a performance and during any intermissions or breaks in the performance. This area includes the theater lobby, food and beverage services, and retail and other public amenities, including coat check and lavatories. Depending on the design of the space, audience members may or may not need a ticket to access the lobby and other areas.

• Zone B: Public performance area: The space where the audience gath-ers to watch or experience a performance. This area can have fi xed seating on a raked fl oor or may be a more fl exible space with multiple seating confi gurations, allowing the director more freedom to defi ne the rela-tionship between artist and audience.

• Zone C: Nonpublic performance area: This describes the area that the performers occupy during a performance, which may or may not


be a stage. In proscenium houses, this is clearly delineated by framing of the stage which is often elevated above the seating area of the audi-ence to provide better sightlines. This area also includes the orches-tra pit where applicable. In non-proscenium houses, the relationship between public performance area and nonpublic performance area can become blurred. A specifi c production’s design will often clearly delin-eate which area is which but in some cases there is a directorial choice to merge the two.

• Zone D: Nonpublic nonperformance area: This includes all of the back-of-house spaces including dressing rooms, storage, costume and set shops, and the green room. This is a secured area and for the most part is off limits to the general public. Production studios are also part of this space.

• Table 4.6 lists and defi nes a complete range of the possible spaces that could be found in a performance area. Relatively few museums would have all of these, but they are included here to provide a comprehensive list of spaces—especially support spaces—that should be considered for a successful theater operation as part of a museum.

PLANNING AMENITIES FOR VISITORS

Lindsay Martin

Visitors transform museums from static repositories for knowledge and heri-tage into living vibrant places where culture happens and lives are changed. Key to developing strong visitation and repeat visitation is responding to guests’ needs and exceeding their expectations. In order to provide visitors with exceptional experiences, “creature comforts” are an essential part of the museum.

We must make visiting our museums as convenient and enjoyable as pos-sible. Each and every detail of museum experience works to create an impres-sion in the visitor’s mind. An unpleasant experience of any kind can spoil an otherwise perfect experience. This section focuses on those details that, when executed well, might go unnoticed, but when lacking will leave a visitor with a poor impression. Visitors with poor impressions do not return, but they will tell their friends about their poor experience, tweet and post on Facebook about it, and choose not to be part of the museum’s community.

In planning a museum, it is best to both listen to your visitors and think like a visitor. As you plan amenities, put your visitor hat on and choose the solutions that are easiest for the visitor when possible. For example, would you want to spend fi fteen minutes fi nding a remote restroom with little signage or would you prefer for one to be nearby and easily located?

4.6


Table 4.6. Spaces Required to Support Performance

Areas: Description:

Public Nonperformance Area:

Vestibule Transition between the outdoors and the main lobby space

Main Lobby Preperformance gathering space for audience

Information Area Place to pick up brochures or ask a staff member/volunteer questions

Box Offi ce Place to purchase event tickets

Coat Check Place to store coats, bags, and other bulk items

Retail Place to purchase goods often related to the performance or mis-sion of the organization

Food & Beverage Sit-down restaurant or bar/lounge

VIP Space Lounge or gathering space for patrons, donors, and other VIPs

Public Toilets Male and female Universal Accessibility washrooms according to building code

Nonpublic Nonperformance Area:e Area

Administrative Offi ces On- or off-site location for programming/marketing/fundraising departments and other general admin

Box Offi ce:

Box Offi ce Service Area Staff area where transactions with the public occur

Box Offi ce Work Area Staff area for administrative work adjacent to the box offi ce—not visible to the public

Box Offi ce Manager’s Offi ce Fully equipped work space for the box offi ce manager adjacent to the box offi ce

Box Offi ce Storage Storage space for box-offi ce supplies, marketing materials, sig-nage, etc.

Staff Support:

House Manager’s Offi ce Fully equipped offi ce space for the employee who manages the audience experience prior to entering the theater

Usher’s Locker Room Changing and personal storage area for the staff ushers and ticket takers

Staff Toilets Male, female, and accessible washrooms according to building code


Areas: Description:

Program Storage/Work Room

Storage space for programs, marketing materials, signage, etc.

Retail and Food Services:

Food & Beverage Manager’s Offi ce

Fully equipped work space for the F&B manager

Food & Beverage Service Area

Staff area where transactions with the public occur

Food & Beverage Storage & Support

Food preparation and storage space

Food & Beverage Staff Toilets

Male, female, and accessible washrooms according to building code

Retail Manager’s Offi ce Fully equipped work space for the retail manager

Retail Service Staff area where transactions with the public occur

Retail Storage Storage space for retail inventory

Public Performance Area:

Sound/Light Locks Transition between the lobby and the audience seating area

Audience Seating Areas Spaces within the theater chamber where the audience is seated for the performance

Nonpublic Performance Area:

Performance Area Visible stage area used by the performers

Orchestra Pit Where the orchestra or band performs for opera and musicals

Wing Space In the case of proscenium theaters, masked space to either side of the stage where performers make entrances and exits. Also often a storage area for props, costumes, and set pieces.

Fly Tower Concealed area above the stage in a proscenium house where scenery is stored

Production Support Space:

Scenery Storage Storage area for scenery and other on-stage infrastructure (e.g., curtains, orchestra shell, etc.)

Seating Wagon Storage Storage space for seating that may be removed in a particular the-ater confi guration (e.g., Removing seats for the orchestra pit)

Rehearsal Space Room (on- or off-site) where performers can prepare the performance

(continued)


Areas: Description:

Dressing Rooms Preparation areas for performers. Should include showers and toilets. Often divided into individual (star) and group (ensemble) rooms

Green Room Gathering space for performers prior to and during a perfor-mance. May also be used as a postperformance meeting space for guests

Education Space Room (on- or off-site) where educational activities related to the mission of the organization can occur

Media/Recording Space Soundproof room outfi tted with equipment to record perfor-mances for the stage or individual performances

Shop/Scenery Assembly Space

Space for building, assembling and/or painting scenery. May be off-site.

Electrics/AV Room Control center and storage for all AV systems

Platform and Riser Storage Storage area for risers, platforms, and other stage infrastructure

Sound Equipment Storage Storage area for sound boards, speakers, microphones, cables, and other sound equipment

Lighting Equipment Storage

Storage area for lighting instruments, frames, gels, gobos, and other lighting equipment

Stage Rigging Equipment Storage

Storage area for stage rigging supplies (lines, weights, etc.)

Piano Storage Storage area for piano and other music instruments

Musical Instrument Case Storage

Storage area for empty cases while musicians are on-stage/in the pit

Visiting Company Offi ce Fully equipped work space for the visiting company manager

Production Manager’s Offi ce

Fully equipped work space for the in-house production manager

Stage/Company Manager’s Offi ce

Fully equipped work space for the employee managing all stage activity during the performance

House Carpenter Offi ce Fully equipped work space for the in-house carpenter

House Electrician Offi ce Fully equipped work space for the in-house electrician

Sound Technician Offi ce Fully equipped work space for the in-house technician

Stage Crew Locker Room Changing and personal storage area for running crew

Stage Crew Kitchen/Break Room

Gathering space for stage crew and production for all rehearsal and performance breaks



Areas: Description:

Staff Toilets Male, female, and accessible washrooms according to building code

Theater Entrance/Exit:

Stage Door Areas The theater’s backstage entry space

Reception Area Staffed booth or desk where backstage visitors are signed in or met by backstage personnel

Security Offi ce Theater security offi ce

Staff/Visitor Toilets Male, female, and accessible washrooms according to building code

*In some theater spaces, there is an inner and an outer lobby. The outer lobby is often public space as opposed to the inner lobby, where a ticket is required for entrance. In the cases where there is only one lobby space, tickets are collected as the audience moves from the vestibule into the main lobby or the main lobby is bisected into two sections—one public and one requiring a ticket.

4.6.1 Getting There and Arrival

4.6.1.1 Planning a Visit

In order to have visitors, you must fi rst get them to your front door. Planning a visit in this century increasingly involves the Internet. A study of U.S. cultural consumers indi-cates that 95 percent of visitors are currently planning their visit on the net at least a few days in advance, and over 40 percent buy their ticket online.6 Thus the website—its ease of use, clarity of information, and overall appeal—provides the fi rst interaction with your museum. It should be developed as an integral part of the physical visitor experience, as well as constituting the entire experience for virtual visitors who are unable to visit your museum in person.

The museum’s website is a powerful tool in helping visitors plan their time at the museum. Operating hours, key policies, directions, a gallery map, and other helpful information should be easily found on the website. The more a visitor knows before the visit, the more their expectations are aligned with the reality they will fi nd. It should be noted that current projections indicate that the Internet will be accessed primarily on handheld devices in the future, so the website must be designed to be easily accessible on a variety of devices.

4.6.1.2 Transit and Parking

A frequent complaint from museum visitors is that it is hard to get to and/or park at the museum. While this is a barrier that is easily ignored by visitors if the overall experience thereafter is fun and exciting, museums should do their best to provide convenient access and parking.


There are many ways that a museum can enhance a museum’s physi-cal accessibility. The more “roads” that lead to it, the more potential visitors the museum has. Whenever possible, museums should be located on major public transit routes. This allows visitors of all socioeconomic backgrounds to reach the museum and also reduces the museum’s carbon footprint. Colocat-ing the museum with other major destinations for culture and entertainment also helps people feel that the museum is conveniently located—because they already go nearby for other things. (Even in small towns this is possible if the museum and the public library are colocated.) Pedestrian and bike paths linked to the museum are great ways for people to enjoy the museum as well as an outdoor experience. However people get around, make sure that they can reach the museum on their preferred mode of transit.

Since the preferred method of transport in many places is the automobile, roads, driveways, and parking are to be carefully considered in planning. A traffi c engineer may be needed to assist on developing plans to manage traffi c to and from the museum. Municipal planners may also need to be consulted so that the museum’s traffi c is taken into account for the larger transit plans; in some locations neighbors may need to be consulted to ensure that traffi c from the museum does not negatively affect their quality of life.

A traffi c engineer will be able to develop precise projections for parking and traffi c fl ow. However, in preliminary planning one can use a series of basic assumptions to arrive at an approximate fi gure. Start with solid atten-dance projections (see section 13.2) and an understanding of how many peo-ple are likely to be at the building on the average busy day, the “Design Day” (see section 3.4). Then make an estimate of how your visitors will arrive—what proportion by car, bus, bike, public transit, and so on. Next, develop an assumption about how many people arrive in each vehicle: for museums this is typically 2.5 in each car, 30 on each bus, and 1 on each bike. Note that all of these assumptions are very specifi c to the location of the museum and nature of the surrounding culture—for example, some cultures tend to visit muse-ums in larger family groups, and some locations have no public transit option.

From there it is a simple calculation:

# of car stalls = (number of people in the building � % arriving by car) / (number of people arriving in each car)

In order to properly size the staff parking lot go through the same pro-cess, remembering to plan for the larger staff that will be needed to operate the expanded museum. Together these numbers would establish the muse-um’s overall parking requirement as an original planning estimate that can be reviewed and if necessary revised as planning and design proceed. Table 4.7 shows a sample calculation.


4.6.2 Entries and Lobbies

As noted in section 4.5, entries and lobbies are increasingly important as the hub of social activity in the museum. They are also critical spaces for visitors to become oriented as well as prepare themselves to begin the enjoyable expe-rience of viewing art, learning about the past, discovering scientifi c principles, or spending time with family and friends free of distractions and burdens.

Entries need to be clearly marked, easily visible and impactful with-out being intimidating. They should be visible from the primary approach to the museum by car or by foot, working with landscape and signage to communicate how the visitor is to reach the front door. There should be drop-off areas for cars and buses so that people unable to walk the distance from the parking lot can easily unload at the primary entrance. If there is an expectation that ticketing or queuing will occur outdoors, the entry should

Table 4.7. Sample Parking Projections

Visitors Staff

Annual Attendance 100,000 -

Attendance on Typical Busy Day (Design Day) 1,000 -

Maximum Number of People in Building at One Time

400 50

Mode of Transit

Car 70% 60%

Bus 20% 0%

Bicycle 5% 10%

Public Transit 5% 30%

Average Group Size by Mode

Car 2.5 1

Bus 30 30

Bicycle 1 1

Public Transit 1 1

Required Parking Spaces

Cars 112 30

Buses 2 0

Bicycles 20 5


be covered (and in some locations heated or cooled) to protect visitors from inclement weather.

There is a deliberate movement away from imposing, institutional build-ings and toward inviting, visitor-friendly facades and entrances. This is con-sidered by many to be a critical fi rst signal to guests that the museum is a place where community and culture are welcomed, nurtured, and developed. Architect Zaha Hadid’s “urban carpet” concept at the Contemporary Art Center in Cincinnati is a recent design meant to draw visitors in as an inte-gral part of the urban experience.

Lobbies serve many functions and are a critical part of the museum experience. They generally accommodate the following types of services and amenities:

• ticketing/admissions (including ticket sales for general admission, spe-cial exhibitions, and scheduled programs, as well as provision of tickets reserved by phone and Internet sales; free-admission museums in many cases charge for special exhibitions and scheduled programs, so virtually all museums require ticketing space)

• queuing space that must be planned for the Design Day level of occupancy• membership services (which may include separate ticketing for members,

providing information about programming, selling new memberships, and companion tickets)

• group check-in and orientation (unless a separate group entrance is planned, as discussed in section 4.4)

• information • audio/multimedia guide equipment pickup and return• public tour assembly • security control points• meeting and greeting • physical orientation to the museum, with space for decision making • wayfi nding • public seating• special events• access to adjacent restrooms, and coat and bag storage

These activities may be accommodated in one central lobby or in combi-nation with a group entrance that may be for school groups only, or may also accommodate adult tour groups. With each entrance operational costs will increase as security and staff will need to be present to serve guests coming through the entrance; additional entrances also weaken security, since the perpetrators of an incident have multiple means of escape. However, if the museum has a signifi cant group and/or school tour attendance, a separate


group lobby may be essential to keep operations running smoothly. Some sites, such as that of Tate Britain in London, may require the museum to offer multiple “fronts” in order to serve visitors arriving from different directions; the Museum of Modern Art in New York offers two entrances that both lead to the same lobby. Large urban buildings, in particular, often have multiple entrances for visitors’ convenience: the American Museum of Natural His-tory in New York has three.

Successful lobbies provide full service, yet are able to control crowds by “pulling apart” various functions. Services may be strategically located to draw visitors back into the space, away from the entrance. Space permitting, there may be a large unticketed zone with services arranged around the perimeter to allow visitors to select their own routes and migrate to less congested areas. This model, which is heavily reliant on dynamic signage, can be seen at the Centre Pompidou. By contrast, as seen at the Metropolitan and the Gug-genheim Museums in New York, constrained lobby space often results in substantial outdoor queuing; however, once inside, visitors move through the lobbies in semi-determined patterns toward the galleries.

In order to understand the amount of space required for a lobby, planners should begin with three key numbers developed during the business planning for the new facility:

1. The number of people who are likely to be in the building at the peak hours of the average busy day, also referred to as the Design Day

2. If the lobby is to be used for special events or rentals, the number of people to be accommodated standing at a cocktail-style reception

3. If the lobby is to be used for special events or rentals, the number of people to be accommodated at a sit-down dinner

Utilizing simple rules of thumb planners can then estimate how much lobby space is required to support both daily operations and events. Typi-cally, ten square feet per person is required for daily lobby operations; eight square feet per person for receptions and twenty-fi ve square feet per person for sit-down dinners. Such ratios should allow planners to determine the overall space required for the lobby. Of course some plans may then opt to go bigger, simply in order to impress; the enormous lobby of the new National Museum in Beijing will indeed accommodate very large crowds—but it is also intended to convey the grandeur of the central national cultural institu-tion of a great nation.

The details of a lobby must be designed to support how a museum oper-ates and serves its guests. In order to get a lobby design right, museum opera-tions will have to be planned before building design. Key items to consider that will impact lobby design include the following:


• The orientation of primary and secondary entrances or visitor paths, and the usage patterns for various visitor types; these include• groups,• visitors using the theater, • Visitors using knowledge spaces such as libraries and classrooms.

• Ticketing procedures, stations, and ticketing equipment for the admis-sions, membership, and information desks. How will they be impacted by Design Day attendance and other operational considerations, such as online ticketing? The occasional addition of an extra ticket option, such as a special exhibition or a theater attraction, can signifi cantly affect the pace of a ticket queue.

• Queuing plans, especially for inclement weather (although if a signifi cant percentage of visitors can be ticketed in advance, the issues related to queuing can be greatly minimized).

• A clear, visible, and consistent signage program to make visitors feel wel-come and comfortable.

• Spaces that will be open to all and do not require admission. It is impor-tant to understand what parts of the museum will offer free access to all and how these spaces relate to security control points. Such spaces could include a shop, restaurant, lounge, or even an exhibition gallery.

Lobbies need to be supported with some key adjacent spaces. These are outlined below:

Coat and Bag Storage: Visitors often come with coats, bags, luggage, umbrellas, strollers, buggies, and other items that they would prefer to leave behind as they enjoy the museum. Coat and bag storage is critical in allow-ing visitors to take their time and experience the museum without juggling their belongings. This may be accommodated through a manned coat and bag check, lockers, or a cloak room. Regional weather and custom will be a major factor in planning and sizing this space. For example in a snowy cli-mate a museum may opt for the cloak room, as in the winter months most visitors will wear boots and coats, while in a desert climate little space might be devoted to coats and the focus will be on bag storage.

An adequate coat and bag storage also reduces risk to other guests, and to exhibits and collections. By taking coats off, visitors reduce the amount of dirt they bring into galleries. With wet umbrellas stashed, fl oors are kept dry and slipping and mopping is prevented. By allowing bags to be safely stowed, it is less likely that a statue can be inadvertently knocked over by a turning guest. Designers of the space should remember to allow access for strollers and buggies so they can be parked as well.

First Aid Room: When serving the public, on occasion there will be a need to treat visitors with fi rst aid and at times have emergency medical


personnel respond to the museum. For minor items, guests can be taken to a fi rst aid room and treated by museum personnel trained as a fi rst responder. A fi rst aid room should be clearly identifi ed, easily accessible, and contain:

• a sink and drinking water; • fi rst aid materials; • an examination/medical couch; • a telephone or other communication equipment; • other items as determined by local standards and codes.

Operations and Publications Storage: While not accessed by the gen-eral public, this space houses those tools that are critical to frontline staff. This includes:

• all of the printed material that is used in the front of house operations—ticket stock, membership brochures, museum maps, public program catalogs;

• wheelchairs, strollers, walkers, or other devices the museum may loan guests during their stay;

• stanchions, temporary signage, radios, and other tools that visitor service staff may need to employ quickly in order to be responsive to quickly changing conditions.

4.6.3 Restrooms

Restrooms, washrooms, toilets, loos, lavatories—whatever you call them, don’t underestimate the bathroom. Creative museums have used them as a way to deliver on their mission, raise funds, and infuse a little fun into what could otherwise be a mundane experience. For example, the bathrooms at the John Michael Kohler Art Center in Sheboygan, Wisconsin, were cre-ated in the museum’s Arts/Industry residency program, which awards visual artists the opportunity to work in a nearby Kohler Company factory and utilize the industrial materials and equipment used in the manufacturing of high-end tubs, sinks, and faucets in their work. The New Museum in New York not only got contemporary design for its restrooms, but also a $100,000 naming gift from an eighty-three-year-old donor who said, “I thought it would be nice to see my name in a place where I’m going to spend a lot of time.”7

Restrooms are not simply to serve a utilitarian function but rather to provide guests with an experience that is of high quality, consistent with the rest of the museum visit. Restrooms communicate much about the museum to visitors. In fact, studies show that restroom quality and cleanliness impacts


perceptions of an institution as a whole, and a negative experience will be shared with a family member or friend 50 percent of the time.8

Restrooms need to be ample, sized to serve the peak hour on the muse-um’s Design Day attendance. Local code may allow for smaller restrooms with fewer fi xtures, but that will only result in lines and unhappy custom-ers. Women’s rooms need to have more fi xtures to account for the fact that women often require more time per visit than men. Family washrooms should be provided separately of the men’s and women’s rooms to allow for children to be accompanied by a parent of the opposite sex or a person requiring assis-tance to have additional privacy. If you expect your museum to accommodate large numbers of children or teens, consideration should be given to a dedi-cated bathroom for this specialized audience so they do not inconvenience general visitors. Separate restrooms should be adjacent to a group entrance

Figure 4.4 Agee Restroom at the John Michael Kohler Arts Center


for school groups or for adult visitors arriving from a bus trip that may have taken an hour or more.

Public restrooms should be available on every public fl oor, and should be easily located with good signage. Locating restrooms in the same location on each fl oor allows visitors to intuitively know where the nearest restroom is as they navigate the museum. Proximity to restaurants, cafes, bars, and other areas that invite guests to pause is preferred. Also, restrooms should be located adjacent to any water features—fountains, water table science experi-ments, or touch pools with aquatic animals—as the experience of hearing, seeing and touching water can trigger the need to use the facilities, especially in children.

4.6.4 Seating

Museums are places people should want to linger, contemplate, talk with a friend, or explain things to a child. In order to comfortably facilitate this important aspect of the museum experience, ample seating is required. Seat-ing should be planned as part of the design for public spaces and galleries; it should be comfortable, inviting, and attractive. Especially for seniors, benches must have backs. If possible, invite architects or designers to develop signa-ture furnishing elements such as seating or garbage disposal bins so that they complement the design of the museum rather than appear as an afterthought.

4.6.5 Family Accommodations

People like to visit museums as a group. Parents, grandparents, friends, and relatives enjoy sharing museums with children. Children develop formative memories on these early visits that shape their impressions and thoughts about museums as adults. Museums need to provide the amenities that sup-port family and intergenerational visits. These include:

• Family Washrooms: Private restrooms that allow for a parent to take multiple children to the restroom at once, a child to be accompanied by a parent of the opposite sex, or a person requiring assistance to have addi-tional privacy.

• Changing and Nursing Stations: Allowing for the convenient and dis-creet care of children during the museum experience. These are delicate needs that require quiet, private spaces.

• Stroller Parking: Any museum with signifi cant family visitation will have signifi cant stroller traffi c. Depending on the age and mobility of the children, some families will want to park the strollers and leave them during the visit, whereas many others will prefer to keep the child in the stroller as they go through the museum. This can be further complicated


when interactive exhibits or major attractions in the galleries invite chil-dren to disembark, leaving strollers by the wayside. Dedicated stroller parking can allow for strollers to be tucked away and not impact visi-tor circulation and experience. By planning for and providing circulation routes and parking for strollers, families can be accommodated, and the impact on other visitors can be minimized.

• Activity Areas: Children need the opportunity to participate, interact, and personalize the museum experience. Activities throughout the gal-lery experience should allow for children and their companions to have interactions with one another that reinforce the experience of viewing and learning.

• Decompression Play Areas: Families often spend considerable time on the way to museums and in them. This often means that children must be quiet and sedentary while they are excited and energized about the museum visit. Museums can provide exterior or interior spaces for chil-dren to play and be active; “letting off steam” and surplus energy in des-ignated areas will work to prevent inappropriate behavior in the galleries, and allow children to focus during key experiences.

• Multiple Viewpoints and Levels: Children should be able to engage in the museum experience without too much lifting by companions. By accommodating varying heights and vantage points, children and their caretakers will both have a positive experience.

• Food, Snacks and Eating Areas: Essential to making a family visit posi-tive, food must be accessible in terms of offerings and price. Additionally many families may want to bring their own food due to food allergies, dietary restrictions, and the need to be health conscious and cost con-scious. If possible, provide spaces for people to eat items brought from home such as picnic areas or a lunchroom or café that does not require a purchase to sit down. Those who cannot utilize the paid food service will then be able to participate fully in the museum experience.

4.6.6 Community Accommodations

In addition to the standard amenities listed in this section, there are many more that could be incorporated to meet specifi c community and cultural needs. The options are almost endless, so they require careful listening and thinking on the part of the planner to determine what is needed and appro-priate. During the planning process an effort should be made to speak with front line staff at the existing museum or at other regional attractions to understand what visitors in this community need and expect from a cultural institution.

As museums work to be inclusive community spaces, cultural differences and needs must be properly planned for and accommodated. Without this


step the museum might inadvertently limit accessibility to specifi c groups or audiences. The following are major areas of cultural differentiation that should be evaluated and planned to be as inclusive as possible:

• Food: Many cultural and community traditions are present in the prepa-ration and consumption of food. This can range from what can be eaten and served, how it is to be prepared, how it should be consumed, and fi nally how waste is disposed of. In order to accommodate the needs of the local community, there may be a need for multiple kitchens or eating spaces, separations, and the ability for guests to bring their own meals. All of these could signifi cantly impact space allocation and building design, so be sure to determine the proper approach to food early on in planning.

• Gender: Like food, each culture has its own set of gender roles and norms. By taking a careful look at these and planning spaces accordingly the museum can truly be a place that is welcoming to all. Circulation patterns, paths, and the need for dedicated separate spaces for males and females (public as well as staff areas) could be affected by cultural gender practices.

• Religion: Each religion with its sects, divisions, and regional differences has particular traditions, beliefs, and rules that govern behavior. Accom-modations need to be made to allow people to visit the museum and maintain their personal religious observance. An understanding of what accommodations are needed to respect the religion of visitors should be developed early on in the planning, and experts in those cultures should be employed to recommend sensitive approaches to space allocation and design.

PLANNING FOR UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND DIVERSITY

Craig Thompson and Phillip Thompson

Museums are environments—confl uxes of spaces, sites, artifacts, programs, products, and materials—for patrons with a range of different abilities and from a diversity of cultural, social, educational, economic, and national back-grounds, who come to interact, learn, and enjoy a “museum experience.” Museums are increasingly faced with:

• the need for creating more usable and accessible exhibitions, programs, and spaces;

• addressing patron requirements and needs; • ensuring that educational interactives, programs, and exhibits are able to

address and harmonize with differentiation based on functioning, back-ground, or other forms of diversity.

4.7


In order to achieve this, a number of different conceptual frameworks have been developed, notably barrier-free design, accessibility, and environ-mental accessibility. In the context of international instruments such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, the current conceptual framework informing design for functionality, capability, and diversity is Universal Design.

4.7.1. Design and Planning Principles

Ensuring that the correct principles are adopted throughout the design and planning phase of museum development addresses the nature of the museum experience for all patrons. To achieve this, it is necessary to move beyond the anthropometric design standards that architects, planners, and designers have traditionally been taught to use, which are based on a hypothetical or mythi-cal “average.” In order to do this, recognition must be given to diversity and to the full spectrum of human functionality and ability.

4.7.1.1. Universal Design

The Center for Universal Design (CUD) defi nes its subject as the “design of products, environments and services to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design” (CUD, 2002). As such, universal design is a conceptual framework—a design strategy—that pro-vides the methodology and techniques for addressing the range and spectrum of human ability and diversity. The extent and scope of universal design ranges across the museum planning process, from spatial layout and physical confi gu-ration of spaces to issues such as ensuring adequate access to learning in the museum environment and the perceptibility and legibility of museum graphics. As well as ensuring access and capacity for the universal spectrum of potential patrons, it is also universal in its scope and range of application—virtually no portion of the museum planning process can afford to ignore universal design, and its integration from the initiation of the planning process is of vital concern.

Universal design consolidates a range of previous approaches, including “environmental access,” “special needs facilities,” “barrier-free design,” and “accessibility.” It includes initiatives that not only seek to address physical accessibility, but also are extended to information and communication tech-nology, orientation and wayfi nding, sensory accessibility, and proactive man-agement and operational systems to address nonstandard user requirements. Its intention is to “simplify life for everyone by making products, communi-cations, and the built environment more usable by as many people as possible at little or no extra cost” (CUD, 2006).

The critical difference from previous approaches is that universal design directly avoids the need for separation of people into groups with special needs, but rather


harmonizes the range of human functionality and capability. It recognizes that all potential patrons of museum environments do not have the selfsame abil-ity to access the museum experience, and acknowledges that there is no ideal or average level of function that can be expected in the museum environment. It acknowledges that the capability of patrons to derive meaningful museum experiences depends on the planning, design, and implementation of ele-ments within the museum environment.

As a conceptual framework, universal design addresses the design needs of the entire population, the full spectrum of human function, ability, and diversity. Universal design does not advocate a reduction of form into func-tion, but rather advocates the creation of aesthetically functional environ-ments and solutions. Universal design, however, does not eliminate the need or desire for customization, but instead reduces the need for customized, specialized, and purpose-built devices. The general idea is to improve the context—environments, services, products—to reduce the need for such set-tings and devices.

Related to the notion of universal design is that of universal accessibility, which in essence is the ability of users to have equal opportunity and access to services, products, systems, and environments, regardless of economic or social situation, religious or cultural background, gender, or functional limita-tion. It refers to the practical application of universal design through methods and techniques utilizing either or both of:

• direct access (adaptations, redesign, and design of products, environments, services, or systems to improve their accessibility);

• indirect access (which uses assistive technology such as wheelchairs or screen-readers and refers to product, environment, service, or system interfaces that enable an add-on assistive technology to provide the user with full access).

Universal accessibility is about integrating the philosophy and conceptual framework of universal design into a creative process that generates a func-tional and aesthetic solution that allows an equal experience for all patrons to museums, for the complete human life cycle regardless of the functional or other circumstances that they may be experiencing at that stage of their lives. It demonstrates how an understanding of human interaction with place, product, service, or system may inspire design.

4.7.1.2. We Are All Benefi ciaries of Universal Design

The World Health Organization’s International Classifi cation of Function-ing, Disability and Health (ICF-10) utilizes three perspectives to classify and orientate functioning: body, individual, and social (WHO, 2001). What have


traditionally been regarded as impairments or disabilities resulting in special needs are seen under the ICF as a relationship among these three elements. What is critical to understand is the role played by environmental factors: the ICF classifi cation system defi nes a person’s capacity and functioning specifi -cally with reference to a given environment. This is a shift from previous per-spectives, which focused on special needs or disabilities, toward a description of functioning and capability as spectrum conditions.

The ICF emphasizes that we all exist along a continuum—a spectrum—of human performance, functionality, and ability. For example, we vary in height, strength, visual ability, hearing acuity, mobility, balance, and other factors. Furthermore, an individual’s ability to function may vary according to time or place—linguistic diversity is a useful example of this. Universal design focuses on the full spectrum of human abilities, and appreciates the diversity of human functionality.

The alteration of demographics globally—notably through the aging of the world’s population and rising levels of social equity—strengthen the rel-evance of universal design. However, it is important to note that the relevance of universal design is not new, as human society has always included a diver-sity of people with different levels of performance, ability, and functioning.

In order to understand the potential range of benefi ciaries of univer-sal design, it is useful to consider the nature of functional limitation that patrons may experience when attempting to access the museum experience. The major categories of limitation include the following:

• mobility limitations• visual limitations• communication limitations• comprehension limitations

4.7.1.3. Mobility Limitations

The wide range of mobility limitation that may be experienced by museum patrons extends from issues such as locomotive gait problems experienced by older visitors to symptoms of illnesses such as diabetes and arthritis to pregnancy; children’s inability to negotiate steep and long staircases; and the immobility experienced by older persons, visitors with chronic illnesses, and people who require the use of a range of assistive devices such as wheelchairs or scooters.

Uneven surfaces, steep gradients, or cross-falls as well as steps in levels and staircases present the primary barriers to independent and autonomous mobility. These barriers are not always obvious to those who do not experi-ence mobility limitations, and are present in both external and internal envi-ronments in a range of varying confi gurations.


In response to functional mobility limitations, various assistive devices such as walking sticks, modifi ed shoes, leg braces, prostheses, crutches, walk-ing frames, wheelchairs, and scooters have been developed to enhance the independent mobility of individuals. These assistive equipments have specifi c limitations that further limit the adaptability and capability of the individual. Their mobility then becomes a functional relationship between the environ-ment and the equipment design. The level of accessibility is determined by the ability of designers, planners, and managers to cope with the specifi c needs of the individual to access all components of the museum environment and to participate fully in programmed activities. Historic buildings often pose the most challenging issues to addressing mobility access.

4.7.1.4. Visual Limitations

The extent and type of functional visual limitations directly impact on the ability of patrons to orientate themselves, and on their effective mobility. There are two broad categories of limitation: residual vision or “visual impair-ment,” and those with little or no residual vision—“blindness.”

Persons with residual vision—also termed visual impairment, partial sightedness, or low vision—rely on their vision to some extent to negoti-ate their environments. They make use of visual aids, such as optical eye-glasses and contact lenses, telescopes, monocular and binocular magnifi ers, or closed-circuit television and computer-based systems.

Blind people generally cannot rely on their vision to assist with their orientation or mobility within an environment, although some may have light and dark perception. They are reliant on the effi cient use of their other senses—hearing, touch, smell, and kinesthesia. This last sense is a function of multisensory interpretation—for example, recognizing doorways by feeling the moving air, or the proximity of objects by the way air moves around them and sound bounces off them.

The challenge facing designers and planners is to develop an appropri-ate museum experience for such patrons by harnessing the senses. The size of text, diagrams, and graphic panels, for instance, is critical to some patrons with functional visual limitations. And as with mobility limitations, uneven surfaces, changing gradients, changes in level, steps and staircases, projecting and overhanging obstacles, lack of orientation aids, and complex environ-ments are the primary barriers to independent mobility for people with func-tional visual limitations.

Blind persons may make use of detection canes (lightweight folding or telescopic canes), detection systems that make use of sound, infra-red or laser technology, and cellular technology to detect and locate obstacles and components in the person’s path of travel. Guide dogs (also referred to as “seeing-eye dogs” or “service dogs”) are sometimes used to negotiate an


environment through the dogs’ trained perception. In complex environments sighted guides are used to provide fast and safe mobility through unfamiliar, crowded, or cluttered spaces. These requirements should be carefully assessed during the planning, design and management phases of museum operation.

4.7.1.5. Communication Limitations

The primary communication limitations are deafness and the inability to access written information due to functional visual limitations, illiteracy, or language variance. Hearing limitation ranges from mild to profound deafness, with a range of diverse levels, which are frequency specifi c, or complex distortions. While deafness does not appear to impact as signifi cantly on individuals’ abil-ity to access the environment, a lack of communication with other persons and with audio information systems signifi cantly impacts on the independence of persons within their environment. The lack of access to signage, information systems, and warnings is problematic for persons with visual limitations, as well as those with language variance or functional literacy limitations.

Deafness impacts most signifi cantly in the area of interactive commu-nication, since written communication can be achieved through text. While there are various systems that utilize voice-to-text recognition technology, the role of sign language is still the most widely favored means of commu-nication within the deaf community. Speech reading and speech training are less acceptable. The combined use of technological support and signing is typically seen as an acceptable compromise.

Providing appropriate access to information that is only available in writ-ten format is a function of the type of information and is dependent on a number of variables. While it is easy to convert general written information to a broadcast system, it is far more diffi cult to address site-specifi c infor-mation such as signage and orientation aids. The use of Braille signage and numbering is usually linked to Braille mapping, as well as tactile Braille rout-ing. The effi cacy of these systems for persons with functional visual limita-tions is dependent on the standard of their mobility training and their mental mapping ability.

4.7.1.6. Comprehension Limitations

The majority of comprehension limitations are a function of mental impair-ment (e.g., schizophrenia), learning diffi culties (e.g., dyslexia), autism-spec-trum conditions, age, and the level of education achieved. These limitations impact on patrons’ ability to comprehend and react to the environment around them. While these people often encounter communication problems, it is not necessarily the communication system itself that must be addressed, but the comprehensibility within that communication system itself.


Comprehension limitations present barriers to orientation and inde-pendent mobility, as well as nonstandard responses to unfamiliar and unex-pected situations. The way in which environments are structured will impact on any person; however, those individuals who require more time or fi nd it diffi cult to comprehend complex environments can be supported by consis-tent and well-recognized formats, systems, and signage. People with these limitations often experience a combination of other limitations, including mobility-based impairments, speech impairment, defi cient language devel-opment, visual limitations, or seizures as well as emotional disorders. Gener-ally, a holistic approach to the accessibility of any environment is the most appropriate response to their needs.

4.7.1.7. Assistive Technology

Assistive technology is a term used to describe adaptive or rehabilitative devices for people with varying forms of functional limitation. Assistive technologies are intended to allow greater independence by enabling the individual to per-form tasks which, due to environmental, systematic, or product- or service-related defi ciencies, they were formerly unable to accomplish or had great diffi culty accomplishing. As assistive technology is focused on peculiarities related to a specifi c form of functional limitation, they are regarded as gap-bridging mechanisms and should be utilized only where it is not possible to make suitable improvements to existing environments, systems, products, or services. In the case of planning for new environments, systems, products, or services, there should be a clear mandate to reduce reliance for potential patrons on assistive technologies.

4.7.1.8 Sensory Accessibility and Designing for All the Senses

Multisensory representation of information and the need for multisensory representation in the environment has become recognized as a key element in design. This is notable through the development of assistive technologies such as Ping!, audio tours, multimedia, and computer-assisted technology; it is also notable through the advent of new design regimes such as hap-ticity (Pallasmaa, 2005). There is an increasing recognition that purely linear, one-sense-oriented techniques are inadequate to address the breadth and scope of human experience. There are primarily two areas in which the senses need to be addressed in the museum: sensory access to the learning experience, and spatial domain access.

Multisensory representation of learning materials, within learning envi-ronments and of the learning curriculum itself, has been shown to increase the ability of individuals to learn (Howard et al., 2004). There has been some movement toward the creation of exhibits and environments with


multisensory representation. Notable examples include the Boston Museum of Science, the New York Hall of Science, the Louvre, and the Smithsonian Institution:

• The Boston Museum of Science has undertaken a clear commitment to the development of “full access for learning” evident in such installations as the New England Lifezone Hall, which utilized a redesign of a series of dioramas that were enhanced through the addition of audio, tactile, and interpretative elements, smell boxes, and high-contrast, large-type labels. Studies undertaken at the museum (Tokar, 2003) suggest that these addi-tions greatly increase the overall level of accessibility experienced by the general museum patron population. Another initiative undertaken by the museum is the Talking Signs system, and the installation of tactile/auditory maps. Talking Signs is a technology that uses infrared sensors to provide location-based auditory directions to visitors carrying a handheld beacon (Reich, 2005). Tactile/auditory maps provide a map that patrons can feel and explore to gain a sense of a space’s layout. When areas on the tactile map are touched, auditory directions are read aloud so that the user can receive further information or directions on how to access or use ele-ments within the space (Reich, 2005).

• The New York Hall of Science has seen extensive usage of the Ping! system, which utilizes cellular phone technology that visitors may use to “call” specifi c interactive components within various spaces, which in turn activate an auditory beacon (Friedman, 2000; Reich, 2005).

• The Musée du Louvre in Paris has developed a series of interfaces that assist users in negotiating and understanding their environments through the use of special audio guides, tactile paving lines, and labels in Braille and large-type throughout the facility. There have also been specifi c exhi-bition interventions at the Louvre, notably through the Tactile Gallery, which uses full-size casts of sculpture housed in the Louvre’s collections that visitors can touch and tactilely explore, allowing for a more haptic engagement with the works of art.

• The Smithsonian Institution in Washington (Smithsonian Institu-tion Accessibility Program, 1996) has developed a number of different systems, techniques, and mechanisms to address sensory accessibility, including mounting specimens and artifacts to allow them to be touch-able; where this is not possible, ensuring that touchable models of arti-facts and specimens are provided; and provision for tactile versions of illustrations and graphics.

Other methods of achieving multisensory accessibility in museums around the world include (Reich, 2010):


• Development and installation of tactile sound transducers, which can be used to translate very low bass sound frequencies into physical movement of chair seats and platforms, thus making sound-based experiences acces-sible to people with functional auditory limitations

• Providing vibrating touch pad devices that are able to reproduce the lower frequencies of sound as tactile vibrations that can be sensed through the hands of patrons, and which can be used on a variety of different compo-nents and programs requiring signifi cant usage of sound

• Providing captioning on audio and video media

4.7.1.9 Learning and Instructional Diversity

Universal Design for Learning and Differentiated Instruction are two conver-gent and supportive educational strategies that together focus on addressing the diversity of the learning experience as well as increasing engagement of museum visitors with the educational experience provided by the museum environment.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is defi nable as the application of UD to education and the learning environment, as well as to tools, materials, and techniques that facilitate cognition (Center for Applied Special Technol-ogy, 2006). The central goal of UDL is to provide the learner with a variety of wider options to access, utilize, and engage with materials. Universal Design for Learning is achieved through a variety of different mechanisms including

• the linkage of strategically developed materials that address the spectrum of different user functional domains;

• the creation of fl exible and multiple methods of presentation of the edu-cational experience;

• providing options for the presentation of educational materials; • utilization of apprenticeship and expression-based methods of learning; • clarifying goals and providing different levels of interface in achieving

goals; and • utilization of technology tools, digital content, multimedia tools, and

educational scaffolds (Rose & Meyer, 2002).

Differentiated instruction is an educational methodology that addresses entry into different levels within a pyramid of learning capability, and is aimed at expanding the curriculum and its presentation to “anticipate and respond to students’ learning differences” (Tomlinson & McTighe, 2006). Differenti-ated instruction is achieved by

• fl exibility of instruction materials and methods; • modifi cation of content, process, and product;


• adjustment of instruction level and type based on readiness level, interest, and learning style;

• fl exible grouping, tiered learning approaches, and usage of educational scaffolds;

• providing multiple examples during the learning experience; • highlighting critical features; • providing multiple media and formats in which to present instructional

material; and • supporting background knowledge required to understand content (Rose

& Meyer, 2002).

4.7.1.10 Social Diversity

Universal Accessibility in the museum planning process calls for recogni-tion and cognizance of the need for addressing capability and functionality resulting from social diversity. There is a wide spectrum of social situations that museum patrons will originate from, and these will affect—directly or indirectly—their ability and capacity to function in the museum environment and to access the museum experience. The particular points of intersection and inclusion that must be considered are

• addressing the ability of patrons to learn based on prior educational experience;

• recognition of diversity in museum programming, exhibits, and environments;

• positive action toward addressing social diversity.

Prior learning ability and capability will directly affect the patron’s abil-ity to gain and maintain a meaningful museum experience, and measures must be taken to ensure that each patron is able to learn independently and autonomously without substantial assistance (Reich, 2010). This will mean application of Universal Design principles related to the presentation of information in multiple formats with multisensory information as well as addressing differentiated instruction and universal design for learning.

Recognition of diversity takes multiple forms in the museum environ-ment and is primarily intended to create an experience that is welcoming, inclusive, and accessible to the widest possible audience (Reich, 2010). A number of strategies are applicable in achieving this:

• Firstly, incorporation of experiences, images, vocalizations and sounds, and other sensory artifacts and specimens from a range of different groups—in particular persons with different levels of capability and functioning—would be a useful point of departure.


• Secondly, providing multiple forms of language and instructional media—human, print, and audio—should be a consideration to attract diversity in museums.

• Finally, the integration of culture and contributions from a diversity of groups in exhibits and programs will make the transition from represen-tation of diversity to integration of diversity into exhibits and programs.

Positive action can take many forms but is predominantly intended as planned activities by museum institutions to address social diversity. Activi-ties can take the form of creating networks and links with communities and organizations of UD benefi ciaries. It can take the form of hiring and developing opportunities for groups of diverse social origin, including—for example—the hiring of consultants with functional limitations to work on exhibits and programs. Key to the institutional planning process should be a fi rm commitment to developing, implementing, and maintaining equity policies and diversity goals.

4.7.2. Practice

This section presents requirements that museum planners or designers will need to meet regardless of whether they are merely seeking code compli-ance or planning to accommodate a wide range of staff and patrons. It is not intended as a comprehensive outline of how to achieve universal accessibility, but as a combination of general guidance and design thinking of which cog-nizance should be taken, providing specifi c detailed, technical information for planners and designers. The intention is to provide preliminary back-ground requirements, allowing for planning and design creativity.

This guidance has been synthesized from a number of different sources, notably the ADA Accessibility Guidelines (U.S.), Parks Canada, the British Building Regulations Part-M, and the Australian AS 1428—Designing for Mobility and Access. Museum planners and designers will need to check this guidance against their own national or local codes and standards of practice. This is especially the case in countries such as the United States that have their own requirements that are legally enforceable. However, it should be noted that the requirements outlined here generally exceed—in most sections—the stan-dards contained within documents such as the ADA Accessibility Guidelines.

4.7.2.1. Physical Design Universal Accessibility Requirements

The following general requirements will be considered here:

• fl oor or ground surfaces• changes in level


• wheelchair turning spaces• clear fl oor or ground spaces• toe and knee clearances• reach ranges• protruding objects• control and operating mechanisms

4.7.2.1.1 Floor or Ground Surfaces

Floor or ground surfaces should be stable, fi rm, and slip-resistant. Carpet, carpet tiles, or other fl oor fi nishes are to be securely attached and level across all types of pile. Pile height of carpets shall not exceed 13 mm (0.5 in.). Openings in the fl oor fi nish or ground surfaces shall not exceed a 13 mm diameter, and where the opening is elongated, the long dimension is to be placed perpendicular to the dominant direction of travel.

4.7.2.1.2 Changes in Level

A maximum vertical change of 8 mm (0.31 in.) shall be permitted. Changes in level between 8 mm and 15 mm (0.59 in.) shall be beveled with a slope not steeper than 1:3. Changes in level greater than 15 mm shall be ramped at a gradient no greater than 1:2.

4.7.2.1.3 Wheelchair Turning Space

Floor or ground surfaces of a wheelchair turning space shall have a slope of no more than 1:40, and changes in level are not permitted within that space. The turning space shall be either circular or T-shaped. A circular space shall have a diameter of 1,500 mm (5 ft.), which is permitted to include knee and toe clearance. The option of a T-shaped space shall comprise a 1,500 mm (5 ft.) square with arms and base 900 mm (3 ft.) wide minimum. Each arm of the T shall be clear of an obstruction 300 mm (1 ft.) minimum in each direc-tion and the base shall be clear of an obstruction 600 mm (2 ft.) minimum. Such T-shaped space shall be permitted to include knee and toe clearance only at the end of either the base or one arm.

4.7.2.1.4 Clear Floor or Ground Spaces

Clear fl oor or ground space shall be positioned for either forward or parallel (side) approach to an element or object. It should measure 760 mm by 1,250 mm (2.5 ft. by 4 ft.) minimum, and is permitted to include both knee and toe clearances. The fl oor or ground of such a space is not steeper than 1:40 and shall comply with other stipulations for fl oor and ground surfaces. One full


unobstructed side shall adjoin or overlap with an accessible route or adjoin another clear fl oor or ground space.

4.7.2.1.5 Toe and Knee Clearance

Toe clearance is considered to be that space under an object 250 mm (10 in.) above the fl oor or ground, and shall extend 650 mm (26 in.) under an object, with minimum width of 760 mm (30 in.). Where toe clearance is required at a fi xture as part of the clear fl oor space, the clearance shall extend 450 mm minimum (18 in.) beneath the fi xture. Space extending more than 150 mm (6 in.) beyond the available knee clearance at 250 mm above the fl oor or ground shall not be considered toe clearance.

Knee clearance is that space under an object between 250 mm (10 in.) and 750 mm (30 in.) above the fl oor or ground, which has a minimum width of 760 mm (30 in.). Where knee clearance is required as part of clear fl oor space, the knee clearance shall be 300 mm (1 ft.) minimum in depth at 250 mm (10 in.) above the ground, and 200 mm (8 in.) minimum in depth at 750 mm (30 in.) above the fl oor or ground.

4.7.2.1.6 Reach Range

Table 4.8 indicates the requirement for both forward and side reach.

4.7.2.1. Protruding Objects

Objects with leading edges between 700 mm (28 in.) and 2,000 mm (6 ft. 6 in.) above the fl oor or ground shall protrude no more than 100 mm (4 in.) into the clear width or circulation space, including handrails.

Figure 4.5 T-Shaped Turning Radius


Free-standing objects mounted on posts shall overhang 300 mm (1 ft.) maximum where located between 700 mm (28 in.) and 2,000 mm (6 ft. 6 in.) above the ground. Where a sign or other feature is mounted between two posts and the clear distance between the posts exceeds 300 mm (1 ft.), the lowest edge of the sign shall be between 700 mm (28 in.) and 2,000 mm (6 ft. 6 in.) above the fl oor or ground.

Guard rails or other detectable barriers shall be provided where the ver-tical clearance is less than 2,000 mm (6 ft. 6 in.) high. The leading edge of such guard rail or barrier shall be located 700 mm (28 in.) maximum above

Table 4.8. Requirements for Reach Ranges

Forward Reach

Unobstructed Forward Reach Where a clear fl oor space allows for only a forward approach to an object, and is unobstructed, the high forward reach shall be 1,200 mm (maximum), and the low forward reach shall be 400 mm (minimum).

Obstructed High Forward Reach Where a clear fl oor space allows only for forward approach to an object, and the high forward reach is over an obstruc-tion, the clear fl oor space shall extend beneath the object for a distance not less than the required reach depth over the obstruction. The following relates high forward reach lengths to reach depths required:

High Forward Reach Reach Depth1,200 mm 500 mm1,100 mm 650 mm

Side Reach

Unobstructed Side Reach Where a clear fl oor space allows a parallel approach to an object, and the depth of any obstruction between the clear fl oor and the object is 250 mm maximum, the high side reach shall be 1,200 mm maximum, and the low side reach shall be 400 mm above the ground.

Obstructed High Side Reach Where a clear fl oor or ground space allows a parallel approach to an object and the high side reach is over an obstruction, the height of the obstruction shall be 850 mm maximum and the depth of the obstruction shall be 600 mm maximum. The following relates high side reach to depth reach:

High Side Reach Reach Depth1,350 mm 250 mm1,200 mm 500 mm


the fl oor. Detectable warnings comprised of a standardized surface feature applied to walking surfaces shall warn patrons with functional visual limita-tions when they are approaching a potential hazard.

Protruding objects shall not reduce the clear width required for accessible routes.

4.7.2.2. Control and Operating Mechanism Accessibility Requirements

A clear fl oor or ground space shall be provided in front of the controls or operating mechanisms. The height of mechanisms shall be placed within one or more of the reach ranges, with the exception of special equipment that dictates otherwise or equipment that is not normally intended for use by the building occupants. The controls and operating mechanisms shall be oper-able with one hand, and shall not require tight grasping, pinching, or twisting of the wrist.

Window and door controls (locking and opening) shall be of the lever type, readily accessible less than 1,200 mm (4 ft.) above the fi nished fl oor level, operable with one hand, and not obstructed by fi ttings or appliances.

All light switches shall be horizontally aligned with door handles and other fi xtures and fi ttings (other than socket outlets) between 900 mm and

Figure 4.6 Detectable Barrier at Protruding Object


1,200 mm (3–4 ft.) above the fi nished fl oor level. The recommended height is 1,000 mm (42 in.). Rocker action, toggle, or push-pad switches that operate in the vertical plane shall be used. Push buttons and toggle light switches shall project clear of the switch plate and shall have a width of at least 10 mm (.5 in.).

General purpose socket outlets (power points) shall be fi xed at least 500 mm (20 in.) above fi nished fl oor level (AFF), 150 mm (6 in.) above work surface level and at least 450 mm (18 in.) from corners.

4.7.2.3. Sensory and Multisensory Universal Accessibility Requirements

4.7.2.3.1 Lighting

Lighting, either natural or artifi cial, is pro-vided to enable people to see in order for them to perform certain tasks, such as obtain information from a sign. Providing higher levels of illumination will not necessarily result in improved seeing condi-tions. Although the level or intensity of light is obviously important, light can be too bright as well as too dim for a seeing task. In addition, as light levels increase, glare problems can also increase (Woodson, 1981).

Of critical importance when dealing with lighting is illuminance, lumi-nance, glare, consistency of illumination, highlighting of illumination, color, and contrast:

• Illuminance is the amount of light falling onto a surface. It is measured by a light meter on the object’s surface. The unit of illuminance measure-ment is the lux or foot-candle (1 lux = 0.093 foot-candles). Illuminance falls off as the square of the distance from the source. The amount of illumination required to light an object adequately depends on the object.

• Luminance or light refl ectance value is defi ned as the amount of light emit-ted by a surface. The unit of luminance measurement is the candela/m². A luminance or brightness ratio of between 10:1 and 3:1 between the object and the surrounding area has been found to be comfortable. Concentra-tion is helped if work areas or areas where concentration needs to be focused are the brightest part of the visual fi eld. Limiting the brightness ratios or luminance reduces glare (Woodson, 1981).

Figure 4.7 Accessible Door Confi guration


• Glare occurs when there are areas of brightness in the visual fi eld. There are two main types of glare: discomfort glare, which causes discomfort only, and functionally limiting glare, which causes not just discomfort but also a decline in visual performance by reducing the ability to see in detail. Glare from a single source is measured and expressed as a glare constant. This is then converted to a Glare Index. Where there is more than one glare source, they can be summed to give the Glare Index. In environments where glare must be kept to a minimum—such as exhibi-tion galleries—the Glare Index should be less than or equal to 13 (Clark & Corlett, 1984). Signs and light sources should be carefully located to reduce glare. Diffusing light sources are recommended to reduce glare and shadow effects (Woodson, 1981).

Environments should present adequate illumination for pedestrians as they move from one part of the museum environment to another. Particu-lar attention should be given to areas such as elevators, stairs, and landings which are often inadequately lit in comparison to the rooms opening up to them. Light should be used to accentuate signage, stairs, handrails, and other decision-making points. Red lighting should be used where dark adaptation is required, as is the case with emergency exit signs. At low levels of light, the eye fi nds red symbols more visible (Dreyfuss, 1993).

Contrast: An object can be seen and its shape identifi ed because of its contrast with its background. Contrast can be improved by changing the illu-mination or changing the refl ectivity of certain parts of signs or objects. Text and graphics should have a contrast of at least 70 percent for a suffi cient level of color contrast from their environments, and objects 30 percent. The fol-lowing formula should be utilized in this regard to determine the percentage:

Contrast = ([B1]—[B2]/[B1]) � 100% where [B1] = light refl ectance value (LRV) of brighter color [B2] = light refl ectance value (LRV) of the darker color

Table 4.9. Accessible Lighting Levels

Ambient Lighting 50–300 luxText Panels 100–300 luxControls 100 luxDirectional Signage 200–300 luxMaps, Displays 100–300 luxRamps, Stairs 100–300 luxPathways 100–300 lux


Color and contrast are closely associated. Yellow and red are preferred to indicate color accents, because green and blue become diffi cult to distinguish with age, and are indistinguishable for some patrons with various functional visual limitations. High-contrast images should also be avoided. Extra light-ing (increased illuminance) can improve the visual ability of some patrons. However, since glare can cause problems, increasing lighting should be done sensitively and carefully. It is recommended that yellow, orange, or white are used on a dark or black background to achieve optimum visibility for the majority of potential patrons.

4.7.2.3.2 Tactile Information

Tactile forms of communication are best suited to relating qualitative and comparative information, such as an object’s shape and size relative to those of something familiar to everyone. For example—an airplane model should exclude many smaller details so that the overall shape and major components are easily discernable by touch. The same concept should be applied to tactile maps and signs. Quantitative details and abstract ideas can only be commu-nicated to the visually impaired if the patron can read Braille.

Tactile signs: High visibility tactile signs should always be used on or adjacent to washroom doors, elevator call buttons, the top and bottom of fl ights of stairs, and wherever else it is necessary to show the function of a room (Barker et al., 1995). They should always be placed on the latch side of the door opening for safety reasons. A tactile sign must be positioned where it can be easily touched, at a height between 1 m and 1.5 m and at a forward distance of approximately one-half meter, that is, at a maximum horizontal stretching distance of 500 mm (Barker et al., 1995). Consistency in mounting height is critical as persons with functional visual limitations will expect them to appear in the same place and respond accordingly. All tactile signs should be mounted so that the top line of tactile characters on the signs is at the same height from the fi nished fl oor. The reach of persons using wheelchairs should also be taken into consideration when mounting tactile signs.

A tactile sign must be embossed, not engraved. The depth of embossing must be between 1 mm (0.03 in.) to 1.5 mm (0.05 in.) and the stroke width 1.5 mm to 2 mm (0.07 in.). The edges should be slightly rounded (a half-rounded section is not acceptable). The minimum character height should be 15 mm (0.59 in.), the maximum 60 mm (Barker et al., 1995). Tactile signs should be accompanied by Level 2 Braille (Hunter-Zaworski and Watts, 1994). For tactile lettering, use white upper-and-lower case letters on a black background. Special care must be taken with certain letters. Zeros for example should have slashes in the middle to distinguish them from the letter O, and the number 4 should be open at the top, so as not to be confused with the letter A (Rumble, 1993).


Tactile maps need to be larger and simpler than visual maps to convey the same information. A minimum of 5 mm (0.19 in.) should be left between parallel lines and 3 mm (0.11 in.) between adjacent symbols. Varying the height of symbols helps users to decipher them, but too many symbols create “tactile noise” (Parks Canada, 1993). Tactile maps must be carefully designed to give information without clutter and must be easily accessible. Different textures can be used to signify different data.

4.7.2.3.3 Wayfi nding

Consideration should be given to clear mechanisms for wayfi nding. Adequate wayfi nding systems are critical for patrons to make sense of, and interact with, elements within the museum environment. Museum institutions often have a multicultural patronage base, and as such many visitors may not be able to read or effectively understand English. The use of a clear, consistent pictogram system is a fi rst step in resolving this issue, but needs to go further than the standard usage of pictograms for specifi c elements in the facility—toilets, emergency escape—to embrace functional usability; for example, in a natural history museum dedicated to zoological specimens, a system could be used to display pictograms for each species or thematic element contained in the displays. Where applicable, signs should be in more than one language—for example, in the southwest United States, English and Spanish. Finally, graphic identity schemes could be used to distinguish one area from another, utilizing a color code and/or display graphics such as photographs and ban-ners (Majewski, n.d.).

4.7.2.3.4 Signage

Museums are full of signs and labels. Accessibility of signage is key to orien-tation for patrons. Placing signs at eye level allows patrons who have func-tional visual limitations to read the signs at close range and provides a better viewing angle for persons who use wheelchairs and other assistive devices. Proper color contrast improves signage visibility and legibility for all patrons and is critical for patrons with functional visual limitations, especially those with low vision and color blindness. Signs supplemented by Braille and tac-tile symbols allow independent access to persons with severe visual limita-tions. Clear signage is also of great importance to persons who have diffi culty communicating verbally or who cannot hear public announcements.

Elements that affect the accessibility of signage include:

• viewing distances;• letter to height ratio and letter to width ratio;


• viewing angle;• sign displacement;• illumination of signs or illuminated signs;• emergency signs.

Table 4.10 outlines the accessible viewing distances for signs using letter-ing of different font sizes.

Letters should have a width-to-height ratio of between 3:5 and 1:1 and a stroke width-to-height ratio of between 1:5 and 1:10. The minimum char-acter height to viewing distance ratio for signage shall be 1:30 and the mini-mum height of characters for signage suspended overhead shall be 75 mm. All signs should utilize a high contrast between the background and the lettering.

Studies indicate that the normal fi eld or cone of vision suitable for sign-ing covers an angle of about 60 degrees. Areas outside the angle tend to be seen in much less detail. For example, if a sign were supported from a high ceiling so that the sight line between the viewer’s eyes and the horizontal were more than 30 degrees, it would probably get overlooked.

The viewing angle is the angle formed by the plane of the sign and the observer’s central line of vision; that is, the viewing angle should be nearly 90 degrees. The legibility of a sign message deteriorates when the viewing angle is less than 45 degrees. The location of a sign should be planned in relation to the observer’s normal line of vision. Displacement is the distance between the center of the sign and an observer’s central line of vision (measured at a right angle to the central line of vision). Ideally, the angle of displacement should be between 5 and 15 degrees.

All signs should be well-lit at all times, whether by natural or artifi cial lighting. Internally illuminated translucent signs may be suitable for areas

Table 4.10. Accessible Viewing Distances for Signs

Lettering Minimum Character Height (in mm)

Maximum Viewing Distance (in mm)

200 mm 6,000150 mm 4,500100 mm 2,500 75 mm 2,000 50 mm 1,500 25 mm 750 20 mm 500


that are inside buildings, but care should be taken that there is no glare to reduce their effectiveness. The color and stroke width of lettering may need to be different from externally lit signs to ensure a consistent standard of maximum legibility. Lighted signs, when used with a dark background, are a reinforcing device to help separate a sign system from competing signs—as in airports, where airport information signs use internal illumination to stand out against a background of airline and concessionaire advertising signs, which compete for the viewer’s attention. Special (battery-powered) lighting may be needed for signs that must be visible during emergency conditions, such as during power failures. It is also important to provide illumination for signs bearing regulatory, warning, or emergency messages, and also to ensure proper and effective recognition of safety colors. Certain illuminants, such as low- and high-pressure sodium lamps and clear mercury vapor lamps may distort colors under some circumstances. To avoid misin-terpretation, supplementary illumination (e.g., by LED lights) should be provided in those cases.

Where exterior signs or interior signs and pictograms are provided as permanent routings, directional information, designations, or descriptions of spaces and rooms, the signs should be tactile or in the case of pictograms should have tactile text descriptors. Written information should be provided in the largest possible format to ensure optimal access by persons with func-tional visual limitations. Such signs should be simple, consistent, not written in uppercase only and should contrast with the surface they are mounted on. Tactile and Braille signs should be provided.

Signs and information related to exhibits should be permanent components of the complex and facilities. Building directories, directional information, and

Figure 4.8 International Symbol for Accessibility Signage


titles should have tactile text descriptors, Braille directories, or information cards that can be provided on request.

The International Symbol for Accessibility and Hearing Loss should be used in conjunction with all signage to indicate the availability and existence of facilities and accessibility.

4.7.2.3.5 Emergency Alarm Systems

Emergency alarm systems should comply with the requirements regarding accessibility, as outlined here. Emergency evacuation procedures that take account of the widest range of patrons must be developed and learned by staff.

Visual alarms should be used with audible alarms, especially in galleries and washrooms. Visual alarms are lights that fl ash at 1 Hz in conjunction with audible alarms. Bright white lights, at least 75 cd in intensity, should be used for fl ashing alarms. Flashing lights should be presented at not less than fi ve fl ashes per second. If the light is combined with an auditory signal, it should be presented at a rate of one per second (Richesin et al., 1989). Visual alarms should be placed at 2,200 mm (7 ft. 3 in.) above the highest fl oor level or 150 mm (6 in.) below the ceiling, whichever is lower. In general, no place in any room or space required to have a visual signal appliance should be more than 15 m (50 ft.) from the signal. In large rooms and spaces such as auditoriums, galleries, and conference centers, devices may be placed around the perimeter, spaced at a maximum 30 m (100 ft.) apart, in lieu of suspend-ing appliances from the ceiling. No place in common corridors or hallways should be more than 15 m (50 ft.) from the signal. Admittedly, these require-ments for visible alarms are a challenge for the gallery designer who wants large uninterrupted display surfaces.

Audible alarms should exceed the ambient noise of a setting by 15 dB, or exceed any maximum sound level with a duration of 30 seconds by 5 Db, whichever is louder. Audible alarms should not exceed 120 dB, and should provide intermittent noise. Where possible, the alarm should be placed imme-diately above an emergency exit door. Audible warnings should be between 500 and 3,000 Hz. Use frequencies below 500 Hz if the sound must bend around obstacles or pass through partitions. Use a modulating signal (1 to 8 beeps per second, or warbling that changes 1 to 3 times per second). Present the signal for at least 0.5 to 10 seconds.

4.7.2.3.6 Assistive Listening Devices

Exhibit and assembly areas equipped with audio systems should have assis-tive listening devices. Where assistive listening systems are provided, signs


including the International Symbol for Hearing Loss should be provided at ticket or information desks to inform patrons of the availability of the system. Individual fi xed seats served by an assistive listening system should have a complete view of the presentation, playing area, or screen. Induction loops, infrared systems, FM and AM radio frequency systems, hardwired earphones and other equivalent devices may be used as assistive listening sys-tems. Receivers required to be hearing aid–compatible should interface with T-coils in hearing aids either through the provision of neck loops or a hearing aid–compatible headset.

4.7.2.4. Museum Environments

Sections 4.5 and 4.6 have already noted the need for approaches and entries that are user friendly to groups as well as individual visitors all along the spectrum. Continuing through the museum environment, it is useful to ensure that circulation corridors meet the needs of all visitors, as outlined in table 4.11.

4.7.2.4.1 Walkways and Ramps

The gradient of ramps should not be greater than 1:15 as measured along its centerline. Where a gradient is steeper than 1:20, a level platform shall be provided within minimum dimensions 1,200 mm (4 ft.) square at its head. Where long ramps are incorporated at or near the maximum gradient of 1:15, it is helpful if resting places are provided at intervals and steps shall be provided in addition to ramps as well. A fi ne balance, however, should be struck between the effective ramp height and ramp length: thus, although a ramp system incorporating a series of ramps set at 1:40 gradients meets the requirements, it would not prove practical due to the long distances that a patron would have to travel. A curb or similar warning device shall be placed at the edges of ramps or platforms since this permits users of assistive devices to stop on the ramp, as well as providing a warning regarding the position of the edge of the ramp. The height of such a curb should be at least 100 mm (4 in.). Both sides of ramps should have continuous handrails, and a central handrail should be provided where the ramp is in excess of 2,000 mm (6 ft. 6 in.). This handrail should color-contrast with its surroundings, sit between 900 mm to 1,000 mm (3 ft. to 3 ft. 6 in.) above the level of the ramp, and be continuous with the run of the ramp.

Landings on ramps should be provided (a) where ramp runs are in excess of 10 m (32.8 ft.), in which case landings should be installed at 10 m inter-vals, and at the foot and head of each ramp; and (b) where a ramp has a


vertical rise of 1,500 mm (4.92 ft.), in which case a landing shall be provided at each vertical height of 1,500 mm or a multiple thereof. Landings should be 1,500 mm long, clear of any door-swing. Ramp landings, ramp feet, and ramp heads should have contrasting color and texture transitions to mark their position. It is important to identify the beginning and end of ramps to assist with safe transition on and off ramps for patrons.

4.7.2.4.2 Stairs and Stepped Approaches

Handrails, tread noses, and changes of level shall be color-contrasting; moreover, the top and bottom landings of steps shall be color contrasted so as to allow patrons to identify the beginning and ending of stair systems. All steps in a staircase fl ight shall otherwise conform to the requirements illus-trated in fi gure 4.9 below.

4.7.2.4.3 Passenger Elevators or Lifts

Table 4.12 provides an outline of the technical requirements that apply to passenger elevators or lifts in museums.

Figure 4.9 Accessible Stair System


4.7.2.4.4 Benches and Seating at Tables, Counters, and Work Surfaces

Where food or drink is served for consumption at counters exceeding 850 mm (32 in.) in height, a 1,500 mm (5 ft.) minimum length portion of counter shall comply, or service shall be provided at accessible tables in the same area. The tops of tables and counters shall be between 750 mm (29.52 in.) and 800 mm (20–30 in.) above the ground. Toe and knee clearance should be observed, as outlined above. Benches shall have seats that are between 500 mm (19.68 in.) and 600 mm in depth, and 1,000 mm (3.28 ft.) minimum in length. The bench shall be between 450 mm (17.71 in.) and 500 mm above ground or fl oor level.

4.7.2.4.5 Sales and Service Counters

Where control or ticketing aisles are provided that serve different functions, at least one accessible aisle shall be provided for each function. Where ticketing and service aisles are dispersed throughout the museum, accessible aisles should also be dispersed. Accessible aisles shall be identifi ed by the International Sym-bol for Accessibility, unless all such aisles are accessible which comply with the minimum width of 1,100 mm (42 in.), with the counter surface height no more than 950 mm (3 ft.) above the fi nished fl oor or ground. The top of the

Table 4.11. Guidance for Circulation Space

• Areas that are intended to be accessible should be served by suitable ramps or elevators.

• Floor and ground surfaces should be fi xed, matt, and slip-resistant.

• All access pathways should ideally provide a clear unobstructed width of 1500mm, at mini-mum 900mm.

• Corridors should be free of obstructing features or fi ttings such as hanging signs. This extends to elements such as fl ower pots, which may present a hazard to patrons.

• Windows and doorways should not open into the direct line of travel so as not to present an obstruction to circulation or act as potential hazards when opened.

• Corridor ends should be highlighted by color, tone, or light contrast between the walls and fl oor coverings. This is done in order to prevent confusion regarding misjudgment of depth caused by all colors being the same—it is important to clearly demarcate the end of a corri-dor by using a contrasting color. Where appropriate, in order not to generate glare, it is sug-gested that tinted glass or blinds be employed on glazing.

• All doors on an access route should ideally have an opening leaf size of 900mm. Where double doors are used, the wider leaf of such doors should be located consistently in any line of travel.

• All doors on an access route should be fi tted with pull handles, and ideally these should be in the shape of a ‘D’. Handles must measure at least 120mm in length.

• Seating should be available at regular intervals throughout circulation routes for patrons who can walk only short distances.

• All emergency equipment, switches, and light controls should be located between 800mm and 1200mm from fl oor level to ensure easy access for all visitors.

• Lighting should be even, diffuse, and non-glare to a minimum luminance of 200 lux.


counter edge protection shall be 50 mm (2 in.) maximum above the top of the counter surface. Where counters are provided for sales or distribution of goods or services (point of sale or service counters) at least one of each type shall have a portion of the counter 1,000 mm (39 in.) minimum in length and 900 mm (3 ft.) maximum in height above the fi nished fl oor level. In alterations where it is technically unfeasible for existing counters to comply, an auxiliary coun-ter complying with the above should be provided. Where self-service lines are provided, at least 50 percent, but not less than one, of each type (self-service shelves and dispensing devices for tableware, dishware, condiments, food, and

Table 4.12. Guidance for Passenger Elevators/Lifts

• Where a call button is provided, the button should illuminate to indicate the lift is on its way. There should be a visual indicator on the lift indicating fl oor levels to patrons waiting to board elevators.

• The approach to passenger elevators shall be characterized by an unobstructed approach space of at least 1,200 mm by 1,500 mm.

• The lift door shall have a clear opening width of not less than 1,000 mm, and ideally should have a clear opening width of 1,200 mm.

• Elevator doors and openings need to be clearly color-contrasted in order to ensure that patrons can identify them.

• Doors should have audio enunciation to indicate the position of the lift to assist patrons who might have diffi culty locating the position of the elevator doors.

• The internal fl oor surface of an elevator should always be of a fi xed slip-resistant type, as extremely smooth or slippery fl oors may cause patrons to injure themselves.

• The lift car should have minimum internal dimensions of 1,100 mm by 1400 mm and ide-ally should have a width of 1,200 mm and a depth of 1,600 mm.

• A handrail should be installed on all sides of the lift car in order to provide patrons with sta-bilization during the vertical movement of the elevator.

• The internal luminance of the lift should always be a minimum of 300 lux, as an effective and high level of lighting is needed for all patrons to identify and locate the position of con-trols and assistive devices.

• All elevator controls should be in accessible format, that is, use of Braille and raised/tactile text incorporated into the design of both external and internal controls. Such controls should be located between 900 mm to 1200 mm in order for all patrons to reach controls with ease.

• The emergency phone or intercom of the lift car should be color-contrasted, with Braille and raised/tactile buttons and texts. All emergency controls should be strongly contrasted with the background to ensure that all patrons can detect them in an emergency. Emergency buttons need to have rough surfaces in order that patrons with functional visual limitations can distinguish them from other controls.

• Emergency phones shall have amplifi ed volumes and ringers, plus the addition of inductive couplers, fl ashing lights, and text-phone alternatives.

• Clear instructions for the use of all controls—especially emergency controls—shall be provided.

• Voice enunciation in the lift car provides patrons with a clear indication of which fl oor the lift is stopping at.


beverages) should be provided, such that they comply with the specifi cations for reach ranges and so that tray slides are situated between 700 mm (2.29 ft.) and 800 mm (2.62 ft.) above the fl oor or ground.

4.7.2.4.6 Accessible Toilet Facilities

Universally accessible ablutions are those normally intended for use by per-sons with moderate to severe functional physical limitations, usually requir-ing the usage of mobility aids such as wheelchairs and scooters. Provision should be made for at least one accessible toilet on each fl oor level, together with other ablution facilities, and no accessible toilet should be located more than 200 m (220 yards) from another accessible toilet facility.

A compartment serving an accessible toilet facility should be a minimum of 1,800 mm (6 ft.) square in size. Floor surfaces should be fi xed, slip-resis-tant, and matt in fi nish. The clear-opening doors into and out of such com-partments should be 900 mm (3 ft.) minimum, and there should be external space of at least 1,100 mm by 1,400 mm (3.5 ft. by 4.5 ft.) minimum to allow patrons using wheelchairs to effectively manipulate and open the door. Taps and water-mixing controls should be of a lever or mixer type, with a lever

Figure 4.10 Accessible Passenger Elevator


at least 150 mm (6 in.) long. All hot water taps should be located on the left-hand side for consistency. All grab rails should be constructed of tubular stainless steel 32 mm (1¼ in.) in diameter.

Tables 4.13, 4.14, and 4.15 provide guidelines for museum planners and designers of toilet facilities.

4.7.2.5 Communication and Comprehension Universal Accessibility Requirements

There are many detailed visual requirements for universal accessibility to communication and comprehension that relate to the presentation of infor-mation in exhibitions, which will be found in the next edition of The Manual of Museum Exhibitions (AltaMira Press). Here we focus on those that relate to the museum planning issues of acoustics, and the planning of museum theatres or auditoria.

4.7.2.5.1 Accessibility of Audible Information

Acoustics are an important and often neglected aspect of museum planning—not just in the theater, but in the galleries and other public areas as well. The following design criteria must be considered when addressing the accessibil-ity of audible information:

Figure 4.11 Accessible Toilet Facility


Table 4.13. Guidance for Wash-Hand Basins

• A basin shall be set adjacent to the toilet, and sit at 800 mm rim-height with 720 mm clear space underneath the basin.

• Lever-mixer type taps shall be employed, not faucets.

• Basin mirrors should be located with their bottom section at 75 mm above the bottom level of the basin and shall extend no higher than 1500 mm above the level of the basin.

• Towel rails shall be set at 900 mm to 1,000 mm from the fl oor.

• All other amenities, such as hand-wash, shall be situated so that a seated user in the forward reach position may be able to reach and use them effectively.

Table 4.14. Guidance for Toilets

• There should be 900 mm clear space adjacent to the toilet to allow for effective transfer onto and off of assistive devices and the WC seat.

• The front edge of the toilet shall project at least 690 mm from the rear wall.

• The centerline of the toilet must be at least 480 mm from the wall opposite the transfer space.

• The toilet seat height must be set between 480 mm to 500 mm from the fl oor. It is preferable that this is achieved through the actual toilet seat, not a seat raiser.

• An extended fl ush handle must be specifi ed and such handle must be located on the transfer space side of the cistern. Alternatively a wall-mounted push-plate may be utilized, provided that it is bigger than a closed fi st.

• A cranked grab-bar must be installed at a height of 800 mm above fl oor level.

• A horizontal grab-bar should be installed at a height of 800 mm above fl oor level.

• The toilet paper holder should be placed no higher than 700 mm from fl oor level.

Table 4.15. Guidance for Common-Use Ablutions

• All doors—including partition doors—should be fi tted with locks that are easily operable, large fi tting, and with an easy-to-move lever.

• All doors should be fi tted with an emergency release bar.

• All controls should have clear visual and tactile indicators to indicate hot and cold taps or directions on mixers.

• No coat hooks or other projections in cubicles or elsewhere in ablutions should extend more than 30 mm from walls or doors; hooks should be color-contrasted against the background.

• Radiators and hot pipes should be suitably insulated.

• All bathroom facilities should be fi tted with a suitable emergency alarm call system.


• sound intensity• peak noise criteria• signal-to-noise ratio• reverberation • speech interference levels• distinguishable consonants• sound frequency • exposure time• sound systems

Sound intensity is the level or loudness of sound caused by the pressure of the sound waves on the ear. Loudness is measured as the ratio of the sound pressure to that of the pressure for a just-audible sound. The ratio is logarith-mic to enable the enormous range of audibility to be expressed in convenient numbers. The unit of loudness (i.e., the human perception of sound intensity) is the decibel, or dB(A). A quiet museum director’s offi ce might measure 55 dB(A), whereas a busy museum education offi ce would measure about 68 dB(A), except for impulse noise, whose instantaneous level should never exceed 150 dB(A). A change of 3 dB means doubling the physical effect of the noise; small changes in level are thus important.

Peak noise criteria (PNC) measure the ambient noise in a room, giving greater weight to noise within the same range of frequencies used by broad-cast media. Ambient noise in a museum should be no more than 40 PNC (Parks Canada, 1993).

The signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is the difference in decibels (dB) between a signal such as speech and the background noise around it, such as the hum of air-conditioning or the sound of traffi c. The higher the S/N ratio, the better for communication. Persons who have functional hearing limitations require at least a +5 dB S/N ratio (the signal being 5 dB louder than the background noise). Ideally, S/N ratios in the museum should be at a minimum of +10 dB (Parks Canada, 1993).

Reverberation, or refl ected sound, is the time a sound needs to become inaudible—the longer the reverberation time, the more diffi cult it is to com-prehend speech. Speech intelligibility starts to drop at a reverberation time of 2 seconds, but for persons with functional hearing limitations this may begin at 0.5 seconds, and speech intelligibility shows a remarkable drop under lon-ger reverberation conditions. Reverberation time in the museum should be as low as possible, preferably less than 1 second (Parks Canada, 1993).

Speech (broadcast or spoken) in a raised voice at a distance of 500 mm (1.64 ft.) from the ear creates sonic pressure of about 75 dB, and at a distance of 25 cm creates sonic pressure of over 80 dB. For the speech frequency range, this corresponds to about the same value in dB(A). Since two noises must


have a difference in intensity of about 10dB before they can be separated by the ear, to improve the intelligibility of speech the surrounding noise level should not exceed 70 dB(A), although lower levels are desirable.

The quality of delivered sound is measured in percentage of consonants that can be distinguished by the listener—the number of distinguishable con-sonants in a broadcast message discernible to average hearing. Public spaces in museums should be designed to ensure that a minimum of 80–85 percent and preferably 90 percent of consonants are distinguishable (Parks Canada, 1993).

Sound frequency, or pitch, is the rate of repetition of the cycles of sound waves. The unit of frequency is the Hertz (Hz), the number of cycles per second. Human perception of pitch or frequency varies with loudness. With the normal range of background noise, human hearing is more sensitive to the higher fre-quencies. Sounds with frequencies between 500 and 3,000 Hz are most effec-tive, as the ear is most sensitive in this range. Fluctuating frequency is more effective than a steady pitch. People who experience deafness to specifi c tones, often caused by exposure to loud noises, fi nd complex tones particularly help-ful in hearing at least some of the signal. Abruptly rising waveforms, however, should not be used in the fi rst 0.2 seconds of a signal, so as not to startle patrons; indeed, sudden noise could cause spasticity for persons with cerebral palsy.

Exposure time is the maximum time that unprotected ears may be exposed to different intensities and frequencies of noise. If high frequency noise is present, then shorter exposure times or lower intensities are required for different exposure effects. Exposure to very loud sounds, or prolonged exposure to certain frequencies, can cause tinnitus—constant ringing in the ears—which in many cases is irremediable and lasts a lifetime.

Sound systems with loudspeakers should be designed with professional advice, preferably from a sound engineering team:

• Rooms with low ceilings (less than 3 m) require distributed systems with many speakers mounted in the ceiling and facing down at the audience.

• Rooms with higher ceilings require point-source systems, perhaps with second point sources with a digital delay halfway down the room.

• Wide rooms require point-source, speaker-array systems with wide sound distribution (Parks Canada, 1993).

Providing more speakers allows for a reduction in volume without reduc-ing the penetration of the sound.

4.7.2.5.2 Planning Accessible Theaters or Auditoria

Table 4.16 lists recommendations to enhance the accessibility of the infor-mation provided in museum lecture halls, theaters, auditoria, or other public programming space.


This section concludes with the following guidelines for situating acces-sible seating within the museum theater, lecture hall, or other public pro-gramming space.

4.7.2.3. Guidelines for Accessible Viewing Spaces in Public Programming Spaces

Designated viewing/seating areas are required for individuals unable to use typical seating arrangements. Viewing areas need to provide adequate space to allow an assistive device as large as a scooter, and should be dispersed throughout the facility or program space. Designated adjacent companion seating should be provided, and this should be clearly designated as such. Guards, where placed around a viewing area for safety or code reasons, should not interfere with lines of sight from designated viewing spaces. A choice of locations and seating ranges (where applicable) should be provided. Aisle chairs that allow transfer onto and off of wheelchairs and other assistive devices may also be provided.

Table 4.16. Planning Accessible Museum Theaters

Strategies for Physical, Environmental and Sensory Accessibility

• Visitors should be informed about levels of accessibility.

• Programs should be presented in well-lit areas with a narrow fi eld of vision.

• In places of assembly with fi xed seating, there should be provi-sion for wheelchair spaces with suitable companion seats (see standards below).

• Wheelchair spaces should be appropriately disbursed throughout the seating area and not confi ned to particular aisles, rows or block areas.

• At least 10 percent of all fi xed seating should be provided with suitable mono-plug jacks to enable earphone and similar headset interface.

• Provision for assistive listening devices such as induction loops should be provided in all program spaces.

• The planning and design of back-of-house areas (dressing rooms and areas for performers) should meet requirements for accessibility.

• Stages should provide suitable physical, environmental, and sen-sory accessibility.

• If a particular program space is always kept dark, assistive devices such as handrails or strip lighting should be made available to facilitate movement.

• Seating color and material must make seats visually accessible to all patrons.


In public programming spaces with fi xed seating, provision should be made for accessible wheelchair or scooter locations based on table 4.17.

Companion seating should be provided for each accessible viewing space provided and arranged so that companion seating is provided next to each accessible viewing space.

In addition, 1 percent—but no less than 1 percent—of all fi xed aisle seats should have no armrest on the aisle side (or alternatively they may have fold-ing or removable armrests). Each of these seats should be identifi ed with the International Symbol for Accessibility. Signage should be provided that noti-fi es patrons of the presence of such seats.

Accessible viewing spaces should be provided adjacent to or adjoining an accessible circulation route without overlapping on the accessible circulation route. Such accessible viewing spaces should be dispersed throughout the area of fi xed seating and not clumped together into block areas or in specifi c rows or aisles. The fl oor or ground surface at accessible viewing spaces should be clear and level, or level with removable seats. Where the general fl oor area has a height difference from the back of an assembly area, the accessible viewing space should be located on a level fl oor area. If the aisle is sloped from the back to the front of the room, the transition between the fl oor seating area to the sloped aisle should be smooth to avoid what could be a potential tripping hazard.

The size and width of accessible viewing spaces is determined by whether side or front/rear approach is contemplated:

• In the case of side approach, the space should have a clear fl oor area of at least 900 mm (3 ft.) wide and 1,500 mm (5 ft.) long.

Table 4.17. Accessible Viewing Spaces

Number of Fixed Seats in Seating Area

Number of Accessible Viewing Spaces Required

2–100 2

101–200 3

201–300 4

301–400 5

401–500 6

501–900 7

901–1300 8

1,301–1,700 9

Each increment of up to 400 seats in excess of 1,700

One additional space for every 400 seats in excess of 1,700


• If approach is from the front or rear, the spaces should not be less than 900 mm (2.9 ft.) wide and 1,400 mm (4.59 ft.) long and should be arranged so that two wheelchair/scooter locations are side by side.

Provision should be made to ensure that the integrity of sight lines is protected over both seating and standing patrons in front of viewing spaces so that patrons seated in accessible viewing spaces are able to see over the heads of and between the shoulders of patrons located in front of them. In row seating, companion seats should be situated such that they provide shoul-der alignment with adjacent accessible viewing spaces, are equivalent in size, quality, comfort and amenities to the seating in the immediate area, and are movable. Where armrests are provided on the seating in the immediate area of accessible viewing spaces, folding armrests should be provided on the aisle side of the seat. Such seats should be designated with the International Sym-bol for Accessibility.

Every seat in a public programming space should be identifi ed by a sign or marker that provides visual and/or tactile identifi cation of the seat desig-nation (row and seat number). Signs or markers should contrast (light-on-dark or dark-on-light) and be photo-luminescent. Furthermore, a variety of different seating sizes should be available to accommodate the additional size and weight capacity of persons of large stature.

In assembly areas where seating is available and access to the various seat-ing arrangements is accessed by a ramp or a sloped surface, there should be handrails on the outside walls where no seats are located. Where fi xed seating is located on an aisle, handrails are not required.

4.7.3. Conclusion

While these general design principles and practice elements are intended to provide an indication of the issues and conceptual thinking that should inform the museum planning process, they are not all-encompassing and exhaustive. The provision of amenities may extend beyond the generic guid-ance given here, and contextual issues will come to the fore in determin-ing the correct application, intervention, or design for particular museums. Most important is the planners’, architects’, and designers’ comprehension of the principles of universal design and universal accessibility, which should be applied, reviewed, and possibly reconsidered throughout the museum plan-ning and design process.

PLANNING FOR COLLECTIONS

As books are to libraries, as plays are to theaters, so collections are to muse-ums. Planning for collections and their care is the central discipline of museum planning.

Curators analyze their collections from many points of view. Analysis by museum planners is directed at understanding their space and facility requirements—not now, but in a few years when the new building or addi-tion being planned will be completed, and in the years following the open-ing. Both quantitative and qualitative collection analysis and development strategy are therefore our main concern here, focused on the space and facility needs that constantly growing collections will generate.

Following an introduction to quantitative and qualitative collection anal-ysis in chapter 5, the uses of collections in long-term displays or temporary exhibitions and their consequent need for management, storage, documenta-tion, conservation, and research are the subjects of chapters 6 and 7. Chapter 8 then considers the controlled museum environment and preventive con-servation measures that must be planned to ensure their preservation into the indefi nite future. Collections are at the core of museums not just for the present generation, but hopefully for many more to come.

1 8 7

PAR

T II

UNDERSTANDING COLLECTIONS

Brad King

Although the vehicles for museum interpretation and education continue to expand, collections are still at the heart of twenty-fi rst-century museums and remain central to their missions as public education institutions. This chap-ter explores the role of collections in museums and the different purposes they serve. It also considers the need for collection analyses and development strategies so that space and facilities needs of collections of all kinds are taken into account over the course of any museum development, expansion, or revi-talization project.

As John Nicks pointed out in the second edition of this book, a museum capital project cannot succeed unless it assists the professional staff in car-ing for the collections. This remains true; such a project also cannot succeed unless it facilitates the interpretation and use of collections in dynamic new ways, and this edition expands on earlier versions to explore the variety of exciting new possibilities in this regard. The focus here is therefore on both back- and front-of-house concerns. Readers familiar with the previous edi-tion will recognize how some of John’s contributions to the previous volumes have been retained, but have been placed into this new context.

COLLECTION BASICS

Museums exist to preserve, document, and research the material evidence of our world, and to make it accessible to the public through programs of interpretation, education, and exhibition. But the defi nition of collections is changing, so it is worthwhile reviewing exactly what is meant when we speak of collections in the twenty-fi rst century.

5.1.1 Collection Types: Changing Defi nitions

The defi nition of collections includes artifacts, works of art, specimens, or archival documents. And in recent years, for an increasing number of

CH

APT

ER 5

5.1

1 8 9


institutions, the defi nition has also come to include intangible expressions of human culture—stories, songs, dances, folkways, and other forms of cul-tural expression—captured via photographs, audio, or video recording, and preserved in various formats. Here we review the various types of collections, from the traditional notions of collections to newer understandings.

5.1.1.1 Three-Dimensional Collections

This is the most basic collection category, comprising objects, works of art, and natural history specimens. There are many types of three-dimensional collections; they are listed here with reference to their particular storage and conservation needs.

• Archaeological Collections: Archaeological collections have special storage requirements. Stone and ceramic shards may be inert, but bone, wood, and other organic materials are not. An active archaeology fi eld-work program will have continually expanding requirements for per-manent storage space to house growing collections, a demand that can be projected accurately only when the qualitative requirements are also understood.

• Natural History Specimens: As organic materials, natural history speci-mens have similar requirements for curatorial care and storage as some archaeological collections. Many older biological collections, in particu-lar, present serious conservation challenges. The requirements for ade-quate care and management of these collections should be met in any new construction.

• Technology Collections: Technology collections, especially those that are to be used for demonstration or other purposes, will require space for maintenance work and storage of parts. They also present conservation challenges because of their mixed materials and their sizes—the reason why they are lamentably often found outside or in low-cost but inad-equate stores.

• Costumes and Textiles: Collections of costumes and textiles have special environmental needs and require frequent rotation between exhibition and storage in order to minimize damage from light and exposure. For this reason, a large, climate-controlled, accessible storage is required to support an exhibition or education program. Large textiles are usually on rolls, with smaller fl at pieces in metal cabinets and costumes in boxes or on hangers carefully adapted by specialists for long-term preservation.

• Fine and Decorative Art: Art collections (and other collections of rare and costly objects) present special security concerns, as well as conservation

UNDERSTANDING COLLECTIONS 1 9 1

and storage considerations. Framed pictures are typically hung on rolling racks, which may be compacted to achieve greater density, and may roll out into a central aisle. Works on paper are often stored in metal cabinets, interleaved with acid-free paper, while decorative arts typically require metal shelving, which again can be compacted to save space, or converted to visible storage, such as the glass and ceramics visible storage galleries at the Victoria & Albert Museum in London.

• Social History and Contemporary Collections: Social history collec-tions present a wide range of mixed materials, with larger items stored on shelves, smaller pieces in drawers. Those collections that include con-temporary artifacts present challenges related to controlling growth and conserving a wide range of new and sometimes unstable materials. Con-temporary collecting should not assume the museum’s commitment to indefi nite preservation of the artifacts collected until after a review at a specifi ed future date—say, twenty or twenty-fi ve years from now.

• Ethnographic Collections: A very wide range of materials, especially organic materials, makes the preservation of ethnographic collections particularly challenging. Fur, hide, leather, feathers, bone, and textiles of all kinds are just a few of the materials demanding careful maintenance of environmental conditions as described in chapter 8. Many of these materials are also particularly light sensitive.

5.1.1.2 Two-Dimensional Collections

Often found in museum libraries and archives, two-dimensional collec-tions comprise the documentary record of human achievement—books, let-ters, certifi cates, diaries, photographs, and various kinds of two-dimensional ephemera can also be found here.

• Archival Collections: Many collections focus on preserving records of artifacts in a diversity of materials (plans, drawings, still and mov-ing photographic images, videotapes, sound recordings, digital media, etc.). These collections, though museological in conception, are essen-tially archival in nature, containing materials that are signifi cant both for the information recorded on them and (in some instances) their intrinsic value as “museum objects.” The space, facility, and management require-ments of such materials must conform to the standards of both archival and museum practice.

• Book, Newspaper, and Periodical Collections: In addition to main-taining research libraries in their respective disciplines, many muse-ums also maintain collections of historic books, newspapers, or other


periodicals. Collections of these kinds offer diffi cult storage and con-servation problems—particularly if they have been published in the modern era when paper acidifi cation is a problem. For periodicals and newspapers, space is a major issue and most institutions have been forced to turn to microfi lm and digitization in lieu of maintaining orig-inal paper copies. These solutions are not without their problems—in his impassioned July 2000 New Yorker article extolling the virtues of newspaper preservation, Nicholson Baker pointed out pitfalls and per-haps false economies of microfi lm and digitization.1 Nevertheless, the ease of access afforded by microfi lm and digitized materials has, more often than not, trumped concerns about microfi lm deterioration and technological obsolescence, at least for the foreseeable future.

5.1.1.3 Intangible Collections

The scope of intangible collections is wide and encompasses ephemeral expressions of human culture—oral histories as well as intangible cultural heritage—myths and stories, songs, dances, traditional methods and tech-niques (ways of doing and making things) and the like.

• Oral Histories: Oral history programs are common in museums, as are collections of oral history resources. These are perhaps the best-known type of intangible collection, and over the past few decades processes and procedures for the proper collection of oral histories have been developed and are widely available. Due to the easy availability of digital recording devices, most oral history interviews are now audiovisual and digital in nature, as opposed to the older method of collecting these on reel-to-reel or cassette audio tape.

• Intangible Cultural Heritage: While it is diffi cult to “collect” the intan-gible, museums can certainly play a role in documenting cultural traditions and other intangible heritage, retaining databases for their preservation and use. Museums can also play a role in keeping such traditions alive and in disseminating those traditions via various programs in partnership with other institutions.

• “Born-Digital” Collections: “Born-digital” resources are collections that are created digitally—they are “new” resources, conceived and managed in digital format, as opposed to digitized versions of existing hard-copy letters, photographs, or diaries, to name a few examples. Oral history–gathering processes in which the recollections and stories are captured on digital media can be classifi ed as born-digital resources, as can photographs taken with digital cameras or documents created using word processing software and stored as digital fi les. Performance art in


contemporary art museums today almost entirely consists of born-digital collections.

The challenge for museum and archives professionals with these types of resources is in many ways the opposite of that for hard-copy resources. With the latter, enormous effort has been and continues to be expended in digitiz-ing hard copies in order to broaden accessibility and to create backup records. With born-digital resources, the challenge is to create backup systems to guard against problems such as fi le corruption (“bit rot”) and obsolete stor-age and software formats (no new computers today come with fl oppy drives, for example). These types of resources also represent policy challenges—for example, what is the defi nition of “authentic” when there is no qualitative difference between the original and a replica? When does it matter? Born-digital resources are a new frontier for museum collection management; the issues involved are likely to become increasingly prominent over the coming years as intangible collections of this type grow.2

5.1.2 Collection Roles and Uses

Now that we have laid out the spectrum of collections from the tangible to the intangible, it is worthwhile considering the role of these various col-lecting types in the museum. Figure 5.1 below illustrates a broad range of options, with one axis considering the range of interpretive approaches, and the other the array of collection types from intangible to tangible. More tra-ditional methods are found in the lower right-hand section, where interpre-tation tends to emphasize tangible collections used in didactic ways. Newer approaches are represented by the upper left-hand side of the diagram, where more interactivity and direct engagement with the visitor and less emphasis on tangible collections is the rule.

Where a museum fi ts in this schema in terms of the roles that its col-lections will play has an impact on planning. For example, there will be dif-ferences in space and facility requirements between collections where the primary mission is to serve educational programs and those that will be used primarily for another purpose. Likewise, a museum that confi nes its col-lecting activities primarily to intangible expressions of culture—such as the Canadian Museum for Human Rights in Winnipeg, for example—will have far less requirement for storage space than a museum with a large three-dimensional artifact collection. These differences refl ect the scale of collect-ing activity as well as the ways in which collections will be managed and used.

The principle use for which an object has been collected determines the class of the collection into which it is accessioned, and accordingly its space and facility requirements. There are fi ve main classes:


• The display collection (may be on display or in open or controlled-access storage). The main uses of the display collection are: • aesthetic display;• educational, thematic displays;• visible storage displays;• loans to other museums.

• The study collection (may be on display or in visible or controlled-access storage). The main uses of the study collection are: • research (by curatorial staff or by outside students, scholars, or the

public);• comparison of representative examples;• fulfi llment of the museum’s mandate.

• The reserve collection (in controlled-access storage). The main uses of the reserve collection are as a repository for: • items in need of remedial conservation prior to entering the display

or study collections;

Figure 5.1 Spectrum of Collection-Based Interpretation


• objects under consideration for accessioning or deaccessioning, but to which no permanent commitment for indefi nite preservation has been made;

• items intended for transfer or exchange. • The demonstration or teaching collection (on display or in storage).

The purpose of this category of collection is to allow for objects (dupli-cates, replicas, apparatus, and the like) which may be permitted to dete-riorate through controlled uses such as: • interactive exhibitions;• “hands-on” education;• demonstration;• scientifi c experimentation.

• Library and archival collections (in open or controlled-access storage). These collections are used to: • provide a supplementary resource for visitors to the information in

displays or programs;• serve as a curatorial resource for exhibition or educational program

development;• facilitate research by visiting scholars or students.

The ways in which collections are used must focus on support of the institutional mission. As discussed in section 3.2, a museum’s mission state-ment expresses the reason that the institution exists; it articulates fundamen-tal long-term objectives, and is closely related to the mandate, which defi nes the range and limits within which the museum will operate in seeking to fulfi ll its mission. Both mission and mandate are key to decisions surround-ing collections, and as the institutional mission and mandate evolve, so too do the ways in which collections are defi ned, used, and managed. The defi ni-tive expression of these issues for each museum is found in its Collection Policy, which must fl ow directly from, and be aligned with, the institution’s foundation statements. For the museum planner, it is most important that the role of collections within the institution and the ways in which they are to be used must be reviewed and agreed by all involved at the outset. Even if the claim is made that these policy issues are well known and fully resolved, it is almost always rewarding to review these policy documents—very often it becomes evident even from a cursory reading that substantial changes in direction are implied by the developments contemplated, and almost always opportunities for further creative development of the collections can be grasped and made part of the emerging concept for the new building, expansion, or renovation.


THE POLICY FRAMEWORK

Grounded in the fundamentals of the museum’s mission and mandate, the Collection Policy should establish the framework for collections develop-ment, use, care, and management for a specifi ed period of time—usually fi ve to ten years. As with any other policy, it should be regularly reviewed by the trustees and amended to ensure that it is a living policy: one that is both use-ful and used. It is not unusual for a museum embarking on a capital project not to have such a “living” collections policy. The policy may be so many words on paper that no one has read, let alone observed, in years; or the policy simply may require an update.

If the planning is for a new institution, care must be taken in crafting the relevant collection policy. Whether the new museum is beginning with an existing collection, or the intent is to develop a collection over time, the entire Museum Project Team must be aware that two-thirds of the operating cost of a collection-based institution is directly or indirectly due to the need to house and care for collections. The option of restraining the collection of a new museum to display collections only may need to be considered at the outset. If a contemporary art museum is being planned, the alternative of developing a non-collecting kunsthalle borrowing works for exhibition but without any collection of its own should be carefully considered.

So the Museum Project Team must consider at the outset whether or not it possesses an adequate collection policy framework for planning. It should request that the professional leadership in each functional area of the museum should review the relevant policies and make recommendations to the director for updating and (if necessary) improving them. The assistance of a museum planning consultant may be supportive in this process because staff will be stretched as they balance the competing priorities of carrying out current responsibilities and planning for the new or expanded museum.

The collection policy should include specifi c direction for:

• the collecting mandate • the scope of the collection• collection uses • collection management

5.2.1 The Collecting Mandate

No institution can collect everything. To focus collecting activities, museums place limits on the extent of collecting in terms of subject matter, chronologi-cal scope or period, geographical area and the like. These limits constitute the collecting mandate for the institution, and the purpose of the mandate is not only to guide collecting activities, but also to protect the institution against

5.2


pressure to accept more than it can commit to preserving in the public trust in perpetuity—the commitment a museum makes once it accessions any arti-fact, specimen, document, work of art, or any other type of collection.

The collecting mandate, fl owing naturally from the institution’s overall mission and mandate, should establish temporal, geographic, and associa-tive limits. This is not as easy as it might appear to be at fi rst glance. For example, the collecting mandate for a museum dedicated to a particular art-ist at fi rst glance might seem to be clear—the museum will be mandated to collect works produced by that artist over that person’s lifetime (an associa-tive collection). But there is room for negotiation even in this apparently straightforward case. For example, should the museum collect works from the same school of art or historical period in order to contextualize the works of the artist to whom the museum’s existence is dedicated? Should it collect works from that artist’s mentor or students? If the answer is “yes” to either of these questions, where should the lines be drawn to avoid diluting the basic mandate to collect a single artist’s work? Considerable thought, discussion, and negotiation must therefore go into the limits which any museum puts on its collecting activities.

Setting limits on collecting—and keeping to them—is challenging. To assist with this, the collection mandate should provide answers to the follow-ing questions:

• What kind of museum is it? Is it an art museum, for example, or a natural history museum, or a museum of science and technology? Is it a gen-eral museum embracing several disciplines, or a specialized museum even within its discipline?

• What disciplines are to be represented in the museum? If it is a natu-ral history museum, for example, which specifi c disciplines will be rep-resented in its collections? Will the paleontology collection extend to paleobotanical specimens? And so on.

• What categories of collections will be included? • artifacts;• specimens;• works of art;• documents on paper;• photographic documentation, fi lm, and still images;• videotape, video-disc, holography;• Digital multimedia of various kinds, including video on DVD, sound

recordings on CD or stored on portable hard drives, and the like;• Older sound recordings on tape or disc;• Intangible collections—and how will they be recorded and preserved?

• What are the temporal limits to the collection? Should they be expanded or contracted?


• Are there geographical limits and how are they defi ned? Will social his-tory artifacts used within the defi ned region qualify, for instance, or only those which have also been manufactured there?

• Will the collections of a historic house be characterized by established linkage or association with an individual, place, or event, or can they be generic examples of the period?

• What are the quality standards for acceptance into the collection? The collection mandate may establish measurable standards that can be used to evaluate acquisitions on such criteria as “of national signifi cance” or “of display quality.” What do these qualifi cations actually mean? An art museum may choose to assemble a representative collection of work by regional artists, but may impose different criteria on its national or inter-national collections.

• What priority should be given to the various acquisition criteria? Is condition a primary consideration, for example, or is it secondary to other considerations such as association or context? Is provenance of greater importance than condition? The answers to these questions will help to defi ne future requirements for curatorial and conservation facilities.

Acquisition criteria may include

• size;• provenance;• title (ownership);• association or context;• rarity or representative character;• Outstanding quality or signifi cance in relation to the discipline of the

collection (e.g., art history, social history, natural history);• relevance to other items in the collection.

These questions are always applicable no matter the size or type of col-lection, but it is worth noting that there are ongoing changes in collection development practices that are affecting the emphasis or relative weight that museum professionals and planners are placing on the various issues surrounding collecting mandates. The skyrocketing values of the art and antiquities markets have only added to the enormous cost and effort of developing a collection. This, and the heavy cost of ongoing management and care in an era of continuing fi nancial pressure, means that many new museums, and museums considering existing or new collecting directions, approach the issue very carefully indeed. The decision to collect (or to col-lect differently) is never taken lightly, and even when the answer is “yes,”


decisions around the collecting mandate made in the current environment are usually intended to enhance the collection’s display potential, to build on an institution’s reputation as a center of research, or to take advantage of any other particular strength the institution may be known for. Whatever the emphasis, there are obvious implications for space and facility planning in a capital project.

Very often proposals to relocate or expand an existing museum, or to start a new one, are fueled by—or may stimulate—curatorial plans to enlarge the collection, which may be explicit or implicit. It is the planners’ responsibil-ity to ensure that all such intentions—and all opportunities—are identifi ed and explored, with all their implications for storage space, documentation, conservation, and security requirements fully understood and accepted by all concerned.

So the relationship between collection requirements and projected uses for the collections in the museum must be understood and agreed by the professional leadership and the trustees before embarking on planning the requisite space and facilities for collections. Both mission and mandate must therefore be reviewed prior to undertaking a major project, and then refl ected in policies that govern collection care and management.

5.2.2 Collection Types

Having determined the mandate of a museum collection, it is next necessary to decide—or to review—what type of collections the museum is acquiring and preserving. Broadly speaking, there are fi ve main collection types:

• collections of exceptional or outstanding items• representative collections• systematic collections• associative collections• opportunistic collections

5.2.2.1 Collections of Exceptional or Outstanding Items

Many art museums aim to collect only outstanding works of art in the media or materials and within the discipline and chronological periods established by their mission and mandate. Some natural history collec-tions have been formed around exceptional specimens—the largest or most beautiful gems, for example. Collections of this kind are almost always exhibited aesthetically—so that visitors may appreciate the unique qualities of each individual object in the collection. The growth of such col-lections may be constrained by supply—opportunities to enhance a collection


of early Flemish paintings are relatively limited; contemporary art collections, however, are unlimited in growth potential.

5.2.2.2 Representative Collections

Representative collections are the opposite of exceptional collections—although they may also be very fi ne examples, they are collected because they represent a group or class of artifact, specimen, or works of art from a particular region or period. Representative collections are typically designed to support didactic or thematic exhibitions and related public programs. With representative col-lections, the pace of growth tends to decline as the collection reaches a mature stage of development, when the major themes of the museum are well repre-sented in the collections. The emphasis may then shift to a strategy of improv-ing quality through a combination of acquisition and deaccessioning—or to developing aspects of the collection in a more systematic way.

5.2.2.3 Systematic Collections

Systematic collections are developed on a typological basis to support research and preservation objectives. Due to the way they are organized scientifi cally, natural history specimen collections are especially well suited to systematic col-lecting, although other collection types such as decorative arts can be developed systematically as well. Historically, systematic collections have been the result of research programs or donations from other institutions such as universities or research institutes with such programs. But while curators have rarely devel-oped systematic collections primarily for display purposes, they do lend them-selves to display via visible storage, as brilliantly demonstrated in the Darwin Centre of the Natural History Museum in London. Pressure to increase public access to collections has led many institutions to use versions of this display method to expand the uses of systematic collections beyond study and research.

5.2.2.4 Associative Collections

Associative collections consist of artifacts, artworks, or specimens that are directly linked with a particular site, person, or event. A typical example would be a historic house museum inhabited by a famous individual or a sin-gle family over several generations—collecting in this case might be limited to those objects used by that individual or that family during their occupation of the house. Associative collections have defi nite limits on growth; the Sig-mund Freud Museums in Vienna and London, for example, have little or no prospect of adding to their collections of items associated with the psychia-trist. The universe of possible objects for acquisition is fi nite for associative


collections. However, museums with collections of this kind may always con-sider enlarging their mission and collecting mandate: the Freud Museums could consider, for instance, becoming museums of the history of psychiatry, could acquire works of art by artists infl uenced by psychiatry, and so on.

5.2.2.5 Opportunistic Collections

An “opportunistic” collection is not a category—it’s a problem. Many muse-ums have developed by accepting donations of a heterogeneous character, meaning that the rate and direction of growth are diffi cult to forecast or con-trol. Over time such collections tend to lose focus and often become laden with duplicate or inferior objects, and items that are characterized as “out of scope.” In institutions where opportunistic collecting is or has been endemic, the problem usually originates within poor collection management prac-tices stemming from the lack of a clear collection policy or collecting man-date in the past. Sometimes the problem is institutional, with control over acquisitions not fully in the hands of the museum professionals, who may be required to accept donations from persons of infl uence, even if these items are unrelated to the museum’s mission. In the aftermath of a capital project, uncontrolled opportunistic collecting can make a mockery of the most con-scientious and detailed facility planning process.

Properly managed, opportunistic collecting has its place, and in some cases is indispensible. Every institution comes across unanticipated oppor-tunities to develop the collection in new and exciting ways, and therefore must make allowance for some fl exibility in collection plans to respond to such possibilities. Likewise planners are wise to take at least some measure of opportunistic collecting into account, in close consultation with museum staff members via a collection analysis process.

5.2.2.6 Summary

Most museums hold collections based on more than one collection strategy—parts of the collection may be representative, other parts systematic, and yet other parts associative. The collection policy should therefore defi ne what kind of collecting strategy will be used with each type of collection, which will facilitate ongoing collection management as well as planning for any new capital project. If the policy is a living document, it will have great utility in determining the likely facility requirements well into the future.

5.2.3 Collection Management

Collection management begins at the point of acquisition and continues through the full cycle of an artifact’s life, including registration, documentation,


preparation, conservation, research, storage, exhibition or other use, and loans. In a few cases it may include deaccessioning. All of these functions have distinctive requirements for space and facilities. For these reasons it is important to involve the registrar, conservator, or collection manager as well as curators in preparing the brief for space and facility needs.

Table 5.1, originally compiled by John Nicks for the previous edition of this manual, summarizes key collection management functions and areas of responsibility that need to be studied by the Museum Project Team in pre-paring the brief for the new construction or renovation.

Any general checklist is unlikely to include everything that is signifi -cant to a particular planning project. Identifi cation of the specifi c issues and questions that are important to a project requires the combined experience and expertise of a museum’s staff, who are familiar with its collections and program, working with a museum planning specialist familiar with the policy development, briefi ng, and construction management process.

THE PLANNING PROCESS FOR COLLECTIONS

Collections need to be carefully analyzed in planning for museum projects, regardless of whether the process is undertaken for new or existing institu-tions. A few general guidelines apply:

• Invest time in initial preplanning (plan the planning process).• A successful plan must refl ect the real experience and needs of the museum.• Meaningful involvement of the staff is very important—from the begin-

ning of planning through to briefi ng, design, and move-in.• The planning process must be systematic and comprehensive. Here is

where it may be useful to call upon the skills of a museum planning specialist, who will be experienced in working with the principles and processes of planning for museums and can support staff in their efforts.

Striking a balance between what is needed right now and what is needed for the future is always diffi cult. There is a need for fl exibility, forward think-ing, and practical forecasting. Future requirements may evolve, and priorities may change. Phasing may be required. Planning for ten years of growth is not impractical, but beyond that the accuracy of projections becomes less certain. For reasons of justifying the capital expenditures, a twenty- to twenty-fi ve-year period is often the planning requirement—the “Design Year” for the project, as explained in chapter 3. Whatever the timescale, it is important to provide for ease of conversion and future expansion, and to include a healthy contingency for change.

Planning for collections is also concerned with all of the ways in which collections will be accommodated and used within a new or expanded facility.

5.3


Table 5.1. Collection Management Functions

Shipping and Receiving: types of objects and materials to be

shipped and received size of objects and special handling

requirements frequency of shipments (this will be

related to the size and number of tempo-rary loan exhibitions moving in and out of the museum)

levels of security likely to be required minimizing danger of pest infestation temporary storage of crates and packing

materials crating and uncrating area temporary holding area for artifacts acclimatization for artifacts to the

museum environment movement paths for artifacts and staff

working with them

Documentation: categories of records form of records (paper, magnetic, photo-

graphic, etc.) equipment requirements special system needs (data lines, etc.) method of storage system of retrieval number of access points required type of access required (for example, staff

access, public access)

Curatorial Work: number of staff by functional area now

and the numbers likely in the future (over the next fi ve to ten years)

number of volunteers by functional area now and the numbers likely in the future

type of work (whether carried out alone, in groups, in an offi ce or a laboratory)

Conservation: kinds of work to be undertaken in-house

versus work to be contracted to others number of objects to be treated, and for

how long size of objects number of staff to be accommodated special equipment needs requirements for utility services and

ventilation equipment and supplies storage

Research: nature of ongoing collections research staff requirements outside researchers’ requirements policies on access to collections and staff

supervision requirements for temporary holding of collections being examined or studied

length of time collections may stay in research area.

Exhibitions: number and size of permanent collection

displays and their duration type of permanent collection displays (pri-

marily object- or concept-based?) number and type of temporary exhibitions

(duration and frequency) number originated in-house (duration and

frequency) number borrowed (duration and

frequency)

Preparation Areas: staging areas for assembly or temporary

holding of collections workshop needs for framing or prepara-

tion of mounts, etc. storage of supplies for collection

preparation


Once space need forecasts have been prepared, these will be used in the devel-opment of the facilities program or brief.

5.3.1 Preparing for Collection Planning

5.3.1.1 Museum Staff and the Collection Planning Process

It is essential to involve staff in planning a museum expansion, renovation, or new construction. Curatorial and collection management personnel are obvi-ously essential, but so is staff from other areas within the institution—educators, exhibition managers, and anyone else whose functions come into contact with the collection. Far too frequently we see new facilities that are too small, whose climate control systems are inadequate, or that for a hundred other reasons do not function well for the collections housed in them, simply because the needs of the collections—and those who manage and use them—have not been well understood. Meaningful involvement of all relevant functional departments in the institution is necessary if the planning is to be a success.

5.3.1.2 A Comprehensive Approach

A comprehensive approach to planning for collections helps to avoid two other common problems—the adoption of an off-the-shelf plan, or a facil-ity that treats collections as secondary to its public programs and activities. It is in planning for collections that the uniqueness of each museum is truly recognized. Accurate identifi cation of each museum’s specifi c requirements is essential if the resulting plans are to lead to a museum facility that works well. Planners from other disciplines have sometimes suggested that since collec-tions exist primarily to meet the requirements of other museum functions, it is therefore appropriate for defi nition of the collection space and facilities to be left until all other program needs have been clearly articulated. This is a dangerous notion, which can lead to buildings that fail to meet the funda-mental needs of the collections—the most important asset of a museum and its raison d’être.

5.3.1.3 The Museum Project Team

In practice, the planning process cannot proceed in a completely linear fash-ion. The collection base defi nes the shape and direction of other museum activities because programs and exhibitions that are not grounded in the col-lection resource cannot refl ect the museum’s unique strength as a cultural institution. At the same time, the uses to which collections are to be put will be an important determinant of collection growth rates, space requirements, and facilities needs.


The interrelatedness of museum functions can be taken account of in the planning process by:

• including in the Museum Project Team staff experienced in each function of museum work, so that they can provide the core professional expertise and continuity for the project;

• providing a mechanism for feedback, review, and modifi cation.

5.3.1.4 The Role of Museum Planners

Since each member of the team will tend to understand the museum from the perspective of a specifi c discipline, it is helpful to engage a professional museum planning consultant, both to provide an overview of the project and to ensure effective communication between the museum’s professional staff, the trustees who secure funds for the project, and the architect’s team who will design it.

5.3.2 Determining Space Requirements: Analyzing Existing Collections

The fi rst step in determining space requirements is to analyze the existing collections both quantitatively (numbers, sizes, categories, historical rate of growth) and qualitatively (discipline, use, and potential use).

5.3.2.1 Quantitative Analysis

Quantitative analysis of collections is extremely useful for facility planning, focusing on the collection’s numbers, sizes, types, and materials according to the following categories. It is obviously important to fully understand cur-rent collection holdings before proceeding with facility planning; it is equally important to understand the vector of growth of the collection and its likely future development in order to know what the spaces are being planned for, and to ensure their adequacy up to an agreed Design Year. The quantitative analysis is focused on achieving this goal.

• Numbers of Objects by Category: An inventory of the numbers of objects by category is the starting point. Social history museums may categorize according to the Chenhall system of classifi cation, whereas others may do it by historical period, medium, material, or other classi-fi cations inherent in the discipline (such as botanical or zoological genus and species). Ranking the categories by percentage of the whole collec-tion is extremely useful; for example, if we know that textiles and cloth-ing make up 50 percent of the collection, tools and equipment make up 20 percent and the remaining 30 percent is distributed among a number


of other categories, we have a very good initial picture of the collec-tion’s constituents. Works on paper often constitute more than half of art museum collections, for example.

• Materials: To develop a sense of storage requirements for the collection in terms of conservation needs and attendant storage requirements, it is essential to get a sense of the distribution of the collection by mate-rial. The broadest and most indicative divider is between organic and inorganic materials, since organic materials require different storage conditions than inorganic objects; however, this criterion is not always useful, since the third category—mixed materials—dominates many collections. It is best if the categorical distribution of objects also indi-cates material: for example, natural history specimens need to be stored in such a way as to protect from pest infestations; media with organic components (fi lm, for example) require special temperature-controlled spaces; many types of textiles need to be stored fl at or on large rollers; works on paper should be stored together in the same conditions, as should ferrous metals. Less sensitive materials, such as stone, nonfer-rous metals, or ceramics, should also be stored together. Thus classify-ing the collection by material is the most useful quantitative analysis for the museum planner.

• Size: The analysis by category will assist here (obviously a category such as military insignia, which are very small, will take up less storage space per item than a category such as stools and equipment). It is therefore useful to divide the collection into three or four groups: small (typically requiring less than 0.1 square meter or 1 square foot of storage space per object), medium (0.1–0.5 square meter or 1–5 square feet of storage space per object), large (requiring 0.5–1.5 square meters or 1–5 square feet of storage space per artifact), and outsize items, including the “Design Object,” the largest item to be moved through the public and nonpublic collection zones of the museum. For technology, transportation, military, or other museums that contain automobiles, railway cars, ships, tanks, and the like, an additional “macro” category may be added. In an existing museum it is most valuable not only to record the numbers of objects in each size group, but also to document the actual areas allocated to each in display galleries or storage rooms, together with a note on how crowded they currently are.

• Two- and Three-Dimensional Objects: Space and condition require-ments vary depending on whether the objects are three-dimensional artifacts, works of art, or specimens, or whether they are two-dimen-sional photos, posters, or archival materials. Many institutions organize these two different types of collections simply as museum collections and library or archives collections, but it is not uncommon to encounter examples of each in the other type of collection.


Existing storage density can be calculated from the data gathered to date. Storage density is defi ned as: the number of objects in a storage room divided by the amount of space in that room.

Storage space may be expressed as the number of objects per square meter or square foot, or alternatively as the number of square meters or square feet per object. In a philately or numismatics museum, it has to be the number of items per square meter or square foot; in a railway museum, it has to be square feet or square meters per object. For most other museums, it can be one or the other, as long as the ratio is expressed consistently.

Very often it is possible immediately to get a sense of the storage space needed for a specifi c category of the existing collection: If the ratio is cur-rently twenty items per square meter, and the storage space is at least twice as crowded as it should be, then we may begin to aim at a target of ten items per square meter. Once we have accounted for growth through to the Design Year, we have a rough estimate of the amount of storage space needed.

In practice, it is necessary to factor in a number of other variables when assessing whether the present storage density is indicative of a crowded or ample storage condition, some of which come from the quantitative analysis, some as a result of a visual inspection, and others from the judgment and experience of the staff or the planners, such as:

• Is the collection dominated by any particular size category?• Are there objects stored outside that need to be brought indoors in a new

facility?• Are there objects stored off-site that should be accommodated in the new

facility?• What is the mode of storage for each category? Would other modes be

more effi cient? • How many layers of shelving are used in the storage spaces?• How well organized are the storage spaces?• Are the accession records and inventories up to date? Is there a backlog

of items that have yet to be catalogued?

Of these questions, the most salient is the issue of storage mode. Compac-tor storage can improve density—increase the number of objects per square meter or square foot or decrease square meters or square feet per object—by about one-third. Visible storage—or “visitable storage” as they sometimes call it in France—diminishes density—decreases the number of objects per square meter or square foot or increases the number of square meters or square feet per object—by about the same amount or more. Introducing sliding picture racks can greatly increase the capacity of an art storage room. Even a more rational use of standard storage shelves and cabinets can result


in substantial savings in space. Storage mode decisions have to be made for each category of the collection.

A similar ratio—display density—may be calculated to assist with assess-ment of the use of objects in existing permanent collection exhibitions, facilitating judgments regarding future collection uses in revamped or new galleries. Just as with storage mode, the proposed future display mode is deci-sive in projecting gallery space needs: If aesthetic displays are to be converted to more contextual, thematic exhibits or if visible storage is to be introduced, then display density will increase, whereas it will diminish if the plan is sim-ply to extend aesthetic displays. Display density should be calculated for each present and each proposed permanent collection gallery.

Such a space projection is affected by another quantitative calculation—the present display/storage ratio. It is not unusual for an art museum to dis-play only 5 percent of its collection, or for a natural history museum to display even less, due to the large number of items in its study collections. Social history museums usually have a somewhat higher ratio—but whatever it is, beginning the planning for new space is the time to decide what display/stor-age ratio is the target (bearing in mind that the growth of the collection to the Design Year may make it challenging even to maintain the present ratio). Equipped with knowledge of the present display density and the current dis-play/storage ratio, after estimating collection growth the planner can project what the display/storage ratio can be in the new facility, and what display density can be achieved in new exhibits.

Thus quantitative collection analysis provides part of the information necessary to achieve accurate space projections and storage requirements for the present collections. The rest of the information comes from the qualita-tive analysis and from a projection of future collection growth.

5.3.2.2 Qualitative Analysis

In addition to the foregoing analysis, an assessment of the condition, quality, uses and potential uses of the collections is necessary. Analyzing the areas in which the collection is well developed as well as areas in which there are gaps to be fi lled allows the planner to project the course and direction of future development (in terms of numbers, types, and likely size categories) in close consultation with curatorial staff. Here consideration of the mission and mandate of the museum as a whole becomes more important than ever; if any changes are forthcoming in these areas, they may have effects on the collecting mandate and the character of the collections that result. Moreover, qualitative analysis provides a means to assess the degree to which deacces-sioning may be an appropriate part of the collection plan, thus indicating adjustments to the growth projections to the Design Year.


A thorough qualitative analysis should consider

• purpose of collecting—whether display, study, teaching, or reserve;• interpretive potential—whether the collections adequately support the

interpretive and programmatic goals of the institution, or whether a pro-gram of collection development is required;

• condition—the extent to which the collections require conservation, if at all, and whether there are items that should be deaccessioned due to poor condition, or for other reasons;

• suitability to purpose of mandate: whether the collection fi ts the muse-um’s collection purpose and mandate, or whether there are items that are “out of scope” that might be transferred to other institutions or otherwise deaccessioned.

5.3.2.2.1. Collection Development Strategy

One of the key outcomes of qualitative analyses is a recommendation for col-lection development. A Collection Development Strategy is essential for projecting collection growth, and ultimately storage and display space projec-tions. A Collection Development Strategy

• establishes priorities and targets for collection growth for the planning period through to the Design Year;

• identifi es methods for achieving these goals;• allocates resources in terms of staff, space, and facilities.

Collection development strategies vary in scope and extent. Most are rather general, setting out broad strategic goals for collection development. But to be most useful for facility planning purposes, the strategy should establish quantifi able goals such as:

• the anticipated growth rate by category and type;• the likely sizes of objects by category and type;• the proportion to be placed in storage as compared to that on permanent

collection display;• the resultant levels of storage density and display density.

The strategy should be developed in concert with the interpretive goals of the institution, as well as with reference to a program of collection research and development. In a new capital project or in the case of an existing muse-um’s renovation, it should be done with reference to interpretive planning and exhibition design. Other key considerations include:


• implications of institutional mission and mandate for future collection development;

• policy implications;• interpretive and educational priorities;• potential sources of acquisitions;• budgetary considerations.

The opportunistic nature of the collecting process makes it impossible to forecast future growth with certainty. However, the collection develop-ment strategy provides a series of benchmarks for collections growth that are helpful not only for planning space and facilities but also for planning for the future running costs of the museum.

5.3.3 Projecting Collection Growth to the Design Year

Once the quantitative and qualitative collection analyses have been com-pleted, it is necessary to develop projections of collection size by category and type up to the Design Year. This will enable the planners to project space requirements for the collection that will be adequate up to that point in time.

5.3.3.1. Historical Patterns of Growth

When planning new facilities for existing institutions, historical patterns of collection growth by category and type of collection constitute the data base for forecasting future growth. Of course the future will not be the same as the past, but knowing the historical rate of growth gives us a base upon which we can then project changes due to future developments.

It is important to measure this historical growth not in percentages but in terms of the actual number of objects acquired each year, since percentage rates of growth can provide misleading projections because of the compound-ing effect as the collection base grows. A successful analysis of past patterns depends on the quality of information. Some of the key requirements are:

• accessions information for at least ten years in the past;• deaccessioning records (if any) over the time frame being analyzed;• a record that indicates the number of objects acquired each year—rather

than just the number of accessions—the data for which, if it is not read-ily available, can be developed by calculating the proportion of objects to accessions for selected years and then extrapolating the number of objects indicated by the number of accessions in each year;

• a way of segmenting the record to determine growth patterns for differ-ent categories of museum objects;


• a record of any changes in collecting policy or direction that might have affected growth in any way, to enable the planner to properly interpret and account for any disruptions in past collecting patterns.

Sometimes it is possible, even necessary, to take some shortcuts by sam-pling the collection growth in a few selected years. This can be useful if good aggregated records are not available.

5.3.3.2 Typical Patterns of Growth

As collections mature they tend to follow typical patterns of growth, based upon the collection strategies employed. In order to apply this information it is necessary to analyze each collection category, taking past and proposed collection strategies into consideration:

• Collections of outstanding or exceptional items: growth depends on limited supply. A common pattern among art museums is a surge in growth when a new building, expansion, or renovation is announced. If planning for a Design Year twenty years in the future, therefore, the Col-lection Development Strategy might show a surge mounting in the years before, during, and immediately after the capital project, subsiding to the historical level in subsequent years.

• Representative collections: as these collections become more complete, the rate of growth will typically begin to decline. The curve that results will therefore show a declining rate of growth.

• Systematic collections: the rate of growth of these collections will depend upon the level of research and collection activity. Normally it can be expected to show a steady rate of growth or straight line extended from the historical base, as long as research or fi eldwork continues. Field-work is often grant dependent, and therefore sporadic, but a review of suffi cient years of past experience will usually indicate useful averages.

• Associative collections: as only a fi nite number of objects will meet the collecting criteria, the rate of growth should decline over time, approach-ing zero as the collection matures.

• Opportunistic collections: the growth pattern of these is hard to pre-dict. Historical patterns are the best guide: the growth curve will nor-mally be a straight line extended from the historical base. But there is a danger that growth may have been limited mainly by physical capacity. If the conditions restraining growth are changed (for example, if more storage or exhibition space is provided) collections growth may accelerate until new limits are reached. Collection policy should be reviewed to see if the pattern can be changed.

2 1 2

PLANNING FOR DISPLAY

Exhibitions are the way that most people in the general public interact with museums—whether for sheer aesthetic pleasure, an engaging learning expe-rience, or unfortunately sometimes just a frustrating disappointment. This chapter extends the analysis of collections into modes of display and space and facility requirements for both permanent collection galleries and tempo-rary exhibitions of borrowed collections.

MODES OF DISPLAY

Barry Lord

Exhibitions are a way of providing visual and intellectual access to the muse-um’s collections. Increasingly, with steadily improving electronic digital tech-nology, actual physical exhibitions in galleries are seen as only one of the ways the museum can do this. A growing number of museums now provide images of their permanent collections online—either selected highlights or in some instances the entire collection. Furthermore, many museum exhibitions these days are accompanied by an online “virtual exhibition” that may attract far more viewers than the physical display in the galleries. Nevertheless, actual exhibitions in galleries remain the primary point of contact between the pub-lic and the museum; some surveys suggest that exposure to virtual images sharpens the appetite for “the real thing.”

How big should the galleries be? The order of magnitude obviously var-ies with the size of the objects. A railway museum must dream in different dimensions for its locomotives and railway cars than a philatelic museum does for its stamps, or a numismatic museum for its currency and coins. Yet whatever the scale, the decisive questions are the same:

• What does the museum’s mission say about public visual and intellectual access to its collections? How important is a learning experience—for school groups, for young families, for seniors?

6.1

CH

APT

ER 6

PLANNING FOR DISPLAY 2 1 3

• What proportion of the museum’s collection is now on display, and what percentage should it be? As noted in the previous chapter, this is the important question of display/storage ratio.

• Which modes of display does the museum favor in order to fulfi ll its mis-sion most effectively? What are the museum’s communication objectives and optimal means of expression?

As outlined in section 4.3, an Interpretative Plan is the best place to start—a plan that begins from the museum’s mission statement, and translates it into an approach to public access. Broadly, an Interpretative Plan states:

• what the museum wants to say (its communication objectives);• to whom the museum wants to say it (a target market analysis);• what the preferred ways of saying it are (the optimal means of expression).

Answers to all three questions must be based on a thorough comprehen-sion of the potential and limitations of the collections and the realistic ambi-tions of the temporary exhibition program.

An Exhibition Plan translates the policies and principles of such an Inter-pretative Plan and applies them to the existing space, indicating the need for additional galleries as appropriate. It should also project a schedule of the scale and timing of each kind of exhibition—some permanent collection dis-plays that will be on view for a decade or more; rotating displays drawn from the permanent collection that will change perhaps twice a year; temporary exhibitions that mix permanent collection artifacts, specimens, or works of art with those borrowed from other museums or private collectors; and entire loan exhibitions brought in from other museums or exhibition agencies. Space may be needed for small but important exhibitions such as a display case or a gallery near the entrance for recent acquisitions. The balance among all these types of shows should refl ect the museum’s mission and vision. This section and the two that follow explain how to get from an Interpretative Plan to an Exhibition Plan that can be the basis for a Functional Program or Brief that meets the museum’s needs for exhibition galleries.

A lamentably common approach to these questions is to express them only in the quantitative terms of the display/storage ratio (see section 5.3). This ratio expresses an important question: What percentage of the muse-um’s permanent collection is now on display, and what should the ratio be? Art museums often exhibit only 5 percent (or less) of their collections at one time; history museums may get higher, to around 15 percent; but some natural history museums with research collections may show as little as 2 percent of their collections of specimens—how many mollusks does the gen-eral public need to see? Fundraisers for museum capital projects like to claim


that the amount of the collections to be on display after an expansion or relocation will be much greater—although if they take account of collection growth and then compute the display/storage ratio in percentage terms they may be surprised to fi nd that it does not change very much: an art museum containing 20,000 works of art with 5 percent (1,000 pieces) on display with a growth rate of 2.5 percent (500 works) annually will have a collection of 25,000 works of art in ten years; an expansion would need to accommodate an additional 250 works on exhibition (a 25 percent increase in gallery space) merely to maintain its display/storage ratio at 5:95 percent.

Determining the present and the optimal display/storage ratio matters, but it is not a mathematical calculation made in advance; it is the end product of responsible planning. Whatever the numbers, it is most important that the qualitative issues of an Interpretative Plan and an Exhibition Plan should be addressed prior to any arithmetic. The number of works on display should not be the result of some mathematical formula but must fl ow from the museum’s mission statement and the contents of these plans as outlined in this chapter. The good news is that the number of works on display can be dramatically increased, in some cases even without building new space, by varying the mode of display and the resultant display density.

Modes of display are the methods the museum uses to exhibit its collec-tions or the objects that it borrows. Each mode of display will have a different display density for a given type of object—again, locomotives will differ from postage stamps, but both will vary in their density according to the mode of display on view. As noted in section 5.3, display density may be defi ned as the number of collection objects on display in a given gallery area: if thirty draw-ings and watercolors are displayed on the walls of a 150–square-meter (1,500 square feet) graphic art gallery, the density would be one drawing per 5 square meters or 50 square feet; if some display panels are brought in to hold twenty more drawings and watercolors in the center of the gallery, then the density will have increased to 50 paintings in the same area, for a density of one pic-ture per 3 square meters or 30 square feet. For a picture gallery, it may also be useful to discuss display density in terms of wall space—linear meters or feet: if the 150-square-meter (1,500 square feet) graphic arts gallery measures 7.5 by 20 meters (20 by 75 feet), the wall space would be about 50 linear meters or 150 feet (allowing for two 2.5-meter/20-foot door openings), so the linear density of thirty pictures would be 1.6 meters or 5 linear feet per picture.

Whether it is an area measurement or a linear one, display density in relation to a gallery area may be expressed either way—either as objects per area or else as meters or feet per object. As noted in the preceding chapter, the density of locomotives in a railway museum or tanks in a military museum must be expressed as square meters or square feet per vehicle; whereas the density of coins or stamps in a numismatic or philatelic display must be stated as number of items per square meter or square foot. For objects of less


extreme dimensions density can be stated either way. It does not matter as long as the same method is used consistently throughout a plan. Determining the current display density of any exhibit is a matter of counting the objects on view, measuring the area in which they are displayed, and dividing one number by the other.

In order of their typical levels of density, from least to most, the common modes of display include the following:

• Contemplative aesthetic exhibitions: Commonly found in art museums (but also in other types of museum), this mode usually features placement of a limited number of paintings around the perimeter, perhaps with one or two works of sculpture in the center, so that a very low display density ratio results. Another way of saying this is that in art exhibitions featur-ing primarily two-dimensional works up to 90 percent of the area must be allocated to three factors—visitor circulation, “vista” to permit appre-ciation of the works of art individually, and safe distance to ensure that the visitors are not in physical contact with the works of art—altogether resulting in comparatively low display density. The aesthetic intent of this mode of display is to ensure that the viewer can appreciate each individual work of art on its own, independent of the others and without interference of his or her line of sight.

• Thematic or contextual displays: Here the objective is to encourage the visitor to see objects in context, comparing examples with each other, or as evidence for a narrative or theme. (Note that in a museum these objects of material culture are presented as evidence, so that they make the argument for the thesis, not as illustrations in a book, where the main argument is made in words; a keen appreciation of this difference enables curators to avoid mounting “a book on a wall.”) Grouped together for these purposes, objects are more numerous than in the previous mode and may be accompanied by graphics, electronics, or audiovisual dis-play technology. This is the most common mode for history and science museums. Less of the area—about 65–75 percent—needs to be devoted to circulation, “vista,” and safe distance, so the number of artifacts or specimens that can be accommodated in the remaining 25–35 percent of gallery area is greater. Display density is substantially higher in objects per square meter or square foot than in a contemplative aesthetic display. A common fi nding that we have noted in decorative arts museums, such as galleries of Asian ceramics or bronzes, is around a dozen works per square meter.

• Dioramas: Still greater density may be achieved when objects are grouped in a believable setting either within a display case or as a walk-through immersive environment. Dioramas are a common mode in natu-ral history museums. Although the featured exhibits—such as taxidermic


specimens of large mammals or dinosaur casts—may be relatively few, the density is higher if we count all the minute components of a display that recreates an entire ecology.

• Room settings: The density of this mode—a popular one for community and social history museums—approaches the level of an actual historical room, which will vary with the period being represented. The cluttered living rooms of the Victorian period, for instance, will present very high density, whereas a sparsely furnished neoclassical interior may have very low density.

• Systematic exhibits: Display density is generally high for exhibits that systematically represent examples of each type, commonly found in taxo-nomically organized natural history displays, or in philatelic or numismatic museums. University research museums often favor this mode of display, since it allows students to compare a range of representative specimens.

• Visible storage: Sometimes erroneously called open storage (but it is not open, for all artifacts, specimens, or works of art are behind or under glass), or more aptly study storage, implying the experience of discov-ery that it offers to the attentive visitor. Display density will be about two-thirds of closed storage density in this mode, where large numbers of certain types of artifacts or specimens are made available in storage-like conditions, usually in glass cabinets or glazed drawers, with inter-pretation by means of a card index or a digital database presenting the complete museum catalog entry on card or on screen, rather than any curatorial graphics. Circulation and vista space here is likely to range around 50–60 percent, about 10 percent more than closed storage but signifi cantly less than any of the other modes of display, so that display density is optimal. With relatively small objects of decorative arts (such as glass or ceramics) ranked on glass shelving in cases, or with textiles folded in glazed drawers, display density can approach 0.1 square meter or 1 square foot per item. As an example, the Victoria & Albert Museum in London, which already had a good visible storage glass gallery, has recently installed another brilliant example of visible storage in its sixth-fl oor ceramic galleries.

If the museum planner is starting with an existing permanent collec-tion display—that is, if the objective is to plan an expansion, renovation, or relocation of existing galleries—it is most important to identify the current modes of display and to consider the potential of varying them, either to improve the museum’s fulfi llment of its mission, or simply to increase public access to the collections. Thus if museum learning is an important aspect of the museum’s mission, consideration might be given to moving some objects from closed to visible storage; or a relatively static didactic display might be made more exciting by conversion into an immersive diorama or a room


setting. If changes in display mode and density are being considered, three discrete steps must be taken in sequence:

1. Determine the present modes of display and their current density (by counting and measuring).

2. Allow for collection growth to the year for which we are planning. Deter-mine historical growth rates from the accession records, and project care-fully, with regard to a possible surge of donations that may result from the announcement of a new building or a new wing, settling down thereafter to a rate closer to the historical. Allow also for any deaccessioning—usu-ally a very small percentage—as well as the rate of new acquisitions.

3. Project the changes in modes of display, the numbers of items to be accommodated, and their respective display density, in order to estimate the exhibition gallery area required.

Table 6.1 for one section of a hypothetical art museum shows the kind of analysis of modes of display that can be undertaken to support the planning process. The information displayed in this entirely hypothetical example is:

• The art museum has been displaying 5 percent of its paintings collec-tion—500 of the total 10,000 works in its possession—in an aesthetic mode in 2,500 square meters (25,000 square feet) of exhibition galleries, at a display density of 5 square meters (50 square feet) per picture.

• The paintings collection is growing at an annual rate of 2 percent (a common rate for mature collections)—increasing the collection at a rate of 200 pictures annually for a cumulative total of 4,000 additional works over the twenty years to the year for which we are planning—the Design Year. By that year, the collection will number 14,000 paintings.

• The Interpretative Plan proposes to maintain the aesthetic mode at the same display density but to increase the number of works on view from 500 to 700, necessitating 3,500 square meters (35,000 square feet), or an addition of 1,000 square meters (10,000 square feet) of gallery space.

• In addition the Interpretative Plan proposes to present a permanent display of regional art history in a thematic mode at a greater density, allocating only 2.5 square meters (25 square feet) per work of art, by means of double hanging and grouping smaller works so that their his-torical or thematic context can be appreciated. This thematic exhibit will require an additional 1,250 square meters (12,500 square feet) of gallery space.

• The museum’s decorative art collection consists of 20,000 items, of which 2.5 percent (500 items) are currently displayed in a series of room settings at a density of 0.6 sq meters (6 square feet) per item, requiring 300 square meters (3,000 square feet) of exhibition galleries for this purpose.

Tabl

e 6.

1. E

xam

ples

of G

alle

ry A

reas

Nee

ded

for

Col

lect

ion

Gro

wth

and

Cha

nged

Mod

es o

f Disp

lay

Cat

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yT

otal

no.

of

wor

ks o

f art

Mod

e of

di

spla

y no

wN

o. o

n vi

ew

now

Sq M

(S

q F

t) n

owD

ensi

ty p

er

item

now

Gro

wth

of

colle

ctio

n to

de

sign

yea

r (+2

0)

New

dis

play

m

ode

&

dens

ity

No.

to b

e on

vie

wSq

m (s

q ft

) ar

ea n

eede

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Pain

tings

10,0

00A

esth

etic

500

2,50

0m

25,0

00f

5m 5

0f+4

,000

= 1

4,00

0A

esth

etic

5m

50

f70

03,

500m

35

,000

f

The

mat

ic

2.5m

25f

500

1,25

0m

12,5

00f

Dec

orat

ive

Art

s20

,000

Roo

m s

ettin

gs50

030

0m 3

,000

f 0.

6m 6

f+8

,000

= 2

8,00

0R

oom

se

ttin

gs50

030

0m 3

,000

f

Vis

ible

St

orag

e2,

000

200m

2,0

00f

Tot

al30

,000

1,00

02,

800m

28

,000

f42

,000

3,70

05,

250m

52

,500

f


• The Interpretative Plan proposes to keep these beloved room settings as they are, but to add visible storage galleries that are projected to accom-modate an additional 2,000 objects at a density of 0.1 square meter (1 square foot) per object on glass shelving fi ve ranks high in display cases that will occupy a gallery of just 200 square meters (2,000 square feet).

• After the expansion, the museum will be able to display in total 3,700 works of art (a gain of 2,700 or 3.7 times the 1,000 now on view) in 5,250 square meters (52,500 square feet) of gallery space (a gain of 2,450 square meters or 24,500 square feet), 1.8 times the current gallery space of 2,800 square meters or 28,000 square feet).

• The total number of works of art on view will have grown from 3.3 per-cent of the collection (1,000 on display of the 30,000 total works of art currently in the collection) to 8.8 percent (3,700 of the 42,000 works that will be in the collection by the Design Year).

Obviously this is a highly simplifi ed example for illustrative purposes only. An important variable that is not represented here is the need to plan for those objects in the collection that require regular rotation for conservation purposes—all works on paper and all textiles, for instance—so that the num-ber of works must be kept modest, knowing that the individual objects will have to be replaced every few months on whatever schedule the conservator recommends. Each museum, each collection, and each material or medium in the collection—costumes, textiles, vehicles, fi rearms, or fossils—will have its own actual and preferred display density levels, its own historical and pro-jected growth rate, and each should refl ect the provisions of the Interpretative Plan and Exhibition Plan for that category of the collection.

It may also be noted that the projections are for the Design Year, which is twenty years away. If the expansion is opened fi ve years from now, at that time the percentage of works of art on display will be considerably higher, since the collection will not have grown to the size we anticipate twenty years hence. Fundraisers may then wish to claim that at opening day the percentage of the collection will be substantially higher than the 8.8 percent level that will eventually be reached in the Design Year.

Even if this were an actual case study, the projections would not be accu-rate, nor do they need to be. The purpose of making the projection is to be able to make a much more informed projection of the need for display space, and to ensure that all possibilities of altering the mode of display have been considered. A further variable is budget; if this projection were presented at a planning meeting early in the expansion planning process, it is almost certain that sooner or later its creators would be asked to revise the fi gures in order to reduce the amount of expensive new gallery space that has to be built.

The table is not intended to present all possible cases, but rather to famil-iarize the reader with the relationships of the factors that must be taken into


account in planning for future galleries—modes of display, display density levels, the collection growth rate, and the potential for changing the mode of display—for each category of the collection. Once these are understood, it may be possible to work out the projections with this precision, or it may be suffi cient to base space projections on three less exact steps:

1. Determine existing display densities (by counting and measuring). 2. Estimate the preferred density level with the new modes of display (such

as “let’s make this display half as crowded as it now is”). 3. Assume continued growth at historical rates and project space require-

ments by allowing for that growth and estimating higher capacity with reasonable confi dence.

Combined with creative interpretative planning, this quantitative exer-cise can be among the most satisfying steps in the analytic process leading to responsible space projections. These fi gures can then be used as the basis for gallery space requirements in the Exhibition Plan, and eventually for the Functional Program or Brief as well.

LONG-TERM PERMANENT COLLECTION DISPLAY

Barry Lord

The previous section focuses on those artifacts, specimens, or works of art in museums’ permanent collections that are intended for display. In practice, however, not all objects have been collected for this purpose, and the fi rst task in planning for long-term permanent collection display is to analyze the col-lection according to the primary reasons for which the objects in it have been collected. As outlined in section 5.1, a tripartite classifi cation into display, study and reserve collections is most useful, as long as we remember that the criteria for these divisions refer only to the primary purpose for which the object has been collected (i.e., display collections may still be studied and study collections may be displayed), and that objects may be moved to or from the reserve collections if and when conditions change.

Classifying the permanent collection according to these three groups, and assigning new acquisitions to one or another of the three groups, is recom-mended as the foundation of sound planning for any collection-based insti-tution. The results can be quite enlightening. Natural history museums, for instance, may well decide that a very high proportion of their holdings con-stitute a study collection, and that the approach to display should therefore be limited to a relatively small number of specimens that will be shown in the galleries, while a very large percentage of their collections should be made accessible to researchers, but not considered as display material. Alternatively,

6.2


that museum might choose to follow the example of the Darwin Centre in London’s Natural History Museum, making large portions of its study col-lection accessible to visitors in a visible storage mode.

All museums will fi nd such a classifi cation useful when it comes to responding to donors who insist that the museum “take all or nothing” of a mixed bag on offer. Distributing the objects as appropriate to these clas-sifi cations, as recorded on the Gift Agreement, can allow the museum to make a commitment to indefi nite preservation only to those objects that really belong in the display or study collections, while others will go to the reserve collection, where the museum will not make a commitment to their indefi nite preservation, and may indeed assign them to hands-on educational programs that will eventually lead to their being deaccessioned. Reserve col-lection objects that do not meet the criteria of the Collection Policy, objects that are in such poor condition that they are not cost-effective to restore, or objects that may be of value but are isolated and would have no context in the collection, can go straight through to consideration for deaccessioning.

This classifi cation of the permanent collection also facilitates space plan-ning for display of the permanent collection. As indicated in section 5.2, dis-play collection items may be further categorized into potential display groups, for exceptional or outstanding objects, representative artifacts, or systematic specimens. Objects in the study collection may also be examined for repre-sentative or systematic display—or they may be the best candidates for a vis-ible storage exhibit. Although many may best be deposited in the museum’s collection storage rooms indefi nitely, it is worth investigating whether they have potential for a systematic or visible storage gallery. One of the most common negative stereotypes of museums is that they are hiding most of their collections—and one way in which to overcome this is to make far more of the collections visually accessible to the public by means of visible storage.

Another useful way to analyze the permanent collection for display purposes is to refer to their medium or material in terms of how impervious they are to prolonged exposure to light or to whatever climatic variations are being tolerated in the galleries. In general, it is useful to distinguish several groups here:

• Impervious objects are those that are able to tolerate a relatively broad range of humidity fl uctuation and light levels: inorganic materials, such as objects in stone, gems, precious metals and most objects in bronze or ceramics are among these, although the glazing on some ceramics can be as sensitive as other colors to indefi nite exposure to high light levels, and some bronzes are subject to what is called “bronze disease.”

• Reasonably sensitive objects are those for which preventive conservation conditions to museum standards for their materials should be provided, normally at 50 percent relative humidity (RH) +/- 5 percent at 20°C/70°F


+/- 2 degrees or some comparable compromise setting twenty-four hours a day; these are comprised of mixed inorganic and organic materials, such as oil or acrylic paintings, vehicles, most sculpture, and many nonprecious metals—although iron and other ferrous materials should be kept at a lower RH, preferably around 40 percent +/-5 percent. Light levels for these objects should normally be around 300 lux (30 foot-candles).

• Especially sensitive objects are organic materials made of paper, tex-tiles, bone, leather, furs, feathers, or compound objects such as lami-nates or lacquer ware. In general, works on paper should be exhibited at a lower RH, 45 or 40 percent, if possible; but the most important display condition for these objects is to limit the light level to 50 lux (5 foot-candles). This is the most critical single condition in an exhibition gallery (hence the grave concern if natural light is proposed for a gal-lery to house such displays), because color deterioration due to exposure to too high light levels for too long a period of time is irremediable: it cannot be recovered. Even at 50 lux or 5 foot candles, objects in these materials should be rotated regularly, changing the actual works on view every few months.

Museum planners need to refer to all of these systems of classifi cation of the objects in the permanent collection—the purpose for which they are collected, the reason for which they are to be exhibited, and the need to pre-serve their color and materials—combining this analysis with the variation of modes of display and projections of collection growth discussed in the preceding section in order to develop an Exhibition Plan that accords with an Interpretative Plan that refl ects the museum’s mission. When they do so they are likely to produce plans for the different types of museums that refl ect all of these considerations:

• Art museums have traditionally grouped their works of art chronologi-cally or by national origin, period, “school,” or style. Many still do, but increasingly there has been a tendency to present the works in relation to themes derived from their content (what the works are about, not their subject matter, which is merely what they represent). Such the-matic “hangs” can be very effective as a way of engaging the public in the meanings of the works, as long as the interpretation is left open by graphics and docents that ask more questions than they answer, rather than attempting to ascribe a specifi c meaning to each work. Another interesting approach for art museums with large collections is the example set by Tate Britain, which presents an annual “re-hang” of its permanent collection, announcing the new display with a major exhibition opening—much more effective than just changing around a few works here and there, as is so often done elsewhere, going largely unnoticed by the visiting public.


• History or archaeology museums are also faced with the alternative of a chronological versus a thematic approach to their subject matter. It might be thought that chronology is necessary in a presentation of history or archaeology, but well-chosen themes may be more effective as a means to communicate the real meaning of a historic event or period. A chrono-logical presentation may result in a smattering of objects drawn from many parts of the collection, and may impede a focus on one particu-lar aspect of the period, whereas a thematic approach allows the visitor to comprehend a given subject in depth. Sometimes the issue may be affected by the layout of the galleries—a linear sequence of galleries may facilitate a chronological approach, whereas a more concentric layout may suggest a thematic display.

• “Idea museums” by contrast are almost always thematic or narrative in their displays. Their exhibitions may utilize audiovisual and interactive media almost exclusively to tell their stories. If they include collections, they usually focus on relatively few outstanding or exceptional items that can stand as symbols or striking examples of the “big ideas” they aim to communicate. Here again a caution is to ensure that the approach is open-ended, not insisting on one meaning but leaving the content open to evaluation by the visitors.

• Ethnographic or anthropological museums must decide between a pre-sentation of their collections as fascinating objects, so that they seem more like an art museum, or their display and interpretation in the con-text in which they are or were made and used. Much controversy sur-rounded the opening of the Musée du Quai Branly in Paris because it was seen as favoring the “art” approach by many, even though it did provide audiovisual and other means of interpretation to support the stunningly beautiful exhibits. Another issue for ethnographic museums is to ensure that they include the contemporary life of the populations whose cultures they are displaying, if they are still extant. Critics of the Museum of the American Indian in Washington thought that it presented too much of the contemporary culture when that museum opened, even though the museum possesses a very rich collection of the traditional cultures of the indigenous peoples of the Americas; the opposite fault, presenting living cultures as if they are no longer alive, is unfortunately more common.

• Natural history museums often must choose between an immersive, sometimes almost sensational presentation of the wonders of nature—especially taxidermic specimens, precious gems, or dinosaurs designed to frighten or enchant young visitors—and a more systematic display of the scientifi c basis of life in all its forms. A comparable balance must be struck in public gardens, between impressive displays of horticulture on the one hand, and presentations from which we can learn about issues like climate change or endangered species on the other. Le musée national


d’histoire naturelle in Paris offers a classic example, arranging its taxider-mic specimens in a fabulous troop of animals marching across a refl ective polished fl oor to impress us with nature’s plenty and teach biodiversity in a permanent collection exhibit that has been criticized by some scientists because these species would not be found walking together in nature.

• Although some science, industry, technology, and transportation muse-ums are faced with enormous challenges when it comes to displaying their permanent collections, simply because their disciplines are constantly changing, and they must decide how much space to give to historical arti-facts (many of which are very large) versus the area needed to introduce the latest scientifi c advances or new technology. Although science centers may not have collections, they must equally decide between their traditional exhibits that introduce visitors to the fundamentals of physics or astron-omy, for example, and the demand for exhibits that can explain contempo-rary communications technology, string theory, or the science of DNA.

In many of these instances it may be seen that a balance between the extremes is not only possible, but is also most desirable. Another dilemma for museums of all types that is also susceptible to resolution by means of a bal-ance is the decision to be made between research-based and market-driven exhibition programs. The differences between them are often exaggerated, but the distinction is worth preserving conceptually, so that it can be cre-atively resolved in an Interpretative Plan:

• A research-based exhibition program is one that arises from the disciplines of the museum, from an analysis of the collection or from the interests of the curators. It is worth doing because it advances our knowledge of the fi eld—our appreciation of the importance of a hitherto undervalued artist, a new understanding of the signifi cance of an archaeological site, or the ecology of an endangered species, for example.

• A market-driven exhibition program arises from public interest or demand, as interpreted by the museum. Political events may suggest the need for an exhibition on an ethnic group or the culture of a foreign country. The popularity of an artist or architect may demand a retrospective. Or grow-ing health concerns might suggest an exhibition on food additives. Some market-driven exhibitions may challenge some critics’ understanding of the institution’s mission—as when a science center presents a Harry Potter show.

In our discussion of these alternatives in The Manual of Museum Exhibi-tions (AltaMira Press, 2002), we suggest that the solution is to ensure that the museum’s research program is audience responsive, thereby combining the two objectives. Individual museum professionals must decide to what extent this is possible within their own institutions, or whether an Interpretative Plan that


recognizes both types of exhibition and makes room for both is a better way to go. In either case a conscious balance between the two extremes is advised.

The balance, priorities, or emphasis among these alternatives and others should be determined in the Interpretative Plan for permanent collection display, the qualitative document that should precede decisions about modes of display and the number of objects to be in the permanent collection exhi-bition. Part of this resolution will also consist of recommendations about the “life expectancy” of the displays; nothing lasts forever, so the Interpretative Plan and the Exhibition Plan that is based on it should anticipate that some permanent collection exhibitions will be on display for years—and the precise number of years should be projected—while others will be changed more frequently. There is likely to be a gradation of exhibits—some that the public will want to see for ten to fi fteen years, others that are planned for two- or fi ve-year spans, and then the rotating exhibits that must be changed every few months for reasons of conservation.

Finally, as outlined in section 4.3, the Interpretative Plan and the Exhibi-tion Plan should provide for evaluation of the permanent collection displays at the outset (front-end evaluation), throughout the planning process (formative evaluation), and after installation of the exhibit (summative evaluation). This provision for ongoing evaluation adds to all the foregoing considerations of the collection the vital question of responsiveness to the needs of the visiting public, and obliges planners to spell out the communication objectives for each museum component, and to relate these objectives to the target market—the people for whom the exhibition is intended. Means of expression within given modes of display should be subordinate to these communication objectives—that is, there will be multiple means of expression to achieve any one objective.

Taken together with the previous section, it is clear that there are many challenges in planning a successful permanent collection exhibition program. Fortunately it is an ongoing as well as an iterative process, one that museum professionals are continually perfecting. The planning of a new museum, an expansion or a renovation, however, provides a once-in-a-lifetime opportu-nity to get it right; so the museum planner has the responsibility to prepare exhibition galleries that are right-sized, well equipped, and open to the mul-tiple possibilities that twenty-fi rst-century museums can provide.

TEMPORARY EXHIBITION GALLERIES

Barry Lord

In the past half century temporary exhibitions have become such a prominent feature of museum programs that they have to a large extent defi ned the insti-tutions for the general public. Some museum professionals have decried this overemphasis, and especially due to fi nancial cutbacks have urged a return to

6.3


reliance on the permanent collection and changing exhibitions drawn from it, instead of the much more expensive large traveling shows borrowed from multiple public and private lenders. One positive effect of budget cuts has been that permanent collections are being much more thoroughly explored by curators and made more accessible to the general public.

Yet temporary exhibitions remain a mainstay of museum public programs—the principle way in which a museum attracts repeat visitors and reaches out to new markets—and also provide an occasion for special admission charges. Planning for temporary exhibition galleries of the right size with the right facilities and support spaces is one of the most critical factors in planning for the economic sustainability of most museums.

Temporary exhibitions may be drawn from various sources:

• As noted in the previous section, some temporary exhibitions may be re-presentations of the permanent collection, or simply changing exhibi-tions drawn from that collection. Some of these are rotating exhibitions needed for the conservation of textiles or works on paper, which should be changed every few months.

• Other temporary exhibitions combine artifacts, works of art, or specimens from the permanent collection with related pieces borrowed from else-where. These can be some of the most valuable exhibitions intellectually, since they advance understanding or appreciation of the museum’s own collection, while extending the knowledge base of the relevant discipline.

• Or curators may borrow widely for an exhibition, disregarding what is in the museum’s permanent collection, but using their knowledge of the fi eld to build an exhibition that makes a case—a retrospective of an artist who may not have been represented in the collection prior to the show, an examination of an ancient or foreign civilization that is an area of a guest curator’s expertise, or an exhibition exploring new concepts in science. Some of these exhibitions are collaborative, with curators from several institutions and senior academics sharing in the research, helping to arrange loans or contributing to the catalogs.

• Alternatively, the museum may not share in the development of the exhi-bition at all, but rather participate only as an exhibitor. The participat-ing museum pays a fee that helps to make the exhibition feasible for its originating institution. The Seattle Art Museum (SAM) took advantage of the temporary closure of the Musée Picasso in Paris to borrow 150 works by the master selected by the French museum; SAM had to extend its hours to midnight for the last few weeks of the exhibition due to the overwhelming demand for the $20-plus special-admission price tickets.

• There are also agencies that distribute “package shows,” for which the exhibiting museum pays a fee to receive a completely prepared exhibition, including catalogs, posters, and a publicity package.


A “blockbuster” (such as the Picasso exhibition at SAM) could be any one of these types, but in practice they are usually found among the lat-ter three categories. One or more museums—or in some cases a national government’s ministry of culture or archaeological agency—may originate them, in some instances to raise funds for preservation of the heritage that they represent. Many of the major exhibitions of ancient Egypt, for example, have been originated partially or wholly by the Egyptian Supreme Council for Antiquities, with the intention of raising funds for the preservation of other ancient Egyptian monuments or sites. Chinese dinosaur exhibitions have been circulated in support of further archaeological research in the Gobi desert. Governments of the host countries sometimes commission private exhibition agencies to organize and circulate these exhibitions for them.

One of the most important decisions to be made in the museum’s Inter-pretative Plan and Exhibition Plan—a decision that will directly affect almost every aspect of the museum building—is the temporary exhibition policy and program. Providing inadequate temporary exhibition facilities can strangle an institution unable to make an effective impact on its public or to attract suffi cient repeat visits from those who attend once. On the other hand, tem-porary exhibition galleries that are beyond the museum’s ability to program them occasion unnecessary capital and operating costs that can be equally crippling, especially when the cost of the necessary exhibition support space and the need to meet international museum standards in order to facilitate loans is factored in.

Since temporary exhibitions so often depend on loans, one of the most important concepts to understand is the museum’s borrowing power. A muse-um’s ability to borrow depends on four factors:

• Like banks, museums can generally borrow only as richly as they can lend. The museum’s permanent collection gives it the capacity to lend to others’ exhibitions, and therefore enhances its ability to borrow from those same institutions. The strength of the permanent collection may be in completely unrelated areas, but the important point is that lenders can see that in the future they may want to borrow from the exhibiting institution for another show.

• Even if it has potent collection resources, but especially if it does not, the museum’s facilities and building systems are critical. The borrowing institution must be able to assure lenders that it can provide a museum-quality environment to continue conditions for the preservation of the borrowed objects at the same level as they enjoy in their host institutions; indeed, this high level of museum quality environment must be provided, even if the works come from a much lower-quality environment. Hence the emphasis in museum planning on the need for high-quality loading docks with dock levelers, freight elevators that can accommodate huge


works of art or dinosaur casts, relative humidity controls that maintain RH at a constant 50 percent +/- 5 percent twenty-four hours a day, and lighting controls that can point 50 lux (5 foot-candles) at a drawing next to a sculpture illuminated to 300 lux (30 foot-candles). If temporary exhibitions are critical to the institution’s business plan, the museum’s functional program or brief must specify these and other requirements in detail, and museum planners should review drawings and specifi cations throughout the entire design process to ensure that these needs are met; if costs must be cut in “value engineering” exercises, these requirements related to temporary exhibition capability should be among the last of the compromises to be considered.

• The intellectual resources of its staff are another decisive determinant in facilitating a museum’s participation in major exhibitions. If the museum’s staff—permanent or contracted for this purpose—includes a leading scholar in the discipline with a specialization in the subject of the exhibition, it is much more likely to be able to organize a show and borrow the artifacts, specimens, or works of art it needs to make it a suc-cess. Although this usually concerns the curatorial staff, conservators can also be key—especially if the museum offers conservation or restoration services to a country or museum that is unable to preserve the artifacts, either for lack of technology or shortage of funds.

• A fi nal determinant is cash. Although a few major museums may still exchange a few works of art among themselves for free, most exhibitions today travel with a participating fee attached. One of the major expenses that originating institutions hope to recover is the cost of insuring the trav-eling works of art, specimens, or artifacts. Government indemnity pro-grams in some countries can mitigate this major cost, as governments agree that they will pay for any damage or loss, making insurance unnecessary; but in most instances, insurance costs remain a major factor that can be partially recovered through participating fees. Crating and shipping costs are usually shared among the exhibiting institutions, which also agree to purchase a set quantity of exhibition catalogs and other related retail stock to sell in the museum shop—or shops, since additional shops at the end of the exhibition have become a standard feature of most “blockbusters” today. The exhibiting institution in turn hopes to recover its participating fee and other costs through its special admission price for the exhibition, its retail sales and—if marketing has been well planned in advance—through an increase in museum membership and donations.

The space required for most “blockbusters” ranges from 1,200 to 2,000 square meters (12,000–20,000 square feet), with the occasional need for still more. As for smaller shows, a survey we undertook some years ago indi-cated that 95 percent of routine temporary and traveling exhibitions could


be accommodated in a 500-square-meter (5,000-square-foot) gallery. In order to accommodate major exhibitions, a signifi cant percentage of tempo-rary exhibition galleries’ ceiling heights (say, 60 percent) should be at least 7 meters (21 feet) high, preferably with some areas even taller than that. For a museum of contemporary art, ceiling heights of 10 meters (30 feet) are not unreasonable. On the other hand, some—perhaps 20 percent—of the gallery space needs to have relatively low ceilings (4.5 meters, or 13 feet) to accom-modate shows of drawings or watercolors, or smaller pieces of decorative arts, so one common solution is to build single-height galleries at 4.5 meters (13 feet), with 40–60 percent of the space at double height—9 meters (27 feet). All of these galleries should have a grid at 2- to 4-meter (6- to12-foot) inter-vals of power and data trenches in the fl oor and across the ceiling, in addition to task lighting that can light both perimeter walls and internal panels at an angle 30 degrees from vertical at 155 centimeters (about 5 feet) above the fl oor, controllable to any level from 50 lux (5 foot-candles) up.

Museums with inadequate temporary exhibition galleries are often obliged to take down permanent collection installations if they want to par-ticipate in traveling shows. The motivation to acquire suffi cient space to accommodate large traveling or temporary shows without having to do this is often the principle reason for an expansion, renovation, or relocation plan. However, planning for suffi cient exhibition space should not be limited to building 2,000 square meters (20,000 square feet) of gallery space, much of which may stand empty except when a blockbuster exhibition is in town. Instead, the additional exhibition space should be planned to accommodate changing exhibitions from the permanent collections when temporary exhi-bitions are not being shown. We sometimes use the term “swing galleries” for exhibition space that is available for major traveling or temporary shows, but at other times will be used for rotating exhibitions of sensitive material from the permanent collection that needs to be changed regularly for conservation purposes. Thus a “swing gallery” might feature textiles or works on paper while awaiting the arrival of the next big temporary show.

Planning a temporary exhibition program policy will vary with each institution. Whether the subject is art, history, or science, the objective should be to achieve the right balance of shows that have global, national, regional, and local signifi cance, in order to ensure that the museum is serv-ing the citizens of its own community at the same time as it is opening a “window on the world” for them. The number of exhibitions projected for each year should be carefully considered in the light of budget and space con-straints and staff capabilities, and in order to ensure that the exhibitions do not change before word of mouth about them can be effective in bringing in visitors who will be interested in them, but need time to fi nd out about them. If an exhibition is worth doing at all, it should be up for at least six weeks, preferably longer. Temporary exhibitions are of course a major preoccupation


of the museum’s marketing department, which should be consulted about them from the outset of planning; most museums plan their programs several years in advance, allowing suffi cient time to adjust the balance of research-driven versus audience-oriented shows, or to combine both (as discussed in the preceding section), taking redisplay of the permanent collection also into account. A well-balanced temporary exhibition program in a well-planned and adequately furnished museum with reasonably stable fi nancial support is an amenity that every community should be able to enjoy.

PLANNING FOR EXHIBITION AND COLLECTIONS SUPPORT SPACE

Heather Maximea

Part of a museum’s competence in fulfi lling its public accountability man-date is demonstrated by its ability to safely receive and handle the treasures entrusted to its care, whether these are part of its permanent collection, items on loan, or traveling exhibitions. Potential donors and lenders will pay atten-tion to the museum’s reputation for safe handling, and will look closely at the facilities through which their treasures enter the host museum, are unpacked, examined, photographed, stored, prepared for display, moved into the gal-leries, and installed in their fi nal positions. The tender loving care given by museum staff can come to nothing if facilities simply are not adequate to provide proper environmental controls and other safety features.

Important kinds of support space are needed both for collections care and for exhibitions activities, and can often be shared between the two func-tions. This section looks at the functional areas and types of spaces required for these specialized activities.

Collections and Exhibit Support space comprises two functional areas, each with its own special requirements for space, adjacencies, and environments:

• Collections and Exhibition Shipping-Receiving: Loading Docks, Receiv-ing, Unpacking and other processing, detailed in section 6.4.2

• Exhibition Planning and Production: Design, Fabrication, Installation, and Maintenance, detailed in section 6.4.3

The main support spaces required by museum collections and exhibi-tions are very often shared. The reason for this is that while permanent col-lection activity is ongoing from year to year, the receiving, preparation, and mounting of exhibitions may come in timed spurts of frantic action followed by fallow periods when exhibitions are on view, but the support space is not needed until they are shipped out after closing. Collections and curatorial activities can often be timed for the periods between exhibition opening and

6.4


closings and may share some of the same staff. Once the exhibition incoming or outgoing frenzy abates, these personnel may return to work on receiving, unpacking and processing new acquisitions or other permanent collection movements, utilizing the same loading docks and receiving facilities, isolation room, and photographic studio. Design studios and exhibition production workshops that were involved in the fabrication or installation process may return after the exhibition opening to producing graphics and publication materials, producing education kits, or rematting or reframing works in stor-age, while planning for the next exhibition. Thus, costly facilities such as loading docks, freight lifts, and photography studios can be in full-time use year-round and amply justify the investment in quality space and equipment.

An additional critical element of exhibition and collection support space is circulation space, connecting the specialized spaces and allowing for the safe movement of art, artifacts, and specimens between the support spaces, galleries, and storage rooms. The circulation paths need to be dedicated, ade-quately sized to accommodate the Design Object (the largest 2-D and 3-D objects that need to move through the spaces), and designed to avoid com-mon building failings such as obstructions, turns and level changes. The cir-culation pattern takes account of necessary workfl ow and space adjacencies, which are also addressed in this section.

6.4.1 Collections and Exhibition Activities and Workfl ow

Key to the planning process for back-of-house support space for collections and exhibitions is understanding the day-to-day activities and the workfl ow in each of these areas. Any one day can require the coordination of many activities, some of which are regular, scheduled, and routine, though others may occur only periodically, or sometimes rarely. Then again there are those unanticipated events for which museum staff may need all their years of expe-rience and professionalism to achieve the best outcome!

Routine collections and exhibition events include:

• processing and documentation of acquisitions and loans;• regular meetings of Collections and Exhibition teams;• storage and retrieval from in-house storage, or pickups for off-site locations;• photography and digitization project work;• data entry and website maintenance;• long-term projects such as rematting or restorage work;• fi eld expedition material processing (for archaeological artifacts or natu-

ral science specimens);• in-house research and scholarly research supervision;• delivery of supplies, removal of trash;• regular security, housekeeping, and maintenance of collections areas.


Periodic planned events in the collections/exhibitions functional area include:

• receiving or shipment of travelling exhibits or casework and materials for new exhibits;

• receiving new acquisitions;• new staff orientation and training;• collections regular inventory and spot checks;• on-site maintenance work by contractors;• scholarly visits and VIP visits.

Maintaining a balance between collections and exhibition tasks is always a challenge; sometimes exhibits take priority, due to their strict deadlines and public nature, but there must be a commitment on the part of the museum as a whole to allocating enough resources (space and staff time) to complete collections tasks in a timely manner, so as to avoid documentation and stor-age activity backlogs.

Unanticipated events in the Collections/Exhibitions functional area may include:

• building problems such as ceiling or plumbing leaks;• equipment (such as freight lift) breakdowns;• severe weather or other external threats;• health and safety events requiring emergency response;• unanticipated arrival of major shipments that were due on another day,

but here they are!

It should be noted that collections and exhibitions activities take place on the same days and sometimes in shared space, with myriad other scheduled and unscheduled museum events such as:

• regular, scheduled museum deliveries including food and beverages;• regular trash dumpster removal and yard cleanup;• building maintenance and renovation;• special events, galas, performances, and all the movement of chairs, tables,

projectors, and everything else associated with them.

The fact that concurrent events and activities are the rule, not the excep-tion, needs to be taken into account in planning for space through which collections and exhibitions have to move, or where differing storage and work activities need to be accommodated. Allowing space for concurrent activities and safe circulation can boost effi ciency and productivity in addition to pre-serving collections and staff safety.


6.4.1.1 Diagramming Collections and Exhibition Activities

As part of the space and facility planning process, it is a valuable exercise to work with staff to list and diagram the sequence of activities attached to the key events, both routine and periodic, that they are responsible for. This exercise can draw on existing documentation, such as policies and procedures, but it can also benefi t from a walk-through of the space with staff and fl oor plans that can be marked up, so that planners can observe and assess how well the spaces are actually working. Some of the information gathered will be anecdotal and can reveal the absolute constraints and temporary pinch-points that appear in daily work activities when additional events intrude.

An imaginary walk-through would trace the same process on paper, using actual fl oor plans if available, with the assistance of the personnel who actu-ally carry out the work. This is an excellent method to use during the plan-ning, design, or renovation of new space that needs to be visualized. Some hypothetical paths to follow for collections and exhibitions are

• to follow a new donation from its arrival by donor’s car through to acqui-sition processing;

• to follow a crated artifact off the transport van through unpacking and temporary storage to gallery installation;

• to accompany trash from any point to the refuse bin;• to trace a damaged art work requiring removal from exhibition for emer-

gency conservation treatment;• to accompany an important collector on an impromptu visit.

When new space is being planned, understanding exhibitions and collec-tions events and activities will clarify the need for specialized spaces, for space sequences, and for spaces to meet specifi c design criteria. If an existing space is to be renovated, diagramming activities will be particularly important to improving space use and fl ow; it may reveal key areas where tools and supplies need to be stocked, where a wall should be removed or fl oor surfaces should be replaced, or where building constraints such as a low ceilinged hallway make the space unsuitable for further collections use.

6.4.1.2 General Access and Adjacency Considerations

Users of the back-of-house space include staff; contractors; suppliers; visit-ing curators; and other scholars, lenders, and their couriers, and that very important “user,” the collections and exhibitions themselves. This is nonpub-lic space, so a security perimeter around it must be imposed to keep the public out. Even among staff, access to the support spaces needs to be closely con-trolled to those who actually need to be there. Museum personnel not directly involved in exhibitions or in collections work should be excluded from the


dedicated collections and exhibitions support space. Even these two functions should be separated to some extent: the permanent collections storage and curatorial/collections management space does not normally need to be accessed by those building, receiving, or installing exhibition materials, although a link is needed to bring works of art, artifacts, or specimens from storage into the space being used for exhibition preparation, and ultimately into the galleries. Security personnel need to be able to reach any part of the collections and exhibition space where an alarm may sound, or to set up security checkpoints as needed during the receiving and movement of exhibition materials. Support spaces for building maintenance and housekeeping need to be accessible to service entrances to the galleries but are not part of the exhibitions space per se.

The spaces which directly support the production of exhibitions include the loading dock where loans and traveling exhibitions arrive at the museum, the packing and unpacking areas, packing materials storage, transit or tem-porary exhibition storage, crate storage, and the workshops where exhibi-tion materials are produced. Adjacencies among these collections and exhibitions support spaces are absolutely critical, affecting not only exhibition production and movement of art and artifacts to and from the galleries, but also maintenance of the required environmental conditions for the permanent or borrowed collections throughout the preparation and installation process.

In addition, support spaces may be needed for activities that are ancillary to exhibitions, such as special retail operations, food services, and catering for openings. Access, adjacency and circulation for these amenities must be considered in the light of their impact on collections and exhibitions, with priority given to the collections and exhibitions movement adjacencies. There should be no access to or movement through the collections or gallery space for food or waste and only very limited movement for clean retail stock and other sup-plies if necessary, preferably during nonpublic hours.

6.4.1.3 Lifts and Corridors

Movement between back-of-house collection spaces and on into the exhibition gal-leries must be via doorways and corridors amply sized to accommodate the museum’s Design Object (see section 3.4), at least to match the truck opening size of the largest vehicle that may deliver materials to the museum. Movement routes for collections and exhibitions should be planned to proceed without steps, ramps, or turns if possible. If direction must be changed during movement, suffi cient turning room must be allowed for the longest Design Object to be moved safely. An industrial, military, or transportation museum may not only need much higher and wider corridors, but may also wish to install a steel I-beam along their length, so that very heavy objects may be moved by block and tackle—as did the Nova Scotia Museum of Transportation and Industry at Stellarton, in order to be able to move its historic locomotives.


Elevators or lifts must be even wider, in order to provide space for pre-parators to stand beside large objects being moved. It is also important to ensure that the opening area in front of lift doors allows suffi cient room to move the longest load directly out, and/or to turn it if necessary.

6.4.2 Collections and Exhibitions Shipping/Receiving Spaces

Shipping/receiving is obviously a two-way function (shipments in and out) that operates for exhibitions and collections moving in and out of the museum, whether to off-site storage facilities, to the premises of donors and lenders, or as packaged exhibitions arriving from far afi eld or returning thither.

6.4.2.1 Shipping/Receiving Permanent Collections

New acquisitions for the permanent collections arrive intermittently through-out the year, usually with no opportunity to schedule activities far in advance. Donors may drop items off, or curators may pick items up from donors or vendors. The museum may use its own collections van or rent a vehicle as needed to pick up donations or to move objects between museum locations. For objects purchased from an auction house or very large objects being moved across country, specialized fi ne-arts movers may be hired. If objects need to be returned to their owner, they would be repacked in the crates in which they were received, and similar transport arrangements would be required. Crate storage is an important space that needs to be adjacent to the shipping/receiving and packing/unpacking rooms.

On arrival at the museum, any work being considered for acquisition will be unpacked and inspected; its condition will be recorded, it will likely be photographed, and it may then be stored until the approval process to add it to the collection is complete. If there is any sign of pest infestation, the piece will need to be isolated and possibly treated. In addition to the full suite of receiving spaces shared with exhibitions, new acquisitions need a separate, small, lockable storage area for pending acquisitions to ensure that they and their incoming packing materials and crate are segregated from the collec-tions until the legal transfer of ownership is complete—because if for some reason it is not accepted, it will be necessary to repack it and ship it back to its owner. A curatorial examination room is an additional adjacent space needed for laying out and considering pending acquisitions.

6.4.2.2 Shipping/Receiving Loans and Traveling Exhibitions

Works of art, specimens, or artifacts arriving on loan or as part of a travel-ling exhibition generally follow the same arrival and departure sequence as donations, though they are far more likely to arrive via long-distance road


transport or air freight, managed by a fi ne arts mover. In addition, if they have crossed international borders, there will be special customs inspection protocols and paperwork to be followed, and the shipment may be accom-panied by a courier from the lending museum. Major international travelling exhibitions may bring their own crew of preparators and installers. Often, the travelling exhibition is documented in a travelling log book, where actions and movements are recorded and signed off by the borrower’s and lender’s representatives. This is especially important if damage has occurred during shipping, or takes place while on the host’s premises.

Key spaces for receiving loans and exhibitions include a shipping/receiving offi ce for processing logistical paperwork and receiving couriers, a dedicated transit storage room and crate storage, and staging areas into the galleries. A brief description of each follows.

6.4.2.3 Shared Shipping/Receiving Space

Four separate but consecutive areas are required as part of the collections and exhibitions shipping/receiving and processing suite:

• loading bay and dock• shipping/receiving area • packing/unpacking (crating/uncrating) area• isolation room

Other key spaces should all open off this sequence of rooms. If the museum has more than one fl oor, a large freight lift (elevator) is required to take the works or art, artifacts, or specimens from the nonpublic area to stor-age or the galleries. These essential facilities each need to be supplemented by auxiliary space for materials, tools, and equipment.

6.4.2.3.1 Loading Bay and Dock

The fi rst consideration in planning for collections and exhibit facilities, and one of the key factors in overall building planning, is the siting and orienta-tion of service delivery entrances. Roads leading to the back-of-house service areas, which must be split between separate collections and noncollections functions, need to provide adequate access, backing-in space, and turning space for the largest transport vehicle the museum is planned to receive.

Even a very small museum needs adequate loading bay space for a museum van. Many museums plan for two bays: a bay and parking space for a museum van, which can also be used by small delivery vehicles; and a large loading bay suitable for large tractor-trailer units. Very large museums may require two or more large bays to accommodate their daily vehicle traffi c. The


loading bays can be served by a wide dock with inset hydraulic lifts, and a side stair for personnel access.

Right-sizing loading facilities to accommodate collection and exhibition deliveries requires identifi cation of a number of factors, such as:

• historically, the typical modes and size of shipments (size of vehicle, number of vehicles);

• whether a new and expanded facility will require access for larger vehicles;• the Design Object (crated) for which the loading facilities will be designed;• municipal by-laws regulating the sizes of vehicles that may use local

highways and city streets

For both environmental control and security reasons, the recommended load-ing bay and dock design allows the entire cab and body of the largest trucks to be enclosed and roofed over. If this is not possible, the loading bay must at least be covered at a height that will allow the largest trucks to back in under the cover, which should extend far enough on either side to prevent rain, snow, or wind from affecting the shipment as it is loaded or unloaded from the back of the truck, and preferably to screen unloading activity from passersby. Whether enclosed or not, the area intended to accommodate the backed-up truck must allow for the truck bed with its load of crates to be entirely level as loading or unloading proceeds. The loading bay for collections and exhibitions should not be used for other shipments, certainly never for food deliveries or garbage disposal.

Collection and exhibition shipments are potential weak points in the museum’s security system, and must be carefully planned to ensure safety of personnel as well as of the objects. The security station overlooking the loading dock reserved for exhibitions and collections should allow security personnel to see approaching trucks and drivers, either through a wire-reinforced window or by means of the closed circuit television (CCTV) system. There should also be a voice link so that drivers can identify themselves through a speaker, usually positioned at a personnel door beside the loading dock. Once satisfi ed visu-ally and aurally, security personnel may then electronically open the person-nel door, but this should admit the driver only to a small waiting area with a bullet-proof wicket window through which drivers may submit their waybills, manifests, or other documents for inspection by security personnel.

If satisfi ed with these documents, security personnel may then autho-rize the driver to leave the waiting area and return to his or her truck cab. Only then should they raise the loading dock door, which should be a heavy-duty metal roll-up door, rising high enough to permit the truck to back into the dock. If the dock is large enough (as is preferable), the outer door or gate should be lowered again before loading or off-loading begins. Such an enclosed dock must of course be mechanically ventilated, so that the truck’s exhaust may be immediately vented outside.


Due to the varying heights of truck beds, the loading dock will usually require a hydraulically operated heavy-duty metal platform lift set into the outer edge of the dock capable of being leveled with the bed of the truck and with the surface of the dock. A dock lip leveler is sometimes used instead of a whole platform, but is less satisfactory since it cannot accommodate large variance in truck bed height and is not entirely level; there is greater danger of shocks and vibration from movement being transferred to the objects being moved. The hydraulic platform lift should be wider than the largest truck’s back opening, allowing space for personnel to stand on either side, and deep enough to receive at least an 8-foot (2.4-meter), preferably a 12-foot (3.6-meter), crate.

6.4.2.3.2 Shipping/Receiving Area

An insulated metal roll-up door should separate the loading dock from the shipping/receiving area, and a second is required between shipping/receiving and the packing/unpacking area. Although the environment in the shipping/receiving area will be affected by the opening and closing of the loading bay door, it provides both a buffer zone for climate control and a staging area when a number of consecutive shipments are being received; it should be sized to hold at least the contents of one tractor-trailer load, plus safe circula-tion space. When one vehicle has been completely off-loaded, the outer door should be closed and the inner door opened to permit crates to be moved into the crating/uncrating (packing/unpacking) area. Only then should the inner door be closed and the outer door reopened to receive another shipment.

Equipment used throughout the shipping/receiving or loading/unload-ing area can range from simple dollies and hand trucks to pallet trucks and motorized forklifts and carts. All these items need to be stored in or near the shipping/receiving area when not in use, so a dedicated storage area should appear on the plans.

A small receiving offi ce attached to the shipping/receiving area is useful for registration work, for meeting couriers from other museums, verifying and sign-ing documents, telephoning, e-mailing, and monitoring successive shipments.

6.4.2.3.3 Packing/Unpacking (Crating/Uncrating)

The practice in some museums of packing and unpacking shows directly in the gal-leries is not recommended, if it is at all possible to provide separate space. The reasons for this include the necessity of closing the gallery and setting up extra security measures while unpacking is going on; the need to have special customs or security checks made on crates within a bonded storage zone; the danger of storing works in the gallery overnight if installation is incomplete; the danger of accidents as objects taken from their crates are unprotected


while work on other crates is going on around them; and the possibility of infestations escaping from packing materials into the museum proper.

A dedicated Packing/Unpacking area in the nonpublic collections zone of the building and separate from the shipping/receiving room where crates are received from the loading bay is preferable, and often serves as the hub or clearing house for shipments. From this point on in the museum, all collections spaces must be environmentally controlled. Crates should be opened or packed by qualifi ed museum preparators in the packing/unpacking or crating/uncrat-ing area only under the supervision of authorized museum personnel—usually a curator, conservator, or registrar, who prepares a Condition Report on the object, and takes a photograph if necessary. The use of digital cameras and laptop computers and the ability to send lists and images of the works directly back to lending institutions has expedited this step in the documentation process. An essential adjacent space is a packing supplies storage room, with materials ready for use when a shipment is going out.

6.4.2.3.4 The Isolation Room

An isolation or quarantine room is provided to allow for segregation of any object or shipment that shows evidence of possible pest or chemical contami-nation. This need not be a large space, but must be designed with enough fl oor space and racking to accommodate crates and uncrated objects, and be able to accommodate inspection and triage activities. An inert-gas fumiga-tion unit or a freezer may be required. Entrances and service penetration points (supply vents, drains) must be designed to prevent pest escapes and to ensure separate air circulation.

6.4.2.3.5 Temporary Storage and Crate Storage

An in-transit or temporary exhibition storage room should be adjacent or readily accessible from the Packing/Unpacking area. This area requires strin-gent climate controls and security, and needs open fl oor space to accom-modate pallets plus appropriate rack shelving, artifact cabinets, or picture racking. Only in museums with a very large volume of temporary exhibitions should it be necessary to use compactor storage in this area. Crates, pallets, panels, plinths, display cases, or vitrines should not be stored in this area, which is a dedicated space exclusively for works of art, artifacts or specimens.

Newly arrived crates may need to be acclimatized for from twenty-four to forty-eight hours before they are opened, so the packing/unpacking (crating/uncrating) area must be large enough to accommodate this function. Alter-nately, this may be achieved in the in-transit store or crate store. For this reason, and because crates may often have to be stored with their contents inside, the


crate storage area should also be fully climate-controlled to the same museum standards as the in-transit storage rooms and exhibition galleries.

6.4.2.3.6 Space Summary

Table 6.2 summarizes the collections and exhibitions receiving and handling spaces needed by larger institutions. Smaller institutions may need to com-bine some of these functions in terms of spaces, but should strive to maintain the vital sequencing of operations required for collections safety.

6.4.2.4. Adjacency and Circulation for Receiving

Figure 6.1 provides an adjacency diagram showing the critical relationships between the spaces described in table 6.2 for receiving and handling collec-tions and exhibitions.

The following principles should be respected in planning and designing adjacencies of such spaces:

• Direct, uninterrupted fl ow of art objects, without ramps, turns or steps, from the loading dock through shipping/receiving to packing/unpacking and into collections storage, temporary exhibition storage (transit store), and the exhibition galleries.

Table 6.2. Shipping/Receiving Exhibition Support Space

Space NameOption A: Minimum ft2 (m2)

Option B: Preferredft2 (m2)

Transit Store (Temporary Exhibits Storage Area)

800 (74 m2) 1,600 (149 m2)

Receiving Offi ce 100 (9.3 m2) 200 (19 m2)

Collections Supplies (clean) 50 (4.6 m2) 100 (9.3 m2)

Loading Bay and Dock (A—partially enclosed; B—fully enclosed)

600 (56 m2) 1,400 (130 m2)

Shipping/Receiving Area 400 (37 m2) 800 (74 m2)

Packing/Unpacking Area 400 (37 m2) 800 (74 m2)

Packing Supplies Storage 50 (4.6 m2) 200 (19 m2)

Crate Workshop/Crate Assembly 400 (37 m2) 600 (56 m2)

Crate Storage 800 (74 m2) 1,200 (111 m2)

Moving Equipment Storage and Charging Stations

100 (9.3 m2) 200 (19 m2)

Collections Lift (Freight Elevator) (per fl oor)

120 (11m2) 250 (23 m2)

Security Booth 150 (14m2) 150 (14m2)


Figure 6.1 Critical Adjacencies: Collections and Exhibitions


• Crate storage, isolation room, and temporary exhibition storage must all be adjacent to packing/unpacking.

• Receiving offi ce (for registration) must have direct access from shipping/receiving.

• Access is needed from the crate workshop/crate assembly area to packing/unpacking.

• Moving equipment storage must be adjacent to shipping/receiving.• All rooms to have unobstructed access without steps, ramps, or turns, to

the collections freight elevator, which requires keyed access to every fl oor on which collections are stored, processed, or exhibited.

• All areas must be capable of being restricted to authorized staff during operational hours.

6.4.3 Exhibition Planning and Production Spaces

Any museum’s exhibitions are central to the visitor experience and to the museum’s image, and represent a major investment of resources. Presenting the collections and telling the stories in a space that is clean, safe, and well maintained, as well as attractive and welcoming, requires the right facilities for creating and maintaining exhibits. Two main kinds of space are required:

• Exhibition Planning, Coordination, and Design Space• Exhibition Production and Maintenance Space

6.4.3.1 Exhibition Planning, Coordination, and Design Space

Every museum that undertakes an exhibition program requires extensive pre-planning and coordination of exhibition activities. These are offi ce-based activ-ities, with a need for meeting rooms, reproduction and computer facilities, and excellent communications systems. Exhibition planning and coordination may be tasks assumed by personnel who wear other hats, so commonly their offi ces and other work areas can be part of the suite of administrative spaces of the museum. In addition to offi ce and meeting space, the museum may require a design studio, and specialized spaces such as a charette room or a model room.

6.4.3.2 Design Studio

The design studio can consist of a single drafting table or computerized design workstation and light box in part of an offi ce suite, or it may be a des-ignated space close to the exhibition fabrication shops. Nowadays, computer-ized design tools are commonly used, and can provide capacity for graphic design as well as CAD and other architectural design tools. Printers, scan-ners, copiers, and layout space may be incorporated into the design studio. Many museums outsource all major exhibition design, but fi nd that they still need design capability for graphics and smaller exhibition changes.


6.4.3.3 Project or Charette Room

The exhibition design process is often team-based, requiring curators, designers, educators, and outside consultants to meet regularly over months or even years to develop ideas, to mock up equivalent spaces, and view models and prototypes. Larger museums fi nd having a designated meeting and work space, with gallery-like lighting, where design materials can be left up for viewing between meetings, to be very useful.

6.4.3.4 Model Room

An intensive exhibit design process for a large project may generate several versions of gallery models, each of which can be expensive to produce; some museums have scale models available of each of their gallery spaces, which are used time after time to try out exhibit ideas. A store room next to the project room used for exhibit meetings is helpful as way of keeping unused models, panels, and sample boards handy, clean, and undamaged.

6.4.3.5 Exhibition Production and Maintenance Space

6.4.3.5.1 Fabrication Facilities

One of the most important planning decisions for any museum is whether to produce new permanent and temporary exhibitions in-house, or whether to contract out some or all of the design, production, and fabrication work to specialized fi rms. The issue of scale is also important: there is a vast differ-ence between the facilities needed for modest touch-up and maintenance of exhibits, and full exhibition production programs that may extend to produc-ing travelling exhibitions in-house to go on the road. With the increasing use of more sophisticated materials, fi nishes, and electronics for modern exhibits, additional staff expertise and equipment may be needed to get the high-tech appearance and performance desired. The scale and ambition of the exhibi-tion program can have major impacts on both space requirements and staff-ing, and thus on both capital and operating costs.

At a minimum, however, every museum requires basic workshop space for repairs and maintenance of exhibits. Art museums in particular need to repaint galleries and movable walls, to reset exhibit lighting, and to build simple plinths and mounts for regularly changing shows.

Exhibition preparation workshops of two basic kinds are needed:

• Dirty workshop(s), where carpentry, metal and Plexiglas work, painting and other processes that produce dust or fumes that might affect the museum environment are undertaken. These workshops usually include work sta-tions for power tools, and may extend to a paint bay for spraying boxes and


panels. Overhead racks may be used to store lumber effi ciently. Workshops must permit not only case modifi cation and frame making, but also mount making to support museum objects, often on a small and delicate scale. Graphics may be produced in one of these workshops. However, works of art, artifacts, and specimens should never enter the “dirty” workshops.

• A clean workshop is an area where pictures are fi tted to frames, or artifacts and specimens are fi tted to their mounts. Routine cleaning of works of art, arti-facts, or specimens may also be done here, especially if the museum does not have a conservation laboratory. Works on paper may be matted here. This workshop should be included in the museum’s nonpublic collection zone, and provided with the environmental and temperature controls equivalent to those in the galleries or collection storage rooms. Light conditions compa-rable to those in the galleries are also useful, so that preparators or conserva-tors may be able to see fi nished works as they will be when on display.

6.4.3.5.2 Supplies, Tools, and Equipment Storage

An important additional feature of exhibition support facilities is storage for the many exhibition elements (vitrines, panels, plinths, kiosks, etc.) that are not currently in use. Many museums fi nd that they need to warehouse these items off-site; however, at least a minimum storage area on-site will enhance day-to-day effi ciency of operations. An area of at least 1,000 square feet (93 square meters) is desirable for medium-sized museums, more for larger institutions.

6.4.3.5.3 Exhibition Staging, Installation, and Maintenance Spaces

Although most aspects of exhibition design and fabrication can be contracted out, ongoing exhibition maintenance is nearly always an in-house function. Therefore, every museum requires at least the minimal facilities required for exhibition upkeep as well as for in-house collections functions such as mat-ting and framing. These would include at least minimal clean and dirty work-shop space, and storage for display supplies, lighting supplies and equipment, moving equipment, and for cleaning carts, ladders, and scaffolding. Staging areas should be provided as lobby and turning space outside each freight lift opening, or between the freight lift and service doors into the gallery.

6.4.3.5.4 Space Summary

Although many museums prefer to outsource most or all of these functions, other major museums have a large and highly specialized suite of spaces for exhibition production. The following table 6.3 is a comprehensive list from a major museum which produces all of its own exhibitry. In this instance, some spaces are optional, indicating that these functions might be combined or contracted out. Additional workshop space would allow for specialized work


in metals, Plexiglas and textiles in separate spaces rather than in all-purpose dirty and clean workshops.

6.4.3.6 Adjacency and Circulation for Exhibition Production

Ideally, all the exhibition design and preparation spaces need to be adjacent, or clustered together, on one fl oor level, with good access for delivery of raw materials and supplies from the delivery entrance and freight elevator, and access to garbage disposal bins.

• Clear, unimpeded access is needed to all exhibition galleries via the Col-lections Freight Elevator.

• Adequate staging areas should be located on each fl oor near the galleries.• Storage space is needed for exhibition props or furniture not in use, with

easy access to and from the galleries via the freight elevator; storage areas for exhibit props are sometimes incorporated into walls or panels divid-ing galleries or areas within them.

• Secure storage directly adjacent to the workshops or galleries, with access restricted to staff and contractors, is needed for tools and equipment.

Table 6.3 Exhibition Production Space

Space Name ft2 (m2)

Planning and DesignPreparation/Design Offi ce 400 (37 m2)Design Studio/Graphic Design 600 (56 m2)Graphics Production Shop 600 (56 m2)Charette Room 600 (56 m2)Model Room 400 (37 m2)Dirty WorkshopsDirty Workshop (carpentry, metalwork) 2,000 (186 m2)Mountmaking Shop (metals, plexiglass) 600 (56 m2)Paint Room and Spray Booth 800 (74 m2)Lighting Equipment Room 400 (37 m2)Electronics Workshop 400 (37 m2)Clean Workshop (matting & framing) 500 (46 m2)Installation Shop (textiles & paper) 600 (56 m2)Photography Studio 1,600 (149 m2)Supplies, Tools and EquipmentExhibition Furniture Storage 2,000 (186 m2)Tool Room 100 (9.3 m2)Installation Equipment (ladders, scaffold, saw horses, tool carts) 400 (37 m2)Clean & Dirty Supplies Storage 400 (37 m2)Flammable Storage (paints, solvents, glues) 100 (9.3 m2)

2 4 6

PLANNING FOR COLLECTIONS CARE

Most museums are collecting institutions, so planning to store, study, record, and conserve permanent collections is an important part of a museum plan-ning process. This chapter addresses those needs, beginning in section 7.1 with a review of the costs involved, proceeding to consider storage (7.2), documentation (7.3), conservation treatment (7.4) and the need for research policies and plans (7.5). The need for preventive conservation to preserve the museum’s holdings throughout the collection zones of the museum is discussed in the following chapter 8.

THE LIFE OF COLLECTIONS AND THE COST OF KEEPING THEM

Barry Lord

The false stereotype of museums as static institutions is rooted in the errone-ous notion that collections are inert—that donors of works of art, specimens, or artifacts confer an asset on the museum free of all cost. On the contrary, permanent collections have a life of their own, for which they demand accom-modations (museum storage), high-priced environmental controls, security, lighting, documentation systems, ongoing review of their condition, and occasional conservation treatment. Donations may be gratefully received, but all involved need to understand that they constitute liabilities as well as assets.

In 1988 the Offi ce of Arts and Libraries (OAL), at that time the U.K. government body responsible for museums, commissioned Lord Cultural Resources to undertake a survey of the collection management costs of a hundred British museums of all kinds. The OAL was so pleased with the report of this survey that they further commissioned Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce (HMSO) to publish it as a book, The Cost of Collecting (HMSO, 1989) by Gail and Barry Lord and John Nicks. Unfortunately this text remains to this day the only book-length study of the costs of collection management.

The survey’s fi ndings may be summarized as follows:

7.1

CH

APT

ER 7

PLANNING FOR COLLECTIONS CARE 2 4 7

• Direct collection management costs cover all curatorial programs, research, documentation, stock-taking, conservation, and security costs. Together these constituted on average 38 percent of the operating budgets of a representative sample of museums in the U.K.

• Indirect collection management costs include general maintenance and administration associated with the collection. This was calculated as a proportion of the running costs for the building and administration costs equivalent to the proportion of the building occupied by the collections. The average indirect cost for all museums was found to be approximately 28.5 percent of the total operating budget.

• The cost of collection management may be stated as the sum of direct and indirect costs, which amounts on average to 66.5 percent of the museums’ operating budgets. If the average cost of acquisitions (2.5 percent of the budget) is added to this fi gure, the total cost of collecting reaches 69 per-cent of museum budgets.

The Association of Art Museum Directors (AAMD) publishes an annual Statistical Survey, which reveals very similar patterns of expenditure for some four hundred art museums and galleries in the United States and Canada. Analysis of the 1990 AAMD report (closest in date to the U.K. survey) revealed that direct costs attributed to collection management, care, and display averaged 38 percent of total operating expenditures, which is identical with the results in The Cost of Collecting survey. This suggests that the results of both surveys indicate a “norm” (not an ideal, but a norm) of collection management costs. There are some differences in the defi nition of expenditure categories that made comparison diffi cult, but the breakdown of expenditures seems remarkably similar across the board. When expenditures on capital improvements are excluded, the patterns shown in table 7.1 can be seen.

This analysis of costs attributed all salaries, benefi ts, and related costs to each museum function in order to arrive at a total of all expenses that are due to holding a collection. In chapter 13 we note that salaries, benefi ts, and related costs account for 50–60 percent of the budgets of most museums, in some cases even more. This analysis is consistent with that fi nding because the proportion of those salaries entirely or partially going to collection-related functions was calculated in order to arrive at the fi ndings that are presented in table 7.1.

Over more than two decades since the fi rst (1991) edition of this book, the trend toward placing greater emphasis on providing enhanced public pro-grams and services for visitors with greater access to collections and informa-tion about them has increased and intensifi ed. At the same time, the proportion of operating costs directly or indirectly attributable to the collections appears


to have declined. This is due in part to reductions in expenditure on curatorial and exhibition programs. By 1997 the AAMD report showed that these had already declined from 32.5 percent to 21 percent; on the other hand, security costs, which held steady until 2001, have spiraled upward since then. Over-all, the model developed in the U.K. in 1988–89 and verifi ed in the United States in 1990 is still valid, although calculations may need to be adjusted to refl ect changes in the distribution of costs by function. Nevertheless, this core conclusion holds true:

The life of collections—the cost of collection management—accounts for about two-thirds of the cost of operating collection-based institutions when direct and indirect costs are taken into account.

One important correlate to this fi nding is to compare it with revenues. Worldwide, we have found that collection-based museums that charge admission can generate about 30–35 percent of their operating budget from their public programs—admissions, memberships, retail sales, food and bev-erage, and rentals revenue. Science centers and children’s museums that are not collection-based can sometimes increase this proportion to 50 percent or even higher, refl ecting the fact that their budgets do not include many of the collection-related costs. For collection-based institutions, however, there is a striking parallel: only one-third of their budgets can be raised by their public programming, whereas two-thirds of their annual operating costs are due to their collections. Governments considering how much they should subsi-dize museums may fairly conclude that if they contribute around two-thirds or 70 percent of the museum’s budget they will be doing their job, ensuring the preserva-tion of the heritage represented by the permanent collection, while fairly challeng-ing the museum to raise the remaining one-third or 30 percent from its public

Table 7.1. Comparison of 1990 U.S. and 1988 U.K. Surveys of Museum Operating Costs

U.K. Survey % U.S. Survey %

Curatorial and Display 31 32.5

Public (except exhibitions) 7 7

Library 2 3

Security 14 13

Administrative 19 19

Building Occupancy 18 17

Other 9 8.5

Total 100 100


programs—if they believe that their government-subsidized museums should charge admission. In the case of government-directed free admission, as with Britain’s national museums, the subsidy level should be at 80 percent to com-pensate for the lack of admissions revenue, which at best can earn about 10 percent of a museum’s operating budget. Actual government subsidy levels in Britain and most other countries have fallen far below 70 percent, let alone 80, so this conclusion constitutes a challenge to the ministries of culture or similar government agencies around the world.

The variation in museum types, the uses to which collections are put, the condition of the collection, and the condition of the museum building all affect the cost of collection management. Details of these variations as we found them in the U.K. in 1988 are all presented in The Cost of Collecting, and have not changed much since then. The signifi cance today of these fi ndings for museum planning is that the running costs of collection management can be controlled only if the museum building is designed to facilitate museum functions. For example, with security costs accounting for an average of 14 percent of total museum running costs (and almost 40 percent of the direct costs of collection management), a gallery design that provides clear sight-lines will greatly increase the effi ciency of security and provide either long-term savings in operating costs, or savings that can be allocated to other currently underfunded collections-related functions—research, for example, which receives on average only 2 percent of the operating budget.

As indicated elsewhere in this manual, the space which houses collec-tions is the most expensive to build. Our survey of U.K. museums indicated that 70 percent of the space in their buildings was being used to store, exhibit, or treat collections. In section 14.1 our analysis of museum zones shows that the norm for public collection space amounts to 40 percent and for nonpub-lic collection space 20 percent, so that total space dedicated to collections accounts for 60 percent of the building. Given that space for collections is 60–70 percent of the building, it is clear that the planning and design of the museum as a whole requires the detailed and continuous attention of profes-sionals who are expert in the collections-related functions.

The proportion of museum space allocated to exhibition and storage space varies according to governance, type of collection, and the ways in which the collection is used. This is the space allocation that supports the display/storage ratio. In the large national museums in the U.K., for example, at the time of the 1988 Cost of Collecting survey, the ratio of exhibition to stor-age space approached 1:1. In local museums the ratio was more like 2:1, and for independent museums it was just under 4:1. For museums of all types it was 2.7:1, meaning that if a museum had 2,700 square meters (27,000 square feet) of exhibition galleries, it would have 1,000 square meters (10,000 square feet) of collection storage space. This may be taken as the norm, whereas the nearly 1:1 ratio of the large national museums may be seen as the ideal.


This degree of variation in the provision of storage space underscores the desirability of planning. Museums surveyed in The Cost of Collecting on average had 80 percent of their collections in storage, for an average display/storage ratio of 20:80 percent. Given the opportunity of an expansion or a new building, should such a fi gure be projected into the future? Or should it be challenged? Would a combination of more display galleries, visible storage, and closed storage be a more effi cient use of the museum-quality space to be built? These are questions of policy and planning that should be addressed in the museum planning process.

PLANNING FOR COLLECTIONS STORAGE

Heather Maximea

Museum collections are intended to be held in perpetuity, as cultural heritage and an asset for the future. Their care is a fi duciary trust, and as the previous section indicates they demand a high proportion of the museum’s budget. In addition, buildings decay, and collections grow and change over time, so that the need to acquire new space and storage equipment recurs throughout the life of the museum. Standards in museum practice also evolve over time, as understanding grows of the best materials, methods, and structures to safely store irreplaceable objects; thus museums need to regularly upgrade their storage to provide the best possible care.

The benefi ts of good quality storage for museum collections extend beyond preservation of collections to increasing physical and intellectual access to them, facilitating better use of the collections in exhibitions, pub-lications, research, and educational activities; better planning and budgeting of resources and potentially reduced costs; planned collections development; and reduction of risks to the collection, staff, and users through better storage and handling space, equipment, and methods.

In planning for collection storage, data on the collection’s physical attri-butes and requirements is needed (see chapter 5). Each individual object can and should be described in the museum records according to these characteristics:

• material or medium• structure and composition• dimensions and weight

Where this information is absent, or partial, only order-of-magnitude planning estimates may be possible. The better the data, the more the planning

7.2


process can be pinpointed to a collection’s unique characteristics. These attri-butes allow for objective consideration of fi ve main planning issues:

• the collection storage facility• the storage environment• collection storage modes• inside collection storage• quantifi ed storage requirements

7.2.1 The Collection Storage Facility

The museum structure that protects collections in storage is multilayered. The outer layer is the protective shell of the building or other structure (which for example might be a disused coal mine or underground bunker rather than a conventional building). Within the building there will be segregated storage areas or rooms, within which will be additional protective layers in the form of shelving, racking and cabinets, crates, boxes, trays, and packing media. Each of these layers affords additional physical protection and buffering of environmental conditions, if carefully planned with the optimal conditions for each object or collection in mind.

7.2.1.1 Optimal Site

Siting a museum facility, with the particular requirements of collections as a pri-ority consideration, is one of the earliest museum planning decisions. A site may have tremendous potential for visitor access but be in an area subject to regu-lar annual fl ooding, unstable soils, seismic activity, termite infestation, or other potentially disastrous and expensive conditions. Each of these can be mitigated through proper engineering and construction techniques, but the future potential for ongoing problems must be carefully weighed. It is far easier and cheaper in the long run to fi nd an optimal site than it is to continually ameliorate substan-dard conditions. The right site for collections storage can sometimes be more readily found in a dedicated nonpublic collections facility, a solution that is becoming more common as costs of land in populated city centers increase.

We were once asked to assess a small building that had been offered to a museum as a collection storage annex. The museum itself was high above the river, on a bluff, but lacked expansion space. The proposed annex was in a notorious fl ood zone, and had no damp coursing or other foundation protection. Accepting such a building for collection storage would have been a recipe for disaster. The principle should be that the collections deserve the highest level of consideration when selecting a building site.


7.2.1.1.1 Optimal Site Characteristics for Collection Storage

Collection Storage sites should

• be situated away from fl ood plains or areas with a high water table;• have good drainage and soil stability;• allow ease of access for full-size delivery vehicles;• have a reliable utilities supply including emergency supply;• be close to fi re station, police station, other emergency services;• be a “clean” site free from industrial contaminants and pest infestations.

7.2.1.1.2 Optimal Building

The building fabric has a key role to play in protecting collections. Whether planning for a new building or improving conditions in an existing facility, the following are prime considerations.

• Suitability for the climate—understanding the specifi c outdoor conditions• Quality of materials and construction techniques• Protective Structure

• Structural design for seismic protection• Air-tightness for prevention of uncontrolled loss of conditioned air• Weather-tightness for protection against ingress of rain, dust, sand,

and air pollution • Moisture resistance—fl ooding protection, snow and rain shedding • Thermal performance of all fl oors, walls, and roofi ng • Resistance to attack and to undesired access

• Weight-bearing structure—fl oor loading and column size and spacing suited to storage solutions and to meet the needs of moving heavy objects

• Ceiling heights and headroom to accommodate design objects, their movement, and optimum storage equipment strategies

• Avoidance of unnecessary level changes• Expandability to accommodate future growth• Building-wide fi re protection and security specifi ed for collections,

beyond the code requirements for human safety and building assets

7.2.1.1.3 Optimal Locations within a Building

We are often asked to suggest the best location within a museum for storing the collections. This is a critical factor, because location within the building can affect the preservation of artifacts very directly, as when a below-ground storage space is fl ooded. Should collections ever be stored in basements or underground bunkers?


In practice, although it would be ideal for all collections to be stored on the ground fl oor of buildings, many museum facilities are constructed on restricted sites where it is necessary to locate storage in the basement, or on multiple fl oors including the basement and upper fl oors. Also when collection space competes with public space, collections may end up in “less desirable” spaces in various parts of the building. Designing around these requirements is challeng-ing but can be relatively successful if there is an understanding of bottom-line collection needs and a commitment to achieving the best possible outcome for the collections. Table 7.2 indicates what ameliorative measures may be needed to provide acceptable conditions for collections at each fl oor level.

Table 7.2. Storage Locations within the Museum Building

Floor Level Advantages Disadvantages Amelioration

Basement • Excellent fl oor loading

• Buffered environment

• Does not compete with public space

• Better security

• No windows

• Danger of fl ooding, ground water infi ltration

• Requires stairs or lifts

• No direct access on grade

• Additional foundation works to prevent water infi ltration

• Floor drains

• Storage raised off fl oor


Ground Floor • Excellent fl oor loading if slab on grade

• Less danger of fl ooding

• Ease of access

• Competes with public space

• Possible fl ooding if at grade

• Less secure, because more accessible

• Ideally slab should be above grade

• Floor drains

• Storage raised off fl oor

First Floor • No danger of fl ooding

• Buffered environment• Floor loading will

typically be lower


• Competes with public space

• Augment fl oor loading or restrict weights


Top Floor • No danger of fl ooding • Floor loading will typically be lower


• Risk of leaks and access from roof

• Augment fl oor loading or restrict weights


• Requires extra roof protection


7.2.1.1.4 Optimal Room Construction

An excellent building structure will go far to providing excellent storage room conditions. Sometimes, the interior space needs to be upgraded to provide better conditions than the building itself can offer.

Storage rooms for collections need fl oors, walls, and ceilings that are structurally very sturdy, easy to clean and maintain, and made of materi-als that do not create or contribute to environmental or pest problems. For example, unsealed concrete will continually shed gritty, abrasive dust, which is highly damaging to collections, so concrete must always be sealed. The room structure needs to resist:

• vibration from structural instability or external sources such as traffi c, heating, ventilation or air conditioning (HVAC) equipment, or even movement of storage equipment such as sliding racks;

• leaking or fl ooding risk and plumbing hazards;• pest and pollution hazards;• fi re and intrusion hazards.

Floors: should be stiff, to resist vibration, and even, without bumps or ridges or raised door sills, of sealed concrete or other hard fi nish, or fi nished with sheet vinyl or commercial-grade linoleum. Tracks may need to be cut for mobile storage rails for sliding high-density storage; if so, this has to take place before any storage equipment or collections are brought into the room. Floor drains with backfl ow preventers should be supplied. Fire resistance of fl oor materials and structure should be a minimum of two hours. Floor load-ing needs to be planned for the specifi c collections and storage equipment to be accommodated. General fl oor-loading requirements can be stated as:

• uncompacted racking, shelving or cabinets: minimum 7.2 kN/m2 (150 psf );• picture racking: 7.2 kN/m2 (150 psf );• books and archives stacks, uncompacted: 13.2 kN/m2 (200 psf );• high-density mobile storage: up to 21.5 kN/m2 (250 psf );• temporary and crate storage: to 13.2 kN/m2 (200 psf );• large and heavy objects 21.5 kN/m2 (250 psf ).

Exterior Walls: exterior walls will usually carry insulation and moisture barrier materials as well as services—such as wiring and ducts—and should be fi nished cleanly on the interior face so that these features do not protrude into the space to form a hazard or collect dust; the fi nished wall, whether concrete, plaster, drywall, or wood panels, should be sealed and/or painted. Fire resistance of wall materials and structure should be a minimum of two hours, with fi re resistance of doors a minimum of 1.5 hours. Access points to


outdoors need to be well insulated and weather-sealed, with excellent security hardware and alarm system.

Interior or Partition Walls: existing buildings may already be parti-tioned, or very large spaces may be partitioned to provide different environ-ments, especially for fi re compartmentalization. Interior walls, if they are not concrete structural “bearing walls,” may be paneled or dry walled, in which case they must be sturdy enough for hard use and be able to contain the controlled environment; in some cases they may require a room-within-a room strategy with separate insulation and a moisture barrier. They must be resistant to pest invasion. All interior walls should be cleanly fi nished and sealed and/or painted. Fire resistance of partition wall materials and structure should be a minimum of two hours.

Doorways: Size of doorways into the storage room must be related to the Design Object (see section 3.4) or the specifi c object type and dimen-sions intended for that space, plus the required moving equipment. For future fl exibility of use, providing a larger doorway opening should be considered; a standard double-leaf door opening should be the minimum, but planners should consider upgrading to customized double-leaf or rolling doors to accommodate the maximum object size. Doorway sizes that apply within collection storage generally need to apply in all access and work areas con-nected to the storage, including shipping-receiving, corridors, lift (elevator), workrooms, labs, and subsidiary storage. Sturdy hollow metal interior doors with viewing windows, nonremovable pin hinges and door closers are a good investment since they will have greater resistance to fi re, intrusion, and gen-eral wear and tear. If the door is a fi re exit, it will also need panic hardware.

Ceilings: it is preferable to have a ceiling open to the underside of the structural slab or roof, and with all services and structure visible so that if a problem occurs, such as a roof leak or pest infestation, it will be visible and can be easily accessed and solved. All elements of the ceiling should be cleanly fi nished, sealed, and/or painted, in a light color that refl ects light throughout the space. Care needs to be taken in designing the ceiling structure so that beams and service runs, ducts and dropped lighting are coordinated so as not to lose precious storage height. Ceiling heights are highly variable with the material to be stored and the storage strategy; however, with an average shelving height of 2.4 meters, a minimum clear ceiling height below services would be 3 meters, allowing 0.6 meters for air circulation below structure and services, and above storage equipment. Fire resistance of ceiling materials and structure should be a minimum of two hours.

Lighting: the layout of lighting fi xtures in a storage area needs to be coordinated with the planned layout of storage equipment in order to pro-vide light where it is most needed and to avoid overlighting. Thus, overhead lighting is needed at the entry and staging area, and along all fi xed circula-tion aisles. There should be no lighting above pull-out picture racking—the


lighting should be in the aisle area where individual racks can be viewed. Above compacted sliding picture racks or high-density mobile shelving, lighting should run perpendicular to the racks so that the racks can be viewed at any open position. Fluorescent utility lighting is appropriate in collec-tion storage, fi tted with UV sleeves to reduce ultraviolet light to less than 10 µWatts/lumen. The appropriate ambient light levels would provide for safety of operations (for example, safe operation of a forklift truck) and depend on whether objects are further protected from light by row covers, boxes, or drawers. Lighting in a storage room should only be on when the room is being accessed; a motion sensor can be used to automatically turn off lights when people have exited. Lighting can also be zoned so that areas requiring access can be switched on and off separately. At night, only safety or exit lights should be on.

7.2.1.2 Services

Building services need to support the collection storage area without imping-ing on their essential functions or breaching environmental or security requirements. Thus, building infrastructural elements such as plumbing and drainage lines or electrical panels, which could cause hazards and need to be regularly accessed by noncollections personnel, should never be located within the storage area; the same is true of heating, ventilation, and air condi-tioning (HVAC) equipment, with the exception of the sensors and ducts that need to be in the storage room. Occasional maintenance of systems inside the storage room needs to be carried out under security supervision.

• Power: Electric power within the storage area needs to support light-ing and regular services such as security and monitoring equipment, plus daily activities such as use of a computer, vacuum cleaner, or fl oor polisher. Convenience outlets for movable equipment are needed on the room perimeter to serve these occasional needs.

• Data: Increasingly, collections staff bring computers or hand-held devices into the storage room in order to directly upload data on storage man-agement, or to upgrade object information to central collection databases. Working in this way is more accurate and time effi cient and reduces the need for bulky paper records. In some situations, actual collections process-ing or cataloguing may need to take place in the only available space—within storage areas. Unless there is a wireless building data infrastructure, one or two convenience data outlets should be provided per storage room.

• Plumbing: To minimize risk of fl ooding by water or sewage, the only water or waste-bearing lines permissible with a collection storage room are water lines associated with a fi re suppression sprinkler system. If in an


existing building presence of these lines cannot be avoided, a separation and containment system can be designed and implemented to minimize the effects of a leak. If the storage area is below grade, moisture sensors are an excellent precaution to warn of fl ooding incidents.

• Fire Detection and Suppression: Protection of the contents of collec-tion storage from fi re is a key part of an overall strategy for fi re detection and suppression (see chapter 8). Critical elements within the storage area include:• room construction and materials to meet or exceed code, and use of

materials with low fi re spread numbers;• smoke detection system covering the entire space, heat detection not

required;• sprinkler system covering the entire space;• hand-held fi re extinguishers (both chemical or Co2 type) at the door

and at the far end of the room, with a water hose reel available in adjacent circulation space;

• fi re exiting provisions, coordinated with door security provisions.• Security: A centralized and coordinated security strategy, as described in

chapter 10, is essential for the whole museum. Specifi c requirements for collection storage include:• secure exiting and entry provisions, with hardware, electronic lock-

ing, checking and monitoring systems, and lockdown provisions for closed periods;

• room surveillance systems such as CCTV (closed-circuit television) of the best quality affordable, monitored twenty-four hours, with continuous digital recording, low-light capability (< 5 lux) and color charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras positioned at all room exits (facing the exiting person); controlling overall access to restricted areas through corridor surveillance and DAVID technology (Digi-tally Analyzed Video Intrusion Detection) should be considered;

• ability to lock down sections of high-density mobile storage units, separate storage cages, and/or individual cabinets and drawers as required;

• provision of a specially designed safe or vault for high-security mate-rials, which could include valuables (coins, jewels, gems, objets d’art, antiquities) or high-risk materials such as armaments or radioactive minerals. For additional security the safe or vault may be accessed through a secure storage area.

• Vertical Circulation: there should be no level change from the space outside the storage room to the storage room fl oor; if ramping is neces-sary, the gradient can be no steeper than 1:30, and preferably 1:50 for heavy materials.


Generally speaking, it would not be acceptable to have the main stair or elevator access to other building fl oors giving access to a collection storage room, unless all other fl oors are also solely dedicated to collection storage. If there are other building uses and users, they need to be restricted from collec-tion storage access by such means as key or key/card access to each separate fl oor on all fi re stair doors and both passenger and freight elevator controls.

If there is a mezzanine fl oor within a storage room, access can be via stairs, which will limit the size and weight of materials that can be carried up and down. A mezzanine can also be equipped with a dumb waiter or open-cage lift, so that collections can be moved between levels in greater safety.

7.2.2 The Storage Environment

Chapter 8 addresses the museum environment and the need for preventive conservation if we truly desire to retain our collections for centuries. Specifi c issues for collection storage include the following.

• Light: protecting all collections from unnecessary exposure to light and particularly to damaging UV light can be effectively handled through coordinated storage design and operational procedures.

• Temperature and relative humidity: these two factors work interdepen-dently and demand a sophisticated analysis and strategy to achieve the most stable storage conditions possible (see chapter 8).

• Air cleanliness: abrasive dust, soot, mold and mildew, and gaseous chem-ical pollutants, all need to be eliminated from the storage areas.

• Pest infestation: both good building design and good housekeeping are needed to prevent the arrival and proliferation of harmful vermin, insects, and microorganisms.

For the purposes of collection storage, the environmental strategy links to the overall storage strategy so that each specialized storage area is provided with the optimal environment and security for its contents in the most cost-effective way. The optimal conditions for specifi c artifacts or collections are a matter of scientifi c experiment and experience, but are increasingly well understood by museum planners, conservation scientists, and engineering consultants who specialize in museum solutions. Their advice is essential to providing the best possible conditions under particular and unique climatic and building conditions for each unique collection. Their partners in provid-ing excellent collection environments are the building engineers and techni-cians who maintain the building and its systems to optimum standards.

Any method chosen for providing or improving environmental controls in collection storage will be infl uenced by:


• conservation requirements of different objects and media, including cur-rent storage environmental conditions and their effects;

• the proposed building structure, whether new construction or existing building, and any existing building systems;

• accessibility requirements and restrictions;• specialist advice;• the need for specialized types of storage, such as cool and cold storage.

7.2.3 Collection Storage Modes

The method or mode of organization of the collection in storage is central to planning, can take a number of directions, and can be driven by a variety of needs such as scholarly research, speedy retrieval, preservation, and space effi ciency. Modes of storage organization may include:

• storage by collection, discipline, or nomenclature;• storage by collection use categories (tiering);• storage by material, medium, or object type.

The selected storage mode will have implications for space effi ciency and facility cost, in addition to impacting the way in which users—curators, collection managers, scholars, and even cleaners and security—can access the space and the collections. As noted in section 5.3, storage density var-ies with storage mode. Therefore, one of the key early planning decisions that curatorial and collections personnel need to make is the overall storage strategy, following through to a breakdown of the chosen strategy from the level of the room down to the level of the smallest drawer and storage container.

7.2.3.1 Storage by Collection, Discipline, or Nomenclature

Storing collections according to cultural or scientifi c discipline-based attri-butes takes many forms and has been used traditionally in many contexts. In the past, collections were often organized by geographic area, or by curato-rial considerations such as culture, time period, or dynasty. This organization allows the curator and other scholars to go quickly to a section of storage where related specimens, art works, or artifacts are grouped together and can be readily viewed as an assemblage, which has distinct advantages for schol-arly study and exhibition planning. If based on a system such as the Linnean classifi cation of genus and species for the natural sciences, this type of storage will also provide a very systematic storage format. Storage by classifi cation is also highly effective for cultural collections that are all of one material or


object type such as ceramics or stamps, which can be further grouped by time period, artist, or country of origin.

The disadvantage of storing collections according to cultural or scien-tifi c discipline-related criteria is that items will often vary widely in size and composition—a beetle and a giraffe from the same African savannah will have widely different footprints and needs within the storage system. Trying to maintain a geographic grouping may be wasteful of space. Alternatively, grouping all the beetles worldwide in one area, and similarly grouping all the large mammals, will result in much more effi cient storage space.

Anthropological collections are sometimes grouped by standard ways of classifying human cultures, such as the Murdoch classifi cation system, or in the case of Egyptology by dynasties and kingdoms. This can result in a simi-lar grouping together of very large and very small objects, but has been used effectively in visible storage, where the intent is for scholars and visitors to be able to see and relate all the materials from one cultural area or period; for these purposes, a range of visible storage cases and drawers can be grouped together to accommodate the variety of object types and sizes.

Archaeology and archives more than any of the other disciplines tend to result in ever-expanding collections, a proportion of which is of stan-dard storage size and will be rarely accessed (for example, archival records or archaeological soil and rock samples stored in standard boxes). Archives identify collections by materials received as a group on a particular date, while archaeological collections are identifi ed by site, site locators, and excavation data; both strive to keep these collections grouped together, but at the highest density possible in order to be space-effi cient.

7.2.3.2 Storage by Collection Use Categories (Tiering)

Another way of organizing collections in storage is by their intended use—such as display collections, reserve or research collections, and reference or teaching collections. More museums are instituting collections plans that are based on an analysis of the usefulness of their collections for different pur-poses now and over time. Items that are considered suitable for display today may eventually be retired from display to a research-only category. Dupli-cates or examples of very common and sturdy object types may be moved to a teaching collection, where they can be regularly handled so that they will be used up or degraded over time. Reference collections may be held in a dense format close to study rooms where they can be accessed by students and scholars on a regular basis. Sorting collections by use and related level of care is sometimes called tiering.

For the purposes of collections management, items that are placed in higher use categories should be assigned the highest levels of care, which might mean that if space or other resources are at a premium these


collections will be stored in the best available space with the best possible environmental conditions and security. An example would be a cold stor-age of very limited size: collection managers will need to assign only the most valuable, rare, or fragile specimens to the restricted cold storage space available. The utility of a tiering system is to make the best use of scarce resources, as well as to clearly identify the different purposes for which the collections are being retained.

7.2.3.3 Storage by Material, Medium, or Object Type

Collection storage by medium uses the materials of which the object is com-posed as the guiding principle of organization. This is based on the very important fact that each material, whether it is organically or inorganically based, has its own optimal requirements for care. For example, all artifacts and art works made of paper will be best kept at similar conditions of relative humidity, temperature, and light restrictions, and will benefi t from very clean room conditions with excellent air quality. Providing these conditions for all the works on paper, in one location, will almost always be less costly and more effective in terms of facility and environmental factors than spreading these items among various departments and store rooms.

The exception to the rule is when an institution may have evolved sepa-rate departments that because of their history, funding, and mode of scholarly operations can operate almost as separate entities. In these institutions it may be the case that each scholarly department might, for example, have its own rare book rooms for safe and secure paper storage.

The organizing principles for storage by medium are:

1. fi rst, grouping together organic materials, inorganic, synthetic, and compos-ite or mixed media objects;

2. within these large groupings, objects may then be grouped by material;3. then by object type;4. then by storage method for each type of specimen, artifact, or work of art.

Tables 7.3 and 7.4 illustrate the range of collection types and materials in a large art museum and the type of storage system preferred by the col-lection manager and curators. The process will vary from one museum to another depending on the materials and the numbers of them in each col-lection. Table 7.5 shows an example where it was decided to segregate pallet racking into separate areas for organics and inorganics.

Storage by medium or material is a very effective and yet fl exible mode of collection storage, adopted by a large number of artifact and art-based col-lections. Unless there are important reasons to adopt some other mode, it is usually the option we recommend.


7.2.5 Inside Collections Storage

7.2.5.1 Storage Layout and Internal Circulation

Deciding the best way to organize and lay out the collection storage space is a practical and creative challenge, whether planning a new building or ret-rofi tting an existing space. Ease of access and movement needs to be bal-anced with the most effi cient use of the space, which is almost always a scarce resource. If designing a new building, there is scope to create rooms that function effi ciently, with well-placed doorways, wide column spacing, and avoidance of obstacles such as bulkheads, which waste space. In an existing building these become the challenges for creative refi tting.

Table 7.3. Step 1: Grouping Collections by Organic, Inorganic, or Composite Materials

Inorganic Organic Composite (Mixed Media)

Natural Materials Animal Materials Combined Materials

Ceramics, clay Skin, leather, parchment Wood with inlays, paint, gilding

Stone, including gemstones Feathers Textiles w/ metals, dyes, leather,

Metals Fibers Skins with metals, glass, shell

Glass Bone, ivory, shell Paper or parchment with min-eral/metallic inks, colors

Minerals (dyes, paints, gilding)

Wool, silk, fur Paper or parchment with organic inks, colors

Animal dyes, glues, paints

Synthetics (Man-Made Materials) Plant Materials

Includes synthetic fi bers, textiles, rubber, etc.

Wood

Includes new man-made materials such as plastics

Cotton, linen, bamboo

May include new man-made medical and chemical products

Plant dyes, glues, paints


Table 7.4. Steps 2–4: Grouping Collections by Medium and Storage Mode

Collection Category Media Storage Unit Type

Storage Environment

Paintings before 1900 Mixed 10’ x 15’ racks Standard Storage Environment

Paintings after 1900 Mixed 12’ x 15’ racks Standard Storage Environment

Prints & Drawings Organic Print boxes, 12–15” shelves

Special—Paper

Prints & Drawings Organic P&D—Bins Special—Paper

Photography Mixed Photo Boxes—12–15” shelves

Special—Paper

Photography Mixed Photo—Bins Special—Paper

Paper/Photo Oversize Organic Oversize Trays 48-102”

Special—Paper

Photography Film, Slides, Negatives etc.

Inorganic—Synthetic—Volatile

Freezer and Specialized Racking

Special—Film

Textiles—Flat Organic Textiles—boxes 48–60” shelves

Special—Textiles

Textiles—Garments Organic Textiles—hanging rack

Special—Textiles

Textiles—Carpets, Hangings

Organic Textiles—rolls Special—Textiles

Decorative Arts/ Ethnographic

Org/Inorg/Mixed Artifact Cabinets Standard Storage Environment

Decorative Arts/ Ethnographic

Mainly metals, inorganics

High Security Vault Special—Metals

Asia—Scrolls Organic Scroll Cabinets Special—Scrolls

Sculpture—Oversize Org/Inorg/Mixed Pallet Racking 48-60" × 96–108”

Standard Storage Environment

Installation & New Media

Org/Inorg/Mixed Pallet Racking 48-60" × 96–108"


(continued)


Some of the practical considerations in organizing the storage area include:

• separating relatively “clean” and “dirty” areas within the same space;• storing heavy objects near the door and at fl oor level;• maintaining clear door access and aisles without obstructions;• providing adequate aisle widths and turning space for mechanized equip-

ment if required;• providing access to the furthest points of the room without waste circula-

tion space;• avoiding placement of any storage directly against exterior walls;• creating logical areas—for example, all the pallet racking in one section;• creating long spans of high-density mobile storage;• placing major sections of storage such as pull-out racks to either side of a

shared aisle.

Objects should not need to be moved to gain access to other stored objects, for both object safety and work effi ciency. Thus with high-density mobile shelv-ing, allowing aisles at regular intervals will ensure that fewer racks need to be moved when any one rack is accessed.

Collection storage cannot function without specialized auxiliary equip-ment, ranging from simple dollies, step stools, and library carts to purpose-built art carts, moving ladders, lifts and hoists, forklifts, pallet trucks, and “cherry pickers.” Moving equipment needs to be sturdy and of high-quality materials and mechanisms, specifi ed with special movement features such as the ability to rotate at right angles, and outfi tted with protective and safety features. Each type of equipment has its right application according to the material being moved and stored, and the storage system.

Collection Category Media Storage Unit Type

Storage Environment

Installation & New Media

Inorg/Synthetic Special

Pallet Racking 48-60" × 96–108"

Cool Room TBD

Furniture—All Org/Inorg/Mixed Pallet Racking 48-60" × 96–108"


Ethnographic—Oversize

Org/Inorg/Mixed Pallet Racking 48-60" × 96–108"




Table 7.5. Steps 3–4: Another Option for Grouping Collections by Storage Mode

Storage Area Storage Type Compaction Environment

Painting Storage 1 Painting Racks 10x15 Pull-out Type Standard Museum Environment

Painting Storage 2 Painting Racks 10x15 Pull-out Type Standard Museum Environment

3D Oversize Storage 1

Pallet Racking Possible - TBD Special Museum Environment

3D Oversize Storage 2

Pallet Racking Possible - TBD Standard Museum Environment

3D Objects Storage 1 Artifact Cabinets, Shelving

Standard types adapted

Special or According to Media










Scroll Storage Scroll Cabinets Standard types adapted

Standard Museum Environment

Textile Storage Shelves, Rolls, Cabinets



High Security Vault Shelving, Bins, Trays No Dry Environment (metals)

Paper Storage Cool Shelving, Bins, Trays, Oversize


Cool Environment

Paper Storage Cold Racking, Freezer No Cold Environment

Multimedia Equipment

Shelving Standard types adapted


Areas with artifact cabinets and standard shelving can be divided by medium, object size, department, or culture.


Consideration for these points is needed in planning storage:

• dimensions and turning circle for each type of equipment;• ease of use and safety, and need for staff training and certifi cation;• maintenance requirements;• a parking location with charging station, outside but near the storage

rooms.

7.2.5.2 Internal Staging and Work Areas

Collection storage should not be seen as a permanent work area for staff; there should be designated collection workrooms for cataloging, photogra-phy, packing, and other activities that need special equipment and worksta-tions, and also special research rooms where scholarly visitors can be properly supervised. However, there is often a need for short-term and project-based work in the storage room, such as a regular collections inventory or the need to process an unforeseen donation of many objects. The storage area can ben-efi t from having an open area inside its main entrance, which can be used for general staging, occasional project work or exhibition layout, and temporary storage of large and bulky items awaiting a fi nal home. Some museums like to have a fl at surface for putting down boxes or for note taking at intervals in storage aisles; however, such table tops unfortunately often become “perma-nent storage,” rather than occasional work surfaces.

7.2.5.3 Collection Storage Systems

A wide variety of storage systems is available to meet almost every require-ment. The physical nature of the collections provides the initial guidance as to what specialized types of storage are needed. An important question to ask is whether each segment of your collection will be better served by standard shelving or racking, standard specialized museum storage, or a customized system designed for the specifi c artifacts, specimens, or works of art in the collection.

• Standard storage solutions: Standard library shelving, map cabinets, or industrial pallet racking may be optimal for some types of collections; for others, they may require reinforcing some elements or constructing individual protective mounts or containers for each shelved item.

• Specialized museum storage solutions: Picture racking, textile roll stor-age, and small drawers for storing specimens or slides are some of the specialized systems that have been specially designed for museum col-lections. Other museums with comparable collections may be helpful in identifying products and sources. Or the museum may be able to borrow


a solution from a related industry, such as special armament racks used by the military for an armaments collection.

• Customized museum storage solutions: Occasionally a custom solution is needed for a unique artifact or collection. An example is a wall storage racking system allowing heavy but fragile stone stelae to stand upright, but be supported and restrained from falling. Storing large fl oor mosaics effi ciently is another unique challenge. In these cases the museum must work with a fabricator to come up with the ideal solution.

As part of the planning process, a collections review should be under-taken to identify storage requirements comprehensively. Table 7.6, based on National Museum of Scotland collections review information, shows the use of a collections review format to identify storage equipment needs.

7.2.5.4 Materials and Construction of Storage Equipment

Understanding is growing among museum professionals that every material with which the object comes into contact can affect it for better or for worse. Aged oak cabinets may still be off-gassing to some degree; synthetic foam and rubber gaskets deteriorate and need to be replaced. A museum’s storage system needs periodic review and assessment, and possibly replacement in the light of current materials science. Basic material and construction require-ments for a modern system are likely to include:

• inert powder coated metal elements including frames, panels and screens, shelves or racks, drawer elements and doors, of heavy gauge metal to resist stress damage;

• a wide range of available storage accessories, available now and in future;• adjustable size and positioning of all shelves, trays, drawers, and other

accessories;• ease of opening and closing doors; gasketed doors need to close smoothly

and tightly every time;• drawers must be equipped with glides that resist vibration and provide

controlled deceleration;• appropriate door and drawer locking hardware; • fi re and water resistance of individual cabinets and high-density systems;• all new units designed to be adapted to high-density mobile storage car-

riages as needed.

When buying new storage equipment it pays to invest in the very best that is affordable, because it is a long-term capital asset. Collection stor-age equipment will see hard use for many decades, and the cost in labor and temporary housing to remove collections in order to repair or replace


Table 7.6. Results of a Collection Review Identifying Storage Equipment Needs

Object Type Storage StrategyStorage and Handling Equipment

Special Considerations

Large and Heavy Objects and Machinery

Freestanding or standing on pallets on the fl oor or on heavy-duty pallet racking

Heavy-lifting equipment

Objects may require special pallets, plinths or supports, dust covers

Large–Medium-Sized Objects

Long-span pallet racking or solid deck racking

Pallet trucks, dollies, ladders, etc.

Individual object pallets, dust covers

Small Objects Fixed or high-density mobile racking up to 3 meters high, which may support open shelving or artifact/ specimen cabinets

Manual or mechanical handling, artifact carts, hand trucks, etc.

May be placed on a mezzanine level

Fragile Objects Artifact cabinets with closed doors and specialized drawers, trays, or other systems, or individual box shelving

Manual handling, artifact carts, hand trucks, etc.

Larger fragile items may be individually boxed or crated and stored on racking

Two-dimensional framed Works

Picture racking, may be standard or oversized, pull-out or sliding formats

Manual handling, picture carts

Two-dimensional unframed works

Map or print cabinets or fl at fi les, or shelving for print boxes

Manual handling, library carts

Arms and Ammunition

Specialized racking per military use

May require heavy-duty carts or carriages

May require additional handling or security protocols, explosion-proof design

Alcohol-based collections

Glass containers with gasketed stoppers, standard metal racking with front and back rails to each shelf

Carts may be modifi ed with “milk bottle”-type divided carry boxes

Specialized environment, exhaust systems, and explosion-proof fi xtures

Biological Collections/ Live Cultures

In sealed containers, cool, cold or ultracold freezers may be required

Usually hand-carried, specialized trays and racks may be used

Refrigerator and freezer operation needs monitoring and power backup

Biological Collections—animal and bird skins, etc.

Sealed metal specimen cabinets with gasketted doors and internal trays or shelving systems

Trays may be hand carried or stacked on carts

Cabinets may require special venting


underperforming equipment can be considerable. Equipment that fails in use can cause damage to people as well as collections, creating an insurance and liability issue. It pays to do research, talk to at least three reputable dealers, and review their business history. It’s important to visit dealers’ premises to view examples of their products, examine performance tests and specifi ca-tions, and talk to at least three reference customers for each fi rm. One option is to buy a prototype unit and put it into use during the planning period so that museum personnel can subject it to testing for capacity, adaptability, sturdiness, and quality of fi nish. Future availability of the equipment and its parts is also an important criterion.

7.2.5.5 Freestanding (Not Compacted) Storage Systems

Traditional freestanding nonmechanized storage systems have proven their utility through many decades of use. As collections grew, more space was added and more sections of shelving were built. Nonmechanized systems are easier to maintain, very stable and durable, and sometimes able to be produced locally to meet local needs. Where fl oor loading is a problem, freestanding units can be spaced to spread the load. Where collections are vulnerable to vibration, freestanding storage can be the optimal solution. However, museum space is increasingly at a premium, and there is a need to get the most out of every storage unit; often, traditional freestanding storage areas are being retrofi tted to store more objects, using compact high-density mobile storage systems.

7.2.5.6 Compact High-Density Mobile Storage Systems

Compact or high-density storage systems provide the greatest effi ciency in the use of space and are therefore generally more cost-effective in the long run. However, access to individual objects may be less convenient, and for some kinds of use (visible storage, for instance), high density systems may not be appropriate. The effi ciency of compact storage can be seen in fi gure 7.1, based on a storage space of 6 meters by 8 meters (48 square meters) with allowance for circulation of 2 meters along the longer side:

• Regular storage on shelves: 4 racks × 1 m × 4m = 16 sq. m (172.22 ft.)• Compact storage: 7 racks × 1 m × 4 m = 28 sq. m (301.38 ft.)

This represents an increase of 75 percent in storage capacity. Looked at in another way, equivalent storage on standard shelving would require an addition of 6 meters (20 feet) by 6 meters (20 feet) = 36 square meters (400 square feet) The capital cost of this space at a modest estimate would be at least £36,000 (US$56,000). To this should be added the incremental cost


for building operation and maintenance, which may be estimated at a rate of £30 to £50 per square meter (US$4 to $6 per square foot) per year, which on a capitalized basis would average £400 per square meter (US$50 per square foot), or a total of £14,400 (US$20,000) for this example. The total cost for additional standard storage would therefore be approximately £50,000 (US$70,000). The costs for purchase and installation of a high-density storage system will gener-ally be considerably less. Some system features to look for are:

• bases and carriages adaptable to a wide range of racking and cabinet types;

• ability to expand or relocate the system;• adequate aisle provision including at least one access aisle per section of

high-density mobile storage units, plus a generous main access aisle serv-ing all sections;

• open “escape” space or aisle at the end where storage rows butt up against a wall;

• sunken rather than raised tracks, especially if moving equipment needs to access the aisles;

• top and bottom guides and stabilizers (anti-tip and anti-sway devices) may be needed, especially for tall units and picture racking;

• smooth travel with either manual or mechanized operation, resisting vibration and bumping;

• design services offered, such as space planning and calculation of fl oor-loading weights;

Figure 7.1 Regular vs. Compact Storage


• availability of storage solutions for double-height or more spaces (high-bay systems);

• accessibility for moving equipment and need for specialized equipment;aisle closing safeguards (for personnel safety).

7.2.5.7 Intellectual Access to Storage Locations

Logically, every storage area needs to have a system for fi nding things, at any time, wherever they are located, within the space. More broadly, the museum needs location identifi ers for every object, so that it can be correctly located and identifi ed wherever it is within the museum’s facilities. For proper man-agement of collections assets, it is also important to know exactly what objects are within any one room—in case of an insurance claim for fi re damage, for example. Planning for intellectual access to the storage locations should be integral to the design process, since elements such as custom labels or bar codes are an important cost element.

Location information on the object is usually linked by its accession number to the Object Record within the museum’s documentation system, whether that is on cards, in a log book, or on computer. The trail of move-ments in and out of storage, as well as on and off display, should appear in the Location Log, and this information should be updated each time the object is moved. Use of a PDA or hand-held device to enter location changes immedi-ately from any location in the museum is the contemporary equivalent of the traditional ledger entry.

There are two approaches to storage that relate to location identifi ers:

1. The fi rst approach is that every object in the collection has a place in storage, even when the piece happens to be absent for some reason such as conservation, photography, loan, or exhibit. In this system, it would be possible to tag every location with an accession number, so that the object goes back into its original location. This usually only works when objects are removed for short periods, when an object or box is part of a set (such as all the boxes of artifacts from a specifi c site), or when an object has particular and special storage requirements.

2. More typically, collections grow, and it is often necessary to move objects around to make room and to allow for space economies. When this hap-pens, it is a nuisance to have to relabel all the storage spaces item by item. Therefore, a more effi cient location identifi er system works from the storage rooms down to the storage equipment to the shelf or tray level; the container is then identifi ed in the system with this particular location, and if a new location is selected this information changes on the object’s card or database entry. Storage identifi ers should be pragmatic


and informative, and semipermanent to allow for ease of changes when needed.

The object container should be labeled with its specifi c accession and site numbers, and useful descriptors such as site name or object name. For fragile items it is useful to affi x a photograph of the item so that it can be identifi ed in storage without actually handling the item or container until necessary.

Institutions that have massive collections have begun to employ new technologies to record locations. Bar coding has been used since the 1970s to identify collections that have standardized storage containers such as document boxes or plastic bins that labels can adhere to reliably. This sys-tem depends on using a line-of-sight bar code reader to read the box num-bers, then the shelf numbers, and to link the two in a computerized access program.

New technologies such as passive or active (battery-powered) radio fre-quency identifi er (RFID) tags or labels, which can be read without line-of-sight contact and can more fl exibly identify objects, contents, and systems, are also being explored and used. RFIDs can be used so fl exibly that they can have institution-wide applications beyond storage locators, and thus can identify staff and their access restrictions and many other storage manage-ment parameters.

7.2.5.8 Public Access to Collections Storage

The issue of who has access to collection storage areas is part of determining how that storage will be designed. Philosophies of access to storage range from the bunker principle of “as few as possible” to the desire for all of a museum’s constituents to have some measure of access to the wealth that is held in trust for them. Arguments for “as few as possible” cite security from theft and vandalism and threats to the special storage environment, as well as practical issues of staff supervision, as good reasons for restricting access to collection managers, conservators, and the occasional curator.

One of the most attractive program options for visitors—from scholars to school children—is a back-of-house tour that includes a collection storage room. This type of tour is a rare treat simply due to the logistics of access, particularly for collections held off-site, and for collections held in com-pact high-density mobile storage systems. But ways and means of providing degrees of public access are sought by museums as public demand increases:

• Access for staff and specialists: every museum needs protocols for which personnel need access to closed storage under what conditions and what specifi c security procedures of key and door access, sign in, and monitoring


will be used. External specialists such as conservation contractors are usu-ally accompanied and monitored by staff during storage visits.

• Access for scholars: Increasingly, museums restrict scholarly visitors from unsupervised visits into the storage areas, and study sessions with the objects within the vaults are less usual than in the past, since muse-ums realize the hazards, from artifacts going missing to damage from unskilled handling and incorrect reshelving. Some artifacts in themselves may pose a health and safety hazard. In more specialized storage, the carefully maintained environment is breached by any human presence and is uncomfortable for any length of time. The alternative for most museums is a supervised study area outside the storage vaults, with an acclimatization zone that can be used also for temporary locked storage.

• Access for students: Students from school age through postgraduate studies appreciate the thrill of a back-of-house storage tour—but this can be offered only under carefully controlled circumstances for the same reasons that scholars are restricted. As an alternative to the storage tour, museums may offer selections of objects from a teaching collection in dif-ferent formats within education spaces: discovery boxes, study collections in drawers, hands-on objects brought in for classroom, or studio sessions.

• Access for the general public: The aspiration to make collection stor-age accessible to the average museum visitor has inspired new modes of display such as visible storage; loan programs for “take-home” objects; and, increasingly, access to the bulk of collections and their associated catalogue information via images and text databases that are available online in the museum, or at home from the museum’s website. Options to provide glimpses into actual closed storage, via catwalks, viewing galler-ies, or viewing windows are dependent on the location of closed storage areas in relation to public space, and their use can be limited by necessary storage conditions such as temperature control, storage density, and low ambient light.

7.2.6 Estimating Collections’ Storage Needs

The fi nal planning step is answering the tough question, “How much col-lection storage space do we need?” based upon the requirement to store col-lections effi ciently under optimal conditions. The answer impacts the entire building project, since collection storage can take up 20–40 percent of the net space, depending on the size and age of the collection and the relative avail-ability of space on-site. Key decisions, such as whether to fulfi ll the dream to relocate all storage back to a single facility or, alternately, to seek permanent or temporary off-site storage solutions may stem from the quantitative and qualitative data provided by a collections’ storage space need estimate.


As noted in chapter 5, a credible projection of collection storage space requires prior answers to a number of questions from the collection records:

• What is the current collection size? The total number of objects in the collection needs to be stated in numbers for each object category to be stored.

• How fast is each category of the collection growing, and how fast will it grow over the design period?

• What materials, dimensions, weight, and sometimes shape characterize each object?

• What “footprint” does collection storage occupy now?

Additional questions stem from the selected mode of storage organiza-tion and the character of the materials:

• What is the optimal storage mode for each collection category? • What is the optimal storage equipment for each type of collection object?• How will collections be organized or segregated—by medium, discipline,

or by use?• Will all the collections have a place in storage, allowing for regular rota-

tion and/or reinstallation of galleries?

Every item should be accommodated, with allowance for growth, to the Design Year.

7.2.6.1 Assessing Current Storage: Collections Review

Those museums that have existing collections and storage solutions can use-fully begin the planning process by reviewing how their current storage is working in practice. New museums that currently have no collections or no existing storage facilities can profi t from the experience of older museums with a long history of storing similar types of collections.

The British Museum used the following steps to review their existing storage in 1994, leading to an assessment of current and future need and some important decisions about development of new facilities over the com-ing decades:

• Compile a detailed schedule of all existing storage rooms, with fl oor area and clear ceiling height of each room.

• Measure the total volume of stored objects in each collection.• Record the volume and fl oor area occupied by racking or other equip-

ment currently occupied by collections, and whether or not it allows the stored objects to be properly organized, or the extent of overcrowding.


• Rank the suitability of the existing storage rooms against two criteria: (1) fi tness of environmental and other conditions in relation to museum standards for the care of collections (fi ve categories from excellent to unacceptable); (2) fi tness of method of storage to meet operational requirements such as handling and accessibility of objects (three catego-ries from excellent to unacceptable).

This data provided the basis for an assessment of the current criteria for the allocation and use of storage space (whether rooms were suitable for stor-age or for the type of storage), and whether the existing space could be used more effi ciently. It allowed for two projections: additional storage needed to improve the organization of existing collections, and an estimate of space needed to house future acquisitions.

A storage review can also identify special situations, such as a collec-tion that according to the donor agreement must stay located adjacent to a named gallery, or objects that should be considered for deaccessioning. Col-lections that have a high potential for public access and use may gain priority for housing near the public spaces, while collections rarely accessed may be slated to move off site. Formulating some basic strategies in advance can help to give direction to the space assessment and lead to a more useful outcome.

7.2.6.2 Estimating Methods: Order-of-Magnitude Calculation

A basic order-of-magnitude estimate of current and future collection storage needs can be made based on the current storage area (square feet or square meters), projected on the basis of historic collections growth. Factors can also be added on a room-by-room or collection-by-collection basis to allow for current overcrowding or to allow for the potential to introduce high-density mobile storage systems. Table 7.7 provides an example of an order-of-magni-tude calculation of collection storage space needs.

A single storage room often houses more than one type of collection, each of which may have a different growth rate. Using a single growth factor as in table 7.7 would reduce the overall accuracy of the projections, so it is important to determine the differing growth rates for each collection category. Table 7.7 also illustrates that implementing compaction in additional storage rooms will substantially reduce both current and future space requirements.

Alternate order-of-magnitude methods use the storage footprint or stor-age volume (space holding stored items minus circulation space). Calculation by volume can be useful when there are a number of different storage rooms with differing ceiling heights and storage systems, since it allows for these discrepancies to be fl attened out to some degree. A standard or desired stor-age height can be applied to get back to a storage footprint, but a circulation factor will need to be added.

Tabl

e 7.

7. O

rder

-of-M

agni

tude

Cal

cula

tion

of C

olle

ctio

n St

orag

e N

eeds

Roo

mSq

. Ft o

r M

eter

s%

Ove

r C

row

ding

Adj

uste

d SF

or

SMC

urre

nt

Com

pact

ed?

Com

pac-

tion

Fac

tor

Cur

rent

R

equi

rem

ent

SF o

r SM

His

tori

c G

row

th

Fact

or

Gro

wth

in

SF o

r SM

pe

r Yea

r5-

Year

P

roje

ctio

n10

-Yea

r P

roje

ctio

n

Roo

m 1

1000

10%

1100

YE

S0%

1100

2%22

1210

1320

Roo

m 2

1000

10%

1100

YE

S0%

1100

2%22

1210

1320

Roo

m 3

500

20%

600

NO

60%

360

2%7

396

432

Roo

m 4

300

20%

360

NO

60%

216

2%4

238

259

Roo

m 5

600

50%

900

NO

60%

540

2%11

594

648

Roo

m 6

200

20%

240

NO

0%24

02%

526

428

8

36

00

4300

3556

71

3912

4267


7.2.6.3 Estimating Methods: Order-of-Magnitude by Storage Density

Estimating collection storage needs by the storage density method relies on knowing the footprint of each storage room and the number of objects stored within it. This allows for a calculation of square feet/meters per object, or objects per square foot/meter, in storage. An assessment of whether current conditions are adequate or overcrowded can be made and an adjustment fac-tor applied to show what the density of optimal storage conditions would be. The density fi gure can then be translated into an adjusted requirement for square feet/meters, either for each collection room, or for the overall collec-tion. This method can be implemented for each collection type (for example, for ceramics separately from furniture), if the data on numbers and current space for each category are available. As in the previous method, a growth factor based on the historic growth factor for the collection can be used to extrapolate collection needs over the next fi ve, ten or more years to the Design Year, the year for which we are planning space. Table 7.8 provides an example of this method of projecting storage space requirements. As with the preced-ing table, fi gures could be in square feet or square meters.

A density-based calculation is primarily useful for order-of-magnitude planning and for comparison with display densities (see chapter 6). Figure 7.8 assumes that the mode of storage will be unchanged. To accommodate this further variable, it is necessary to combine aspects of both tables—allowing for the change in storage density that will result from a change in storage mode in the Adjusted Density column.

7.2.6.4 Estimating Methods: By Detailed Calculation

An order-of-magnitude assessment of the needed collection storage space may be enough to guide a Facility Strategy for a museum building project if it is based on good collection and room data. However, in many cases it is not suffi cient or is not credible to the museum’s governors, because it glosses over the magnitude of storage problems that may have built up over many decades. In some cases, the store rooms are so crammed and inaccessible they are hard to estimate, and furthermore the intention may be to abandon exist-ing storage for a new solution. A museum with many departments with dis-cipline-based collection storage may need far more detailed collections and storage assessments in order to make the case for new or radically improved storage. In these instances it may be necessary to go back to the dimensions of individual objects and their individual storage footprint, to determine the required amounts of different kinds of specialized storage, before projecting the overall storage need. Table 7.9 provides an example for a Victorian paint-ing collection, where it is necessary to add three inches to either side of each height and width dimension (therefore adding six inches to the painting’s

Tabl

e 7.

8. O

rder

-of-M

agni

tude

Cal

cula

tion

of C

olle

ctio

n St

orag

e N

eeds

by

Stor

age

Den

sity

Roo

mSq

. Ft o

r M

eter

sN

o. o

f O

bjec

ts

Den

sity

O

bjec

ts/

SM

%

Ove

r-cr

owdi

ngA

djus

ted

Den

sity

Cur

rent

R

equi

re-

men

t SF

or S

M

His

tori

c G

row

th

Fact

or

Gro

wth

in

SF o

r SM

pe

r Yea

r5-

Year

P

roje

ctio

n10

-Yea

r P

roje

ctio

n

Roo

m 1

1000

500

0.5

0.0%

0.5

1000

2.0%

2011

0012

00

Roo

m 2

1000

2000

2.0

0.0%

2.0

1000

2.0%

2011

0012

00

Roo

m 3

500

2000

4.0

0.0%

4.0

500

1.0%

552

555

0

Roo

m 4

300

2400

8.0

0.5%

8.0

302

1.0%

331

733

2

Roo

m 5

600

5000

8.3

2.0%

8.5

612

1.5%

965

870

4

Roo

m 6

200

1500

7.5

3.0%

7.7

206

0.5%

121

221

7

36

00

5.1

5.

136

38

5839

1142

02


dimension) in order to calculate the rack space required. The table indicates that these ten Victorian pictures can be accommodated on one 120-square-foot rack.

The ultimate scenario, if the museum’s record systems have dimensions data for every item in the collections, would be to plan for a custom-sized space for every art work or specimen. For a small, discrete collection of unique works of art, this might be the best approach. However, the available data is often not up to this challenge. In addition, this “unique item” approach can-not handle collections growth.

As a more practical approach to such detailed calculation, we have found it useful to employ the museum’s knowledge about its collections in order to devise a series of size categories that are tailored to the different collec-tion categories. These can be used to calculate how much racking or cabinet space and fl oor space will be required. Table 7.10 provides an example of this approach for artifact cabinets with trays and shelving.

Assigning size categories for each material, medium, or storage type in the collection could facilitate an analysis of storage needs that can be adjusted and refi ned to give the needed projection. For example, going to a double-height storage room would allow a change in the stacking factor, which would then result in a changed storage calculation and potentially saved space. Table 7.11 provides another example, this one for large artifact racks or pallets. In ten years, the large artifact racks storage area would need to double to accommodate anticipated collection growth; however, rather than building it all at once, it might be possible to build in two phases, one to meet the fi ve-year need, and another to meet the ten-year goal.

7.2.6.5 Using Comparative Methods

For accuracy of planning, it is useful to be able to use alternate methods of estimating the space need as a check on the numbers. Any of the meth-ods described above could be used to cross-check any of the others. Often an order-of-magnitude calculation is carried out by the Museum Planning Team at a very early stage of assessing the feasibility of a facilities project. As the project proceeds into the planning phase, however, a more detailed and accurate assessment is required to check the accuracy of forecasting and apply corrections as necessary. A Facility Strategy may be produced at the outset as the basis for the brief for an architectural competition, for instance, but the fi gures may be refi ned in the course of producing a Functional Program for detailed design once the architect is chosen.

Tabl

e 7.

9. S

tora

ge R

equi

rem

ents

by

Item

Dim

ensio

ns

Col

lect

ion

Cat

egor

y/Pe

riod

Acc

Num

ber

Typ

eH

eigh

t W

idth

Dep

thR

ack

Spac

e

No.

of R

acks

w

ith

120

SF

Cap

acit

y

Art

Vic

tori

an91

.026

.01

Pain

ting

40.5

043

.75

3.00

1772

0

Art

Vic

tori

an91

.026

.02

Pain

ting

39.7

547

.13

2.50

1873

0

Art

Vic

tori

an91

.026

.03

Pain

ting

35.7

540

.63

1.50

1452

0

Art

Vic

tori

an91

.026

.04

Pain

ting

33.5

047

.38

1.50

1587

0

Art

Vic

tori

an91

.026

.05

Pain

ting

51.6

348

.63

1.50

2510

0

Art

Vic

tori

an91

.026

.06

Pain

ting

41.2

533

.50

2.00

1382

0

Art

Vic

tori

an91

.026

.07

Pain

ting

40.1

334

.88

2.00

1399

0

Art

Vic

tori

an91

.026

.08

Pain

ting

37.6

334

.50

2.00

1298

0

Art

Vic

tori

an91

.026

.09

Pain

ting

36.6

340

.50

2.00

1483

0

Art

Vic

tori

an91

.026

.10

Pain

ting

36.2

540

.50

2.00

1468

0

Sq. I

n.16

226

0

Sq. F

t.11

30.

939

Tabl

e 7.

10.

Col

lect

ion

Stor

age

Requ

irem

ents

by

Size

Cat

egor

ies

for A

rtifa

ct C

abin

ets

Art

ifac

t Cab

inet

s wit

h T

rays

and

She

lvin

g

Dec

orat

ive

Art

s%

of T

otal

It

ems

No.

of

Item

sH

eigh

t In

ches

Len

gth

Inch

esW

idth

In

ches

Item

Foo

t-pr

int S

FT

otal

Foo

t-pr

int S

FSt

acki

ng

Fact

or

Stac

ked

Foot

prin

t SF

Stac

ked

Foot

prin

t w

/ 60%

C

ircu

lati

on

Stac

ked

Foot

prin

t C

ompa

cted

Smal

l30

%31

343

31

0.02

65.2

820

.00

3.26

105

Med

ium

35%

3656

83

30.

0622

8.48

12.0

019

.04

5729

Lar

ge

25%

2611

139

60.

3897

9.22

7.00

139.

8942

021

0

Ove

rsiz

ed10

%10

4523

1316

1.44

1508

.72

4.00

377.

1811

3256

6

10

0%10

445

1.

9027

81.7

1

539.

3716

1880

9

SQ. F

OO

T R

EQ

UIR

EM

EN

T16

1880

9

Tabl

e 7.

11.

Col

lect

ion

Stor

age

Proj

ectio

n fo

r 5–

10 Ye

ars

for

Larg

e A

rtifa

ct R

acks

or

Palle

ts

Lar

ge A

rtif

act R

acki

ng/P

alle

ts

Scul

ptur

e

% o

f T

otal

It

ems

No.

of

Item

s

Item

Fo

ot-

prin

t SF

Tot

al

Foot

-pr

int

SF

Stac

king

Fa

ctor

(m

ax 8

ft

ht)

Stac

ked

Foot

prin

t SF

Stac

ked

Foot

prin

t w/

60%

Cir

cula

tion

His

tori

c G

row

th

Fact

or

Gro

wth

in

SF

/SM

pe

r Yea

r5-

year

pr

ojec

tion

10 Y

EA

R

PR

OJE

CT

ION

Smal

l50

%74

429

43

9829

42.

5%74

662

1029

Med

ium

27%

506

292

214

643

80.

5%22

547

657

Lar

ge

18%

375

186

118

655

80.

5%28

698

838

Ove

rsiz

ed5%

1064

640

164

019

201.

5%28

833

6048

00

10

0%14

779

1412

10

69.8

832

10

52

6673

23

C

UR

RE

NT

SQ

. FO

OT

R

EQ

UIR

EM

EN

T32

10P

RO

JEC

TIO

N52

6673

23


7.2.7 On-Site vs. Off-Site Storage

In planning for new or renovated facilities, an increasingly important ques-tion is whether collections must or should be located within the same facil-ity as the exhibitions, education, and other public spaces of the museum. Traditionally, the entire museum was united in one space. As collections and activities grew, additional storage such as warehousing was acquired by some museums, often initially viewed as a temporary solution. Decades later, many museums realize that this off-site storage would be diffi cult or impossible to replace with on-site storage, given the scarcity of valuable land for museum building. A capital project offers an opportunity to go either way—to move some collections off-site, or to unify collection storage under one roof. How-ever, the decision whether to integrate all collection storage together, or to formally adopt an off-site storage model and to give up the dream of “repa-triating” collections back into the main museum building can be diffi cult and contentious for staff, board members, and patrons. Table 7.12 summarizes the major issues.

An example of facilities that could not practically be accommodated on-site is the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History’s off-site Marine Mammal Preparation and Storage facility, which is several miles from the museum in an industrial area and which houses its defl eshing, butchering, and frozen storage facilities. Having such a facility at a safe distance from the museum is a very clear benefi t.

At the same time, however, the Los Angeles County Museum of Natu-ral History had several off-site storage facilities, due to the inability of the museum to fully rehabilitate an aging building to house collections. Hav-ing so many collections destinations was clearly ineffi cient, expensive, and to a large extent unmanageable. Although collections were moved off-site for their own protection, the space they were moved to was not optimal, nor was it envisioned as a permanent solution. After a major planning effort and rebuilding project, the museum was able to reduce the number of storage areas, improve storage conditions generally, and renovate some on-site stor-age to higher standards.

A number of museums have found that while a large-scale off-site stor-age repository is their best option for the bulk of their collections, it may not be the best option for all their collections: there may be highly valued and frequently accessed collections that need to be housed closer to home. Thus a combination solution may be envisioned, with selected collections on-site, and massed collections off-site.

Off-site storage in the past has been characterized by ad hoc solutions using low-quality space, or seen as a “bunker” that is locked up and forgotten. This has given off-site storage a bad name. However, there are now numerous examples of large and small museums that have developed state-of-the-art


Table 7.12. Advantages and Disadvantages of On-Site and Off- Site Storage

Advantages of On-Site Storage Disadvantages of On-Site Storage

All building capital and running costs are assumed in one building.

Renovating and upgrading building systems is more diffi cult in a single facility; as the building ages, conditions may deteriorate.

Staff effi ciency is maximized by reducing travel outside the building.

Staff effi ciency is reduced if on-site storage is overcrowded and equipment is outdated; collections become less accessible in crowded storerooms.

Collections are less frequently exposed to the outdoor environment and to travel hazards.

Overcrowding of collections in limted on-site space may cause damage.

Collections are easily accessible for research and collaborative projects.

Collections compete for other types of public and scholarly space.

Advantages of Off-Site Storage Disadvantages of Off-Site Storage

Often it is possible to provide a facility purpose-built for storage, without compromises due to other building needs.

Off-site storage requires regular movement of staff, goods, and collections between locations, often necessitating a special museum van or additional vans or a staff shuttle.

Storage can be supported by specialized facilities such as labs and workrooms that could not be accommodated on-site.

Any movement of collections involves some level of risk.

Cost of an off-site facility may be considerably lower than on-site, due to land costs, different construction methods, and consolidation of storage and support space in a more effi cient manner.

Buildings off-site require some duplication of expensive support facilities such as loading docks, freight elevators, offi ces, and security, and of staff.

Off-site storage can take the pressure off the main museum facility and allow greater fl exibility in allocating space to evolving museum functions.

Staff transport costs may need to be factored in; staff morale problems may be an issue for those who are assigned to the off-site location.

Off-site space may offer greater opportunities for future expansion, especially if additional land is part of the initial package.

A more remote location may pose additional security risks and a different security strategy.


collections facilities that offer top-quality storage, accompanied by excellent support space ranging from essentials such as loading docks to conservation labs, specialized project rooms, and full curatorial offi ces.

The conclusion must be that off-site storage offers excellent possibili-ties for improving an institution’s ability to provide high-quality storage and support space for its collection; this is increasingly so when prime land and building costs are skyrocketing in many urban areas. However, for off-site storage to be the best solution, and provide optimal conditions for the col-lections, it needs to be approached with the same planning rigor as any other building project. It is not the only facilities solution and should be weighed against all other options to fi nd the unique combination that meets the muse-um’s current and future needs.

DIGITIZATION OF COLLECTION RECORDS

Steven A. LeBlanc

Planning new capital projects for museums—whether these involve new con-struction, expansion, renovation, restoration, or relocation—offers an oppor-tunity for undertaking or extending digitization of collection records. This section explores the potential of planning for digitization as a central part of a museum capital project.

7.3.1 Digitization and traditional museum functions

The production of digital images of objects, historic photographs, notes, paper records, and the like has opened up new vistas for museums. Increasing access and improving preservation have historically been at odds. Traditionally, the greater the access and use, the greater the wear and tear on the collections. With digitization both goals can be achieved at the same time, and record keeping and management can also be greatly improved. The potential is obvi-ous, and it is the means and methods of implementation that are the issue.

However, the world is not that simple. The technologies behind digiti-zation are among the fastest moving in the computer world and almost any information or methods that are proposed or advocated are likely to become outdated rather quickly. It is best to develop general principles and deal with specifi cs only at the point of actually implementing particular projects, which need to be reviewed regularly in light of new developments.

Importantly, the underlying issues surrounding digitization are not that different from the documentation issues that museums have faced for many years. A useful step in thinking about these questions is to remove the term digital from the conversation. How would you handle a request for a copy photograph or a three-dimensional reproduction, either for internal

7.3


or external use? The fact that what is used or provided is digital does not change the underlying issues. It has long been possible to make copies of paper records, to make work prints of historic photographs, or take photo-graphs of objects. Digitization not only makes this much faster and cheaper, but the resultant digital fi les have many new uses, especially combined with electronic databases and the Internet. It is the ability to use digital images in new and exciting ways that is driving digitization efforts.

All produced images, whether they are a paper print, negative, or Xerox, are at the core composed of very small dots whose size, color, and placement on the page produce an image. A digital image is simply the same thing with the dots (called pixels) stored electronically instead of physically. So, in a sense, digital images are not as different as they are sometimes perceived to be. Virtually any digital fi le can be printed onto other media. Virtually any image on other media can be digitized. Issues of copyright, confi dentiality, and preservation are conceptually the same as they used to be. The underly-ing issues have not changed. How easy it is to transfer, copy, and otherwise use images has grown greatly. But all the old issues that museums faced are little changed in concept.

Digital images are just that: images. They do not replace the original object, either from an aesthetic perspective or from the perspective of a sci-entifi c study. They may be useful in such endeavors, but they do not replace the original. Nor do physical three-dimensional replicas or for that matter 3D digital images replace the original. In the past, museums always had to deal with the issue of copies in various forms. Nothing conceptually has changed; it has just become easier to make copies of all sorts. While this is a wonderful new resource, a modern painted replica of the Mona Lisa is not the origi-nal any more than a cast of a Paleolithic hand axe is the artifact. Different museums and cultures vary in their attitudes toward replicas. They differ in their attitudes toward restoration as well (which can now be done via digital images). The fact that a copy or restoration is digital has little to do with the fundamental issues involved in the activity. Once again, in considering many of these issues, fi rst remove the term digital from the discussion and then apply traditional museological attitudes and processes to the issue.

The vast majority of the impacts of digitization are positive. It is now possible to have easily available images of all the objects in a collection, of all the historic photographs, or even all the supporting paper documents. These can be used internally, or some or all can be put on the Internet for wider use. Internal use is perhaps more important than is recognized. Looking for an object while holding an iPad with the image of it displayed can be a big help. Opening a record of an object and being able to see a digital image of the original accession information including images of hundred-year-old ledger pages can be a big help. Being unsure of which object would be most


appropriate for display and being able to see images of several dozen choices is emancipating.

We can be sure that digitization will only get cheaper and easier to under-take. At the same time new digital forms will become practical, increasing costs or enticing us to start all over with a new approach. For example, one can now buy a digital camera that takes digital pictures equivalent to a 35 mm slide for under a thousand U.S. dollars. The fi le sizes are large, but stor-age space is so cheap that a full uncompressed image can be stored on about ten cents worth of hard disk; and that will have dropped by half between the time this was written and when you read it. There will be little reason to take larger images, so the need to buy new cameras and larger disks will dimin-ish. However, the ability to take three-dimensional images will continue to improve and become cheaper. At some point we will all be tempted to discard our 2D images and replace them with 3D. The future is going to be change. Our goal must be to develop practical, realistic approaches to this change, and remain as fl exible as possible.

7.3.2 Integrating Digitization with Museum Planning

The more that digitization projects and resultant images can be integrated into other museum activities and functions the better. This is best achieved by planning ahead. The cost of taking “record” images while moving a col-lection or inventory as part of a capital project seems much less than when it is a project all its own. Incorporating digital images to collection websites or printed reports is again much easier if planned initially. If we extend the mantra “Every object has a number” to “Every object has a photograph,” then great benefi ts arise. Security is enhanced, as a photograph provides greatly increased proof of ownership. Many times an object will not need to be han-dled because initial selection can be done using photographs. Researchers and exhibit designers can quickly review large lists of thumbnails to reduce what they truly need to see and handle. Condition can often be assessed, and storage decisions made on an initial basis from photographs. Changes in con-dition can also be monitored in a way not practical previously.

If done properly, the cost of making digital photographs is so low that it should be considered another form of conservation and preservation. Many times, such photography is most effi ciently done in storage spaces. The more they are designed to accommodate this task the better.

7.3.2.1 Planning Space for Taking Digital Images

The fi rst question is: what is the goal in digitizing? The answer varies accord-ing to the size, type, and resources of the institution. The single most diffi cult


decision is image quality. Once again, this has always been the issue, regard-less of whether one was using a fi lm camera or a Xerox machine. The issues are the same. Although there are many nuances and alternatives, there are two basic approaches to this question of image quality:

• One is “studio”-quality photography. An image is taken by a professional photographer in a space with special lighting and mounts. This is, of course, the most expensive, requires the most additional staff (conserva-tors, preparators), and requires numerous decisions. How many photo-graphs, at what angles, and with what backgrounds all need to be decided, sometimes on a case-by-case basis.

• The other extreme is the “record ” shot: A single photo is taken by a non-professional. The goal is a photograph that can be used to identify and examine the object, but does not have the lighting or background we expect from a studio photograph. These can be done today with high-resolution good-quality cameras, so the images have many uses, but they are not as attractive as studio shots. Such photos can be taken on a simple photo stand, or even taken while the object remains on the storage shelf. So their quality can vary, but they can be from ten to thirty times less expensive than studio photographs.

The differences in approach can make photographing an entire collection prohibitively expensive and time-consuming if the studio option is taken, or within reach of many museums if the record image will suffi ce. For planning purposes, locations and abilities to take both kinds of photographs are nec-essary, but the weight given to accommodating each type can vary substan-tially. Utilizing the collections classifi cation by purpose outlined in chapter 5, one could decide to make studio-quality images of the display collection while accepting record photographs only of the study and reserve collections. The decision on which approach to take (or the various permutations possible) can be diffi cult and may require considerable thought, but it is integral to the planning for any substantial digital project.

The size of the space required depends on what type of digitization is planned. There is a trend in museums toward multipurpose spaces, in order to remain fl exible. In a fast moving world this has advantages, but raises some concerns:

• Dedicated spaces for digitization are really not much different from tra-ditional photographic studios. One needs to control the light, and to have room for mounts and backdrops. Digital images have the same issues as conventional photographs with color balance. The color of the walls and fl oors can impact the color balance of the image. While it is probably


easier to correct digital images for problems than it ever was for fi lm images, it is still best to minimize the need for such corrections.

• Color balance is particularly a problem with multipurpose spaces, where there may be more concern with having color variability and natural light to enhance the ambiance of such spaces for their other uses. Multicolored tile fl oors, for example, can create havoc with color balancing. Conversely, a well-designed photo studio may be fi ne for 2D photography but not big enough for 3D; some current systems use multiple cameras from differ-ent angles, while others use large and complex camera mounts. A mul-tipurpose space may be the only place large enough to take 3D images of some objects in the future. If so, we need to plan it so that it can be converted to a good photo space. This may involve no more than the abil-ity to put curtains over windows and lay a temporary cover on a colorful fl oor; but a bit of forethought may make such solutions much easier to implement.

Since most museums will likely undertake a large scale digitization proj-ect at least once within thirty years, what kind of fl exible spaces should be thought of to accommodate a large scale project?

• If the decision has been made to do studio-quality photography, then the biggest issue is the ability to move and temporarily store large numbers of objects near the photo studio.

• If the decision is to make record photographs, then the most practical approach is to photograph in storage spaces, where the rule is: the shorter the move, the better. Designing aisles or work spaces in the collection stor-age room so that objects can be photographed in them can greatly speed up and reduce handling when photographing.

Even if there is an initial studio-quality photograph, it is likely that changes in object condition, or the desire to photograph how the object is being stored, may generate a need for a record image as well. With proper software, such images can be retained for internal use only. However, they will more likely be taken and therefore made available if they can be taken in storage, so provision for this work should be built into storage design when-ever possible. This may include wireless networking capabilities, easy access to electrical outlets, and space to set up a small copy stand. All will increase the ability to take advantage of the technology under some situations.

Space is also required when digitizing paper and photographic archives. The space required is usually much smaller than for objects, but it often makes sense to have several people working on such projects at the same time, so work spaces should include room for a computer workstation as well as fl at


bed scanners for up to three or more people in larger museums. Once the bulk of a paper or photo collection is digitized, keeping up with new acquisitions should rarely require as much space as the initial effort. Designing a space that can be repurposed at least in part is appropriate in such circumstances.

7.3.2.2 Planning Space to Store Digital Images

Just as the technology for taking and disseminating digital media contin-ues to evolve, so does the approach to storing digital information. Once, the approach was to hold small images on servers that could deliver the images and to hold large archival versions of the same images off-line on CDs, DVDs, or hard drives. Each of these media presents its own problems of storage and access. They are frequently not redundant, their formats become obsolete shockingly quickly, and there is no guarantee that they will work when plugged back in or put into a player.

With the ever-increasing speed of networking off-site, digital storage has become increasingly attractive. This is sometimes called cloud computing, where the information is stored somewhere on the network, but just where does not matter to the user. Many museums have reached the rational conclusion that they do not want to become computer companies. Their core expertise lies elsewhere. The fewer servers and other computer services they need to provide, the better. It is almost impossible for museums to have the expertise or scale to fi ll all their needs in-house. A few very large museums may be exceptions, but for the rest there is a growing realization that the more that can be outsourced the better. Thus, one approach is to have some on-site digital storage as images are being made and processed, but to store the bulk of the digital image data off-site. Even a mid-sized museum that is actively acquiring digital images can need 10–20 terabytes (1 terabyte = 1,000 gigabytes) of disk space, which must be “redundant,” or regularly backed up. Physically this should not take much more space than a medium-sized refrigerator, but the space needs to be cool and secure with room to work on the device. So servers should not be housed in a closet. Servers also need staff to maintain them, which means that they should be adjacent to nearby offi ce space.

The overall information technology (IT) space needs of most museums will be large compared with the physical space to store even many terabytes of digitized images. But loss of the digitized image fi les would be catastrophic, so a good solution has little to do with space and more to do with a well-thought-out plan. Equally important is the networking capability within the institution. With poor networks, one captures an image on a local hard drive, then transfers it later to a dedicated server; with good networking, one puts the image directly on the server, reducing labor and the potential for mis-takes. In theory, one could initially put the image directly into the “cloud.”


Over time, the size of the IT space devoted to servers will decline, but the need for good space with adequate cooling, lighting, room to work in the area, and especially security for the space will increase.

Fortunately, the IT needs of digital imaging are not really different from the other IT needs for a museum. A good IT space will be needed for overall museum support. Today, a single rack or two of a rack server can accom-modate the digital storage needs of most museums. More of an issue is how will it be backed up: will there be a redundant mirror server elsewhere in the facility? Will there be a large tape backup unit? Or will backup be in the “cloud”? Either of the in-house solutions will double the space requirements, but again, they will be of the same scale as the other storage and backup needs for a typical museum. Digital image storage may need particular care to ensure no losses over time, but the amount of space and other needs are not particularly different from that needed to save and deliver digital material for the museum website, exhibitions and emails. As they say, bits are bits.

PLANNING A CONSERVATION LABORATORY

Samuel M. Anderson

Although most museum and library directors are supportive of conservation, some may be unaware of how special programming requirements bear heavily on initial decisions about location, fenestration, security, and climate controls for a conservation lab. Accordingly, this section aims to assist museums and the conservators in those museums in making the case for timely involve-ment in planning a new or expanded laboratory, particularly for large projects of which the lab is only one part. The goal is to assist the Project Team in crafting a successful process: how to reach good decisions, rather than what choices to make.

7.4.1 The Planning Process for the Lab

Just as museum construction, renovation or expansion requires a deliberate planning process, so does the conservation laboratory. What is the Brief? Is conservation’s mission within the museum changing as part of the new con-struction, renovation, or expansion? Is every relevant person enlisted? Where should the lab(s) be located? Conservators and museum decision mak-ers should address these questions and more during an interactive process, concurrently with planning for other spaces. Decisions should not be made independently—the overall planning process would be remiss if appropriate decisions about the conservation lab(s) were not established in concert with museum planning well before design starts.

7.4


Museum construction, renovation, or expansion gives a conservation department a chance to redefi ne its mission, including consideration of such opportunities as:

• to allow conservation treatments in other media;• to include conservation science as well as treatments; • to foster conservation research;• to include or expand training of interns and fellows;• to reduce or end dependence on outsourced treatments;• to engage curators more effectively;• to move beyond exhibition-determined or loan-driven treatments by

providing space for ongoing work on the permanent collection that is not related to these contingencies.

If such possibilities are deemed important by the conservators but are not recognized by the museum’s governance or management, the case for such changes should be made clearly, effectively, and early. Any mission expan-sion has some cost, but if the benefi ts to the collection and the institution are convincing, the expenditure can be justifi ed and perhaps recouped. For example, a museum without a suitable paper lab may lose a potential donor with fi ne collections of drawings and paintings. With both types of lab, the museum is more likely to attract the gift. Options for dedicated conservation laboratories include labs for:

• paintings;• sculpture and other three-dimensional objects;• works on paper;• rare books;• textiles;• metals;• wooden artifacts;• photographic materials;• electronic media;• conservation science.

In any case, the museum should decide which media to include, how large each lab should be, and how many conservators, technicians, and interns should be accommodated over the period from now to the Design Year.

How large should the lab(s) be? This depends on projected staff size, the nature of the collections being treated, and the need for special treatment spaces. Labs designed by my fi rm have ranged in size from 270 to 430 square feet (25 to 39 square meters) per person. The tightest was for a university library’s special collections (manuscripts, books, and fl at paper), and the most


commodious was for a modern art museum. If space is tight, it is necessary to consider amalgamating some functions. For example, some institutions have successfully dedicated one large room to serve as X-ray chamber, spray booth, and photography studio, obviating the need for three distinct rooms. This might not work for every client, but for others, when designed well, such a combination can be a felicitous solution.

There is no single criterion as to where the lab(s) should be located within a museum. Certainly it is vital to have appropriate natural light, but it may be worth trading great light in exchange for more ample and fl exible space, proximity to the collections, or another key requirement. I have seen a trend toward clustered labs that foster more interaction among conservators (paintings with sculpture, for example), but this may not always make sense, particularly at very large museums. The most common criteria for determin-ing lab location are:

• good natural light (some directional as well as ample, diffused light);• clear access to the collections elevator, if not to collection storage directly;• good security, since work may have to be left out for long periods of time; • proximity to curatorial offi ces;• remoteness from sources of vibration, noise, dust, and odors.

The need for ample, natural light calls for placing the labs on an upper fl oor, ideally the highest. Another reason for a location aloft has to do with mechanical equipment specifi c to labs: exhaust fans. Solvents and other harm-ful chemical vapors must be spirited away through fume hoods and solvent snorkels by exhaust fans, which are almost always located on the roof. Labs located on upper fl oors are closest to the roof, reducing the length of duct-ing needed to reach the roof. If a lab is located on a low fl oor of a multi-story museum, the intervening galleries and other spaces must be designed to accommodate the substantial ducts carrying exhaust to the roof.

Another challenge of exhaust fans is their appearance. Most solvent exhaust fans include a three-meter-high stack (to assist in shooting the fumes upward), so many labs require a small forest of fans and stacks on the roof. I have seen several museum projects stumble because the Project Team did not address the interconnectedness of labs, fans, and stacks during the early planning stages, when a comfortable solution would have been much easier to devise and implement.

7.4.1.1 The Conservation Lab Brief or Functional Program

Museum conservators and/or other concerned staff should compose a docu-ment that outlines all their requirements for the fi nished labs; museum plan-ners should use this document to dedicate one section of the overall museum


Functional Program, or Brief, to the conservation lab(s). In addition to telling the story of the labs in the context of the museum’s mission and future, it should list specifi c needs and goals:

• How many staff members of each type? • How many individual treatment stations (tables or easels), common

treatment tables, specialized tables (for examination, matting, framing, suction), and other essential loose furniture are required?

• Make a list of all special equipment and special functions, such as an X-ray room, a spray room, a photography room, a workshop, or a large sink for de-ionized water.

• If possible, provide a projected inventory of tool drawers and supply cabinets.

Creating these lists will stimulate thinking about the labs and lead to the articulation of other needs and issues. Reviewing the lists among the conservation staff further improves its completeness, and better prepares the museum for the design process.

Visits to labs at other institutions may suggest what to add to the pro-gram, or layouts and/or circumstances that should be avoided in the lab being planned. It is helpful to visit recently designed labs in addition to well-established ones. Learning from others’ mistakes and successes is a legitimate strategy.

The Functional Program, or Brief, for a conservation lab should include the following parameters, stated as precisely as possible:

• climate control: set points and allowable ranges daily and yearly for tem-perature and relative humidity;

• indoor air quality: chemicals to be excluded from construction materials, required air changes per hour, and fi ltration standards;

• fl oor loading: minimum structural load capacity and maximum allow-able defl ection;

• fl oor vibration: maximum acceptable velocity and frequency.

Floor loading and vibration requirements vary from lab to lab according to the anticipated weight of sculpture or other heavy objects to be moved around them, and the sensitivity of instruments and equipment.

Like the rest of the museum’s functional program, the conservation lab brief should be edited for concision and clarity. The idea is to convey infor-mation effectively to the decision makers and Design Team: What are the key elements and why are they important? If the brief or program is too long or mean-dering, it will lose importance.


7.4.1.2 Lab Schedule and Budget

The value of defi ning a realistic budget and schedule for the conservation lab early on cannot be overstated. Conservation labs are necessarily more expen-sive than offi ce space or collection storage because of their special equipment, but they need not be exorbitant. It is entirely possible to build a reasonably priced conservation lab, but it is harder to do so if the overall project has already established circumstances that require expensive changes. For exam-ple, if a lab is located remotely from a suitable exhaust fan site, the cost in added ductwork and reconfi gured galleries would be signifi cant. Likewise, if the lab is placed over galleries, then special waterproofi ng and drip pans would infl ate costs.

Informed decision making during the planning and early design stages can protect the lab from being truncated during “value-engineering” (cost-cutting) exercises. If the conservation lab is only one portion of a larger proj-ect, and if a reasonable budget is not established in advance, the lab runs the risk of being reduced or even eliminated when the project is subsequently tendered, due to administrators’ mistaken expectations.

Since each circumstance is different, it is wise to hire a suitable museum planner, experienced architect, and/or cost consultants to do a feasibility study based on the specifi c program and site. The study should establish reasonable estimates of the project’s cost and schedule, taking into account any remain-ing planning and fundraising periods, as well as design time, and the bidding, construction, and commissioning schedule, especially since labs often must be completed in time to treat the collections being moved from storage into the galleries before opening. Total project costs should include such “soft” costs as design fees, project management fees, furniture costs, and fi ling fees, as well as the “hard” construction costs. While major built-in equipment such as fume hoods, snorkels, and large sinks are usually included in the construc-tion cost, expensive loose equipment like microscopes or X-ray tubes should be budgeted by the conservators, even if their cost is part of the operating rather than the capital budget of the construction project. An honest assess-ment of ongoing equipment maintenance costs should also be made at this time.

Many factors affect the construction cost of conservation labs; here are several that can have a signifi cant impact:

• Size and layout; a layout that is only semifunctional will be less effi cient and therefore more costly.

• Extent and quality of fenestration; ill-positioned skylights would require special ameliorating blinds and controls.

• Decision-making culture of the institution; indecision adds time and money.


• Distances from the mechanical room and from the exhaust fans.• Extent of special equipment, such as x-ray room, spray room, hot table,

or extra large sinks.• Mechanical system effi ciency: energy-effi cient designs cost more initially

but save money over time.• Extent of furniture and cabinetry.• Quality of materials and fi nishes.

7.4.2 The Lab Design Process

The more interactive and iterative the design process (within reason), the more likely the design will succeed. It is not enough to do an outstanding job of programming in advance of design. No matter how clear the pro-gram may be, or how well intentioned the architect may be, no Design Team can entirely understand the clients’ needs and expectations without engaging them in an ongoing exchange of ideas. An architect with previous lab experi-ence can bring a range of informed suggestions to new clients, but even in such a circumstance the architect should expect every client to have distinct needs and limitations, and should be eager to learn about them.

The Design Team for a major museum project usually includes a raft of specialist consultants, such as lighting, security, and IT specialists, each of whom is qualifi ed to apply his or her discipline across the spectrum of museum spaces. However, some spaces require particular expertise, such as retail, restaurants, and conservation labs. If the architecture fi rm engaged in the overall project intends to design the conservation labs using its own staff, those individuals should familiarize themselves with the conservation depart-ment program documents as early as possible. Furthermore, that fi rm and the museum should agree to an iterative process where conservators’ voices are respected by the Design Team. In a large museum project, there are so many challenges that it is easy for some of them to be overlooked. An experienced museum planner will understand the importance of planning for the conser-vation lab, but if there is no advocate for conservation on the Design Team, the conservation staff itself must try to exercise oversight of the lab design process.

As well as the architect, the mechanical engineer is crucial to successful design of a conservation lab, due to health issues and to the dynamic nature of lab mechanical systems. Solvent snorkels turn on and off, sucking air out of the building and necessitating intermittent additional makeup air from the supply system. Spray rooms draw out so much air that it is usually best to pro-vide a dedicated makeup system just for that purpose. While good mechani-cal engineers should be perfectly capable of designing and documenting such systems, engineers work on multiple projects at once, and their attentions are


often divided. Client interactions with engineers are mediated by the archi-tect, so it is important to have both a focused engineer and an architect who diligently attends to these issues.

Energy consumption by a mechanical system is a function of three factors:

• how much outside air is introduced into the system;• what temperature and relative humidity that air is conditioned to;• overall system effi ciency.

Since conservation labs have relatively large demands for exhaust air and relatively strict climate-control parameters, they are likely to use lots of energy unless the systems are designed for effi ciency and the climate con-trol settings allow for reasonable seasonal variation. The challenges of energy consumption are currently being addressed within the conservation and museum communities. The conservator, the architect, and the mechanical engineer together must make explicit choices with regard to fume hood selec-tion, fan control, and makeup air design. Generally speaking, choices that conserve energy over the long run cost somewhat more to install initially, but are cheaper in terms of total cost, equally accurate at climate control, and much better in terms of sustainability.

Generally speaking, the best conservation lab designs evolve through a process whereby an attentive architect becomes familiar with the needs and goals of the conservators by spending time in labs, receiving feedback from them as they review the developing design, and remaining involved through-out the construction process. The conservator should spend two days walking through the existing facilities with the architect, pointing out features that are successful or problematic; emphasizing important adjacencies and equip-ment; illustrating works currently in treatment; and voicing hopes, fears, and concerns. The functional program for the lab should be studied in detail, with particular attention to the conservation department’s mission and mandate, especially if they are expected to change during the process of expansion, renovation or new construction. Visits to other labs can be valuable sources of new ideas, unexpected possibilities, and cautionary tales.

Close interaction between conservators and architects is important because no two labs are the same, and the specifi c requirements for space, tools, and equipment vary from staff to staff. No formula exists to ensure a successful layout or confi guration. As the architect develops the design, it is important to continue a steady schedule of reviews with the conservators, to verify that the design is responding appropriately to the conservators’ needs, and that the conservators understand what is being designed for them. Con-servators must be ready to respond to questions and requests for informa-tion without delay; the decision-making schedule in design and construction


is unrelenting. Once the design nears completion and construction looms, there are fewer opportunities for interaction, but the client should still seek to review and respond to the drawings and specifi cations.

Large museum expansion projects pose challenges to this kind of interac-tion. Such projects have a broad cast of characters, so the fl ow of informa-tion must be managed to ensure that decisions in one sphere are not made without regard for their implications elsewhere. To control this, project man-agers often require that each meeting of a designer and client be attended by representatives of the lead architect, the museum, and others. Sometimes even phone calls cannot take place without scheduling a conference. As long as this does not restrain or distract from the interaction, it is not a problem. However, if the process is so cumbersome that it reduces the frequency or candor of meetings, it inhibits the necessary fl ow of information. In such cases, the architect may be forced to rely upon her or his best judgment for some decisions. Whenever possible, it is best to establish cohesive, trusting working relationships in which information is exchanged with ease.

During the construction phase of a conservation lab, the architect and engineers should be charged with especially close attention to submittals and fi eld review; conservation systems are more complex than galleries, and fl aws in construction are not always corrected easily. Material samples and documenta-tion should be carefully vetted to ensure compliance—with indoor air-quality requirements, for instance—before fabrication. Mechanical and plumbing sub-mittals warrant close scrutiny by the architect as well as the engineer.

Each conservation lab warrants a unique design informed by the thought-ful planning of its staff; the key to successful lab design is in establishing an honest, iterative process of information sharing. Nonetheless, there are some underlying principles that contribute to satisfactory lab designs. These concern:

• light and fenestration;• space and fl exibility;• adjacencies and circulation.

7.4.2.1 Light and Fenestration

Ample diffused sunlight allows the eye to perceive color, texture, and variation better than any other source. Conservators are trained to prevent the nega-tive effects of excessive exposure to light (and typically cover sensitive works when not in treatment or under examination), so there is no good reason not to provide such light in a conservation lab. Skylights should face north in the northern hemisphere (south in the southern), and should be raked at an angle that eliminates direct sunbeams. Otherwise, louvers or blinds are necessary to block direct light.


Paper conservators often prefer windows facing east, because raking light makes it easier to perceive paper texture in the morning. Other conservation processes, such as in painting and object analysis, may call for south fenestra-tion. Generally, windows provide benefi ts that should not be withheld from any museum employee. All windows in labs should be provided with blinds, shades, or louvers allowing the staff to modulate light levels easily. Tasks such as ultraviolet light examination should be assigned to windowless spaces if at all possible, otherwise full blackout shades and guides are required at all windows incident on the UV space.

7.4.2.2 Space and Flexibility

Each lab should be dimensioned so that large and ungainly works from the collection can enter the treatment space safely and maneuver comfortably within it. The paths leading from galleries and storage spaces to the labs (including elevators and doors) should be tested early in the design process to confi rm that they are sized to accommodate the largest objects. Then the necessary dimensions should be locked in place.

To treat the largest works, and to prepare adequately for future treatments that might not be currently anticipated, a relatively large, well-proportioned fl exible space is needed in each lab. This can be done by clustering elements that must be fi xed in place, such as fume hoods, sinks, or storage cabinets, against solid perimeter walls, while populating the treatment area with easily moveable elements, like easels, taborets, or tables with casters.

7.4.2.3 Adjacencies and Circulation

Some museums are so large that labs for different media are necessarily sepa-rated from one another. When this is not the case, labs may be distinguished with nonopaque borders that foster collegial interaction among the staff. In these cases, adjacencies can be chosen based on several factors, including the relative cleanliness, noise, and art circulation of each department. Sculpture, book, and furniture conservation include tasks that generate dust, whereas fl at paper conservation is perhaps the most fastidious. Accordingly, a bank of labs might place paper and sculpture at opposite ends, with paintings in the middle and the dirtiest functions placed in a room that can be closed off. Within a conservation science lab, the program should identify those pieces of equipment that cause vibration, dust, and noise, and those that are sensi-tive to vibration and dust.

In designing circulation within the lab, it is useful to distinguish between those functions that necessarily involve the objects under examination or treatment, and those that don’t necessarily require them. Some conservators want to be able to take notes directly onto a laptop while sitting at a painting


or object, while others believe computer use should be segregated from treat-ment areas. Some conservators want offi ce activities to be remote from treat-ment areas so they can think quietly without distractions, while others prefer to read or write while keeping an eye on interns and fellows. Regardless of where the line is placed between treatment spaces and nontreatment spaces, that line should be drawn deliberately, and should be informed by consul-tation with the conservator. A circulation path can serve as the boundary between these spaces—preventing things like pens and heavy books from damaging art—without the barrier of an actual wall.

PLANNING FOR RESEARCH

Barry Lord

Research is the unseen engine of museums. Without a research program a museum cannot generate the new knowledge that the institution needs to be able to offer its public. With a lively and engaged research program a museum can stimulate its present and future visitors for years to come and can par-ticipate in the creation of new knowledge and new meanings both within the museum and without.

Yet as noted in section 7.1, research accounted for only 2 percent of the museum budgets we surveyed in the U.K. Even this amount exceeds what will be found in many institutions. Museum professionals trying to do research—not only curators but also educators, conservators, registrars, educators, and others—typically fi nd it very diffi cult to fi nd the time, let alone the money, needed for this vital activity. As I observed in The Manual of Museum Exhibi-tions (AltaMira, 2002), two syndromes are commonly encountered:

• Some curators attempt to keep up with the research requirements of a con-stantly changing exhibition schedule. They engage in a series of brief forays into an unrelated sequence of research topics, developing each only as far as the limited time allows. Story lines and exhibition catalogues are writ-ten, and shows are installed on schedule, but the permanent collection is neglected, and even new acquisitions remain without the research that is needed in order to realize their true worth to the institution. The same is true of conservators as they respond constantly to the demands of the exhi-bition schedule and of educators as they move from one program to another.

• The opposite scenario, equally unsatisfactory for all concerned, is for the curator to withdraw from the exhibitions and learning programs of the museums, delegating his or her public programming responsibilities to an assistant, a registrar, or an exhibition offi cer, so that he or she may pur-sue a personal interest in research that may be related only tangentially

7.5


to the collection, if at all. The outcomes of this research are published in the learned journals of the curator’s discipline, with scant reference to the museum. The curator functions as if the museum were a research insti-tute, or as if he or she were a university professor who does not teach.

These dire alternatives may be too harshly drawn—but many museum professionals will recognize them as the opposite poles of a spectrum of unat-tractive options when it comes to museum research.

It doesn’t have to be this way. A well-planned museum should have a research policy and research plans that enfranchise all personnel to undertake connected and rewarding research projects that lead to publication and at the same time are closely linked to the museum’s public programs.

7.5.1. Research Policy

The research policy establishes the museum’s commitment to research, con-fi rming that time, money, personnel and facilities will be dedicated to it in keeping with the museum’s mission. The extent of this commitment will vary—more at a university natural history museum, less at an exhibition cen-ter. But every cultural institution needs a research component to enhance its intellectual capital—ultimately its most important form of capital—that must be invested over many years to reap rich rewards for future visitors, pos-sibly for future generations.

The research policy should articulate the museum’s position on support-ing staff grant applications for personal research interests, and the museum’s stand on intellectual property issues, distinguishing publications or other outcomes of research done on the museum’s time utilizing museum collec-tions and facilities (to which the museum may claim some intellectual prop-erty rights) from the publications or other results of research done on the staff member’s own time using other resources, to which the museum has no claim. The museum’s position on allowing staff to take research contracts with other institutions or agencies should also be declared in this part of the policy.

The policy should identify the range of research to be undertaken at the museum, including research on the museum’s market and its education pro-grams as well as the obvious subject matter arising from the academic dis-cipline that the museum serves, and its permanent collection, the potential subjects of curatorial and conservation studies.

Finally, the policy should require all museum personnel who wish to undertake research to prepare individual research plans, which the museum should commit to integrating into an institution-wide Museum Research Plan.


7.5.2 Research Plans

Research plans should be prepared annually by each individual who proposes to undertake research—not only curators and conservators, but also educa-tors, public relations offi cers, and any others who see an opportunity to learn more about their fi eld of work, the academic discipline of the museum, or the museum’s visitors and its community. Each individual plan should review work to date, propose goals for the year ahead, and project a long-term plan for completion of the research that includes a way to relate its results to the museum’s public programs. The latter is a requirement that reminds all con-cerned that the museum is not a research institute or a university: research done at and for the museum must ultimately bear fruit in the museum’s public programs—in the permanent collection displays, a temporary or traveling exhibition, a catalogue of some part of the collection, an education program on the research topic, or some other public programming outcome.

The individual’s research plan should detail the researcher’s qualifi cations to undertake the work, identify the principle challenges to be overcome, and set out a timetable and budget for the work, which may extend over years. Each annual research plan should update the situation with a progress report on work to date, a revision, expansion, or deletion of some of the research objectives, and a revised schedule or budget if necessary.

Each individual research plan should be reviewed by the person to whom the researcher reports—with the director’s own plan reviewed by the board chair—with an eye to determining how much (or how little) the individual research plan is consistent with the museum’s mission and current goals. With the recommendations of the researchers’ immediate superiors in hand, the museum director should then review all the individual research plans and decide whether or not to recommend approval of each one to the board. If some individual research plans are unrelated to the museum’s mission and current goals, or if they have little or no public programming relevance for the museum, the director or the researcher’s immediate superior should suggest a reconsideration of the individual’s research plan, and/or recommend ways in which the research might be infl ected to include a public programming result for the museum as a signifi cant part of its outcomes. Several meetings may be needed to work out a way in which individual research plans can have a stronger impact on the museum’s public programs or operations.

Once individual research plans are approved, the director should aim to integrate them all into an over-all Museum Research Plan that begins with the mission and vision statement, invokes the research policy, states the museum’s goals in its research programs, and prioritizes the research proj-ects in relation to the museum’s current goals and objectives. This Museum Research Plan, like the museum’s research policy, should be submitted to the governing body of the museum for approval.


Curators and others are often nervous about research policies or plans because they fear that these documents may restrict academic freedom. In fact, only with an approved policy and plan can research be protected from the constant threats to it due to the demands of the day, the week, the month, or the season and the perennial lack of funds. Without a policy and plan the situation reverts to either or both of the two unattractive alternatives described above.

Let us assume that both individual research plans and a Museum Research Plan have been approved—but as usual there is a demand for a curator with an approved plan to abandon his current line of research and instead to focus on the research needed for a major new exhibition. With an approved individual research plan the curator may at least be able to point out that if he or she diverts attention to the new exhibition as requested, it will affect the schedule for completion of the research as planned, result-ing in a signifi cant delay in the public program impact—the exhibition or learning program or catalogue revision—that constitutes the relevance of the research to the museum’s public programs. So the question then becomes: is the change in research priorities worth postponing the approved objectives articulated in the affected individual’s research plan? The decision may still be yes, that the change has to be made—but at least it is being considered rationally, against an agreed set of institutional priorities. It may be seen how important it is for all concerned that the individual’s research plan should identify clearly the impact on the museum’s public programs that the research will convey. A well-reasoned research policy rooted in the museum’s mission and a Museum Research Plan integrated with everyone’s individual research plans can’t resolve all the vicissitudes that museums encounter in the turbu-lent world today; but they can help to make the museum’s research program more effective and the researcher’s lives and work more productive than drift-ing aimlessly without them.

The Museum Research Plan should also project the facilities that the museum has or will build to dedicate to this vital activity. Facilities that may be planned for research include the following:

• Despite the growth of digital electronic media as sources of knowledge, most museums have and will continue to have a library that is usually an important center for research. Planning for the museum library must begin by deciding whether it is more consistent with the museum’s mis-sion for the library to be made accessible to the general public, or whether it should be for staff only. Its location, staffi ng, and budget will vary dra-matically depending on the answer to that question. The principles of planning for growth of the museum’s collection of artifacts, specimens, or works of art should be applied as well to the growth of the museum’s library. In fact, projecting the numbers of volumes and journals and their


shelving requirements in linear meters or feet can usually be done with a high degree of accuracy, as long as care is taken to consider whether any new research directions will require any changes in the size or character of the library. If there is to be public access (which is certainly to be encouraged if it is practical to do so), there will need to be a reading room that is separate from the stacks, and an offi ce area between them so that library staff may fi nd and deliver books or periodicals to visitors or staff. The library should enjoy museum-quality environmental controls, since its large quantities of paper need relative humidity (RH) control (gener-ally closer to 40 percent RH if possible).

• An archive is another important research resource in some museums—whether this is an archival repository of the museum’s discipline or sub-ject matter or an archive of the museum itself, preserving its own records. The latter is sometimes of great value if questions of provenance or prior conservation treatment are being considered. As with the library, growth of the archive and therefore its space requirements can usually be projected fairly accurately in terms of linear meters or feet of shelv-ing required. Even more than libraries, archives require museum-quality environmental controls, so that both of these spaces must be included in the collections zones of the building, even if the artifact, specimen, or art collections are not to be found there.

• Laboratories may be valuable resources for the research program, espe-cially if the museum is undertaking conservation research into the preser-vation of the materials in its collection. As the preceding section explains, planning for labs and the equipment in them must be done in close con-sultation with the scientists or technicians who will be using them.

• A curatorial workroom is usually a smaller space where incoming objects offered to the collection may be examined. Its task lighting should be adjustable from 50 lux to 300 lux, the same requirement as the exhibi-tion galleries. It should normally not have natural light, and should be otherwise furnished with one or more work tables and computer work stations. Although it is obviously in the collection zone, it may need to be accessible to the public when accompanied by a staff member, since it may be used as the venue for “clinics” to advise on specimens, artifacts, or works of art brought in by the public, or for meetings with prospective donors.

Planning for the right kind of research program should be an integral part of museum planning, conducted in close consultation with the research-ers themselves. If supported by a sound research policy, a system of individual research plans and an institution-wide Museum Research Plan, it should be possible to ensure that research plays a lively part in the day-to-day life of the museum.

PREVENTIVE CONSERVATION

Steven Weintraub with Lindsay Martin and James Cocks

Museum collections face a myriad of risks. Some risks, such as fi re, fl oods, or earthquakes result in rapid, catastrophic damage. Other risks, such as inad-equate environmental control, result in much more gradual and less extreme forms of damage. Preventive conservation categorizes risks, and identifi es methods for controlling risk in order to minimize damage to collections. Together with the security strategy recommended in chapter 10, this chapter outlines a comprehensive risk management program.

It is essential that a conservation specialist be part of the initial planning phase. Too often, decisions made early on in the process without the benefi t of conservation input or review may result in unintended consequences that compromise the mission of a museum to care for and preserve its collection for future generations. The goal of this chapter is to encourage inclusion of risk management at the earliest stages of the planning process when con-structing or renovating a museum so that preventive conservation is interwo-ven into the design of the building as a key architectural element.

PREVENTIVE CONSERVATION AND THE MUSEUM PLANNING PROCESS

A classic risk management process consists of four sequential elements:

• risk identifi cation• risk analysis• risk evaluation• risk treatment

The fi rst phase is to conduct a risk assessment in which individual agents of risk are identifi ed, analyzed, and evaluated in terms of risk to specifi c

CH

APT

ER 8

8.1

3 0 5


collections based on their unique physical properties and requirements. This step should be carried out by specialists who are familiar with principles of collection preservation.

The next step, risk treatment, focuses on methods for avoiding or mini-mizing risk. This dialogue takes place among collections preservation spe-cialists and appropriate members of the Museum Planning Team. Ideally, communication should be initiated at the outset of the assessment phase, so that mutual concerns are acknowledged and understood from the beginning of the process.

The ultimate purpose is to develop a series of cost-effective measures to avoid or minimize potential hazards to museum collections. Some solutions may be very expensive and yield minimal benefi ts, while others may provide a large degree of protection for very little cost. It is essential to establish and understand the overall context of the architectural program at the very begin-ning of the process. For example, does the geographic location of the build-ing put the collection at risk? If the project involves renovation of a historic building, are there limits to the extent that the structure can be altered to provide a safe environment for the collection? Ultimately, contextual factors such as physical condition of site and building, fi nancial considerations, and legal constraints defi ne project limits that cannot be ignored. In fact, they should from the outset help to identify the range of solutions to be studied for the project.

Figure 8.1 Risk Management Process

PREVENTIVE CONSERVATION 3 0 7

CATEGORIZING RISK

Risk is categorized by the degree of damage and by the frequency of occur-rence, each divided into three levels:

• Damage: catastrophic, severe, gradual• Frequency: rare, sporadic, constant

This section provides examples of the relationship between these two variables.

8.2.1 Catastrophic Event: Rare Occurrence

Fire, fl oods, earthquakes, and collateral damage from military confl ict or ter-rorist attacks are all examples of events that may result in extreme damage to a large percentage of an institution’s collection. These events are gener-ally considered to occur rarely—although, depending on historic and regional experiences, “rare” is a relative term.

Mitigation of such events can be accomplished by the following:

• Emergency preparedness planning: Too often, these plans are developed after the building project is completed. It is critical to take emergency preparedness into account at the beginning of the planning process, since some of the identifi ed risks are best addressed as part of the planning, design, and construction process.

• Code compliance and insurance requirements: Some mitigation mea-sures are required by local law or by the insurance carrier. Fire alarm and suppression systems are an example.

• Local experience and international expertise: Very often the specialists who have the best understanding of cost-effective mitigation measures are local to the area, since they know what has worked and how it can be implemented. However, it is critical to get a broad perspective of options, especially for needs such as earthquake protection, since knowledge in these areas continues to improve.

8.2.2 Severe Event: Sporadic Occurrence

Pest infestation, handling and transport of artifacts, and failure of climate control systems are examples of events that may result in signifi cant dam-age to vulnerable artifacts within the collection. These events occur on an occasional basis. Each type of event must be addressed with appropriate measures.

8.2


Mitigation of such events can be accomplished by the following:

• Pests: Develop an integrated pest management plan (IPM) as part of the planning process. Important IPM measures such as location of collec-tions areas away from food service areas and building access points must be included as an inherent part of the building program.

• Handling and transport of collections: Proper packing facilities, ade-quately sized hallways, elevator door openings and loading bay designed to museum standard are all architectural elements that need to be incor-porated into the building design.

• Climate control system failure: Full system backup redundancy or large-scale generators capable of operating a large mechanical climate control system are diffi cult and expensive to implement. Alternatively, a series of affordable and practical active and passive methods for avoiding extreme temperature and relative humidity conditions within critical collections spaces can be included in the planning process.

8.2.3 Gradual Event: Constant Occurrence

This category encompasses the slow process of damage that occurs to collec-tions from environmental infl uences such as fading from exposure to light, chemical and physical changes in condition due to exposure to less than optimum temperature and relative humidity (RH) conditions, and corrosion from atmospheric pollutants.

Mitigation of such processes can be accomplished by the following:

• Minimize light damage by avoiding exposure to excessive light intensity. Avoid illumination of collections when they are not being viewed, such as when the museum is closed to the public.

• Reduce risk by avoiding extreme environmental conditions, and main-taining museum quality environmental control standards in collection zones.

• Select appropriate fi ltration capability when designing the environmental control system, and avoid use of materials that generate harmful pollut-ants within the museum interior, especially within exhibition cases and collection storage areas.

STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATION OF CATASTROPHIC AND SEVERE EVENTS

This chapter focuses on the most predictable and controllable aspects of risk mitigation—gradual events. However, in planning a museum

8.3


building there are measures to be taken to mitigate the risk presented by catastrophic and severe events. A brief overview of strategies to mitigate against these risks when developing a museum facility are provided in this section.

8.3.1 Mechanical System Failure

In the lifetime of a building, this is a likely occurrence. Good maintenance protocols and regular replacement schedules are the best way to prevent sys-tem failure, but managing through a system failure can be supported by a comprehensive building plan. Designing mechanical rooms to allow for easy access to equipment and the ability to work in the space is key to resolving problems quickly, as outlined in section 11.1.3 for mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) spaces. Additionally, partial or total redundancy on key pieces of equipment such as a chiller prevents the entire system being taken down by one piece of equipment. Similarly, keeping a supply of fans and humidifi er units can be useful to manage against severe environmental condi-tions when key components fail.

8.3.2 Earthquakes

Seismic activity is possible in most parts of the world. As with mechani-cal system failure, smart operations are the best way to manage against this risk—determining how collections are stored, how large and heavy objects are installed, and how museum personnel are trained to respond. However, seismically conscious engineering during the design and construction of the building can save lives and irreplaceable collections. Seek expert advice and give consideration to constructing the building to exceed local seismic stan-dards, as codes can be lax if local fault lines have not been active in recent memory.

Seismic risk in museums is usually expressed in terms of the percent-age of loss due to damage that the museum accepts as inevitable at a given level of earthquake severity. Ideally the percentage should be as close to zero as possible, but realistically plans must anticipate a certain low rate of loss. Achieving that level may depend on such devices as invisible tethers on frag-ile objects in display cases, padded storage shelving, “egg crates” to hold small precious objects and the like. Larger-scale mitigation may involve housing the entire structure of an existing heritage building within a “cradle” of steel that provides some fl exibility to respond to shocks without transmitting them to the museum building itself; this was the solution chosen for the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco when it relocated to the former Main Public Library of that city in the 1990s.


8.3.3 Fire

Fire is one of the most catastrophic yet not unlikely events for a museum, especially due to the presence of kitchens and fl ammable materials in the building. As with all other risks, a combination of operations and facili-ties infrastructure must be designed to work together to create a compre-hensive fi re management program. Program elements should include the following:

• Fire prevention measures, such as designated smoking areas with proper receptacles for ashes, regular noncollections storage reviews to ensure that unnecessary items are not being stored, and fi re extinguishers that do not release potentially harmful chemicals upon discharge located throughout the building. Coiled water hoses are still found in some museums, but are not generally advisable due to the force of water that they emit when in use.

• Physical barriers to limit initial fi re spread: all collections areas should have a two-hour fi re rating on their walls and doors, with a one-hour rating for the rest of the building. Compartmentalization strategies can retard fi re in storage and other support areas;

• Egress systems must allow for evacuation of the building. Fire exits with alarmed break barriers to open them must be within the distance pre-scribed by local fi re codes; any use of them must immediately alarm the entire building so that security staff can respond—since they may be employed by escaping thieves.

• Manual and automatic fi re detection by means of smoke detectors, heat sensors, and relays to the security and facilities staff; smoke detectors are recommended throughout the museum, except in the kitchen where heat detectors should be used.

• Coordinated disaster recovery and management procedures should include clear action plans to direct what to do during and after a fi re to safely and quickly secure people and collections. Regular enactments of the emergency should be undertaken to ensure that everyone knows what to do when.

Fire suppression systems are an important subject for museum planners to consider from the beginning of detailed planning, particularly as they are visible in all ceilings, including galleries. Fire protection experts generally agree that automatic sprinklers represent one of the single most powerful tools in a fi re management program. If properly designed, installed, and maintained, these systems can increase the overall level of fi re safety for the


building as a whole, while also providing enhanced fl exibility of building design.

There are many options when selecting sprinkler systems—wet or dry pipe; pre-action or regular systems; sprinkler, mist, deluge, or waterless sup-pression. The choices to consider are as follows:

• Wet or dry pipe? This decision will determine if water will be present in the pipes of a suppression system during normal conditions. The vast major-ity of systems are wet pipe, as it is the cheapest and easiest to install and maintain and is quickest to respond in case of a fi re. Dry pipe systems can be found when the risk of freezing pipes is signifi cant; since they are not fi lled with water, there is less risk of overhead leakage in collection areas. Policies against placing collections under water have led some museums to resist wet pipe sprinklers or to refuse to lend their objects to museums with such equipment. Dry pipe systems are more complex to design, install, and maintain, are signifi cantly more expensive than wet pipe, delay response times to fi re (thus limiting their effectiveness), and are susceptible to cor-rosion within the pipe once it has been tested with water, so that they dis-charge rust particles when in action. If not properly maintained, there is a risk that the water control valve on a dry pipe system will not open and will prevent water from fi lling the pipes when activated by the fi re detection system. For all these reasons, wet pipe sprinklers are usually recommended by fi re departments as well as by our own museum planning practice.

• What kind of pipe? Typically copper, thermoplastic, or galvanized steel pipe is preferred for museums, as black steel pipe is known to produce very dirty water which, upon discharge, becomes yet another problem for collections care, sometimes causing more damage than the water inunda-tion or the smoke or fl ames.

• Pre-action or traditional systems? Some sprinklers, called “pre-action” systems, require a preceding event, such as an alarm from a smoke or heat detector before the system is triggered. This prevents accidental activation—which is a risk in and of itself in museums with high value or irreplaceable collections. A pre-action wet pipe sprinkler system is very frequently the recommended choice.

• Deluge, sprinkler, mist, or waterless? Throughout the museum a variety of outputs may be used to provide the appropriate response to fi re and limit its spread. Each type of space should be considered and the most appropriate system selected, based on the activities in and contents of the room. For example, an atrium may warrant a deluge system (a steady stream of water) due to the risk of fi re spread and its role in egress; a server room, vault or works on paper storage may require a waterless


solution (such as FM200 or another gas) due to the value of their con-tents and relatively small space. Mist systems are increasingly being used in museums and heritage buildings due to their ability to direct water to the source of the fi re as water molecules are carried in the air and quickly extinguish fi res with less water than traditional sprinkler systems (mean-ing less water on collections) and without the potentially harmful force of a sprinkler deluge. Mist may also be a good solution for an historic structure as the piping can be smaller and easier to install without com-promising the historic look of the rooms.

Another important factor in planning to mitigate the risk of fi re is to specify fi re-resistant materials, particularly in collections, collections stor-age, and spaces containing fl ammable chemicals. Interior fi nishes, including wallboard, doors, ceiling tiles, and fl ooring, can be specifi ed to have a 90- or 120-minute fi re rating, which can greatly reduce the risk of a small fi re spreading to other parts of the museum.

Casual smoking should never occur inside any museum area. In addi-tion to releasing damaging chemicals and irritating patrons, smoking poses a signifi cant risk of sparking a fi re. In some cases, however, fi re-based activities, such as lit candles used as part of contemporary artworks, become part of the programming requirements for the museum. If this is the case, specialized systems should be specifi ed to ensure that both the smoke and the risk of fi re do not spread to other parts of the museum—and that visitors are not del-uged by a sprinkler system discharge while watching a work of performance art that involves smoke or fi re!

In the United States, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) pub-lishes NFPA 909: Code for the Protection of Cultural Resource Properties—Museums, Libraries, and Places of Worship. This document offers various fi re mitigation strategies and can serve as a baseline standard for fi re protec-tion. Similarly, the Confederation of Fire Protection Associations Europe also sets standards for fi re protection in Europe. Comparable guidelines are available in other jurisdictions.

8.3.4 Flood and Water Damage

Flooding will likely happen at some point in a building’s life—on occasion this will be from severe weather but more likely it will be from burst, backed-up or failed pipes and systems. In planning a museum facility, it is important to mitigate risk from the entire range of water-based disaster.

Institutions should pay particular attention to local fl ood zones and his-tories, as well as water tables below the soil and nearby oceans, lakes, or riv-ers. Consideration should be given to planning with a 100-year fl ood level in mind—that is, planning for the worst that can happen in a century, based on


historical data. In the event of a fl ood, extensive damage can occur if collections are located in a space affected by fl ooding. For this reason, as noted in section 7.2, many museums avoid locating collections storage or galleries at or below grade. If collection areas must be located below grade, it is best to ensure that they are sixteen to eighteen inches (forty to fi fty centimeters) higher than adja-cent areas, to ensure that they will be the last areas below grade to take on water.

Similarly, to prevent water damage from internal pipes and systems, no water, steam or sewage lines should be located above or adjacent to collection spaces, except for the sprinkler system.

Museums with signifi cant risk of fl ooding and/or vast collections of works on paper may consider providing some freezers in the building as freezing is one of the common techniques for beginning treatment of wet paper or other materials.

8.3.5 Handling and Transit of Collections

Collections are most at risk during handling and transport. Section 6.4 dis-cusses the spaces required for safe collections handling, such as museum-standard loading docks, corridors, doors with viewing windows, and suffi cient spaces to work in. Viewing windows, for instance, should be installed in every door through which collections are to be moved so that oncoming staff from either direction may anticipate the approach of collections being moved.

8.3.6 Manmade Disaster

Great works of art, rare specimens, archival documents, and artifacts of the history of civilization and the planet have been lost to wars, acts of terrorism, and other manmade disasters. Chapter 10 addresses how to mitigate the risk of theft, vandalism, and other acts of destruction.

8.3.7 Pests

Bugs, rodents, and other living creatures tend to seek out food and warmth—two things museums can provide. If food sources are unavailable, then pests tend to stay away. Key to mitigating this risk is complete separation of food and beverage service and organic garbage disposal from collections areas. This separation results in the need for a loading dock dedicated to collections along with a collections-only shipping/receiving area, packing-unpacking room, and associated spaces as outlined in section 6.4, and in a different part of the building a food storage area, kitchen, waste storage area, and the sepa-rately dedicated corridors and lifts (freight elevators) as required for both col-lection and noncollection functions. This can include a separate loading dock, shipping/receiving area, food storage area, waste storage area, and dedicated corridors and elevators.


Pest control measures may include the planning of a temporary hold-ing or isolation room that can be used to keep new materials separate as they enter the museum and can be inspected. This measure is particularly common in natural history museums and other museums where some of the collections present a signifi cant food source in and of themselves. Also, when constructing the building, it is necessary to ensure that all materials, espe-cially wood, are inspected for insects and treated if required. Isolation rooms provide an anoxic chamber that can kill bugs over twenty-four hours.

8.3.8 Power Failure

From time to time, the power will go out. The risk of power outages or brownouts varies greatly from city to city and country to country. Each museum must evaluate this risk based on local information and response rates. Emergency generators are often used to provide power to functions that are critical to the museum’s mission such as emergency systems, a pub-lic address system, emergency lights and fi re detectors. Many museums tra-ditionally have seen their entire heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system as mission-critical, but increasingly this is changing, as many institutions prefer the use of an emergency power supply for porta-ble fans and other equipment during extended power disruptions. In some institutions there may be live animals, frozen materials, or highly sensitive materials that require support from an uninterrupted power supply (UPS). Museum planners need to determine whether UPS is required for the entire building, or for those vital functions that must be sustained through a blackout or brownout.

8.3. 9 Severe Winds

Tornados, typhoons, hurricanes, and other major storms can bring strong winds. These are frequent enough in some parts of the world that they can be reliably predicted at certain seasons. Examining historical weather pat-terns can shed light on the level of wind the building is likely to see in its lifetime. The museum building should be designed to withstand a 100-year storm—the worst historically experienced in the past century—giving special care to windows and all forms of fenestration as fl ying debris poses the great-est danger to people and collections alike. Where such weather events are common, it is necessary to prepare the anticipated response to them as part of the facility planning process; the art museum at Florida International Uni-versity in Miami, for instance, developed an emergency hurricane procedure for speedily relocating under shelter the most vulnerable pieces of outdoor sculpture that were on loan to that institution.


IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS ON THE PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS

Traditionally, museum conservation specialists have had a special interest in light, temperature, relative humidity, and pollutants, and how these environ-mental conditions impact the preservation of collections. Poor environmental conditions represent a gradual but certain risk to collections. Although con-servators are very concerned about other risk factors, a large part of preventive conservation focuses on these environmental factors. Most museums exercise some level of control over the level of light and range of temperature based on the visual and comfort needs of staff and visitors. Also, due to the awareness of the importance of changes in relative humidity (RH) on collections, many museums have installed some level of humidity control. While damage and the need for mitigation of other risk factors such as leaks or pests are obvious even to nonspecialists, the level of control required to mitigate damage due to poor control of light, temperature, RH fl uctuation and pollution is less obvi-ous and requires the input of preservation specialists. For these reasons, much of the rest of this chapter is focused on environmental concerns.

8.4.1 Light and Radiation

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation, and is a small part of the elec-tromagnetic spectrum that includes short-wave gamma rays and X-rays and long-wave energy radio waves and microwaves. Light is the part of the spec-trum that the human eye can detect, in the frequency range of 400–700 nano-meters (nm). The wavelength range shorter than visible (below 400 nm) is ultraviolet radiation (UV), and the range that is longer than visible (above 700 nm) is infrared radiation (IR). Most light sources used in museums gen-erate UV, visible, and IR radiation.

8.4.1.1 Ultraviolet and Infrared Radiation

As the wavelength becomes shorter, “photon energy” increases. This means that for equal levels of radiant energy, UV will cause more damage than vis-ible radiation, and visible radiation will cause more damage than IR. Since we do not require UV radiation in order to see, yet UV has a very high potential for causing damage, it is essential to fi lter out UV to reduce it to a very low level.

When the conservation profession established UV fi ltration standards in the 1970s, the most common light source was an incandescent lamp. This type of source has a relatively low proportion of UV to visible radiation—less than 75 microwatts (µW) of UV per lumen of visible radiation. Because an

8.4


incandescent source gets very hot, it is diffi cult to fi lter with a plastic UV fi lter in near proximity. For these reasons, it was determined that the maxi-mum acceptable level of UV should not exceed the output of an unfi ltered incandescent lamp (75 µW/lumen). Since many fl uorescent lamps exceed this limit, it was recommended that fl uorescent lamps be fi tted with UV fi ltering sleeves unless they were proven to have a low unfi ltered UV output.

When tungsten halogen lamps began to be widely used in the late 1970s, these types of lamps had a proportional UV output above 75 µW/lumen. Eventually, a glass UV fi lter was introduced that could fi lter these lamps. As a consequence, some museums recommend that the proportional amount of UV when illuminating light-sensitive museum collections must be below 20 µW/lumen, requiring UV fi ltration on all UV generating light sources above this limit. While this has not been widely adopted, the concept is correct that as much UV as possible should be eliminated.

Certain types of light sources have a very high proportion of UV to vis-ible energy.

• High-intensity discharge lamps (HID), also called metal halide lamps, have a very high UV output.

• Natural light has an extremely high UV output. • Some fl uorescent lamps, especially full-spectrum high-color-temperature

lamps may have a high UV output unless they are specially fi ltered.

All these sources must be UV-fi ltered. Some products have some level of built-in UV fi ltration, but the overall UV output may be quite a bit higher than is appropriate for museums and so still requires fi ltration. UV fi ltration performance must be verifi ed with a special UV meter capable of reading in µW/lumen, a proportional value of UV to visible radiation. Standard UV meters cannot be used for this purpose since they only read absolute UV, not this proportional value.

Infrared radiation, being longer than visible, is primarily a problem due to the heating effect when IR is absorbed on the surface of an object. Among standard light sources, incandescent lamps have the highest proportion of IR to visible radiation. It has been determined that it is not necessary to fi lter IR as long as the object is illuminated at an acceptable light level.

8.4.1.2 Visible Radiation—Recommended Light Levels

Museum light level specifi cations are based on the lowest amount of light necessary for a viewer to appreciate an object on display. Anything above this level is consid-ered to cause unjustifi able damage.

The unit used for museum light level recommendations measures the amount of illuminance falling on the surface of an object. This value, referred


to metrically as lux, is the amount of visible radiation, based on the human eye’s relative sensitivity to the wavelengths of the visible spectrum. The non-metric visible light unit, commonly used in the United States, is the foot-candle (fc). To be precise, 10.76 lux = 1 fc; for easy reckoning the proportion of 10 to 1 is suffi cient for setting standards.

The acceptable level of illumination is based on the relative risk of an object to light damage. Many museums categorize collections into four groups:

• High sensitivity: 50 lux (5 fc): Formerly, all paper, photographic materi-als, textiles, many organic natural history specimens and some unstable plastics and modern paints were placed in this category. Many muse-ums still use this light level as a categorical condition for loans of these materials.

• Moderate sensitivity: 100 lux (10 fc): Since not all paper, textile, and photographic materials are extremely sensitive, some museums have been able to reclassify select materials into this category. Dyed wood is gener-ally in this category, although some wood dyes can be highly sensitive. Professional advice is essential when determining the appropriateness of using this category.

• Low Sensitivity: 200 lux (20 fc): Oil and acrylic paintings are usually placed in this category, along with undyed organic materials such as leather, wood, and ivory.

• Insensitive: 300 lux (30 fc) or more: Objects not subject to damage from light do not require limits. The 300 lux value is based on the importance of balancing the relative intensity of illumination of all surfaces within the fi eld of vision at no more than a 6:1 ratio. If some objects are at 50 lux, brightly lighted objects well in excess of 300 lux will make the objects at 50 lux look under-illuminated.

8.4.1.3 Visible Radiation—Cumulative Damage

Although museums have strict specifi cations regarding the maximum level of illumination, actual damage is not based on the intensity of light at any moment in time. It is based on the total amount of exposure over time. Cumulative exposure is determined by multiplying the time of exposure by the level of illumination. This means that the same amount of damage will occur if an object is exposed to 50 lux for 10 hours (500 lux-hours) or at 200 lux for 2.5 hours (500 lux-hours).

Some institutions record the total amount of exposure over time and con-trol the amount of exposure that an object can be subjected to over the course of a year, and have established a lux-hour per annum limit. When an object is off display, it does not recover. The purpose of rotating objects and limiting the amount of time on display is to maximize the life of an object.


When the intensity of the light source varies while an object is on exhi-bition, as is the case with daylight, cumulative exposure is more diffi cult to determine, but can be estimated by computer-based light models, through data logging actual conditions, or by controlling the balance between daylight and electric light to provide a relatively constant level of exposure.

In some instances where daylight is used, a lighting budget is created so that the average amount of light over the time of exposure falls within the recommended illumination limit of 50 or 200 lux. Although the actual amount of light at any moment in time may be lower or higher than these values, the end result is the same amount of damage as if the source of illu-mination was constant. One has to be careful not to use this as a justifi cation for allowing too much variation in illumination. For every hour that there is more than enough light, there will be an equivalent amount of time when the objects are insuffi ciently illuminated. If the time of exposure is shortened by rotation in order to justify a higher light level, the fundamental logic of museum light level specifi cations is undermined. That principle is simply:

Anything above the lowest amount of light necessary to appreciate an object on display is considered to cause unjustifi able damage.

8.4.1.4 Criteria for Selecting Light Sources

Throughout most of the twentieth century, light source selection was lim-ited to daylight, fl ourescent, or tungsten lamps. Over the last few decades, technological development has resulted in the introduction of a variety of new light sources. A greater range of choices brings both opportunity and confusion. This section will provide a brief overview of key characteristics that must be taken into account when making decisions about selection of appropriate light sources for museum applications.

• Color Rendering Properties—Color Temperature: There is a wide range of “white” light sources. In fact, true white includes a wide range of options, from warm (yellow in tone) to cool (blue in tone). The color temperature of the source describes the warmth or coolness of a white light. A warm source such as an incandescent lamp has a low color tem-perature and a cool source such as a northern skylight has a high color temperature.

• Color Rendering Properties—Color Rendering Index (CRI): Light sources such as daylight and incandescent lamps are categorized as full spectrum sources since they emit a continuous spectrum of wavelengths. By defi nition, a full-spectrum source has a Color Rendering Index of 100. A number of lamps create light by mixing a limited group of red, yellow, green, and blue wavelengths. Although the light appears to be white, the spectrum is not continuous or full. As a result, the appearance


of colors may appear different with a “discontinuous” source compared with a full spectrum source at the same color temperature. The Color Rendering Index (CRI) is a measurement of how closely specifi c colors are rendered by a discontinuous light source compared with a full spec-trum source at the same color temperature. A CRI of 100 is a perfect match. A CRI of 50 is a poor match. For most museum applications, a CRI of 80+ is preferred.

• General Color Rendering Properties: An incandescent lamp, which is an inherently warm color temperature source (2700°K) has a CRI of 100. Does this mean that it has better color rendering properties because of its high CRI value compared with a discontinuous source such as a “neutral white” (around 3500–4000°k) metal halide lamp or an LED that is rated at a CRI of 85+ and because it has a color temperature in the range of “neutral white” (around 3500–4000°K) due to its 100 CRI rating? This may not be the case. An incandescent lamp provides a very warm or yellow-toned spectrum, and, as a consequence does not render blue colors well, especially at a low level of intensity. Therefore, when making a lamp selection, one has to be careful about the formulaic approach of judging a lamp by one criterion alone. Ultimately, the best test is to compare dif-ferent sources in controlled conditions to determine what looks best.

• Light Distribution and Directionality: When light emits from a small point, such as a tungsten fi lament or an LED, and is focused with a refl ec-tor or lens, it is capable of providing a directional beam of light. A linear fl uorescent tube, where light is emitted from a much larger surface, is more diffi cult to focus so it distributes light in a diffuse, nonfocused pat-tern. Generally, a focused source is preferred for lighting specifi c objects, especially objects with some three-dimensionality because directionality provides a greater awareness of surface relief, due to the emphasis on shadows and highlights. Diffuse sources provide a more uniform dis-tribution of intensity but lack the “punch” of a directional source. These considerations are important when selecting a light source for ambient lighting of rooms versus task lighting for objects on display.

• Intensity Control: Electric Lights: The ability to control the intensity of a light source is critical in order to meet the light intensity limits required for preserving light-sensitive museum collections. Some types of lamps are diffi cult to dim.

• Intensity Control: Natural Light: Daylight is unique because of its moment-to-moment variability. As an ambient source, this may be desir-able because it enlivens a space, but, as a task source such variability can result in poor lighting conditions for a signifi cant portion of the day.

• Energy Effi ciency and Lamp Life: Museums must take into account the relative energy cost of different type of light sources, as well as the high cost of maintenance associated with short lamp life.


• Damage Potential to Light-Sensitive Collections: As previously dis-cussed, some lamps have a high potential for causing light-induced dam-age, either because of a large UV content (if not adequately fi ltered) or from a high color temperature.

8.4.1.5 Sources of Illumination

Following are the various lighting sources and their properties.

• Incandescent and Tungsten Halogen Lamps: Both types of lamps emit light as electricity passes through a tungsten fi lament. • Color Rendering Properties: Both lamp types have a low or warm color

temperature. A halogen lamp has a slightly higher color temperature and appears less yellow than an incandescent bulb. Since they are full-spectrum sources, they have a CRI of approximately 100, but the overall rendering is very warm, since there is very little blue energy in their spectrum.

• Light Distribution and Directionality: Both lamp types are available with a broad range of refl ectors, providing both narrow- and wide-beam focusing capability.

• Intensity Control: Although both lamp types are easy to dim electroni-cally, the color temperature changes, becoming very warm. For this rea-son, many museums use metal screens on the lamps to reduce intensity.

• Energy Effi ciency and Lamp Life: Incandescent lamps are very energy ineffi cient and have a short lamp life. Tungsten halogen lamps are slightly more effi cient with somewhat longer lamp lives.

• Damage Potential: Both lamps have a relatively low damage potential. Tungsten halogen lamps have a higher level of UV and may require fi ltration, especially if used in conjunction with very light-sensitive materials.

• Linear Fluorescent and Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL): • Color Rendering Properties: Fluorescent lamps are available in a wide

variety of color temperatures and CRI values.• Light Distribution and Directionality: These lamps generate a very

diffuse light and have poor directionality. Since CFLs have a smaller footprint, they are capable of producing a tighter light pattern than a linear fl uorescent lamp.

• Intensity Control: A dimming ballast is available for linear fl uores-cent lamps and must be included in the electrical specifi cation. Many CFLs are not dimmable.

• Energy Effi ciency and Lamp Life: Fluorescent lamps are relatively energy-effi cient and have a fairly long lamp life. CFLs are not as effi cient and long-lasting as linear fl uorescent lamps.


• Damage Potential: The UV output varies, depending on lamp design, so UV must be tested and fi ltered if necessary. Higher color tempera-ture lamps, especially “full-spectrum” lamps, have a higher damage potential than warmer color temperature lamps.

• Metal Halide/High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps• Color Rendering Properties: Available in a wide range of color tem-

peratures and CRI values.• Light Distribution and Directionality: The light-emitting surface is

larger than a tungsten-fi lament-based lamp, but smaller than a fl uo-rescent lamp of equivalent wattage. If used with a properly designed refl ector, it provides a degree of directionality.

• Intensity Control: Generally not dimmable.• Energy Effi ciency and Lamp Life: Effi ciency range similar to linear

fl uorescent lamps. • Damage Potential: Very high UV output, so must be fi ltered.

• Fiber Optics: A fi ber optic source is not a lamp. It is a means of convey-ing light through a glass or plastic “bundle” from a remote light source, referred to as the illuminator.• Color Rendering Properties: Depends on the lamp source of the

illuminator.• Light Distribution and Directionality: Since the end point of an indi-

vidual fi ber optic bundle is small, it can be fi tted with a lens for good light distribution control.

• Intensity Control: The overall intensity of the illuminator can be adjusted with a fi lter or rheostat, but all fi ber bundles from the same source are equally dimmed.

• Energy Effi ciency and Lamp Life: Depends on the lamp source of the illuminator.

• Damage Potential: Most UV and IR radiation is fi ltered out as light travels through the fi ber bundle. However, UV output must be tested if the light source is metal halide, since some types of optical fi ber do transmit UV radiation.

• Light Emitting Diodes (LED)• Color Rendering Properties: Available in a wide range of color tem-

peratures and CRI values.• Light Distribution and Directionality: LED sources are relatively small

and are capable of a wide range of beam patterns. • Intensity Control: LEDs are solid-state devices and very easy to dim if

the manufacturer provides dimming circuitry.• Energy Effi ciency and Lamp Life: LEDs are still an evolving tech-

nology with signifi cant improvements in energy effi ciency occur-ring at a rapid pace. Theoretical lamp life is very long, estimated at over 50,000 hours. In reality, most lamps will fail well before this


theoretical estimate unless they are designed with very effi cient heat dissipation capability.

• Damage Potential: The current crop of white phosphor-based LEDs has no UV content. Sample tests of warm-to-neutral white phos-phor-based LEDs indicate that these lamps have a low damage potential.

• Natural light (daylight)• Color Rendering Properties: The color temperature of daylight varies

with time of day, season, weather conditions, and sun orientation. Since the sun is a full-spectrum source, it has a very high CRI.

• Light Distribution and Directionality: Daylight, when entering a building through a skylight or window, has a degree of directional-ity, which varies with the orientation of the sun in the sky. Northern light is most diffuse.

• Intensity Control: Since daylight intensity varies widely moment by moment, control must be achieved with supplementary building sys-tem designs such as fi lters, blinds, screens, or louvers to avoid extreme conditions

• Energy Effi ciency and Lamp Life: While daylight is “free” when avail-able, there are other associated costs such as higher HVAC costs to offset thermal load.

• Damage Potential: Daylight has a high potential for damage. It has a very high UV content that must be fi ltered. Also, due to the high color temperature of northern skylight throughout the day, the dam-age potential is much higher than a low color temperature light source.

8.4.2 Temperature

Most museums have some level of temperature control, required for human comfort. Temperature also affects the chemical and physical stability of collections.

8.4.2.1 Chemical Stability and Rate of Reaction

The rate of many chemical reactions will double with each 10°C (18°F) increase in temperature. For some chemically unstable materials the rate is more rapid.

• Most museum collections are relatively stable, so chemical reactions take place over a very long time. Therefore the impact of controlling tempera-ture beyond the level required for human comfort will provide very little benefi t.


• Some collections, such as various types of chemically unstable photo-graphic color negatives, low-grade paper, unstable plastics, and biologi-cal specimens will degrade rapidly at room temperature. These classes of materials require cool or cold storage, where the rate of chemical degra-dation is signifi cantly reduced.

• The benefi t of a slightly cooler environment is relatively small over the short term. The effort to control a storage space at a slightly cooler tem-perature than an exhibit space requires special environmental control equipment, and creates an uncomfortable condition for people within the space. Therefore the advantage of maintaining storage spaces that are 4°C (7°F) cooler than surrounding spaces from a preservation perspec-tive is generally outweighed by the practical disadvantages of maintain-ing such a small differential temperature. This is an especially important consideration for collections storage spaces in which people will spend a considerable amount of time.

8.4.2.2 Dimensional Stability and Change in Moisture Content

Organic materials, such as wood, paper, textiles, or ivory contain a certain amount of moisture, referred to as moisture content, which will change based on surrounding temperature and relative humidity conditions. As the mois-ture content changes, it has a direct effect on the dimensional stability of an object. In general, the impact of wide temperature fl uctuations within the extremes of the normal indoor human comfort range (18–30°C or 64–86°F) on moisture content and dimensional stability is relatively small.

Temperature can also affect the dimensional stability of inorganic mate-rials. For example, metals expand when heated. Generally, the dimensional change is very small and will have no impact when temperature is maintained in moderately wide indoor comfort range conditions (18–30°C, 64–86°F).

One of the most common temperature-induced causes of damage is not from ambient temperature conditions, but rather from infrared radiation. For example, a room may be maintained at 18–24°C (64–75°F) but the surface of an object may heat up to a much higher temperature due to exposure to infrared radiation from direct sunlight through an unfi ltered window or from exposure to a high light level from an incandescent or tungsten halogen lamp.

The primary importance of temperature control on dimensional stability of organic materials is the effect that temperature has on humidity, since a small change in temperature will result in a large change in relative humidity.

8.4.3 Relative Humidity

Relative humidity (RH) refers to the percentage of moisture in a fi xed volume of air relative to how much moisture can be held at 100 percent saturation.


As the temperature increases, the capacity of a fi xed volume of air to hold more moisture increases. Conversely, as temperature decreases, the capac-ity of air to hold moisture decreases. Therefore, if the temperature of a fi xed volume of air increases and the absolute humidity in the volume of air does not change, the relative humidity will decrease, since the air volume can now hold a larger quantity of moisture. In brief, for a fi xed volume of air at a constant absolute humidity, an increase in temperature results in a decrease in RH, whereas a decrease in temperature results in an increase in RH. For example, at 22°C and 50 percent RH, an increase or decrease in temperature of 1°C will result in a change of approximately 5 percent RH (at 72°F and 50 percent RH, a change of 1°F is approximately 3 percent RH), so a small change in temperature will cause a large change in RH.

A large proportion of museum collections are at risk of damage if main-tained in inappropriate RH conditions, especially where RH fl uctuates. Since different materials respond to RH fl uctuations in different ways, it is diffi -cult to determine the most appropriate RH range in which to maintain the majority of collections whereby damage can be minimized. In some instances it is essential to place specifi c objects or classes of objects in special environ-ments because of unique RH requirements. In general, the creation of special RH environments that are optimal for each type or subtype is not realistic, so an average RH condition that minimizes risk to the bulk of collections must be determined.

Figure 8.2 illustrates the relative risk of different types of materials over the entire RH range. This simplifi ed chart, which is divided into organic and inorganic materials, provides a snapshot of the wide variety of RH require-ments for museum collections. If only one common RH condition could be selected, a line in fi gure 8.2 at approximately 45 percent RH represents the value that accommodates most material types. Many museums accordingly set their environmental control standard at 45 or 50 percent RH with diurnal fl uctua-tion limited to +/- 5 percent.

8.4.3.1 Organic Materials

Organic materials are derived from plants (cellulose) and from animals (pro-tein). The moisture content within any organic material is determined by the relative humidity of the surrounding air. As RH increases, the moisture con-tent increases, and, inversely, moisture content decreases as the surrounding RH is reduced. The absolute amount and the extent of change in moisture content will affect the long-term preservation of an organic museum artifact or in organic parts of an artifact.

Figure 8.3 shows a large change in moisture content as the RH goes below approximately 30–35% or above 65–75% . This simplifi ed chart is used for illustrative purposes, and exaggerates the relationship to some extent in


order to emphasize the point that there is only a small change in moisture content within the mid-RH range.

Dimensional Instability: As an object gains or loses a signifi cant amount of moisture due to a change in RH, the object will expand or con-tract, causing physical instability that can result in cracks and surface losses. In the mid-RH range, where there is a small change in moisture content, the risk of dimensional instability is small, but the dimensional instability rapidly increases in an extreme high or low RH range.

Chemical and Physical Instability: As RH and moisture content increase to a high RH range, chemical hydrolysis reactions within the cells increase, resulting in damage at the cellular level. This results in loss in mechanical strength. The process of deterioration is accelerated in the pres-ence of acidic components that are either inherent within the material or are present as external pollutants. As RH and moisture content decrease to a low

Figure 8.2 Relative Humidity and Material Risk


RH range, the cells lose water, cross-linking is accelerated, and the struc-ture becomes brittle. Within the intermediate RH range, chemical hydrolysis slows down, signifi cantly prolonging the physical and chemical integrity of an organic material or object.

Biological Attack: Most mold growth occurs above 75 percent RH. Pest infestations are reduced in dry conditions. Therefore, reduction in RH pro-vides protection against biological attack.

8.4.3.2 Inorganic Materials

Inorganic materials such as metals, ceramics, and stone are very stable at low- to mid-RH conditions. However, other types of inorganic materials can be affected within the low- to mid-RH range. These objects are susceptible to damage due to inherent properties within the material’s own makeup. There are classes of minerals that take on water above a specifi c RH level and change state. Many salts will take on water above a specifi c RH and will become soluble (referred to as deliquescence). Some types of glass are unstable, and will cause migration of constituents within the glass matrix at a mid-RH range. Therefore, when dealing with inorganic collections such as mineral specimens, unstable glass and archaeological artifacts that contain salts due to prior burial conditions, it is essential to determine that RH conditions sur-rounding such objects will not induce such problems.

As the RH increases above 65–70 percent RH, many chemical reactions are either initiated or accelerated. Such reactions will cause damage to mate-rials that are normally stable. For example, the rate at which iron will oxidize and will convert to rust rapidly accelerates in the presence of high RH.

Figure 8.3 Relative Humidity Moisture Content for Organic Material


Figure 8.4 illustrates a typical rate of accelerated corrosive activity associ-ated with an increase in RH. The presence of a corrosive pollutant such as sulfur dioxide at a moderate level of RH (50–60%) will cause a low level of corrosive activity. As the RH increases, the rate of corrosion increases at a very rapid rate. Therefore, to protect against chemical attack from air pollut-ants, the best strategy is to maintain a moderate to low range of RH.

8.4.4 Pollutants

Pollutants can be divided into two categories, particulate and gas. Particulate matter includes all forms of solid materials, ranging in size from coarse dust, clothing fi bers, and hair to smoke and bacteria. Gaseous pollutants include typi-cal outdoor species such as sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfi de, and ozone, as well as a wide range of species that are generated from within the building due to the release of volatile components from indoor materials such as carpets and paints.

8.4.4.1 Particulate Filtration

The most common solution to the problem of dust is the inclusion of par-ticulate fi lters in the air-handling unit (AHU) of the climate control sys-tem. The effectiveness of a fi lter is based on its ability to collect particulates at or above a certain size on its surface. Since the fi lter is located in the path of the air that is circulated by the air handler, it creates a static pressure within the system, requiring the fan to work harder to move air. It is critical

Figure 8.4 Relationship of Relative Humidity and the Rate of Corrosive Activity


to determine the level of fi ltration required early in the planning stages since the size of the fan unit has to match the static load of the fi lter. It is not possible to add a high-effi ciency fan or fi lter that is beyond the capacity of the system after the system is installed.

For museums, it is important to remove as much dust as possible. A rela-tively high effi ciency fi lter is best. A dust-spot effi ciency rating of 90–95 percent, capable of stopping particles as fi ne as tobacco smoke is preferred; certainly effi ciency should be no less than a minimum of 80–90 percent. The American and European ratings for these levels of fi ltration are MERV 13/EU 7 at 80–85 percent and MERV 14/EU 8 at 90–95 percent.

Particulate fi ltration is critical for the removal of dust that enters the system, either from outside air or from indoor-generated dust pulled into the air-return ducts of the system. However, a signifi cant amount of particu-late matter will settle on collections before being fi ltered out by the air han-dler. The best measure is to ensure good housekeeping practices. Collection areas should be kept as clean as possible. Vacuum cleaners with a very high effi ciency rating should be used. Many commercial and residential vacuum cleaners with HEPA (High Effi ciency Particulate Air) fi lters are available at a reasonable cost. Another important measure is to avoid the use of poor-quality carpets, especially in highly traffi cked public areas. As carpets wear, they generate a large amount of dust.

8.4.4 Gas Phase Filtration

The removal of gaseous pollutants requires special fi lters containing a medium that absorbs or chemically breaks down targeted gases. In order to provide good protection and infrequent maintenance, a large amount of media such as acti-vated carbon or an oxidizing agent such as potassium or sodium permanganate impregnated on alumina, needs to be incorporated into the fi lter bank of the air-handling system. These gas phase fi lters take up a lot of space and impose a high static pressure load on the system. As a consequence, the installation of these types of fi lters must be designed into the system and cannot be retrofi tted after the fact. Because of the initial costs involved in installing such systems and the relatively high cost of maintaining such systems when the media’s effec-tiveness is depleted, the use of gas phase fi ltration is not widespread within museums. The decision to install such a system needs to take into account the quality of outside air, since protection against a highly polluted environment could justify such an investment in air treatment.

8.4.5 Special Environmental Requirements of Collections

Certain types of collections require unique environmental conditions, due to the inherent instability of the material itself. Common examples are


photographic color negatives and newsprint. Many color negatives will rap-idly fade at normal room temperature conditions. Therefore cold or cool stor-age is justifi ed in order to prolong the life of such materials. Cold storage of biological specimens is essential for stabilizing such materials for future study. Newsprint and other forms of low-quality paper that have a high acid content are also at high risk, especially in normal RH conditions. This is why archival storage spaces dedicated to the long-term preservation of such mate-rials should be maintained at a lower RH and/or temperature than normal collection storage areas.

Special environments are expensive to build and maintain. Yet they are essential for certain types of materials. If it is not possible to provide a fully controlled “special” environment, it is still essential to understand what ben-efi ts such an environment can provide. Often, a signifi cant percentage of ben-efi t can be achieved at a reasonable cost with simple freestanding equipment. This is not to advocate that expensive special environments should be value-engineered out of the project; it is to make sure that at least some measures are taken to provide appropriate conditions for long-term preservation when budget or other factors prevent a comprehensive solution. It is better to pro-vide some level of improved conditions than to ignore such special needs. As an example, if a special cold and dry storage space cannot be provided for newsprint, the placement of these materials in a small, well-sealed room iso-lated from the building’s forced air system with a high-quality dehumidifi er can provide some measure of improved RH protection.

8.4.6 Loan Requirements

Many institutions require that certain environmental conditions be main-tained as a condition of a loan agreement for a temporary exhibition. Regardless of the benefi t that such conditions may or may not confer on the long-term preservation of the loaned materials, these conditions must be met, since it is often a legal obligation of the loan.

• Provisions for achieving specifi c environmental conditions required for loans must be considered as part of the overall architectural/mechanical plan. For example, a temporary exhibition gallery isolated from other spaces by doors and with its own dedicated air-handling unit (AHU) designed to handle a wide range of RH conditions and high visitor traffi c may be considered as an appropriate measure.

• For unique RH requirements for individual objects, well-sealed microcli-mate-controlled exhibit cases provide an effective solution.

At the time of this publication, there is much discussion within the museum community about international loan standards and moving toward


a broader approach regarding acceptable RH and temperature require-ments. However, this has not been widely accepted and many institutions still require tight controls. This means meeting “AA” standards as defi ned by the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), which provide environmental conditions that have short-term fl uctuations of no more than +/- 5 percent RH off a set point of 50% and +/- 2°C off a set point of between 15° and 25°C. In planning a museum, if loans from other institutions are an important part of the museum program and long-term activities, at least the temporary exhibition gallery spaces should be able to meet these widely accepted international standards. It is impos-sible to predict when special conditions may be required: installing a system capable of meeting them ensures that the museum can accept a wide range of loans over the long term.

8.4.7 Developing an Appropriate Environmental Specifi cation

Among museum preservation specialists, the need for providing adequate environmental control for the preservation of collections has been well under-stood for a very long time. Over the last half century, as the number of new museum projects has increased at a rapid rate, there has been a greater aware-ness of the importance of providing appropriate temperature and RH condi-tions. The question was, and continues to be: what exactly are the appropriate environmental conditions for museums?

Sections 8.4.1–6 have described a large number of technical factors that need to be taken into account when developing a plan for the environmental protection of collections. For the majority of collections, one key factor stands out: avoid extreme RH conditions. If the RH remains within a narrow range centered around 45–50 percent RH, the risk of damage from RH variation is relatively small, with certain exceptions that have been previously described. For this reason, many museums have installed systems that can maintain temperature and RH conditions within a very narrow range, even though the cost for the installation and operation of such systems can be quite high. Similarly, these conditions are usually expected and mandated by lenders to temporary exhibitions.

With the constant increase in energy costs and a greater awareness of the need for sustainable solutions, preservation specialists are developing a better understanding of the risk and benefi ts of environmental control. Until the 1990s, the goal was to develop very precise RH conditions with minimum fl uctuations, since it was correctly noted that this would reduce environmentally induced damage. Now, in the early part of the twenty-fi rst century, we are trying to determine whether the price of maintaining such precise RH is justifi ed by the preservation benefi t for collections. At this time, for the majority of museums’ capital projects, it seems most prudent to


install systems that are capable of tight controls, but then to operate them in an energy-effi cient manner in consultation with a conservation specialist in preventive conservation.

8.4.7.1 Achievable Environmental Goals

The fi rst step in developing environmental specifi cations is to take into account what is reasonably achievable:

• External environmental conditions: Although any RH or temperature conditions can be maintained within a building, independent of exter-nal conditions, the cost of construction and maintenance signifi cantly increases with the differential between external and internal environ-mental conditions.

• The design of the physical space, which is discussed in the following section 8.5, creates certain natural limits. For example, if singled-glazed windows are used in a cold climate, condensation will form on the glass at an elevated RH during cold weather conditions.

• The design of mechanical climate control systems, discussed in sec-tion 8.6, will establish the level of temperature and RH that can be main-tained. The system should be designed to maintain conditions within an acceptable range that is appropriate for the preservation of collections. If loans from other institutions or traveling exhibitions originated by other museums are desired, mechanical systems that are capable of meeting a wide range of loan requirements must be specifi ed.

8.4.7.2 Evaluating the Cost and Benefi t of Risk Mitigation Measures

The second step is to carefully analyze the preservation needs of collections to determine what range of temperature and RH makes sense from the per-spective of both protection of collections and cost.

• Avoid extreme RH conditions.• Determine in what kind of environmental conditions the museum’s

collections have previously been maintained. If a collection of wooden artifacts has been stored and exhibited for most of its recent life in dry conditions, the objects will be at risk of damage when placed in a humid climate since they have already achieved an “equilibrium condition” in a dry environment. On the other hand wooden objects exhibited in a humid tropical climate have a moisture content equilibrated to a higher RH, so subjecting furniture made from such wood to a drier climate will result in serious cracks. In planning the Singapore Art Museum, Lord Cultural Resources recommended 50 percent RH for collections


acquired or borrowed from temperate zone countries, but 65 percent for those originating from the humid tropics of Southeast Asia.

• Avoid large fl uctuations in RH. The primary concern regarding fl uctua-tions in temperature is the impact of temperature on RH. Fluctuation of no more than +/-5 percent is recommended.

Figure 8.5 provides a generic perspective regarding relative risk to col-lections from changes in RH conditions. In this diagram, damage is referred to as actuarial risk. It is impossible to know how every individual object will respond to changes in RH. However, general trends regarding degree of risk can be determined, based on the type of information illustrated in fi gure 8.2 on Relative Humidity and Material Risk. If all collections are maintained in a single environment, an actuarial approach provides a useful picture of risk management.

The center point of the U-shaped RH curve does not have a specifi c RH value. This is because the actual number should be derived from what is achievable based on building and mechanical control design constraints. The

Figure 8.5 Relationship of Relative Humidity and Risk of Damage


prior history of the RH range in which the collection has been maintained is also a critical factor. The center point is raised above the zero level of actuarial risk. This is because many objects will degrade to some extent regardless of the level and range of fl uctuation in RH.

Increments of change in RH are divided into equal units on either side of the center point. As RH changes by one incremental step, the increase in actuarial risk is very small. The next incremental step of change in RH causes a much larger increase in risk. The third step of incremental change results in a very high and unacceptable level of risk. The point of the diagram is to illustrate the relationship of extent of RH change or fl uctuation and degree of risk.

Figure 8.6 illustrates the relationship of the cost of providing RH control and the benefi t in terms of reduced risk. The black bar represents the least expensive level of climate control. This level equates to the reduction in fl uc-tuation in RH represented by the black bar in fi gure 8.5. The middle gray bar in both diagrams shows that for an equal increment of cost the risk continues to be reduced but to a lesser degree. Finally, the light gray bar shows that for a further equal increment of cost, very little benefi t is achieved in terms of reduced risk. This diagram emphasizes that the avoidance of extreme RH

Figure 8.6 Cost-Benefi t Ratio


fl uctuations and risk can be achieved at a reasonable cost. Higher costs are associated with diminished benefi t.

Each institution has to determine for itself the level of actuarial risk that it is willing to sustain, and at what cost. It is dangerous to mandate an across-the-board solution for all institutions about what constitutes acceptable risk:

• If a museum has extremely valuable and vulnerable collections and the fi nancial resources to provide a high level of protection, it may determine that the additional increment of cost is justifi ed to reduce actuarial risk to a very low level.

• Conversely, if an institution has extreme fi nancial constraints, this dia-gram illustrates the need still to provide some level of RH control to avoid the very high level of actuarial risk that occurs without some degree of RH control.

The diagram clearly illustrates that with limited resources, signifi cant benefi ts in reducing the level of risk are still achievable. This means that a museum can achieve substantial conservation benefi ts with limited invest-ment when the optimal or complete solutions are not feasible or available due to cost.

THE FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE: THE PASSIVELY BUFFERED ENVIRONMENT

The exterior of a museum, often referred to as the building envelope, serves many purposes. Beyond its role as an important aesthetic component of the overall museum experience, it is a protective barrier that isolates interior spaces from outdoor environmental conditions. If the building envelope is designed with materials that have excellent thermal insulation properties and is tightly sealed, it acts as a buffer against rapid changes in external tempera-ture and relative humidity. Therefore, the building envelope is the fi rst line of defense in providing appropriate environmental control, essential for human comfort, the preservation of collections, and reducing operational costs asso-ciated with HVAC systems.

Figure 8.7 illustrates the buffering effect of a variety of interior “enve-lopes.” As the outside environment goes through wide daily fl uctuations in temperature or RH conditions, the building interior experiences less extreme and somewhat delayed changes in temperature and RH due to the buffering and sealing effect of the exterior skin of the envelope. Conditions within interior rooms are more stable depending on their distance from the exterior because they are further isolated from the external environment. Finally, a well-sealed case or storage cabinet within an interior room will provide very stable conditions in spite of wide daily fl uctuations in outdoor conditions.

8.5


8.5.1 The Box: Building Envelope Design

With the increasing awareness of the need to conserve energy (noted in chapter 15), more attention is being paid to the design and selection of materials used in the construction of the building envelope in order to enhance the envelope’s passive capabilities to modify the negative impact of harsh weather conditions:

• Insulation and isolation properties of wall and roofi ng materials: The selection of materials with high thermal insulation properties will reduce the rate in which the internal surfaces respond to external temperature conditions. This translates into stable internal conditions and reduced energy consumption. Generally, an exterior wall is built up of multiple layers of materials, including an intermediate insulation layer. The overall wall assembly should be designed with a high insulation value, based on an estimation of extreme external weather conditions. For buildings with special RH requirements, it is essential to install a moisture barrier that prevents moisture infi ltration.

Figure 8.7 Benefi t of a Layered Approach


• Insulation properties of exterior glazing materials: A single pane of glass has poor insulation properties. Therefore, if all exterior walls and the roof are well insulated, exterior glazing will be the weakest point in the overall building design regarding thermal barrier properties. This is especially a problem due to the risk of condensation forming on the cold interior surface of a humidifi ed space. Double- or triple-glazed windows and skylights provide improved insulation properties. It is also essential to select glazing materials with insulation values that will avoid problems of moisture condensation. Too often, the poor insulation properties of exterior glass defi ne the limits on the level of relative humidity that can be maintained within a building on a cold day.

• Design and Construction: Attention to detail in design and con-struction of the building envelope is essential. For example, if exterior metal penetrates into the interior side of the insulated wall assembly, the high thermal conductivity of metal will result in moisture conden-sation on the interior when the weather outdoors is cold. If the metal framework of a window does not have an adequate thermal break between the exterior and interior, water will condense on the interior metal surrounding the window. Similarly, great care must be taken to ensure that moisture barriers or vapor barriers are installed meticu-lously, since the slightest weakness or gap may concentrate condensa-tion along the fault line.

• Points of entry and air infi ltration: The goal of a well-sealed building is to reduce the impact of external conditions within interior spaces. The most obvious sources of air infi ltration are points of entry into the build-ing. Physical barriers such as revolving doors or entry areas with doors on both ends will reduce air exchange. Air and moisture infi ltration through inadequately installed or noncontinuous vapor barriers, poorly sealed window frames, or from other penetrations within the building envelope are also potential problems that must be avoided.

• Interior wall construction: In order to ensure that the vapor barrier is not compromised in the normal course of exhibitions work, protection should be provided in the form of a layer of a durable structural material such as plywood under drywall. This prevents tools such as drills or saws from puncturing the vapor barrier.

8.5.2 Rooms: The Box within the Box

The location of a room within the building has a huge impact on the rela-tionship between conditions within the space and the exterior environment, especially when relying primarily on passive control rather than active sys-tems utilizing forced air, heating, cooling, and humidity control equipment.


• A room that has a direct connection to the exterior, such as external walls, windows, and skylights, will be more directly affected by outdoor condi-tions than a space that is located within the interior core of the building.

• A room that is far from an entry point will be less affected by external conditions than a space adjacent to an entry point.

• Temperature effects on the building envelope are local and have a direct effect on rooms that are directly connected to the building envelope. The exterior surface will warm or cool the interior surface. This, in turn, warms or cools the air within the room. Interior rooms are indirectly impacted by exterior conditions because of the relatively slow rate of air exchange of the warm or cool air from rooms with exterior walls and the temperature-buffering effect of interior surfaces. Therefore there is a rel-atively long lag time for temperature to reach equilibrium between inte-rior rooms and rooms with poorly insulated exterior walls or windows.

• Water vapor is a gas. The absolute amount of a gas equalizes relatively quickly between open spaces. Therefore, absolute humidity levels are often uniform throughout a building that does not have humidity control equipment, but relative humidity will vary from space to space based on different temperature conditions. Therefore, location will have less of an impact on absolute humidity distribution but will still have an impact on relative humidity due to temperature effects.

In general, for spaces without extensive active environmental control sys-tems, the more isolated that a room is from an unstable temperature condition due to distance or door separations the more stable it will be because of the tem-perature buffering due to thermal retention of room surfaces. Although wall sur-faces have some moisture-buffering capacity, the effect is more limited, resulting in relatively uniform absolute humidity conditions throughout a space. Relative humidity instability in this case is primarily due to differences in temperature.

8.5.3 Sealed Exhibition Cases and Storage Units: The Box within the Box within the Box

Exhibition cases (vitrines) and storage units represent another layer of isola-tion from outdoor air conditions. The effectiveness of cases and storage units depends on how well sealed they are from air infi ltration.

• Temperature effects: Although the exteriors of cases are usually not built of materials with a high insulation value, the interior air mass pro-vides some degree of buffering against rapid changes in temperature over the very short term, but the buffering effect is limited because of the low insulation capacity of the enclosure materials. However, if there is a


signifi cant leakage rate, the interior temperature will refl ect surrounding air conditions more rapidly.

• Humidity effects: A display case, whether it is constructed of metal, glass, or plastic, is an effective moisture barrier. Even wood, which is itself very reactive to changes in relative humidity, will signifi cantly reduce moisture exchange in an enclosed case. Therefore, the most important factor regard-ing the buffering effect of an enclosed case on RH is the rate of air leakage.

Most enclosed cases do provide some positive buffering benefi ts in terms of stabilization against short-term temperature and relative humidity fl uc-tuations, especially if the cases or storage units are fairly well sealed against dust. In essence, an enclosed case creates a unique environmental microcli-mate. The goal is to improve on the passive ability of an enclosed unit as a microclimate to protect against environmental fl uctuations. This is achieved by improving seals to further reduce the rate of air leakage.

If the temperature of the surrounding air is fairly stable and the case is well sealed, the introduction of hygroscopic materials (capable of gaining or losing water, based on the relative humidity of the surrounding air) such as wood, paper, or cotton will improve the moisture buffering capacity of the case. In museums, silica gel, hidden within the case, is used for this purpose since it provides much more buffering capacity than wood or other organic materials. Well-sealed exhibit cases or storage units that incorporate silica gel are a viable method for providing passive RH control over relatively long periods. It is an effective solution for providing a tight level of RH control very cost-effectively compared to what is achievable with conventional build-ing-wide climate control systems.

THE SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE: THE ACTIVELY CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT

Active environmental control refers to the use of mechanical equipment to control temperature and relative humidity within a building. At the very out-set of a building project, it is essential to defi ne needs and goals of environ-mental control, as well as to realize the costs involved and the extent to which the goals can be met.

8.6.1 Defi ning Goals and Limits

The fi rst step to realizing a cost-effective solution is to maximize the capa-bility of the building envelope to provide appropriate passive conditions, as described in the preceding section 8.5.

For example, in a cold climate region, if window or skylight glazing that has poor insulation properties has been selected, it will be impossible to

8.6


maintain a mid-range RH at or above 35–40 percent RH without causing condensation on the glass. In this case, the environmental system may have the capacity to achieve the desired RH, but it would be dangerous to operate the system at an RH level that causes extensive interior surface condensation.

Another example is the use of exterior glazing with poor thermal or infrared rejection properties in a very hot climate. It may be possible to main-tain stable temperature conditions within the overall space, but at a very high energy cost since the environmental system must overwhelm the infl uence of external conditions. In addition, unless some form of daylight control on the windows is used, it will be diffi cult or impossible to prevent local hot spots due to direct exposure from infrared radiation.

In both cases, even if a very expensive system that is designed to over-whelm outdoor conditions is installed, it may not be able to operate effectively because of inherent building design limits. To achieve a sustainable active envi-ronmental control solution, the following variables must be taken into account:

• External design conditions: Data exists on average and extreme climatic conditions in regions throughout the world. This information indicates the relative percentage of time that a certain temperature, relative humid-ity, or light condition may occur over an annual cycle. Engineers use this data to determine how to size the capacity of a system. They take into account the design of the building in terms of wall insulation; window placement and coverings; air infi ltration; ventilation requirements; inter-nal heat and moisture loads; as well as the required temperature, RH, and ventilation levels that need to be maintained. The climate control equip-ment is not sized to meet specifi ed environmental conditions 100 percent of the time, since it is not cost-effective to design for very brief extreme outdoor conditions that may occur only a few hours or days within an annual cycle. The percentage of time that the system must meet external design conditions is critical, since less than 100 percent means that at certain periods specifi ed environmental conditions cannot be met.

• Environmental requirements of occupants: People are relatively sensi-tive to a narrow range of temperature and are fairly tolerant of a wide range in relative humidity. Therefore, temperature is usually specifi ed within a fairly narrow range in occupied areas of museums because of human comfort requirements. Often the winter temperature set point is set lower than in the summer as an energy-effi ciency measure.

• Code requirements for human occupancy: In addition to human com-fort considerations, there are building regulations regarding the need for a certain amount of outside air in order to ensure a healthy indoor air environment. When outside air needs to be brought into a building to maintain a certain rate of fresh air ventilation, it puts an extra load on the climate control system, since the outside air requires far more energy to


be conditioned than the recycled indoor air. If a building has a relatively high occupancy, a large amount of outside air will be required. Because of the large amount of energy required to condition outside air, carbon dioxide (CO2) sensors can be used in some locales to adjust the amount of fresh air required for a space based on actual occupancy at any given time, rather than the maximum occupancy is normally used to determine the amount of outside air required for ventilation. These CO2 monitors are benefi cial for maintaining environmental conditions in galleries, stor-age, and other collections areas that are seldom at maximum occupancy and for reducing the amount of work required from the HVAC system, thereby increasing operational and energy effi ciency (see chapter 15).

• Environmental requirements of collections: Museum collections are relatively sensitive to narrow changes in relative humidity and are fairly tolerant of a wide range in temperature. In the previous discussion of achievable environmental goals in section 8.4.7.1, the point was made that the actual amount of tolerable risk must be weighed against the cost of installing and operating a museum climate control system at a specifi ed range of temperature and RH that is neither too wide nor too narrow.

8.6.2 Design of Climate Control Systems

There are many considerations that go into the design of climate control systems, some of which have already been noted. Here we list and briefl y describe a number of key system performance specifi cations that have a major impact on system design and cost. Decisions about these key specifi cation items should be made by the entire planning group so that the consequences of these specifi cations are understood by the entire team. These decisions will have an enormous impact on the sustainability of all aspects of the project, and ultimately on the long-term preservation of the museum’s collections:

• Load capacity of system: Systems are sized to have suffi cient ability to heat, cool, or adjust humidity in order to stay within a specifi ed range based on assumptions about external and internal load conditions, includ-ing ventilation requirements. It is essential that a system have adequate capacity. Modern energy-effi cient systems are designed to run effi ciently on partial load, so a somewhat oversized system may cost more to install but should not be more expensive to operate if it is fi tted out with a good-quality control system.

• Quantum versus incremental increases in cost: When a certain type or size of equipment is selected, it is important to determine if suffi cient capacity, plus a margin of extra capacity, is incorporated. Depending on a


number of circumstances, it may be relatively inexpensive to design some excess capacity. In other instances, an increase in capacity or improved performance may require a quantum leap in cost. When incremental costs are involved, a degree of overdesign is good. When a big jump in cost is involved, the balance of cost versus benefi t needs to be carefully consid-ered. As an example, it may be cost-effective for a university museum to be supplied with chilled water from a central plant; but do the cost sav-ings justify the risk in case the central chiller plant cannot supply chilled water at an adequate temperature on a year-round basis? In this instance, the benefi t of a dedicated museum chiller must be measured against the reduction in risk to the collections and the additional cost that would be required to install and operate the museum’s own chiller.

• Balancing temperature and relative humidity set points: In a warm, humid environment, it requires a great deal of energy to maintain a tem-perature at the moderate to slightly cool range of human comfort at a low- to mid-RH range of 35–50% RH. Conversely, in a cold climate, it requires a great deal of energy to maintain a temperature at the mid to high range of human comfort at a mid-RH range of 50% RH. Seasonal adjustments are therefore a useful tool for fi nding a set-point range that meets the needs of people, collections, and budget. Set points may be varied slightly each month in the spring, and varied in comparable stages in the opposite direction in the fall.

• Permissible temperature and relative humidity fl uctuations: Some degree of fl uctuation is inevitable. What level is tolerable? This is a com-plex question and one that needs to be discussed with a climate con-trol engineer. Very tight tolerances are expensive to maintain, especially if load conditions within a space are subject to signifi cant fl uctuations. However, if a relatively precise range is not specifi ed, there is a danger that poor quality equipment may be installed. For example, if a system is specifi ed at +/-5% RH, a low-quality relative humidity sensor rated at +/-5% RH accuracy may be selected. Even though a good-quality mechanical system may have the ability to perform to a tighter specifi -cation, its capability will be undermined by the selection of an inferior quality RH sensor when a higher-quality RH sensor necessary for more precise system performance would have cost only a little more.

• Zone control: A complex set of activities take place in a typical museum. It is not unusual for adjacent spaces to experience different temperature and RH load conditions due to a variety of factors such as size of space, traffi c fl ow, and proximity to external walls. It would be prohibitively expensive to install dedicated air conditioning units for each space. To compensate for temperature variations, automatic dampers that control


airfl ow and heating elements within supply ducts that feed specifi c spaces, referred to as “zones” can be utilized in conjunction with a single air han-dler. The overall air is heated or cooled to either a fi xed temperature or a temperature that satisfi es the zone that requires the coldest air supply, and the terminal heating elements in the supply ducts of individual zones heat the supply air to the required temperature. Temperature zones are relatively common; zoned humidifi cation is much more diffi cult to install and far less frequently employed.

• Energy saving systems: There are a wide variety of solutions for how to condition air in an energy-effi cient manner such as variable air volume (VAV), displacement ventilation, and chilled beam designs. These sys-tems are very cost-effective for the right application. When considering an energy-effi cient design, it is important to understand the impact on humidity control since many of these systems are designed for tempera-ture control, and their ability to control RH may be compromised com-pared with standard constant volume air systems.

• System controls: The mechanical system is like the building’s muscle. The control system is its brain. Controls consist of a series of sensors including thermostats and humidistats located in key locations within the controlled spaces or in the return ductwork. These sensors report back to a central computer that has been programmed to operate the variety of mechanical components within the system. For a nonspecialist end user, the fi rst point of concern should be the accuracy and location of the sensors. The performance of a quality system will be compromised by the poor performance or placement of a sensor. Ideally, sensors should be placed in positions on walls away from doorways and air supply vents in positions that represent average room conditions. If this is not possible, sensors are frequently placed just inside the air return of a single-zoned system, since this point theoretically represents an averaged condition.

8.6.3. Consequences of Sustainability

Sustainability has been defi ned as the responsibility of meeting current resource needs without compromising these resources for future generations. The act of preserving museum collections is an excellent example of a sustain-able activity. Yet the ability to preserve collections can require the unsustain-able use of resources in the form of high consumption of energy to control environmental conditions in museums, so museums today are reconsidering environmental standards in order to reduce operating costs and to become active participants in “the Green Revolution” (see chapter 15).

Over the last half-century museums increasingly imposed tighter tem-perature and RH requirements based on the assumption that narrow envi-ronmental parameters were necessary for the preservation of collections. The


logic was that a stable environment creates the safest condition for the exhi-bition and storage of collections. While the concept is correct, there are dif-ferences of opinion about the degree of risk associated with different levels and ranges of fl uctuation in temperature and RH. Now, with museums fac-ing very high energy costs, large budget cuts and societal pressures to meet new energy-effi cient standards, specialists are trying to determine how wide a range of temperature and RH can be tolerated without placing collections at an unacceptable level of risk.

Energy sustainability for museums can be achieved through a variety of means:

• Install energy-effi cient solutions: This approach has been employed for decades. There are a wide variety of means for reducing energy without signifi cantly compromising system performance. However, many of these means are expensive, such as the replacement of older climate control equipment with more energy-effi cient units and the implementation of more effi cient system approaches such as variable control of air ventila-tion and the installation of heat recovery systems. New building designs utilizing enhanced means for achieving better insulation and air-tight-ness are also available, but again at a high cost.

• Modify current environmental standards: Allowance of wider fl uctua-tions and more fl exible temperature and RH set points provide an oppor-tunity for reducing energy costs without undertaking expensive system upgrades. This approach, while appearing to be opportune because of the ease and low cost of implementation, can have negative consequences. As environmental specifi cations are loosened, there is an increase in actuarial risk, as noted in section 8.3.7. Also, to the extent that such a solution appears to solve the problem, it may distract from much more substantial energy savings that can be achieved with relatively expensive equipment and software upgrades of climate control equipment.

• Green building design: Many architects are implementing energy-effi -cient design solutions that aim to temper rather than strictly control outdoor conditions, using low-energy-consuming or renewable energy resources. The extent that their buildings rely on renewable resources impacts the degree of interior environmental control that can be achieved. An extreme approach is zero-energy building design. The goal of this type of design is to develop buildings that have zero net energy consump-tion and zero carbon emissions over an annual cycle. There is a risk that such an approach will provide only very limited environmental control, especially with regard to relative humidity.

• Hybrid solutions: No single solution solves all problems. It is laudable that museums are investigating methods for reducing energy and car-bon footprint. It is also laudable that museums are committed to the


preservation of their collections. The extreme pursuit of one goal can only come at the expense of the other. Finding unique combinations among all the approaches described in this section that enhances both goals is the challenge for our generation.

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING SYSTEMS

Environmental monitoring of museum temperature and relative humidity conditions is often considered to be a task that is carried out by museum specialists and is separate from the building automated system (BAS) that operates the climate control systems. In part, this is because the facility’s engineering staff is responsible for the BAS, and it may be diffi cult to track, store, and share data in a manner that is useful to the staff responsible for collections preservation. In the end, the data from the BAS temperature and humidity sensors serves as the brains of the system. To understand how and why the system responds and controls the environment, it is essential to mon-itor BAS temperature and RH data simultaneously. Independent monitoring systems may serve as an independent check on building performance and provide more fl exibility in terms of location than permanently wired sensor points. But they are not a substitute for monitoring and recording environ-mental data from the building’s climate control system. The use of individual hygrothermographs and temperate/RH loggers is useful, but it is essential to integrate this information with the data collected from the BAS in order to fully understand building performance.

The museum’s preservation staff must work closely with the building’s operating engineer and the mechanical engineering design fi rm to determine the quality and location of both BAS and independent environmental moni-toring devices. In a large gallery it may be advisable to monitor at several height levels as well as at several locations in the room to understand the relative degree of uniformity of conditions throughout the space. A protocol for how to track, log, and share data is important, as is the determination of a method of sensor calibration to ensure high sensor accuracy.

IMPLICATIONS FOR BUILDING DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Various risks require different types of mitigation strategies as described in sections 8.3 and 8.4. Unique concerns must also be taken into account based on the nature of the space and materials used in fabrication. Table 8.1 high-lights key considerations for spaces in the museum while table 8.2 concludes this chapter by examining the advantages and disadvantages of key building materials.

8.7

8.8


Table 8.1. Key Considerations to Enhance Preventive Conservation through Design

Space Key Considerations

Entries • Be sure to buffer the conditioned inside space from the unconditioned air outside; limit the amount of outside air that comes in.

• Vestibules and other airlocks can be used to limit the amount of air exchanged.

• Use grates to reduce dirt, moisture, and pests brought in by guests.

• Keep entry under slightly positive pressure to prevent air exchange.

Galleries • Climate control systems must be responsive to varying load requirements due to naturally occurring day/night cycles, varying visitor loads, and the thermal load from electric lights.

• Locate temperature and RH monitoring/control sensors in locations that will capture average conditions within the space, as air does not necessarily distribute uniformly within a space.

• Locate air supply registers so that air does not blow directly on collections.

Collection Storage • Environmental conditions within the storage room must be well maintained, as these areas hold the bulk of a museum’s collections.

• Air ventilation requirements differ from adjacent exhibition or noncollections spaces due to its low traffi c and low occupancy. Dedicated air-handling equipment is needed to provide this.

• Placement of sensors, lighting, and air supply vents must be carefully considered to ensure that systems are effective.

Temporary Holding Spaces

• If possible, should be climate controlled, at a minimum avoid extremes of temperature and humidity

• Consider how long an item is likely to be left in the space and

• Packing

• Loading dock

Wood Easy to clean, dust free

Flexible to install or alter

Linoleum / PVC Flooring

Low cost

Fire and chemical resistant

Easy to clean, dust free

Carpet Tile Low to moderate cost

Damage can be repaired by replacing individual tiles

(continued)


Space Key Considerations

Walls

Stone / Concrete / Wood

as above

Plaster Easy to clean

Paintable and moderately nailable

Much lighter to install than stone

Good fi re resistance

No VOCs or off-gassing

Gypsum Board Moderate cost

(Drywall) Easy to clean, dust free

Flexible to install

Fabric-Covered Panels

Flexible to install

Ceiling

Exposed Structure Low cost

Functional

Fire resistant

Plaster, Wood, Gypsum

as above

Acoustic Tile Sound and mold resistant

Fire resistant

Thermal and moisture buffer



Table 8.2. Evaluation of Common Finishes from a Preventive Conservation Value and Risk Management Perspective

Material Advantages Disadvantages

Flooring

Stone, Terrazzo • Durable surface • Diffi cult to attach fi xtures and to repair

• Easy to clean, dust free • High material and installation cost

• Fire resistant • Poor thermal or moisture insulation

• No VOCs or off-gassing

• Non-porous fi nish resists microbial growth

Concrete Slab • Low cost • Diffi cult to attach fi xtures and to repair

(Sealed/Stained) • Durable surface • Poor thermal or moisture insulation

• Easy to clean, dust free • Off-gassing potential—sealants must be low VOC

• Fire resistant

• Nonporous fi nish resists microbial growth

Ceramic Tile • Moderate cost • Poor thermal or moisture insulation

• No VOCs or off-gassing • Diffi cult to attach fi xtures and to repair

• Easy to clean, dust free • May fracture under weight (less durable)

• Fire resistant

Wood • Easy to clean, dust free • Moderate to high cost

• Flexible to install or alter • Subject to damage from wear and tear, pests and rot

(continued)



• Requires consistent labor-intensive upkeep

• Flammable

• Off-gassing potential—stains must be low VOC

Linoleum / PVC Flooring

• Low cost • Moderate durability

• Fire and chemical resistant • Indoor air-quality concerns (off-gassing)

• Easy to clean, dust free • Not easy to repair, may require replacement, patching

Carpet Tile • Low to moderate cost • Carpet tends to collect dust, mites, pollutants

• Damage can be repaired by replacing individual tiles

• Cleaning can be labor intensive

• Fire resistance and fl ame spread may vary

• Off-gassing potential—carpet must be low VOC

Walls

Stone / Concrete / Wood

as above as above

Plaster • Easy to clean • High cost

• Paintable and moderately nailable

• Specialist installation/craftsmanship/repair

• Much lighter to install than stone

• Easily damaged by water leaks

• Good fi re resistance • Can fracture due to vibration

• No VOCs or off-gassing • Can generate some dust




Gypsum Board • Moderate cost • Requires patching and repainting

(Drywall) • Easy to clean, dust free • Fire resistance and fl ame spread may vary

• Flexible to install • Requires underlying plywood for nailable surface

• Can hide underlying building or moisture problems

Fabric-Covered Panels

• Flexible to install • Expensive

• Flammable

• Low to moderate wearing surface

• Hard to clean, collects dust

• Requires specialist installation

Ceilings

Exposed structure

• Low cost • Poor thermal or moisture insulation

• Functional • Exposes collections directly to leaks

• Fire resistant • Cleaning may be diffi cult

• Off-gassing potential—paint must be low VOC

Plaster, Wood, Gypsum

as above as above

Acoustic tile • Sound and mold resistant • Specialist installation

• Fire resistant • Hard to clean, collect dust

• Thermal and moisture buffer • Can hide underlying building problems

PLANNING FOR OPERATIONS

Operating the museum every day is a subject that some museum planners prefer not to think about. Yet these activities are required to deliver on the mission and have signifi cant infl uence on the visitor experience and percep-tion of the institution.

Planning for operations means understanding the details of how the museum will function:

• What staff will be needed? • What will be the full range of activities that the building must support? • How will visitors, staff, collections, and other materials move around the

space? • What are the risks? • What will it all cost and who will pay for it?

These are just a few of the questions that must be answered to ensure effec-tive planning.

In most museums there is no steady state of operation; there are segments of a cycle. The cycle may relate to temporary exhibitions, seasonal ebbs and fl ows, or the acquisition calendar. Everyday there are new issues that require a change of plans. Museums regularly change content, move objects, produce programs, host events—often all at the same time! Exhibitions go up and come down. Public downtime is maintenance up-time.

An excellent operating plan puts all the pieces together to:

• ensure the satisfaction of visitors, stakeholders, and staff;• assess risk and protect the collections, building, and people;• actively manage the fi nancial aspects of the operation to enable growth in

mission-related programming; and• provide the stability and fl exibility to make it all sing.

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Planning for operations requires a willingness to strategically solve prob-lems, a keen interest in people, and a healthy dose of a need to keep order. The best operations people:

• communicate regularly and clearly; • are plan oriented but highly fl exible and creative; • demonstrate common sense and strong analytical and management skills; • are comfortable making decisions.

The skills needed are roughly the same, whether starting a new operation or running a strong existing department.

We therefore begin with chapter 9, which reminds us of the multifarious activity that characterizes the life of a twenty-fi rst-century museum, and of the need to plan for and organize it. Successive chapters focus on those topics most relevant to a capital project—safety and security; services and support; staff changes that will result from the project; and the need to project atten-dance, revenue, and expenses as accurately as possible. All of these subjects are critical to right-sizing the building, providing the most relevant facilities, and to ensuring the sustainability of the museum space and facilities being planned.

THE MUSEUM IN ACTION

Amy Kaufman

This chapter begins with a brief glimpse of a typical day in the life of many museums, and then proceeds to consider how best to plan for and organize all that activity when preparing for a museum capital project.

TWENTY-FOUR HOURS IN THE LIFE OF A MUSEUM

Every museum has its own rhythm and tempo. A cycle of public hours, downtime, installation of new exhibitions, de-installation, parties, programs, school groups, capital improvement projects, scheduled maintenance, and much more. Understanding the full scope of these activities helps ensure the effective—and hopefully effi cient—operation of this ecosystem.

Table 9.1 offers a schematic glimpse into a typical day in the life of a museum with traditional operating hours. But don’t expect things to be this calm during exhibition changeovers or capital improvement projects!

As museums seek to better serve working families and young profes-sionals, operating hours are shifting to include more evening hours. Whereas almost all museums once closed at 5:00 or 6:00 PM, many are now open until 9:00 or 10:00 PM on select days. Some museums have even decided to close in the mornings (except for school group tours) in favor of operating into the evening.

Assuming museums see positive results over time from this fundamental shift in operating hours, it is likely that some will begin to operate like res-taurants or theaters, with mainly weekend and evening hours when people are most likely to take advantage of cultural institutions and other leisure activities. Such a shift would of course have profound effects on staffi ng schedules, which would become even more split because front-of-house staff would be working almost entirely at times that are different from the rest of the museum. Innovative new systems for communication, collaboration, and coordination would be required to ensure smooth operations.

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Table 9.1. Typical Day in the Life of a Museum

Front of House Back of House

Waking Up: 6:00 AM–8:00 AM

• Cleaning begins in public areas, in order to conclude before opening

• Scheduled maintenance and repairs begin in public areas, in order to conclude before opening

• Potential changes/updates in exhibition undertaken to conclude before opening

• Change in Security shift

• Deliveries begin (collections, loans, retail goods, food, collateral materials, supplies)

• Scheduled maintenance and repairs begin

• Residual load out from previous night’s event/program

Getting Ready: 8:00 AM–10:00 AM

• Review the Day Sheet (lists all programs/events/groups)

• Conduct morning walk-through/checklist

• Operations “huddle” to coordinate day

• Prepare cash drawers and systems for Admissions, Retail, and Café

• Turn on and test interactive, audio and video equipment

• Theater opens for daytime fi lms, programs, or rehearsals

• Gallery guards and educators take their posts

• Staff and volunteers arrive

• Collaborators, researchers and other professionals begin to arrive for meetings

• Deliveries continue

• Program supplies are organized for the day

• Signage is organized for the day

Public Hours: Ramping Up

• Admission and program tickets go on sale to public

• Membership and information desks open

• School groups arrive and visit galleries and/or classrooms, have lunch, depart

• Security monitoring and crowd control

• Shop and Café open

• Library, archives and other public services open

• Press and VIP visits/tours

• Cleaning

• Retail restocking

• Staff breaks and shift changes

• Curators, educators, walkthroughs

• Adjustments/condition checks by registrars and preparators

• Prep tomorrow’s signage

• Prep and distribute tomorrow’s day sheet

• Staff meetings to prepare oncoming exhibitions and plan new education programs

THE MUSEUM IN ACTION 3 5 5

ORGANIZING THE ACTION

Everyone seems to have a different idea of what is included in “museum operations.” For information on the entire ecosystem of museum opera-tions, including curatorial, conservation, documentation, education, fi nance, administration, marketing and development, readers may refer to The Manual of Museum Management (Lord and Lord, 2009). While acknowledging that there are many other activities underway at any given time in most museums, in this chapter we are focusing on the front-of-house and back-of-house activities that are required to open the doors to the public and keep the place running smoothly.

An integrated, coordinated approach to operations will organize what may otherwise be chaos into an effi cient system. This chapter provides the tools and key questions to consider when planning for the realities of oper-ating a new public space, or operating an existing one better. Understand-ing how these departments will operate in the new, renovated or expanded museum will also be critically important to achieving a successful and truly functional building plan and design.

Front of House Back of House

Public Hours: Winding Down

• Cash and credit card reconciliation for Admissions, Membership, Shop, and Café

• Report on attendance and revenue

• Cash pickup and delivery

• Stock new materials

• Clean and recharge equipment (iPods, handhelds, audio tours)

• Event/Program staff arrive

• Cleaning and rubbish removal (Round 1—from public and offi ces)

• Load in for evening event/program (caterers, furniture, fl owers, audio-visual, linens, talent)

• Staging and setup begins for evening event/program

Day into Evening:6:00 PM–10:00 PM

• Event/program staff and security take posts

• Evening guests arrive, enjoy event and depart

• Set up completed

• Staff breaks and possible shift changes

Down Time: 10:00 PM to 6:00 AM

• Events and facilities staff leave • Load out from event/program

• Cleaning and rubbish removal (Round 2—from event/program)

• Security switches to primarily surveillance, possibly collection delivery

• Emergency maintenance

9.2


9.2.1 Operations: Preparing to Be Everything to Everyone

Public operation is central to the museum. Effective operation, therefore, has points of contact to every department. The criticality of shared goals, internal communications that run like clockwork, superb training, and crystal-clear policies and procedures cannot be stressed enough. If any one of these falls short, the operation will suffer—and so will the museum’s reputation.

Operating a public space means being everything to everyone. Visitors want service, and have every need imaginable. Take that to the next level when it comes to members! There are deliveries and maintaining the build-ing to worry about. Crowds and queues may need management. There are internal needs from the development staff, questions from exhibition man-agement, setups for special events, rehearsals in the theater, and the list goes on and on. In order to effectively plan and function day after day, each opera-tional area should:

• clearly defi ne its departmental goals and functions both within the con-text of the museum as a whole and in relation to coordinating and col-laborating with other departments;

• ensure that job functions, policies, and procedures are clear within the department;

• create or participate in a system that ensures relevant information is dis-tributed internally;

• coordinate training across departments for consistency;• collect, analyze, and share information that will contribute to improvements

in that department as well as other key areas (for example, visitor complaints, member attendance, redemption rates for coupons, trends in retail sales, or the number and subject of incident reports written by security);

• regularly talk to colleagues—a lot of work gets done better when people actually know each other!

Six operational areas must be coordinated in order to accomplish the daily public service of most museums:

• Visitor Services• Facilities• Security• Retail • Theater Services• Food Service

In larger museums each of these areas will be operated by its own depart-ment. In smaller ones, they may be combined or may be implemented by


just one or two persons. The following sections raise the questions and iden-tify the issues that are relevant, whatever the scale of operations. Answers to these questions will provide the information needed to effectively organize the operational departments and inform the building design. Making these decisions early on will enable the Museum Planning Team to provide archi-tects and designers with the answers they need to succeed. It is not appropriate to ask architects or designers to advise on these issues because they do not know the answers. This information should come from senior staff or middle manage-ment, or may be provided by experienced museum planning consultants.

9.2.2 Visitor Services

The primary function of the Visitor Services Department is to ensure a rich, positive experience for all visitors and increase the likelihood of repeat visi-tation. As museums seek to become more visitor centered, Visitor Services departments are taking up more central roles, at times actively planning the public operation with other departments, cross-training admissions staff with retail to maximize fl exibility, and introducing in-gallery learning in partner-ship with education. In some museums Visitor Services manages the docents and pairs educators with group tours (being responsible for operations) even though the Education department selects and trains them (being responsible for content and quality control).

In order to plan a building effectively and set up a winning approach to Visitor Services, the following key questions must be addressed:

• What are the optimal operating hours of the museum—not for the staff, but for the visitors?

• How will visitors approach the building—whether they arrive on foot, by public transit, car, or tour bus—in all kinds of weather?

• What is the admission ticketing sequence for general admission, group admission, or visitors with special needs?

• If admission is charged, for general admission or just for special exhibi-tions, where will money be stored and counted? How will it get to the bank?

• Where are important visitor amenities such as restrooms and coat check to be located relative to the entrances and ticketing desks?

• Can visitors make reservations online? If admission is charged, how many tickets can be sold online? Will timed ticketing be needed—and if so, regularly or occasionally?

• How many ticketing, membership, and information stations are needed? Should they be in separate areas of the lobby?

• What equipment needs to be installed at the admissions desk? If admis-sion is charged, this generally includes a ticketing system, ticket printers,


credit card machines and cash registers at each station. What space will be needed for equipment to be cleaned and recharged?

• How will audiovisual or multimedia content be offered? • How will general information inquiries be managed—in person, on the

phone, via e-mail?• What visitor information will be collected and by what means?• How will tours work? Will they be guided by docents or an audio tour?

Or will they be self-guided? For groups that have booked in advance? For regularly scheduled public tours?

• How will school groups and their backpacks and lunches be managed?• What happens if visitors fall ill or have an accident? • Will there be staff other than security posted in galleries? • How are future programs to be advertised? If some or all of them are

charged, who will sell tickets to them, and how?• Who will manage the front of house for education programs—Visitor

Services or Education?

There are a variety of additional issues and procedures that Visitor Ser-vices must address, such as management reporting, forecasting attendance and income, responding to visitor complaints and cash handling, but by answering the key questions listed above planners will have a head start on providing for effi cient visitor services operations.

9.2.3 Facilities

The primary function of the Facilities department is to ensure that the infra-structure, physical plant, and systems are maintained at the standard required for safe and effi cient operation of the building. Many Facilities staffs also oversee offi ce services such as purchasing, warehouses, and internal mail. Chapter 11 addresses building services and support generally. From the view-point of daily operations, in order to plan a building effectively for the Facili-ties department, the following key questions must be addressed:

• What will the routine maintenance needs and schedule look like? Is it affordable and realistic?

• What are the set points for humidifi cation, ventilation, and air condi-tioning in collections areas? How will these be monitored, maintained, and managed?

• Are there any particularities regarding utilities—for example, issues of metering that must be addressed in a shared facility?

• How will onsite storage be managed? Will there be an offsite ware-house or storage? If so, how will deliveries be managed between the two buildings?


• How will rubbish be removed from the museum on a daily basis? How will large batches of it be managed during maintenance projects and exhibit changeovers?

• How will internal mail pickup and delivery be managed? • How will contractors such as cleaning crews and maintenance workers be

managed?• What will be needed for grounds keeping, including snow and ice removal

where applicable? • How will special events and public programs affect the building and the

operation? • How and when will cleaning crews work in public spaces? In other parts

of the building? What about after-hours events?

Facilities personnel will also need to plan for such occasions as cata-strophic system failure, internal work orders, purchasing, equipment man-agement and repair, and building management during emergencies.

9.2.4 Security

The primary function of the Security department is to ensure the protection of people, collections, and the building, and to manage any potential or actual situations that could pose a threat. The following chapter 10 addresses safety and security as a whole. From the viewpoint of daily operations, in order to plan a building effectively for security, the following key questions must be addressed:

• How will Security work with Visitor Services to control entry into the museum? What are the control points, and how will they function at peak times? During slow times?

• Will visitors always pass through security scanners, or only when there is a heightened level of threat? Is there space for this equipment?

• What access will various categories of staff members have to various parts of the building and how will movement through the building be monitored?

• What functions will various entrances and exits serve? How will they be monitored?

• What are the legal requirements for fi re safety?• What will be required to respond to emergencies or disasters, including

bomb threats, fi re, evacuation, and other emergencies? If the area is prone to earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, or typhoons, are plans adequate for these events? Can the building accommodate the optimal approach to disaster planning?

• How will cash be distributed, handled, picked up, and delivered?


• How can galleries be intelligently confi gured and monitored to maximize security and minimize costs?

• How can galleries be closed off and traffi c fl ow rerouted during installa-tion and de-installation?

• How will concurrent events be managed? After-hours events?• What will be the schedule for maintaining security when the museum is

closed to the public? How many personnel will be needed, and where will they be stationed? How will deliveries be received and processed after public hours?

In addition to the above, Security personnel should also provide safety and emergency training for all front line staff, handle parcel control, investi-gate and report any incidents of actual or threatened damage, vandalism, or theft, and practice emergency opening and closing procedures for occasions when they will be needed.

9.2.5 Retail

The primary function of the retail department or museum shop is to enhance the visitor experience by providing the opportunity to take something mean-ingful home and to contribute to the bottom line of the museum while doing so. In larger museums there is likely to be more than one retail space. These may be permanent—such as the separate children’s shops to be found in many museums or science centers—or temporary, such as the satellite shops that feature products associated with special exhibitions.

In order to plan a building effectively for the shop, the following key questions must be addressed:

• What are the operating hours of the shop(s)?• Will visitors see the shop while entering, so they can plan some time for

it after their visit, and will they see it again when preparing to exit? • How will visitors access the shop before, during, and/or after their

experience?• What is the optimal visitor path around and through the shop? • Where are important visitor amenities such as restrooms and coat check

located relative to the shop? • What equipment will need to be installed at the checkout counter? This

will generally include a point-of-sale and inventory-control system, credit card machines, and cash registers at each station. Is there space for this equipment to be cleaned and recharged?

• How will shoppers who need personal assistance be helped?• What shopper information will be collected and by what means?


• How will the shop maximize sales to after-hours programs attendees or at special events?

• How will storage and restocking be managed? Will there be an offsite warehouse? How much stockroom storage is needed onsite? In the shop?

• Where will money be stored and counted? How will it get to the bank?

Retail staff will also manage additional important areas that are not con-sidered “operational” such as product development, buying, forecasting sales, management reporting and analysis, licensing, marketing, and promotions.

9.2.6 Theater Services

If there is a theater, then the operation of that space will also have an impact that needs to be managed. The theater may or may not have full-time staff. In order to plan effectively for the theater operation, the following questions will need to be answered:

• How will access to and from the theater be managed? For visitors? For performers? During museum hours? Outside of museum hours?

• What is the optimal egress from the theater—directly into the galleries, or back into the lobby?

• Is there a need to control the entry and egress time of a full house? Will visitors need to be gathered in groups and pulsed through the theater in groups to make room for the next incoming audience?

• What types of programs will take place in the theater? Will there be a regular “destination” fi lm that all fi rst-time visitors will be directed to view? Will there be regular evening programs, and if so how frequent will they be?

• Is it planned to present music? If so, what will be the size and character of the programs—jazz groups, chamber music, choral groups, musicals, opera?

• Are dance programs planned? If so, is there a need for a sprung fl oor? • Is there suffi cient space in the wings for performers, especially if numbers

of them will be moving quickly off-stage? • Is there a need for dressing rooms or a green room? • What will be the methods of audiovisual projection and for what size of

screen? What kind of control room, projection booth, or sound booth will be needed?

• What level of fl exibility will be required of the theater? Is it realistic and affordable?

• Is raked seating needed, or would a fl at fl oor with movable chairs be adequate? If the latter, is chair storage adjacent to the theater?


• Is there a need for a dedicated theater lobby? Can it also serve as a gallery to present a “preshow” exhibition for visitors awaiting the next show?

• What equipment is needed to accommodate the identifi ed program types? Is it realistic and affordable?

• What are the acoustic requirements?• What are the storage requirements for props, equipment, or furniture?• How will special events that involve a theater program function?

9.2.7 Food Service

More often than not, food service at a museum is contracted to a third-party vendor. It is best to work with the vendor directly, or with a museum food services consultant, to ensure that the full range of needs can be met. Key questions that will require input include:

• What is the nature of the café—salad bar, full-service restaurant, food cart, service window? Should there be more than one?

• Consequently, what kind of kitchen is required? A warming kitchen only, or a full-service restaurant kitchen, or something in between?

• What are the operating hours of the café?• How will visitors access the café before, during, and/or after their

experience?• What is the optimal visitor path around and through the café? • Where are the restrooms located relative to the café?• Will the kitchen serve catering for events and rentals as well as the café?

Or are two separate kitchens needed?• What is the arrangement for school group lunches? Should they be in a

separate school lunchroom? Is there a need for vending machines to sup-port school group lunches?

• What equipment will need to be installed at the checkout counter (credit card machines and cash registers)?

• How will the café be involved in after-hours programs and special events? How will these be staged?

• Is there a need for a service assembly (plating) area between the kitchen and the tables?

• How will deliveries, food storage, restocking, and rubbish removal be managed? Food deliveries and waste removal must not use collection movement corridors, nor intersect with them, and rubbish removal must be from a service dock that is separate from the collections shipping/receiving dock.

• How much storage is needed onsite? Is cold storage required? • Where will money be stored and counted? How will it get to the bank?


9.2.8 Others

On any given day, a variety of other departments will be “on the fl oor”—in the public spaces managing any number of activities. These can include:

• Exhibition technicians, projectionists, or IT staff to manage tech-based exhibition or communication components of the visitor experience;

• Registrars, exhibition management personnel, or preparators to clean, check, move, or remove items from the exhibitions;

• Special-events staff planning or developing events;• Rental staff with potential or actual renters inspecting, decorating, or set-

ting up rental spaces; • Curators, educators, communications staff, or evaluation personnel to

observe visitors and/or staff effectiveness;• Development staff with existing or prospective donors;• Public relations staff escorting press;• Staff photographers.

Such activities may require coordination with front-of-house activities scheduled for the same time, but generally do not require the same type of advanced planning required by the core operational departments mentioned above.

MANAGEMENT OF OPERATIONS

A strong Visitor Services department goes a long way toward ensuring smooth operations. However, it is evident from the above that successful operations depend on collaboration among all departments concerned. Two committees or task forces composed of representatives of all concerned departments will help with management of operations:

• Operations Committee: Composed of staff leaders who coordinate the institutional calendar, this committee anticipates, shares, and addresses operational issues and reviews written and online visitor information for accuracy;

• Exhibition and Programming Committee: Staff leaders who plan all exhibition and public programming activities and regularly coordinate them with the Operations Committee.

As described in sections 4.1 and 4.2, market research and community needs studies—consisting of collected data and/or professionally guided research that provides insights into who visitors are, their level of satisfaction,

9.3


and their interest in deeper engagement with the museum—will help these committees see ways to improve the museum’s visitor services. They should also help identify barriers to participation for nonvisitors;

The more departments systematize and take responsibility for the busi-ness aspects of their operations, the healthier the museum will be. Each service area should understand their own software, keep all relevant data, produce management reports for their own use and for senior management, and inter-face regularly with any other department that coordinates with them—such as the Education or Exhibitions departments. For example, while it may not seem obvious, there is an important link between Visitor Services and Devel-opment, since the latter relies heavily on visitor feedback and metrics to make its case for donations. The following types of analysis are critical:

• Management reporting on key metrics such as attendance and revenue;• Internally: who’s coming, what’s selling in store, what hours are most

popular, which exhibitions are most visited• Externally: tourism patterns, residential patterns, key metrics at other

cultural attractions in town • Planning to maximize profi t and minimize expenses:

• Data from comparable institutions • Ratios to track metrics such as revenue per square foot/square meter,

expenses per staff member or earned income per visitor• Forecasting, tracking, and reforecasting revenue and expenses

EVERYDAY CHALLENGES

Finally, there are some typical challenges that should be considered and man-aged on a daily basis:

• Creating a fully integrated and coordinated operation on a day-to-day basis• Managing public and member expectations, complaints, and special

needs• Implementing universal accessibility (see section 4.7)• Ensuring staff communication, development, and ongoing training • Reconciling fi nances, including cash management, tracking overages or

shortages and inventory, and following money through the system to the bank

• Managing closings, de-installation and maintenance

Anticipating these requirements for smoothly functioning and fully effective operation of the museum can help the Planning Team to provide the space and facilities that will really work.

9.4

SAFETY AND SECURITY

Ronald M. Ronacher Jr.

Safety and security in a museum, or any other cultural or heritage property, varies from institution to institution. Morally, our fi rst concern must always be the people—visitors and staff—and in most museums the next highest priority will be the artifacts, specimens, or works of art in the collection. At zoos or botanical gardens the principle assets are the living collections, espe-cially any rare or endangered species, while at a historic site the main concern is likely to be the heritage building or landscape.

This chapter outlines methods for providing safety and security for a cultural property, more specifi cally for the elements that form a cultural property—peo-ple, collections, and the building. Methods have been identifi ed under specifi c headings such as “Protecting People,” “Protecting Buildings,” or “Protecting Collections” only due to that element of a cultural property receiving the most benefi t from it. However, the solutions are truly global, since they afford a level of protection for all the elements to varying degrees of effectiveness.

RISK MANAGEMENT

When dealing with a cultural property, “What am I protecting?” is the fi rst and simplest question to ask. Unfortunately, it is not always the easiest question to answer. While “art” might appear to be the obvious answer in some cases, it may not always be the correct one. Thought should be given to whether an attack on a cultural property would have a symbolic and/or psychological impact, or if there is an opportunity to impact the health and safety of a mass population.

There are some museums that not only contain art, artifacts, or speci-mens, but are considered to be works of art themselves. In these instances, the building itself requires measures to be put in place that not only protect the building but also preserve its historic features. This may be extended to the property and/or surrounding area that is associated with the building. Therefore the cultural property’s premises equally need protection.

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It is vital to understand the function of the cultural property and who will visit it in order to start to identify the risks most applicable.

10.1.1 Security Objectives

In order to manage risk, it is important to understand what the objectives are. When the core objectives—people, collections, building, and grounds—are studied and evaluated, a list of primary objectives can be developed. The primary objectives that are typical of cultural properties and provide a real-istic baseline for developing and maintaining a security program include the following:

• General: Achieve a level of protection that will adequately satisfy all operational requirements of the cultural property, and that is fl exible and robust enough to allow for adaptation to changing security concerns, either due to the security climate or changes in the museum’s function and collection.

• Site: Develop a level of protection that allows for the detection of an intruder at the furthest most achievable point from the building, and that enables a response to be deployed prior to the aggressor attacking the building.

• Building: Develop a level of protection that allows for the detection of unauthorized access attempts and can withstand an aggressor until a response can be deployed and the aggressor can be neutralized.

• Galleries: Develop defences at the perimeter of exhibition galleries in order that individual galleries can be fully protected in isolation.

• Exhibitions: Develop a fl exible security strategy so that exhibitions can be provided with additional protection to meet any new security needs (such as insurance requirements) that may be associated with the exhibition.

• Retail: Provide strong defences in shops for the deterrence and detection of theft.

• Ticketing: Provide safeguards for the protection of those handling mon-etary transactions and also for the revenue collected.

• Collections and Administration Areas: Maintain secure areas within the building that allow for staff to work in a safe environment while pro-viding measures for the monitoring and protection of collections that are not on display.

10.1.2 Identifi cation of Risks: Threat, Vulnerability, and Risk Assessment (TVRA)

In order to determine what is to be secured and the protective measures to apply, it is highly advisable and traditionally practiced to conduct a Threat, Vulnerability, and Risk Assessment (TVRA). A TVRA is a tool that allows for

SAFETY AND SECURITY 3 6 7

the risks of various assets to be identifi ed, measured, and ranked. Risks can-not be managed until they are known, and it is the result of a TVRA that informs the design of the protective measures to be applied in order to reduce the risk.

A TVRA is an offensive and defensive methodology to identify, analyze, and weigh existing conditions and objectives of a physical protection system against critical assets, unwanted events, threats, and vulnerabilities for iden-tifi cation of risks. Conducting a TVRA is the work of trained specialists. While various methods have been developed by private entities, government agencies, or a combination of the two, some principles are common among them. The three main initial components of a TVRA are identifi cation of the critical asset, assessment of threats, and assessment of vulnerability:

Figure 10.1 Risk Management and Mitigation


• Critical Asset Identifi cation: Process of identifying assets that are criti-cal to the institution’s ability to fulfi ll its mission.

• Threat Assessment: Process of identifying threat categories and adver-saries, assessing the intent of each adversary, capability of each adversary, frequency of past incidents (history), and an estimation of the threat rela-tive to each critical asset.

• Vulnerability Assessment: A defensive methodology used to determine the likelihood that an adversary can successfully exploit a system’s or asset’s vulnerabilities.

The fundamental process of a TVRA is as follows:

• Identify the mission and goals, and the core functions that ensure them, of the cultural property.

• Identify the assets that are critical to the core functions of the cultural property (such as visitors, paintings, archives, rare specimens, or a historic structure).

• Identify “key” unwanted events (threat or risk scenarios) to each “critical” asset of the cultural property (such as death, theft, or vandalism).

• Analyze and rate the impact of “key” unwanted events to each “critical” asset on the core functions (such as damage to reputation, destruction of the heritage, or loss of revenue).

• Identify and analyze a broad characterization of the threats (adversaries) and hazards for value/rating assessment.

• Identify and analyze vulnerabilities (including residual vulnerability and countermeasures’ effectiveness) for value/rating assessment.

• Analyze aggregate of preceding steps for determining and prioritizing risks, including the risk, probability, and likelihood of the impact of each type of event.

• Determine a countermeasure strategy to reduce risks (such as access con-trol, video surveillance, or screening).

• Identify and evaluate the effectiveness of risk reduction methods and countermeasures options.

In the identifi cation of unwanted events, the following should be considered:

• What is the history of unwanted events occurring to the museum’s assets in the past?

• Have similar assets in other locations, or within similar environments, been compromised?

• Are there stakeholder concerns? It is important to remember that stake-holders are not limited to the museum’s governance but may also include


an individual or another museum or organization that is lending objects to the museum.

A simple exercise that can be undertaken in identifi cation of key assets and the unwanted events are the creation of “unwanted event statements.” These brief, simple statements are comprised of three parts:

• Statement or description of the impact on the asset (the loss);• A connecting phrase such as, “due to”;• Statement of the resulting unwanted event.

An example would be: Loss (theft) of artwork due to unmonitored door.

10.1.3 Mitigating Risks

The next step in the security planning process of a cultural property, after the security objectives and risks have been identifi ed, is to develop a security program that will mitigate the risks. A proper security program will take a holistic approach, integrating electronic security, physical security, policies, and procedures. When the cultural property undertakes new construction, then the architectural planning of the building and site are to be factored into the overall security strategy—and the security strategy must be a component of the museum planning process.

10.1.3.1 Electronic Security

Electronic security consists of systems that allow for the monitoring of the environment, reporting of status and control of movements throughout the property; it also provides a record of events for future audit or evidentiary purposes. However, as with any other technology, continuous developments are being made by manufacturers in the electronic security industry. It is important for technologies to be evaluated during the planning stage, and fl exibility in the design should be considered, since some technologies can be progressed to include additional features and enhanced capabilities from the start of the planning process to the beginning of construction and installation.

In addition to the potential changes in technologies, it is important to understand governing bodies that have jurisdiction over the project and the codes that are enforceable by them. Due to the functions, installation require-ments, or restrictions on the movement of people associated with electronic security systems, codes associated with electricity, life safety, and accessibility are frequently intertwined with their design and are susceptible of violation.

Electronic security systems, inclusive of their various components and infrastructure, must also respect standards that have been developed by the


security industry, the cultural property sector, standardized testing agencies, and insurers.

10.1.3.2 Physical Security

Physical defenses are fundamental to any security strategy. Proper selection of materials for construction, whether for the building or display cases, will provide for resistance to an attack. To provide for a desired level of protection, standards have been developed by entities such as Underwriters Laboratories (UL) and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) against which the material and/or assembly can be tested.

10.1.3.3 Security Policies and Procedures

Policies and procedures are a set of documents that describe an organization’s intentions for operation (policies) and the activities necessary to fulfi ll the policies (procedures). Policies and procedures are critical in managing risk, as they ensure that the fundamental organizational processes are performed in a consistent way that meets the organization’s needs.

Policies and procedures also allow for continuous improvement to the security operations if they are routinely reviewed as the conditions of the cul-tural property change, either due to construction, content, staffi ng, or other factors. They can also be used as a tool to implement testing of the systems.

A well-developed and continuously improved set of policies and pro-cedures allow for a structured approach in complying with regulations and standards, as well as a means of demonstrating compliance.

GENERAL SECURITY STRATEGY

Security for a cultural property should be based upon a holistic approach to security that relies on the blend of various elements such as architecture, technology, and procedures. Integrating these elements by means of Com-munications, Command, and Control (C³) provides a fault-tolerant means of protecting assets such as people and physical or intellectual property.

10.2.1 Layered Security

The various elements involved with a holistic approach should always be applied in a layered manner, creating multiple lines of protection between a potential threat and the targeted asset. Use of layers provides multiple points of detection and delay, minimizing the time difference between aggressors carrying out their intentions and a response by appropriate parties (such as museum security and/or police). The strategy involved with a layered approach

10.2


is to include all aspects of the built environment, such as the architectural design, site, landscaping, construction materials, and electronic systems.

The elements of the layer for each project will vary based upon the type of cultural property and location:

• Outer Layer: The outer layer includes the perimeter of the site, including fencing, streetscapes, sidewalks, mechanical shafts, points of pedestrian entry/exit and points of vehicle entry/exit, and the grounds between the perimeter line and the building or structure. Where there is no fencing or other means of restricting access to a site and ultimately the building, the perimeter of the building then becomes part of the outer layer.

• Middle Layer: A middle layer includes the perimeter of the building or structure and the space immediately within the interior where visitors

Figure 10.2 Holistic Security Strategy


access the building and are processed for entry—whether this requires obtaining tickets, checking coats or bags, or going through a screening process—but are not yet within the galleries or other public program-ming areas.

• Inner Layer: An inner layer includes spaces such as galleries, exhibits, mechanical rooms, electrical rooms, telecommunication spaces, equip-ment closets, offi ce spaces, laboratories, and other interior spaces that contain assets required for the successful operation of the cultural prop-erty to be able to serve its function to the public.

10.2.2 Security Staff

The mission of most museums includes placing pieces on display. A key to the protection of collections on display is the use of staff. While electronic systems have been identifi ed to assist in the protection of these pieces, they cannot be relied upon in totality. In fact, it is best to mix the use of technology and staffi ng to provide a comprehensive security strategy.

A proven way to help minimize the opportunity to steal and conduct other criminal activities is the use of patrols, both regularly and irregularly scheduled. Patrols provide visual evidence that the cultural property is actively

Figure 10.3 Layered Security Approach


monitoring its spaces, demonstrate a high state of readiness, and can poten-tially respond to an incident in a timely manner. A security patrol should be focused and should not resemble staff wandering aimlessly or looking for a criminal activity in progress. A security patrol is a valuable way for the museum to be proactive in deterring crime by observing opportunities for misdeeds and taking corrective actions in time.

During a security patrol, staff could easily observe and should note:

• unsecured keys• propped-open doors• insecure locks• suspicious vehicles and/or persons• nonstaff in back-of-house spaces• lights that need replacement

For security personnel who have received a greater degree of training and are capable of conducting a more focused security patrol, testing of alarming devices and locks should be included on the tour. One of the biggest miscon-ceptions is that security patrols are conducted only by security staff. Having employees (or contracted workers) specifi c to the function of security who have received specialized training is recommended; however, these person-nel resources can be augmented with other staff such as gallery attendants or docents. Security must be seen as the responsibility of all staff within a cultural property and therefore anybody can make notes of things that are out of place or suspicious and report them to an appropriate party.

In developing a staffi ng needs plan for the security operations of the cul-tural property, the following should be considered for identifying the number of security-specifi c staff needed and their associated levels of training and capabilities:

• What type of property is it and what status does it hold?• What are the nature, value, and quantity of the collection pieces on dis-

play or in conservation?• How many galleries are there and what are their sizes, layout, and

adjacencies?• What lines of sight are afforded within the cultural property?• What is the anticipated number of patrons?• Will the cultural property be rented out for functions other than its main

purpose, such as for private parties?• What duties are security staff expected to perform?

The Smithsonian Institution has in the past used a “rule of thumb” of one security guard for every 3,000 square feet (300 square meters) of public


gallery space. Fewer or more guards may be needed in specifi c situations, but this standard may be a useful guide for an initial estimate of the number of guards who may be needed for a new or expanded museum.

It is important to remember that a great level of trust is being bestowed upon security staff, as they are relied upon to protect both people and collec-tions. Due to the importance of their function, it is critical that they undergo a background check to provide a level of confi dence that they do not pose a threat themselves. This check is needed, whether security workers are museum employees or contracted from a security agency—and in the latter case care must be taken to ensure that such an agency itself is conducting background checks.

While the director of the cultural property is the ultimate authority in all aspects of running a cultural property, including security, it is recommended that the responsibility for directing the security staff should be delegated to a qualifi ed individual who has a specifi c skill set geared toward security opera-tions. Having a chief of security allows matters related to security measures for permanent or temporary exhibitions, responding to an incident, or liaison with fi rst responders to be conducted in a professional manner.

10.2.2.1 Response

Consideration needs to be given to what role or function security staff will have during an incident. The level of training required and skill sets needed by security will be infl uenced by the expectation of their providing a response to an incident, and what type of response. A fi rst responder typically is not on site immediately upon an alarm condition, as time is required for notifi ca-tion, dispatch, and travel. This makes the staff of the museum truly the fi rst responders, and their training, skill sets, and empowerment to make decisions must be aligned with the roles they are expected to perform. The use of elec-tronic security systems, physical security measures, architectural design, and layering of various measures is to provide the fundamentals of security, which are deter, detect, delay, and defeat, but when all of this fails there must be swift and direct response.

10.2.2.2 Interaction with First Responders

Security staff, especially the chief of security, should develop a relationship with local fi rst responders (police and fi refi ghters) who will be called to the site in the event of an emergency or incident. Developing a relationship and protocol for responding will foster interaction that could be benefi cial for all concerned.

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10.4

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PROTECTING PEOPLE

There is an obligation to provide a safe environment for staff and visitors while they are on the grounds or within the facilities. Patrons should feel safe and secure within the cultural property, allowing them to fully immerse themselves into the visitor experience. Staff should feel they can carry out their duties without a threat to their person.

Threats to people will vary based on the type of cultural property, its mis-sion, and its location. Unfortunately, it is diffi cult to predict when an attack will take place, by whom, against whom, with what means, and for what purpose. Traditionally, attacks against a museum and its staff are for gain, such as cash from tills (i.e., ticket sales or merchandise) or for objects from the collection—art crimes have been the third-highest-grossing criminal trade over the last forty years, only behind that of narcotics and arms. As geopolitical climates change, cultural properties are susceptible to attacks based on what they sym-bolize, especially if the property is a memorial or has a national, ethnic, or religious theme; or an attack may be merely a means of producing signifi cant casualties due to the number of visitors at any given time.

10.3.1 Monetary Interactions

To help minimize threats and reduce losses, cash in tills should be kept to a minimum. Frequent and randomly timed transfers should be made to a larger, well-secured safe that is in a restricted area with no access for the public. Indi-viduals whose job function is to interact with visitors and conduct monetary transactions for the purchase of tickets or the sale of merchandise should be provided with a duress device that will allow them to discreetly signal the com-mand center and/or authorities if a theft is attempted. Duress devices can come in various forms, such as a pushbutton on a desk, a foot pedal under it, or a “last bill” (a device that triggers an alarm when a specifi c paper currency, the last bill in the cash register, is removed, allowing a switch to make contact).

10.3.2 Opening/Closing Facility

Staff who open or close a cultural property alone are vulnerable to attack. Procedures should be put into place for the opening and closing of a cultural property, requiring more than a single individual. This can be facilitated if the staff entrance and exit is monitored by a security guard, with whom the entering or exiting employee can open or close the museum.

10.3.3 Entry/Exit Control

A basic means of mitigating risk against individuals is being able to control entry to the cultural property, and further movement within the cultural property.

10.3


10.3.3.1 Staff Entrance/Exit

A separate and dedicated entrance/exit should be provided for staff, situated away from any public access points if possible. Creating a separate entry/exit allows for access to the cultural property during nonpublic hours and enables travel to administration spaces without having to deactivate the intrusion detection systems associated with the collections. In addition, creation of a dedicated entry/exit for staff will allow for the creation of a security post at that point where identifi cations can be checked and/or distributed along with any access cards or keys, which should be collected from the staff at the end of their day. A dedicated entry/exit will also allow for the development of an opening and closing sequence. A guard stationed at this staff entrance/exit can also monitor the entrance and departure of persons visiting museum personnel in their offi ces or at their work stations.

10.3.3.2 Museum Visitors

A level of control can be provided through the use of a ticket system for patrons, whether an admission fee is charged or not. The process of checking tickets for authorized entry will provide a natural means of controlling the fl ow into the cultural property, while allowing for staff to monitor for suspi-cious individuals or activities. Part of the security program for dealing with patrons is to decide if bags and other belongings will be allowed to be brought into the cultural property. Part of the planning process when dealing with the entry and exit of patrons, with respect to bags, requires consideration to be given to:

• Will we allow bags and other belongings into the cultural property?• If we will allow bags and other belongings, is there a size limitation?• If bags and other belongings will not be allowed, or if the size of the bag

and/or belonging exceeds the allowable size, will we provide storage?

In addition to the items identifi ed above, it is highly advisable that some form of bag check occur to monitor for theft. An exit bag check will need to be factored into the planning due to the space required for a work surface and any potential queuing.

10.3.4 Children

Children can contribute a large percentage of the visitor numbers. Children typically visit a cultural property with their family or in groups such as a class trip. Irrespective of how the children arrive at the cultural property, and with whom, conditions at the cultural property should be such that a child is not


vulnerable to criminal acts perpetrated by an aggressor. To achieve this, the following should be considered while planning a cultural property:

• Do not locate areas intended for children’s functions and activities within close proximity to an immediate exit point.

• Location of restroom facilities should be such that their entry is within view of large public spaces and is not remote, such that a child has to travel a great distance from a group or needs to travel down remote and secluded corridors.

• Areas intended for use by children should be located so that a control-lable access point can be created to monitor entry and exit into the area. This access point does not need to take the form of a door. The access point should simply be a location where entry into or exit from the space can be easily observed by a staff member, parent, teacher, or chaperone.

In addition to good space planning, technology can be applied to the pro-tection of children in the form of monitoring their location within a cultural property. Advancements in RFID tracking are making it possible to monitor the location of an individual carrying an RFID tag. When applied correctly, a parent, guardian, chaperon, or staff member can potentially identify the loca-tion of a child who is out of sight.

During the planning stage of any cultural property, it is important to understand the activities that will be orientated around children, where these activities will take place, and the current technologies available to assist in the protection of a child.

10.3.5 Screening

For the protection of those people at a cultural property, as well as the pro-tection of the collections and building, security screening is a technique that can be instituted for the detection of weapons entering a facility. Security screening is an effective means of detecting threats prior to admission to the cultural property where an attack can be carried out.

Traditionally, security screening utilizes a magnetometer for the detec-tion of weapons concealed by an individual on their person, and an X-ray machine for the detection of weapons concealed within an individual’s belongings (such as a purse or backpack). Due to the current security cli-mate and methods of carrying out attacks on people, new technologies are being developed and tested to provide a less obvious means of screening, while also minimizing throughput times. Some institutions will choose to screen all visitors, while others may simply need to plan the space to accom-modate the screening device at high-alert times when they will be operating


(and a storage area to accommodate the device when it is not in use). When planning to utilize screening, the following list identifi es a few key items that need to be considered:

• What are the entry points?• Will patrons and staff be screened together?• Will there be a bag and/or coat check?• What size bags will be allowed to be carried into the cultural property?• What items am I screening for (e.g., guns or knives)?• Will there be continuous screening or random screening?• What is the anticipated number of visitors?• What is the maximum time tolerable to be processed through security

screening, inclusive of time in the queue and the actual process of being screened?

• Will the museum use X-ray machines or will hand searches be conducted of bags?

• How much space is available for screening equipment, and how much are we willing to have?

• How much queue space is needed, or is the museum willing to have?• How many screening lanes are needed?• What are the staffi ng requirements to operate each screening lane?• What is to be done by whom when a threat is discovered?

Effective screening has a high reliance upon properly trained staff. The screen-ing process and the staff conducting the screening should be continuously monitored and tested to identify areas of improvement. To do this, many of the X-ray systems offer a threat image projection system that will randomly superimpose a threat image into an item being screened and will log the response time by the security staff member and determine whether or not it was properly identifi ed as a threat.

10.3.6 Building Engineering Design

The building itself should be part of the security strategy, and planning for a new or expanded building must take security into account. While consider-ations for enhancing security and the protection of people should start from the perimeter of the site, many cultural properties are located within an urban environment. When located in an urban environment, site and perimeter techniques may not be achievable simply due to the setting, so an increase in responsibility to protect people falls within the building. Building designers and engineers should therefore include security specialists on their team, or should subcontract them if needed.


10.3.6.1 Structural Design

Depending on the threat profi le, terrorism may be of concern; the majority of fatalities and casualties that occur in a terrorist attack are a result of collapse. Progressive collapse is when a local failure of a primary structural component leads to the collapse of adjoining members, which, in turn, leads to additional collapse. The result is that the total damage is disproportionate to the original cause. When engaging in the design of new construction, the Design Team (specifi cally the structural engineer) should make design considerations that include:

• The use of redundant lateral and vertical force-resisting systems. Redun-dancy tends to provide a more robust structure and facilitates alternate heavy load paths. An additional benefi t is that redundancy inherently provides multiple locations for yielding to occur, resulting in a higher probability of being able to constrain any damage.

• The use of ductile construction materials for both the structural elements and connections allows for primary and secondary structural elements to deform beyond their elastic limit without experiencing a structural col-lapse. A ductile response is important when the redistribution of loading occurs, such as what may be imposed upon the system due to redundant force-resisting systems.

• The structural design should have capacity for resisting shear failures as well as load reversals.

10.3.6.2 Mechanical Design

Depending on the threat profi le, there may be a need to protect staff and visitors from attacks utilizing chemical, biological, and radiological (CBR) agents. When considering mitigation measures for CBR hazards, the build-ing’s mechanical systems are of particular importance.

A building can provide protection against CBR agents released outdoors if the fl ow of fresh air is fi ltered or interrupted. Designers should utilize guidance provided by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and the U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), which spe-cifi cally identifi es various mitigation techniques to safeguard those within a building from CBR threats. When engaging in the design of a mechanical system, the Design Team (specifi cally the mechanical engineer) should con-sider design issues that include the following:

• The most high-risk areas for dispersion of contaminants within a build-ing are in lobbies, mailrooms, loading docks, or security screening cen-ters. For this reason, the pressure within these spaces should be negative


in relationship to the other interior spaces, but positive in relationship to the exterior of the building, to avoid any further dispersion within the building.

• High-risk areas of dispersion should be provided with an isolated heat-ing, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system to allow for any release of toxic substances to be isolated and to not travel further through the HVAC system, so as to limit spread into other areas of the building.

• Provide screens, or other type of covers, to intakes in order to minimize the ability of an aggressor tossing objects into intakes or air wells. These screens should be installed so that they are sloped, resulting in an object sliding off the screen away from the intake.

• When conditions are preexisting, and fresh air intakes are located below grade or at ground level, or the fresh air intakes are mounted on an exte-rior wall, protection can be provided through the use of fencing to deny access or through other measures to provide for surveillance and moni-toring by security staff.

• For new construction, elevate fresh-air intakes to reduce the potential for hazardous materials to be introduced into a building from a ground-level exterior release.

• Areas of rescue and recovery, or shelter-in-place, that have minimal infi l-tration by outdoor air can provide for a place where people can congre-gate in the event of a release. This type of area would typically be situated away from exterior windows or doors, as well as maintaining separa-tion from lobbies, mailrooms, loading docks, and/or security screening centers.

• One option is to install an emergency shut-off that would allow the HVAC system to be shut down to minimize the ability to further trans-fer contaminants throughout the building. However, this would require a high level of training and decision making as it would impact the overall performance of the building, including functions that might be required to respond to other emergencies such as a fi re or smoke condition.

As discussed in chapter 8, the building’s HVAC system should be pro-vided with internal and/or external air fi ltration. External fi ltration draws air from outside and fi lters/cleans it before it discharges the air within the build-ing. Internal fi ltration draws air from within the building and fi lters/cleans it before discharging it back into the building. In addition to fi ltration, air cleaning should be designed into the HVAC system. Filtration is the removal of particulate contaminants from the air while cleaning is the removal of gases or vapors from the air. Filtration and air cleaning will not address radiologi-cal hazards directly, but fi ltration will allow for collecting of materials (such as particulates from a release) that might emit radiation. With some of the measures identifi ed above, a toxic release could be controlled and contained.


PROTECTING COLLECTIONS

There are a number of ways of protecting collections, which range from policies and procedures to electronic and physical security. No one method provides complete protection and affords a foolproof solution. Security for collections requires a number of measures that are layered in a logical method and which complement each other. This section identifi es the vari-ous components of a security strategy for protecting collections from theft and vandalism.

10.4.1 Understanding of Spaces

Before a security program can be developed for the protection of collections, it is critical to understand the various spaces within the cultural property that will contain collections. Once the spaces are known and their functions are understood, the associated risks can be identifi ed along with various methods of mitigating those risks. The following identifi es typical spaces within a cul-tural property that are of special concern with respect to collections security.

• Loading Dock: A loading dock is the fi rst space that comes into contact with collections, as it is the receiving location for the museum. A dedicated collection loading dock affords the ability to provide greater security than utilization of a general purpose loading dock because the dock has a very specifi c function and therefore allows for the dock to be designed around that single purpose. (It is important to identify any other ways that col-lections may enter or leave the building, authorized or otherwise, in order to adapt security measures to those locations as well. While it is recom-mended that a single point of entry is utilized, there are times when excep-tions have to be made due to the size or nature of a collection.)

• Collections Pathway: The circulation path that collections travel within a museum is the next logical space of concern with respect to security. The path comprises all routes collections are to be transferred through while moving to or from loading dock, storage, conservation labs, or areas of public display. Collections are often at their most vulnerable when moving through such corridors, because while in transit objects from the collection have been removed from their primary security measures, stripping away some of the layers of protection.

• Collection Storage: Spaces associated with the storage of collections that are not on display, being studied, or undergoing conservation provide unique and interesting conditions. These spaces often have a collection density greater than any other place within a museum, and the collection pieces within these spaces are potentially not inventoried as regularly, or as easily, as collection pieces on display, in study, or being conserved.

10.4


• Conservation Lab: These spaces are interesting, as the lab is one of the few places within a museum where objects from the collection are han-dled, usually without the various security measures associated with that object.

• Galleries are spaces intended for the public display of objects from the collection. Protection of these pieces often provides challenges in secur-ing them, as there are a number of variables for each object that need to be considered, such as:• Is it wall hung or a freestanding piece?• In the case of a picture, is the frame it is within considered part of the

work of art?• What type of lighting is required for it, as this may impact video

surveillance options?• Is the object strictly “hands off ” or is it intended to have some form

of interaction with the public?• Other Collection Display Locations: Some cultural properties display

objects from their collections not only in a gallery but also on the exte-rior of the building, within a garden, or within lobbies and/or corridors between spaces. These locations need to be considered for security just as much as any other space that contains an object from the collection, and are often challenging due to the nature of the space and their accessibility to people.

10.4.2 Key Control

A factor in how well a lock protects is how secure the key for that lock is. A missing key or duplicated key creates security vulnerabilities for the space that is protected by the lock it is associated with.

While there have been instances of a lock being defeated by being picked or forced, advancements have been made in the construction of locks and their associated locking hardware and door hardware, such as strike plates, hinges, and closers in order to protect against such violations. Utilization of a certi-fi ed security hardware consultant will aid in the selection of locking devices that minimizes the vulnerabilities associated with picking or breaching.

While proper selection of locks and associated locking and door hard-ware helps minimize vulnerabilities, clear policies and procedures are also required. Keys to all areas of a cultural property should not be allowed to leave the premises; if it is necessary to allow some keys to leave, this distribution should be tightly controlled and limited to keys for doors that do not lead directly to collection pieces. It may be advisable, for instance, to give keys that may leave the building only to authorized individuals who have emergency response functions for the property.


Policies and procedures for keys are very dependent upon the operations of the cultural property, but the following are some basic concepts that should be considered:

• Keys should be accessible, and distributed, only by authorized personnel and a log should be maintained that identifi es who has received keys, when they received the keys, and when they were returned. Where avail-able, it is more effective to utilize electronic key control for the distribu-tion of keys and their auditing.

• Keys should be coded against a master list for their identifi cation and should not be labelled by the space they are securing, such as “Works on Paper Storage,” “Conservation Lab,” or “Cash Room.”

• Keys should be collected at the end of the day, or from the individual when his or her shift ends.

• Collected and stored keys should be located within a secure area. It is recommended that this room be secured by access control or be provided with some method of alarming that can create an audit trail, as well be under video surveillance. It is most convenient if this is part of the secu-rity-controlled staff entrance/exit.

• Keys should be visually inspected at the end of each day to determine whether all keys have been returned or if a retrieval procedure needs to be implemented. As with the distribution of keys, electronic key control may also provide usefulness in identifying whether all keys have been returned at the end of the day as required.

10.4.3 Space Layout

Planning the layout of the space and the fl ow of patrons and staff through the exhibits can enhance the level of security by creating circulation around the interior perimeter of the space, and locating collection objects off of exterior walls and away from doors and windows. Planning the space so that museum employees need to travel through exhibit spaces to access different parts of the cultural property increases the visibility of an authority presence to patrons and potential aggressors while increasing natural surveillance by staff. This can be extended by properly planning the fl ow of patrons through the space to ensure proper spacing and to avoid congestion. People can become aggressive if they feel crowded and their personal space is encroached upon. Also, a large crowd of people can conceal the activities of an aggressor.

10.4.4 Displays

Collection pieces should be displayed such that they can be enjoyed by the public but cannot be easily removed by an aggressor. While there are methods


for electronically monitoring the collection piece, it is best to remove the opportunity in total. If the collection piece cannot be physically secured and cannot be placed within a display, vigilant monitoring should be provided and the collection piece should be located such that it is not within close proxim-ity to a door and/or window.

If the object can be located within a display case, the case should be equipped with sensing devices to detect an aggressor trying to gain access to the collection piece. Physical security must be applied so that the electronic security is a secondary level of protection, once again layering protection.

When selecting a display case, there are fi ve main components from a security viewpoint:

1. Frame: Depending on the nature of the collection piece, its value, and what the display case is to provide will factor into the framing system. If it is the intention that the display case is to provide protection for the col-lection piece from theft, the frame should be constructed of steel. A steel frame will provide the greatest level of resistance to an attack, and can if designed properly, be clad in various materials to match the aesthetics of the gallery and collection piece.

2. Glazing: Glazing is critical when dealing with a display case, as it is the means a patron can view the collection piece behind the protective hous-ing. Similar to the frame, various types of glazing can be used depending on the value of the collection piece and what the display case is to pro-vide. If the display case is to provide protection from theft, then a glazing system resistant to an attack should be utilized. This form of glazing sys-tem is often comprised of layers of glass and laminates. The fi nal thick-ness of the system and number of layers required will be dictated by the level of protection required.

3. Hinges: Depending on the construction of the case and how the collec-tion piece within the display case is to be accessed, a hinged access panel might be required. Full-length piano-type hinges should always be used and should be located such that they are not accessible to attack when the display case is secured.

4. Locks: Depending on the construction of the display case and the acces-sibility of the collection piece, the display case may require an accessible door that can be locked. The lock should be resistant to picking and if possible hidden from view. Each opening section of a case should have a minimum of two high-profi le locks while keys must be kept and issued under strict control. For further security, the keys should be separated such that no one person can unlock the display case without another individual.

5. Foundation/Base: Depending on the size of the collection piece and where it is located, the foundation or base will play an important role.


The display case should be integral to the foundation/base. Further, the foundation/base, specifi cally if it is a pedestal type or other such that it elevates the collection piece, should be secured such that it cannot be knocked over.

10.4.5 Removal from Display

Collection pieces should never be capable of being removed by a single indi-vidual. Multiple locks and procedures should dictate that more than one person is required to remove or replace a collection piece. When an object is removed, a label should replace it that indicates the title of the object (with a photograph if possible), the date and time it was removed, the reason it was removed, and signatures of the individuals who removed it; this is an important practice to ensure that patrols are vigilant, so that there is a regular check that all collection objects on display are in place or that authorized personnel have removed them.

10.4.6 Storage

When collection pieces are in storage, protective measures like natural sur-veillance are often impossible. Therefore, collection pieces in storage should be clearly documented, identifying when they went into storage, the exact location within storage and who placed it in storage. Collection pieces in storage should be inventoried frequently.

As noted in section 7.2, collection storage should have no windows and limited access by doors. Breach protection measures, such as stretched metal, concrete, or block should be used for construction. The door should be secure with a minimum of two mortise locks and keys must be separated and man-aged so that no one person can access the storage alone. Further strict key control should be maintained that identifi es who removed a key, when the key was removed, and when it was returned. In addition to the physical secu-rity measures, electronic measures should be applied to provide real-time monitoring of the space for access and visual surveillance.

10.4.7 Electronic Protective Systems

There are a number of electronic security systems that can aid in the protec-tion of collection pieces and other assets. These systems, in conjunction with proper policies, procedures, and staffi ng can afford a high level of protec-tion. To ensure the electronic security systems selected and installed meet the needs of the cultural property as well as the insurer of the property and collec-tions and any policing agency with jurisdiction, security consultants, museum planners, architects, museum directors, insurance companies, and local police should be involved in the planning and design of the protective measures.


Electronic protective systems are comprised of various sensors. Ideally, a sensor has a probability of detection of 100 percent (PD = 1.0). However, this is never the case, due to the number of variables that are associated with detection and the confi dence level of that sensor. It is because of this that layering of devices is recommended, as it will bring the probability of detec-tion closer to 100 percent due to complementary devices that will address the weaknesses in each device.

In selecting and locating sensing devices, it is important to be mindful of nuisance alarms. A nuisance alarm is any alarm that is not caused by an actual intrusion but rather has been caused by something in the environment within which the alarm is located. Being mindful of the environment, both built and natural, while selecting a device and planning its location will help minimize nuisance alarms.

In addition to nuisance alarms, false alarms must also be considered. A false alarm, or an alarm that has been generated by the equipment itself due to device failure, also creates an alarm condition when there is no actual alarm condition occurring. Both nuisance alarms and false alarms, if not addressed and corrected immediately, can result in vulnerabilities due to desensitization of an individual monitoring the system.

10.4.7.1 Electronic Key Control

Electronic key control is a system that allows for a single key, or group of keys, to be secure on a key ring that has a mechanism that locks into a chassis. To release the key ring, an individual must provide a proper credential, which could take the form of a PIN number, an access control card, or a biometric measurement. Upon verifi cation, the system will release the key ring(s) that the individual is authorized to access. The system then logs the individual, the key ring they withdrew and the date and time. Depending on the system and its capabilities, it could also log if an individual has tried to access a key ring that they are not authorized to use. In addition, again depending on the system and its capabilities, most are able to generate a report at the end of each day, or upon request, of any keys that have been withdrawn from the system and haven’t been returned. Further, an electronic key control system could potentially generate an alarm notifi cation if a key ring has been held by a user longer than authorized.

10.4.7.2 Access Control Systems (ACS)

An Access Control System (ACS) determines who can enter specifi ed areas (such as collection storage) through the use of electronic locking devices and credential verifi cation. Authorization to pass through an access point can be either a single means of credential verifi cation or a combination of the following:


• something an authorized person has (such as an electronic identifi cation card that can be inserted into a card reader);

• something an authorized person knows (such as a personal identifi cation number (PIN) that can be punched into a keypad);

• something an authorized person is (such as unique physiological charac-teristics like a fi ngerprint or the iris, to be verifi ed biometrically).

Objectives of the ACS are to provide:

• real-time control of an access point;• ability to audit who entered which access point and when;• ability to change an individual’s credentials;• ability to control all doors remotely, either on a door-by-door basis, in

groups or entirely.

There are many system confi gurations for an access control system. Sys-tems can utilize wireless devices at the door (as some hotels do), door devices wired back to a control panel, or IP-based devices at the door that commu-nicate over a network. While an access control system does provide for an enhanced level of security over that of a traditional key, it is only as effec-tive as its policies and the enforcement of those policies. Who is authorized? What does an authorized individual have access to? Who can authorize elec-tronic credentials and access rights? How are databases managed to ensure that they are always current? And how quickly are permissions revoked and credentials retrieved? These questions need to be considered, decided upon, and actively enforced.

10.4.7.3 Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS)

The function of the intrusion detection system is to detect unauthorized entry into, or occupancy of, a space that is restricted to a level predefi ned. The objectives of an IDS are to provide:

• real-time detection capability within designated areas to indicate any unauthorized presence;

• the ability to group IDS detection devices and identify them as a specifi c monitoring zone, allowing for zones to be controlled (armed or disarmed) and/or monitored as individually and independent from each other or as an entire system.

An IDS can be comprised of various sensing devices, such as a door position switch; a motion detector that utilizes either passive infrared (PIR), microwave, or a combination of both technologies; an acoustical glass break


sensor; and/or a shock sensor. The selection of the sensor will be based on factors such as the architectural layout of the space, the materials utilized in constructing the space, and the materials contained within the space.

An IDS can be either a stand-alone system and function in a similar manner as a burglar alarm system operates, or it can be an integrated element of the ACS. In either case, the sensing devices must be evaluated for their detection capability and their rates for nuisance alarms and false alarms.

While most IDS utilize wired devices back to a monitoring panel, which processes the information and transmits current status, there are a number of sensing devices that are available in IP-based communications. As the tech-nology advances and more options are available, the sensing device and the system monitoring and controlling the device need to be evaluated for their continuing usefulness.

10.4.7.4 Electronic Asset Surveillance (EAS)

EAS allows for the direct surveillance and protection of assets, whether they are parts of the collection or merchandise. EAS can come in many forms and will be dependent upon the collection piece as to which technology can be used, as some of the technology requires a tag to be directly attached to the object. Some common technologies utilized in direct monitoring of assets are noted here:

• Magnetic or Acousto-magnetic: Requires the direct attachment of a tag and will generate an alarm when the tagged asset enters or leaves a specifi c space that is surveyed by sensors.

• Radio Frequency (RF): Requires the direct attachment of a tag and will generate an alarm when the tagged asset enters/leaves a specifi c space that is surveyed by RF antennas.

• Microwave: Requires the direct attachment of a tag and will generate an alarm when the tagged asset enters/leaves a specifi c space that is surveyed by sensors through the use of microwave and electrostatic antennas.

• Accelerometer: Requires the direct attachment of a tag that will gener-ate an alarm when the collection piece is moved. The system is calibrated to a normal state when the collection piece is in its fi xed position for viewing, and any changes will excite the accelerometer, which will then trigger an alarm to a wireless receiver within proximity of the tag.

• Pressure: Does not require the direct attachment of a tag; instead, the collection piece is placed on top of a pressure sensor. The system is cali-brated to a normal state when the collection piece, and any casework associated with it, is in its fi xed position for viewing. Any change in pres-sure, such as removal of the casework or touching the collection piece will generate an alarm.


• Capacitive Proximity: Does not require the direct attachment of a tag; instead, a sensor is placed behind the asset that generates an electrostatic fi eld. The system is calibrated once the collection piece is in its normal state for viewing. Removal of the collection piece will change the capaci-tance and thus generate an alarm.

• Video Analytics: Does not require the direct attachment of a tag; instead, motion around an object or the removal of the collection piece is sensed through the use of analytical software as part of the video surveillance system. Detection of a virtual boundary being breached, movement within a specifi c area or a change in the scenery are all capable of being monitored through the use of video analytics.

Most EAS are stand-alone systems, or they can be integrated into an ACS or other system to provide a comprehensive situational awareness. In either case, the technology selected and the sensing devices must be evalu-ated for their detection capability and their rates of nuisance alarms and false alarms, as well as their interaction with the collection piece itself. The fi rst major decision is whether or not the direct attachment of a tag somewhere on the object is acceptable.

10.4.7.5 Video Surveillance Systems (VSS)

A video surveillance system, also known as a closed-circuit television sys-tem (CCTV), is a means of using electronic equipment to visually monitor a space remotely. CCTV was the original term; as defi ned by its name, a CCTV system was truly a closed circuit. The wiring of the system was a point-to-point confi guration. However, video is now being streamed over a network and an individual with the proper software and credentials can gain access to the video if they have access to the network. Due to the accessibility of video via intranet or Internet, “closed circuit” is rapidly diminishing as an applicable descriptor, so that VSS is today a more accurate term.

Objectives of the VSS are to provide:

• real-time visual monitoring of spaces and/or objects;• recording of activities and/or identifi ers (such as faces), depending on

the positioning and confi guration of the camera, for investigative and/or evidentiary purposes;

• ability to utilize analytics to detect an intrusion or prohibited action (such as someone reaching for or touching a collection piece) and generate an alarm condition.

There are a number of ways to determine a camera location and lens type in order to achieve the fi eld-of-view (FoV) required. While fi eld coordination


is highly critical in the fi nal confi guration of cameras to allow for true views to be displayed on a monitor and for fi elds-of-view to be adjusted, there a few methods that can be utilized during the design phase for the placement of the camera and selection of its lenses that will result in a high level of confi dence of obtaining optimum views prior to a system going live (see fi gure 10.5).

10.4.7.5.1 Unifi ed Facilities Guide Specifi cation

Utilizing a lens calculator with a known focal point (the spot on which the camera should be focused) and the object under surveillance, there is a pub-lished Unifi ed Facilities Guide Specifi cation (UFGS) that helps to determine the optimal location of the camera and the preferred lens type. A shorter fi eld of view (FoV) facilitates greater accuracy in identifying an intruder. Based on the UFGS, the following guidance is provided:

• 10 percent occupancy of area of interest to detect intruders; the maximum FoV should not exceed 300 feet (approximately 90 meters) in length;

• 15 percent to 20 percent occupancy of area of interest to classify an intruder (for example, to determine if the intruder is a human or otherwise); the maximum FoV should not exceed 200 feet (approximately 65 meters) in length;

Figure 10.5 Field of Vision from Security Cameras


• 25 percent occupancy of area of interest to identify an intruder; the maxi-mum FoV should not exceed 75 feet (approximately 20 meters) in length.

10.4.7.5.2 Police Scientifi c Development Branch

The assessment requirement of each camera can be stated in terms of Moni-tor and Control, Detection, Recognition, or Identifi cation categories and the consequent requirement for image size based on the standard Police Scien-tifi c Development Branch (PSDB) “Rotakin” target. Rotakin is a 1.6-meter-high (5 feet, 3 inches) test target used for assessing the fi eld of view (FoV) of a camera. In PSDB terminology, where the Rotakin image fi lls the monitor screen, the image is said to be “100%R.”

Rotakin was fi rst developed in 1989 and is included in the CENELEC (European Standards Committee) CCTV Applications Guidelines Standard EN 50132-7. U.K. recommendations for VSS assessment standards used by PSDB are:

• 5%R for Monitor and Control (an observer can determine the number, direction, and speed of movement of people whose presence is known to him);

• 10%R for Detection (following an alert, an observer can, after a search, ascertain with a high degree of certainty whether or not a person is visible in the picture displayed to him);

• 50%R for Recognition (a viewer can say with a high degree of certainty whether or not the individual shown is the same as someone seen before);

• 120%R for Identifi cation (the picture quality and detail should be suf-fi cient to enable the identity of a subject to be established beyond reason-able doubt);

• 220%R for Facial Recognition and Automatic Number Plate Recogni-tion (the picture quality and detail should be suffi cient to enable the soft-ware program to match the image against an electronic template within an acceptable false-reject rate).

Where the surveillance of a vehicle number plate is required, the target size is reduced to 1.4 meters (4 feet, 6 inches), a 50 percent image size being used to achieve number plate recognition capability.

10.4.7.6 Situational Awareness Systems

Situational awareness is the continuous extraction of environmental informa-tion, which is then integrated with previous knowledge or known conditions that allows for a comprehensive and coherent understanding of the current


situation. The various electronic security systems described can feed into a situational awareness system, or correlation engine, that allow for an individ-ual to intelligently respond to an alarm by making other information available to them so they have a clear understanding of the environment and context in which the alarm was generated. Other systems that should feed into a situ-ational awareness system include (but are not limited to):

• fi re alarm systems;• building management systems;• vertical transportation systems (lifts or elevators).

Based on an understanding of the different alarms and their relationship with other potential alarms within a system, a set of rules and responses can be created. As information is coming into the system, the alarm conditions can be compared to predefi ned alarms and sequences, which automatically provide a recommended response to an individual operating the system.

For example, egress doors that are only intended to be used as an emer-gency exit are traditionally equipped with a door position sensor. If the door is opened, an alarm condition is triggered back to a command center as a breach or an authorized egress; a breach would warrant a specifi c type of response by security personnel. However, having various sensing systems tied into a situational awareness system might indicate a different scenario. A smoke or fi re condition could be occurring within the proximity of the “breach,” which would feed into the situational awareness system. Through the situational awareness system, an operator would be provided information about the smoke or fi re condition and where it is occurring, and would be capable of viewing cameras within the area of that condition as well as the door breach. Having all of this information available and correlated in real time would now require a very different response.

10.4.8 Security Operations Center (SOC)

Depending on the size and function of the cultural property, a space dedicated for the security monitoring and operations of the property should be provided. The fi nal size and layout will be dependent upon a number of factors. The fol-lowing are basic questions that need to be answered in designing an SOC:

• What is the number of staff anticipated to be posted to the SOC?• What systems will be monitored and/or controlled within the SOC?• Will it be occupied on a 24/7 basis?• Is a dedicated restroom required for occupants of the SOC that is directly

accessible by the SOC?


• Is the SOC considered a “last man standing” space, requiring its own dedicated heating, cooling, and ventilation system?

• Does the SOC require being accessible directly from the exterior, or with dedicated pathways from the exterior, to allow for emergency fi rst responders to access the space for coordinating a response without having to travel through public spaces within the cultural property?

• Will roll call of security staff and preduty briefi ngs take place at the SOC?

In addition to an on-site SOC, use of a central monitoring station may also be considered for redundancy and to meet some insurance requirements.

10.4.9 Lighting

The lighting solution for a cultural property has a major impact on the overall safety and security of the property. Lighting not only provides a psychological effect by instilling a sense that activities are easily monitored, but also pro-vides support for some electronic security systems. The services of a profes-sional lighting consultant and designer should be utilized to allow for the security lighting requirements to be met in a way that does not negatively impact the architecture or design concept and philosophy.

10.4.10 Electrical Design

Electrical design is critical to the protection of collections, as most systems that restrict access to collection pieces or detect an individual attempting to get access to a collection piece are electronic systems. In addition, electrical design plays a major role in the protection of people, as it is needed to main-tain power to essential systems for life safety.

When engaging in the design of an electrical system, the Design Team (specifi cally the electrical engineer) should consider the following design issues:

• Provide redundancy, both in equipment and routing, so that a single event cannot compromise the entire electrical design. This includes locating switchgear, normal panels, emergency panels, and conduits associated with normal and emergency power as far apart as possible.

• Emergency generators for a building should be located such that they are not within proximity of normal power being brought into a building by a public utility. Maintain a separation such that a single event that inter-rupts normal power being brought into the building does not compro-mise the ability of an emergency generator to operate, and vice versa.


• Consideration should be given to the type of emergency generator used and what is required to operate that emergency generator. If the emergency generator is a gas-fueled generator, the public utility pro-viding the gas to the generator should be routed such that it is not within close proximity to the electrical utility, minimizing the risk that an event that compromises the electrical utility will also compromise the gas utility.

• Supplemental power sources, such as a trailer-mounted generator, should be considered with the appropriate infrastructure installed at the time of construction.

In designing the electrical system, emergency power should be provided, at a minimum, for the following:

• Security Operations Center and all systems operating within the SOC, such as video displays and control devices

• Radio System• Telecommunication rooms or closets for support of the communications

infrastructure, especially since most modern systems are using IP-based telephony, video surveillance, and access control

• Lighting• Security head-end equipment, such as servers, data gathering panels,

audio/visual alarm enunciators, power supplies for locks, cameras, and other peripheral devices

• Life safety systems • Climate control (HVAC) systems for temperature and relative humidity

control as determined by conservators

Consideration should also be given to the use of an uninterruptable power supply (UPS) and batteries for the continuous operation of devices during cut-over from normal to emergency power.

PROTECTING BUILDINGS

It is easier to apply mitigating strategies into a new facility, as the strategies can be taken into account during the planning stage. However, this does not mean that existing buildings cannot be protected. The implementation of various electronic security systems, or the upgrade of existing systems, can help achieve an increased level of protection. In addition, a review of exist-ing locking hardware could identify areas where improvements can be made. When reviewing locking hardware, or door hardware in general, it is impor-tant to review the entire assembly. The door type, headers, saddles, styles,

10.5


framing assembly, adjacent walls, and hinges all play a role in the level of protection afforded at an opening.

10.5.1 Existing Buildings

Due to changing security climates, many cultural properties that were designed and constructed in the past were not done in a manner to meet the security needs of today. Further, some of these existing buildings have limita-tions to the changes that can be made to account for current security needs if the facility has acquired a heritage status. Achieving the needed level of secu-rity for an existing building that has obtained a certain type of historical or architectural status may dictate more security staffi ng requirements if it can-not be achieved through the implementation of physical or electronic means.

10.5.2 New Buildings

For new construction, it is important that security needs of the cultural prop-erty are considered and designed into the project from the beginning. In addition to the opening-day security requirements of the cultural property, future considerations should be made for providing additional infrastructure in support of the security systems. Meeting opening-day requirements, as well as making provisions for future growth and changes to the security sys-tems, helps to minimize costly changes in the future and to minimize the visual impact of future changes.

10.5.2.1 Materials and Construction

In selection of materials for building construction, careful consideration should be given to resisting breach of the building and of the various internal spaces. How these materials are used in conjunction with each other and the fi nal buildup of the partitions plays a major role in the protection of the building, as well as the collection pieces within. Table 10.1 at the end of this chapter provides guidance to some engineered solutions for walls, ceilings, doors, and windows to four levels of protection—tamper level, low, medium, and high.

10.5.3 Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED)

When designing a new cultural property, it is strongly recommended that Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) be considered and implemented. CPTED is a set of principles, strategies, and techniques that utilize the physical structure and surrounding environment to discour-age crime. CPTED is a proactive approach that requires collaboration by all members of a Design Team, including that of the owner and operator.


CPTED is based in the understanding that the environment can have an effect on an individual, with infl uences that come from their physical sur-roundings and the social perception and characteristics of their surroundings. To create and enforce an environment that does not foster crime, the follow-ing elements are critical:

10.5.3.1 Natural Surveillance

Natural surveillance is a concept that keeps would-be intruders under obser-vation. Utilizing features of the built and natural environment to increase the visibility of a property maximizes the potential to deter crime by making the aggressor’s behavior and actions more easily noticeable to a passing indi-vidual, police patrol, or private security detail. While most cultural properties will have security guards who conduct patrols, providing clear visibility of the property by a passer-by increases the possibility that an aggressor will be observed and potentially identifi ed and captured.

10.5.3.2 Natural Access Control

Natural access control employs elements like doors, shrubs, fences, and gates to deny admission to a crime target and to create a perception among offend-ers that there is a risk in selecting the target. The primary goal of an access control strategy is to deny access to an asset and psychologically create the perception that the target is not “soft.”

In its most elementary form, natural access control can be achieved through the use of fencing, locks, doors, and window barriers. With collabo-ration by a landscape designer, use of landscape can create a natural means of access control such as the selection of shrubbery that is thorny, water features, or the location of seating to encourage access at predetermined locations and discourage it elsewhere. Landscape can provide a tremendous benefi t, as it creates a perception of the site that can direct people toward certain entry/exit points while making the actions of an individual trying to breach the site through a different path very noticeable. Signage, patterns, or material within paving and lighting can also be used to reinforce selection of specifi c areas and pathways.

10.5.3.3 Territorial Reinforcement

People naturally protect a territory that they feel is their own and have a certain respect for the territory of others. Territorial reinforcement utilizes elements such as sidewalks, landscaping, or fencing to distinguish between public and private spaces. Clear boundaries between public and private areas allow for the expression of ownership of a territory and provide for an


increased ability to identify an intruder. As poet Robert Frost said, “Good fences make good neighbors.”

10.5.3.4 Maintenance

Maintenance of a space—or the lack thereof—provides a strong cue to poten-tial aggressors. Maintenance, by its defi nition, allows for the continued use of a space for its intended purpose. If a space starts to deteriorate, it is perceived that there is a less concern and control of the property by the intended users while there is a level of tolerance accepted for disorder.

The CPTED principle of maintenance is similar to that of the “broken windows theory.” If a broken window is not fi xed in a timely manner, cues are given that this is acceptable, enticing vandals to break more windows. If the window is fi xed immediately, it reinforces the perception that there is no toler-ance for deterioration and the space is continuously monitored and maintained. The same is true of graffi ti—if they are immediately removed, graffi ti artists are discouraged, whereas if they are allowed to remain, their “artists” will return.

10.5.3.5 Activity Support

Activity support encourages the use of space by people. Increasing the use of the space creates an environment where more people can observe activities of an aggressor, increasing the risk of detection of criminal or undesirable activi-ties. Activity support is closely related to natural surveillance.

10.5.3.6 3D Approach to CPTED

A popular approach to applying the principals of CPTED is through the 3D approach, which is designation, defi nition, and design:

Designation

• What is the designated purpose of this space?• For what purpose was it originally intended?• How well does the space support its current use or its intended use?• Is there a confl ict?

Defi nition

• How is the space defi ned?• Is it clear who owns it?• Where are its borders?• Are there social or cultural defi nitions that affect how space is used?• Are legal or administrative rules clearly set out and reinforced in policy?• Is there confl ict or confusion between purpose and defi nition?


Design

• How well does the physical design support the intended function?• How well does the physical design support the desired behavior?• Does the physical design confl ict with or impede the productive use of

the space or the proper functioning of the intended human activity?• Is there confusion or confl ict in the manner in which physical design is

intended to control behavior?

Not only can this approach be applied to new construction and design, but it can also be used as an evaluation tool for existing properties as well.

CONTINUOUS EVALUATION AND IMPROVEMENT

It is important that all aspects of security for a cultural property be evalu-ated and tested on a continual basis, with improvements being made when possible and as appropriate. The evaluation should not only take the form of a physical test to ensure devices and systems are working, but it should be done such that it compares the security strategy against the current security climate. The evaluation and testing should include the following:

• Evaluate all policies and procedures against current operations of the cul-tural property.

• Evaluate all policies and procedures against current criminal trends, tech-nical developments, and national and international standards.

• Visually inspect all devices that provide for the safety and security of the people, collections, and building.

• Test each device and system that provides for the safety and security of the people, collections, and building to ensure that it works as intended.

• Visually inspect the property to ensure the principles of CPTED are being maintained.

• Conduct emergency response exercises with staff and fi rst responders that have been documented within the policies and procedures. This not only allows for staff to become familiar with the policies and procedures, it also helps identify areas that may require modifi cations.

SECURITY ADVICE

When developing a security strategy for a cultural property, advice from pro-fessionals should be sought. Security consultants, insurance companies, in-house council, the security director, and local police authorities can all help provide valuable input into the design, policies, and procedures. Security con-sultants can often take a lead within this type of team and provide direction for the group and a focal point for coordination.

10.6

10.7


Security consultants can provide benchmarking to be established against other similar types of properties that take into consideration criminal trends, technical developments, and national and international standards. Security consultants specializing in cultural properties often have a well-rounded understanding of the needs of the cultural property and can therefore be sensitive to the curatorial, conservation, environmental, and administrative issues.

Use of a professional security consultant should not only be encouraged during the design, but should be continued throughout the life of the cultural property to help with periodic evaluations to ensure the security solutions in place meet the most current requirements of the property.

Table 10.1. Building Materials Options for Different Security Levels

Tamper Level of ProtectionImpact/penetration resistance not less than 720 ft-lbs when tested in accordance with ASTM E 695 (Standard Method of Measuring Resistance of Wall, Floor, and Roof Construction to Impact Loading)

Walls (only to fi nished ceiling)

Description Detail

Drywall with 0.75-in. Plywood Steel or wood stud and gypsum wallboard; 0.75-in. plywood installed under gypsum on attack side

Drywall with Welded Wire Fabric Steel or wood stud and gypsum wallboard; welded wire fabric installed under gypsum on attack side

Drywall with Polycarbonate Steel or wood stud and gypsum wallboard; Lexan polycarbonate sheet installed under gypsum on attack side

Drywall with Chain Link Fabric Steel or wood stud and gypsum wallboard; chain link fence fabric installed under gypsum on attack side

Metal Panel Partitions Commercially available metal partition panels with 16-ga. minimum sheet steel construction

Ceilings

Tamperproof Clips Clips for ceiling tiles to prevent dislodging and removal


Low Level of Protection2–5 minute delay times against three aggressors with unlimited hand tools and limited power tools in reference with ASTM F 1233

Walls (slab-to-slab construction)

Description Detail

4-in. Concrete Wall 4-in. 5000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of wall

12-in. CMU Wall (ungrouted) 12-in. CMU wall, bed reinforcement, no cores fi lled

12-in. Clay Tile Wall 12-in. clay tile infi ll wall

8-in. Clay Tile and Steel Sheet Wall 8-in. clay tile with interior anchored 10-ga. steel sheet

8-in. Clay Tile and Steel Grating Wall 8-in. clay tile with interior steel grating

8-in. CMU and Steel Sheet Wall 8-in. ungrouted CMU with 10-ga. steel sheet attached on interior

8-in. CMU and Plywood Wall 8-in. ungrouted CMU with 2 layers of 0.75-in. plywood attached

8-in. CMU and Brick Wall 8-in. ungrouted CMU with 8-in. brick mason interior fascia

8-in. CMU and Fiber Concrete Wall 8-in. ungrouted CMU with 3-in. steel fi ber concrete anchored to interior

8-in. CMU and Steel Grating 8-in. ungrouted CMU with steel grating

8-in. Brick and Sheet Steel Wall 8-in. brick mason with interior anchored 11-ga. sheet steel

8-in. Brick and Steel Fiber ConcreteWall

8-in. brick masonry with 3-in. steel fi ber concrete anchored to interior

Stud and Sheet Steel Wall 3.5-in. wood or steel stud wall with interior 11-ga. steel sheet and 0.5-in. gypsum both sides

Stud and Steel Grating Wall 3.5-in. wood or steel stud wall with interior steel grating

Roofs

Description Detail

4-in. Concrete Roof 4-in. reinforced concrete with 2-in. insulation and built-up roof

2.5-in. Concrete and Steel Fiber Roof 2.5-in. mesh reinforced concrete deck with 3-in. steel fi ber concrete applied on top

(continued)


Description Detail

2.5-in. Concrete and Sheet Steel Roof 2.5-in. mesh reinforced concrete with 10-ga. sheet steel on interior roof

2.5-in Concrete and Suspended Extended Metal Roof

2.5-in. mesh reinforced concrete with 2 layers of 9-ga. expanded metal (1.5-in. spacing) suspended 6 in. below roof

Metal Deck and Insulation Roof 20-ga. metal deck roof with 2-in. insulation and built-up roofi ng

Doors

Description Detail

Steel Plate with Padlock Door 0.5-in. steel plate, exposed hinges and padlock

Commercial Sheet Steel Door 16-ga. sheet metal with full surface hinge

Windows

Lexan Sheet Window 0.5-in. anchored Lexan polycarbonate sheet I

Laminated Glass 0.25-in. minimum laminated glass

Barred 1/8-in. Plate Glass Window 0.125-in. plate glass with 0.5-in. steel bars at 6 in. each way

Utility Opening

Utility and Building Systems 10 psf steel bar or grid; 6-in. maximum bar spacing or opening; single layer

Medium Level of Protection5–10 minute delay times against three aggressors with unlimited hand tools and limited power tools in reference with ASTM F 1233


Description Detail

6-in. Concrete Wall 6-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of wall

4-in. Concrete and CMU Wall 4-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of wall backed or faced by anchored 8-in. ungrouted CMU

4-in. Concrete and Brick Wall 4-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of wall backed or faced by anchored 8-in. brick masonry



(continued)

4-in. Concrete and Sheet Steel Wall 4-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of wall backed by anchored 11-ga. sheet steel

4-in. Concrete and Plywood Wall 4-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of wall backed by two sheets of anchored 0.75-in. plywood

0.375-in. Steel Plate 0.375-in. mild steel plate on 4" × 4" × 3/8" steel angle anchored on all sides

3.5-in. Steel Stud With 14-ga. wired mesh and 7/16-in. ballistic rated fi berglass laminate and drywall each side

2.25-in. Glass Clad Polycarbonate In 3" × 3" × 1/4" steel angle frame anchored on all sides

4-in. Concrete and Steel Grating Wall 4-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of wall backed by 1 layer of steel grating (1.75" × 0.3125" bars, 4.0" × 1.1875" spacing)

8-in. Fully Grouted CMU Wall 8-in. fully grouted CMU wall, reinforced with #5 rebar each core and with bed reinforcement

8-in. CMU and Shotcrete Wall 8-in. ungrouted CMU wall, backed by 4-in. shotcrete over 1 layer of chain link fence fabric

8-in. CMU and Sheet Steel Wall 8-in. ungrouted CMU wall, backed by anchored 0.25-in. steel plate

8-in. CMU and Steel Fiber Concrete Wall

8-in. ungrouted CMU with 4-in. steel fi ber concrete anchored to interior

8-in. CMU and Steel Grating Wall 8-in. ungrouted CMU with steel grating (1.75" × 0.3125" bars, 4.0" × 1.1875" spacing)

8-in. Brick and Steel Fiber Concrete Wall

8-in. brick masonry basked by anchored 4-in. steel fi ber concrete

8-in. Clay Tile and Concrete Wall 8-in. clay tile backed by anchored 4-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6 in., each way in center of wall

8-in. Clay Tile and Sheet Steel Wall 8-in. clay tile backed by anchored 0.25-in. sheet steel

8-in. Clay Tile and Steel Grating Wall 8-in. clay tile baked by 2 layers of anchored steel grating (1.75" × 0.3125" bars, 4.0" × 1.1875" spacing)

Stud, Plywood and Expanded Metal Wall

3.5-in. wood or steel stud wall with 2 layers 0.5-in. gypsum over 0.75-in. plywood and expanded metal mesh each side


Description Detail

Stud, Plywood and Siding 3.5-in. wood or steel stud wall with 1" × 8" wood siding over 0.75-in. plywood both sides

Stud and Steel Sheet Wall 3.5-in. wood or steel stud wall with 0.25-in. steel plate anchored to interior

Stud and Steel Grating Wall 3.5-in. wood or steel stud wall with 2 layers interior steel grating (1.75" × 0.313" bars, 4" × 1.1875" spacing)

Roofs

Description Detail

6-in. Concrete Roof 6-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #4 rebar at 6-in each way in center of roof with 2-in. insulation and built-up roof

4-in. Concrete and Steel Plate Roof 4-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of section with 11-ga. steel sheet on interior

4-in. Concrete and Suspended Expended Metal Roof

4-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of section with 2 layers 1.5-in. spaced, 9-ga. expanded metal suspended 6 in. below

2.5-in. Concrete and Steel Fiber Concrete Roof

2.5-in. mesh reinforced concrete deck with 4-in. steel fi ber concrete applied on top

2.5-in. Concrete and Steel Plate Roof 2.5-in. mesh reinforced concrete with 0.25-in. sheet steel on top

2.5-in. Concrete and Suspended Expanded Metal Roof


Metal Deck and Lightweight Concrete Roof

20-ga. metal deck with 2.5-in. mesh reinforced lightweight concrete, 9-ga. expanded metal fabric, 2-in. insulation and built-up roofi ng

Doors

Description Detail

Sheet Steel and Plywood Door Conventional door retrofi tted with 3 layers 10-ga. steel sheet over 0.75-in. plywood

Stainless Sheet Steel and Polycarbonate Door

Conventional door retrofi tted with 0.25-in. stainless steel sheet over 0.5-in. polycarbonate (Lexan)



Doors

Description Detail

Steel Plate Door Conventional door retrofi tted with 0.3125-in. steel plate outside and 2 layers of 22-ga. sheet steel plate inside

Utility Openings

Description Detail

Steel Bar Opening 15 psf steel bar or grid; maximum 3-in. bar spacing or opening (can be in multiple layers)

High Level of Protection10–15 minute delay times against three aggressors with unlimited hand tools and limited power tools in reference with ASTM F 1233


Description Detail

8-in. Concrete Wall 8-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #6 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of wall

6-in. Concrete and CMU Wall 6-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #6 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of wall backed or faced by anchored 8-in. ungrouted CMU

6-in. Concrete and Brick Wall 6-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #6 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of wall backed or faced by anchored 8-in. brick mason

6-in. Concrete and Sheet Steel Wall 6-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #6 rebar at 6-in., each way, center of wall backed by anchored 0.1875-in. sheet steel

6-in. Concrete and Steel Fiber 6-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #6 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of wall backed b 3-in. steel fi ber concrete with 6" × 6" × 0.25" mesh

4-in. Concrete and Sheet Steel Wall 4-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of wall backed by anchored 0.25-in. steel sheet

4-in. Concrete and Steel Grating Wall 4-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of wall backed by 2 layers of steel grating (1.75" × 0.3125" bars, 4.0" × 1.1875" spacing

(continued)


Description Detail

4-in. Concrete and Steel Fiber Concrete Wall

4-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of wall backed by 8-in. fully grouted CMU with 4-in. steel fi ber concrete anchored to interior with #5 rebar each way

4-in. Concrete and Fully Grouted CMU Wall

4-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of wall backed by 8-in. fully grouted CMU wall, with #8 rebar each core and with bed reinforcement

12-in. Fully Grouted CMU Wall 12-in. fully grouted CMU wall, reinforced with #6 rebar each core and with bed reinforcement

8-in. CMU and Sheet Steel Wall 8-in. ungrouted CMU wall, backed by anchored 0.375-in. steel plate

8-in. CMU and Steel Fiber Concrete Wall

8-in. ungrouted CMU with 6-in. steel fi ber concrete with anchored to interior with #5 rebar each way

8-in. CMU and Steel Grating Wall 8-in. ungrouted CMU with 2 layers steel grating (1.75" × 0.3125" bars, 4.0" × 1.1875" spacing)

8-in. Brick and Steel Fiber Concrete Wall

8-in. brick masonry backed by anchored 6-in. steel fi ber concrete with #5 rebar each way

8-in. Brick and CMU Wall 8-in. brick masonry backed by anchored 12-in. ungrouted CMU

8-in. Brick and Sheet Steel Wall 8-in. brick masonry backed by anchored 0.375-in. sheet steel

8-in. Clay Tile and Concrete Wall 8-in. clay tile with anchored 6-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #6 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of wall

8-in. Clay Tile and Sheet Steel Wall 8-in. clay tile with anchored 0.375-in. steel plate on interior

8-in. Clay Tile and Steel Grating Wall 8-in. clay tile backed by 3 layers of anchored steel grating (1.75" × 0.3125" bars, 4.0" × 1.1875" spacing)

Stud and Steel Sheet Wall 3.5-in. wood or steel stud wall with 0.375-in. steel plate anchored to interior

Stud and Steel Grating Wall 3.5-in. wood or steel stud wall with 3 layers interior steel grating (1.75” x 0.313” bars, 4” x 1.1875” spacing)



Roof

Description Detail

8-in. Concrete Roof 8-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #6 rebar at 6 in. each way in center of roof with 2-in. insulation and built-up roof

6-in. Concrete and Steel Plate Roof 6-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #6 rebar at 6-in., each way, center of section with 0.1875-in. steel sheet on interior


6-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6-in., each way, center of section with 3 layers 1.5-in. spaced, 9-ga. expanded metal suspended 6 in. below

4-in. Concrete and Steel Fiber Concrete Roof

4-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of section with 4-in. steel fi ber concrete anchored to top with #5 rebar each way


4-in. 5,000-psi concrete with #5 rebar at 6 in., each way, center of section with 4 layers 1.5-in. spaced, 9-ga. expanded metal suspended 6-in. below

2.5-in. Concrete and Steel Fiber Concrete Roof

2.5-in. mesh reinforced concrete deck with 6-in. steel fi ber concrete applied on top

2.5-in. Concrete and Steel Plate Roof 2.5-in. mesh reinforced concrete with 0.5-in. sheet steel on top

2.5-in. Concrete and Suspended Expanded Metal Roof


Metal Deck and Lightweight Concrete Roof

20-ga. metal deck with 2.5-in. mesh reinforced lightweight concrete, 9-ga. expanded metal fabric, 2-in. insulation and built-up roofi ng with 8 layers expanded metal mesh suspended 12 in. below

Doors

Description Detail

Hardened Sheet Steel and Plywood Door

Conventional door retrofi tted with 2 layers ASTM A 607 hardened 9-ga. steel sheet over 0.75-in. plywood

Sheet Steel and Polycarbonate Door Conventional door retrofi tted with 3 layers 10-ga. steel sheet over 2 layers 0.5-in. polycarbonate (Lexan)

Steel Plate Door Conventional door retrofi tted with 0.75-in. steel plate outside and 0.25-in. steel plate inside

4 0 8

SERVICES AND SUPPORT

Vincent D. Magorrian and Lindsay Martin

Cultural institutions are incredible places where on an average day throngs of visitors are engaged; the objects, creatures and other materials that document the whole of the natural world and human existence are preserved for future generations; and new knowledge of science, history, art, or culture is gener-ated. This is not an easy feat; in order to do it, museums rely on the special-ized spaces described in this book, as well as a strong support structure for the facility’s activities, management, and operations. This chapter focuses on key service and support spaces as well as other behind-the-scenes spaces that keep the museum and its building running smoothly.

Museum planners need to be mindful of the little things that make oper-ating and servicing a museum easy, seamless, and discrete. Providing the right support spaces from the outset will facilitate operations and reduce the need for adjustments from opening day forward. It is a common planning error to think that services and support are relatively basic and require little attention. Rather, they are a reality that will be forced upon the museum, whether or not the space and facilities have been provided. Like many behind-the-scenes functions, when they go well, they go unnoticed; when they go poorly, abso-lutely everyone is unhappy. Take garbage for example: if it leaves the building with ease and regularity, no one says a thing; if it piles up, can be smelled or is unsightly, complaints are constant.

FACILITY MANAGEMENT

Facility management, as defi ned by the International Facility Management Association, encompasses multiple disciplines to ensure functionality of the built environment by integrating people, place, processes, and technology. In a museum this means that the systems are maintained properly and that the building is always in proper working order. Proper facility management is critical to mitigating risk to visitors, staff, and collection.

11.1

CH

APT

ER 1

1

SERVICES AND SUPPORT 4 0 9

The person ultimately responsible for the facility, who may be called director of facilities or simply building manager, can be a key team member in the planning of new facilities for an existing museum. Such a person is likely to be already well acquainted with local building regulations and code as well as museum policy. He or she has the “how to” knowledge of various activities and procedures that need to be supported by the building. Most importantly this employee is the one who will be left to care for the new facility, so he or she needs to feel comfortable executing these responsibilities and managing the complex systems to ensure that the building ages well.

When developing a new facility, in order to provide for strong facility man-agement there must be smooth integration of the Building Management Sys-tem (BMS) and its related controls and monitoring devices. The BMS manages ventilation, lighting, power systems, fi re systems, and security systems. The BMS should be selected in discussion with the director of facilities or building manager, and implemented with a strong training program for all other staff charged with actual operation of these systems. Sophisticated systems are only successful if they can be easily used by the on-the-job staff; sometimes more basic user-friendly systems may be best for museums without dedicated profes-sional staff in this area. When developing expansions or renovations it is best to provide only one set of systems (with proper redundancy) to service both the existing and the new building. Too often renovations and additions are done in a limited manner, adding a layer of new systems on top of older systems. This produces a complicated network of systems that can be challenging to manage and care for, creating communication issues between systems and requiring engineering staff to be skilled in multiple systems as well as stock a wider range of spare parts. Some museums have several layers of such systems, and staff must be adroit in knowing which one prevails in which area of the building.

Facility management is a service-oriented unit, supporting the work of the museum through providing well-working facilities and working on special projects related to new exhibitions, events, and regular upgrades and maintenance. In order to support this important work, there are some dedi-cated spaces required to ensure that this critical function can be accomplished seamlessly without interruption. These spaces include: staff areas, workshops, and storage, and mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) spaces.

11.1.1 Staff Areas

The staff members who carry out the work of facility management require space to manage their work as well as support them in their duties.

• Facility Management Offi ce: In a small museum this offi ce may house just one person, whereas in a larger institution the director of facilities or


building manager will be supported by administrative personnel who man-age logistics, dispatch engineers, and coordinate with other administrative departments. The administrative staff will utilize workstations equipped with computers. Their director requires a private offi ce with a computer workstation, a plan desk for reading drawing sets and a connection to the Building Management System (BMS). A plan room is required in this suite to house hard copies of as-built drawings of the facility and its vari-ous systems, such as mechanical structural sepias. Copies of all emergency and service plans should be kept in hard copy in this space as well for easy access. Other relevant fi les and documents should also be kept in the suite. A small conference room or a meeting area can be useful, as this offi ce interfaces with outside agencies—such as fi re or city code offi cials, as well as outside contractors and service providers on a regular basis.

• Engineers’ Offi ce: In smaller museums the building manager may serve also as the building engineer, but in mid-size and larger institutions oper-ating engineers will be on staff. Located near or in the chiller room, the engineers’ offi ce will be the area where the duty or watch engineer will be assigned. A small break room and a toilet next to the offi ce are desirable if, as in many cases, local municipal code requires this offi ce to be manned perpetually.

• Locker Rooms, Break Areas, and Tools/Supplies Storage: Facility management staff can often be found on-site throughout the building doing their work. In order to support their work and maximize their time out on the job, it is best if a dedicated locker room, break area, and dedicated tools/supplies storage room can be colocated to provide a “home base” for the unit. This allows staff to change into uniform, pick up assignments, pick up tools or supplies, and get to work effi ciently. In larger museums this may mean a suite of spaces for each or all of the facility management or roving units such as carpenters, painters, art han-dlers, preparators, engineers, or custodians.

11.1.2 Workshops and Storage

The Facility Management Team’s work is highly dependent on having the right tools and materials when they need them. It is important that space is provided for storage and use of equipment as well as to keep adequate sup-plies on hand. Planning proper support spaces for this work will allow the Facility Management Team to move quickly to resolve issues as they arise. Needs will vary according to the size and complexity of the museum, but key spaces to consider include the following:

• Machine Shop: Contains tools and equipment for the maintenance and upkeep of mechanical equipment as well as supplies to make regular


repairs to doors, restrooms, faucets, and other fi xtures and equipment in the facility. It should have work benches and both hand and electri-cal tools of use to the facility management staff. Supplies such as fan belts should be organized so they can be found easily. Ladders and safety equipment such as goggles, hardhats, and harnesses will also be stored here.

• Paint Shop: This shop will contain paints for the exhibition galleries as well as regular touch ups of the public areas. Lacquers and thinners should be stored in a vented fl ameproof storage cabinet. This shop will also have carts and ladders as well as the necessary equipment to apply the paint and in some cases may also contain wall vinyl, wallpaper, or a spray booth. It should be carefully located well away from collection areas.

• Carpentry Shop: This is a key space for exhibition fabrication if in-house teams are used to build displays, cabinets, and other necessary parts of an exhibition. It is also an important space to support the building and relo-cation of temporary walls. Saws, routers, and other large equipment are needed to support this work as well as space to store raw materials. It is worth considering the optimal size of timber to be stored here, and the best way to do so—sometimes a rack along one wall or suspended from the ceiling is useful. A dust collection system is critical for health and safety.

• Lamp Room: A lamp room in a museum must be well equipped with a stock of light bulbs and fi xtures to support daily gallery change-outs as well as major conversions that occur with temporary exhibitions. It saves time if the room is self-suffi cient for its purpose, so it’s handy if lamp carts, scaffolds, ladders, or “cherry pickers” used to access lamps in high places are also stored within the space. Bulbs for offi ces and other public spaces should also be stored here.

• Filter Storage: This is simply a storage room to hold replacement fi l-ters to change the air-handling units (AHUs), and should be adjacent to these units but accessible for deliveries of new fi lters.

• Janitorial Closets and Storage Rooms: It is important to consider care-fully janitors’ storage needs in order to provide the space needed to prop-erly store equipment and supplies. Lack of suffi cient storage space can lead to clutter in hallways, stairwells, and areas of egress, which is unsafe and also can lead to citations from the fi re marshal. Carefully consider what will be needed to carry out key maintenance functions such as inte-rior cleaning, gardening, outside window washing, and snow removal. Closets must be distributed throughout the building to store janitorial supplies such as tissue paper, hand towels, mops, buckets, safety signs, and other necessary supplies. The closer these can be to restroom facilities the better. A larger store room will also be needed to keep equipment for buffi ng, waxing, or shampooing fl oors, if that is part of the maintenance


cycle. Much of the equipment is bulky so layout is important during conception; consideration must be given to items like sidewalk sweepers and snow blowers as well as chemical drums that store soap shampoo or cleaning fl uids.

11.1.3 Mechanical, Electrical, and Plumbing (MEP) Spaces

These spaces in new facilities are often planned by engineers and their areas determined by the size of equipment as well as local codes. A brief overview of the types of spaces as well as specialty concerns of museums is provided so that all those involved in planning are able to understand the functions of these critical spaces.

A very important element of designing and planning mechanical rooms is footprint, layout, and access. Mechanical rooms, like the closet with the water heater at home, do not have day-to-day activity, but when they do need attention it is imperative that engineers and contractors can access equip-ment and work quickly with ease. This means that as each MEP space is planned the Design and Engineering Team must consider how to access the space easily, how to work in the space, and ultimately how replacement of equipment can happen without interrupting the functions of the museum. In particular, it should be possible for service deliveries to replace the equipment in these spaces without passing through or by the public or collection zones of the museum.

• Electric Main: This is the principal electric switchgear room, where the building is connected to the public utility and receives a high-voltage electrical feed that powers the entire facility. The electricity is then bro-ken down through transformers into lower-voltage subpanels that supply the power for the lighting, utility outlets, mechanical equipment, and other service areas. There are also usually subpanels or feeders that dis-tribute power to different areas of a building or site and to mechanical closets or electrical panels distributed throughout the building.

• Water Main: Outside water supply is connected to the museum here to service public areas such as restrooms or water fountains as well as back-of-house spaces such as kitchens, conservation labs, and other nec-essary areas. Water will also be supplied to some mechanical equipment such as the chillers or heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems (HVAC).

• Other Outside Utility Connections: Depending on the needs of the facility and availability from the local municipality, a main hookup to a steam, gas, or chilled water supply may be needed. Given the complex needs of museum facilities and systems, the more that can be utilized from a municipal or campus system the better. This provides a high level


of quality of service for those utilities (as the outside providers have a highly specialized staff focused on the care and uninterrupted operation of those systems) and prevents the museum from having to provide those services internally. Ultimately such additional spaces can result in lower capital and operating costs and greater fl exibility, as municipal and cam-pus systems often have greater capacity and redundancy. Planners and engineers should therefore give consideration to these possibilities.

• Fire Pump Room: The fi re pump may be located in the same room as the main water supply, as long as it is provided with a separate feed and control panel. Sprinkler supply will also be provided in the pump room. The sprinkler and fi re supply should each have redundancy to ensure that they function properly in emergencies—two water feeds and two means of power, one of which should be connected to the emergency genera-tor. The pump should also have a transfer switch. If the building is three stories or less, it is usually supplied by street pressure, but fl oors that are higher must be supplied by a tank or pressure pump. If the building is multilevel, a water tank may be required. If it is, typically it will be located on a high fl oor or on the roof and feed by gravity to the various outlets for the facility. There must be a fi re reserve located at the lower section of the tank, which will only be used for fi re standpipe protection. The size and capacity of the tank will be dictated by local fi re codes. Its location is of concern to museum planners, since collections must not be placed under water features of any kind. Early coordination with local offi cials is also advisable to ensure that planning is in line with their preferences and future plans; they will be required to sign off on the building’s design in order to get permission to build and ultimately to operate the system. Failure to coordinate with them early in the design process can result in delays, retrofi ts, change orders, and additional expenses.

• ICT Closets: An Information and Communications Technology (ICT) closet supports the “nerve system” of the museum, including space for systems to enter the building as well as key ICT equipment such as servers. Closets will be distributed throughout the building to facilitate connectivity and relationships with key areas such as exhibition galler-ies and offi ces. An important decision for gallery planners, especially for institutions with a high density of interactive and multimedia exhibits, is whether to centralize ICT or to distribute it throughout the galleries.

• Air-Handler Unit (AHU) Rooms: Air-handler units supply heating and cooling for public spaces, galleries, and offi ces. Air handlers are devices used to condition and circulate air as part of a heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system. An AHU is usually a large metal box containing a blower, heating or cooling elements, fi lter racks or cham-bers, and sound attenuators and dampers. Air handlers usually connect to ductwork that distributes conditioned air throughout the building and


returns it to the AHU. Air fi ltration is a key function of the AHU. As explained in section 14.1, zoning of the museum building is important because museum standards of climate control and air fi ltration must be met in both public and nonpublic collection zones. The AHUs are con-trolled by and connected to the building management system (BMS), which coordinates all of the cooling and heating valves as well as damp-ers, fan speed, and humidifi cation.

• Chiller Rooms: Chilled water is essential to cooling and dehumidifi ca-tion systems. Space is needed to contain the chillers, chilled water pumps, condenser water pumps, and various expansion tanks as well as (poten-tially) chemical feeders for the water systems. In some cases, sand fi lters may also be used for cleaning the water. A large chiller, which contains rows of tubes, must be maintained and at times tubes must be replaced, so the room must be large enough to remove tubes, which is to say at least double the size of the chiller. The layout is important so as to be able to work on the pumps and other equipment. Suffi cient height is also important. In order to clean tubes, large piping and chiller heads must be rigged and dropped in during an off-season when one of the chillers can be shut down. In museums it is important to supply 150–200 percent redundancy for chillers in case of mechanical failure, and to ensure that chillers are not placed over exhibition galleries, collection storage space, conservation labs, or other areas where collections will be kept.

SUPPORT SPACES FOR EXHIBITIONS, PROGRAMS, AND EVENTS

A key element to keeping the museum running smoothly is planning proper space to support staff in the development and execution of exhibitions, pro-grams, and events. These spaces are thoroughly discussed in sections 4.4, 4.5.8, and 6.4. However, it is worth emphasizing several key support spaces that are often overlooked or poorly located:

• Staging Areas: If the museum proposes to situate after-hours events in spaces that are used during regular public hours, such as lobbies, multi-purpose rooms, or galleries, space is needed to stage tables, centerpieces, and food before the museum closes. This allows for materials to be quickly moved into the event space once the museum closes and for an event to start shortly after closing. Staging spaces located near the event venue not only help for the preparation leading up to the event, but also to support the event, serving as back-of-house busing or prep stations, as well as to provide a space to move items from the space not required for the event.

• Third-Party Kitchen and/or Prep Space: Caterers often supply museum events with food and drink. They need space on-site to set up and serve

11.2


from. As with all things related to food, the space and facility needs for them are dependant on regional customs and traditions. Some facilities will require a full kitchen or multiple kitchens (for example if halal or kosher food is to be provided), or only prep spaces if food will be prepared off-site and only warming and plating will be required on-site. Outdoor kitchen hookups are a great addition to any building, as they allow a caterer to establish an outdoor kitchen if desired.

• Table and Chair Storage: Chairs and tables should be stored on-site to support regular museum events and utilize key areas such as a multi-purpose event space for lectures, dinners, and receptions. These spaces should be close to the event space or at least easily accessible to it via elevators or corridors. Sizing should be developed based on the num-ber of items to be stored there and the actual furnishing selected—for example, 200 low-profi le chairs require less space than 200 regular chairs. This storage room must be adjacent to the multipurpose room, lobby, or other area where the chairs and tables are to be set up and removed regularly.

• Events Storage: There are other key event supplies that the museum may choose to keep on-site such as stanchions, podia, lights, risers, col-lapsible stages, and the like. They too will need a home when not in use, so be sure to provide ample space to accommodate them.

DELIVERIES, SUPPLIES, AND GARBAGE REMOVAL

A working back-of-house is essential to a well-functioning museum! Adher-ing to the following guiding principles during planning and design will pro-vide a strong backbone for museum operations:

• Provide a dedicated service entry, preferably a service loading dock. Muse-ums receive several noncollection deliveries each day, from goods for the museum shop to couriers, and from replacement parts for mechanical equipment to catering for evening rentals. Two loading docks—one for col-lections only, the other for all other deliveries—are strongly recommended, and are required by many lenders for temporary exhibitions. Having collections items and services share one dock can require complicated scheduling and increase risk to collections. If a separate dock is not possible, a ser-vice entrance with double doors can be helpful to separate collection and noncollection activities.

• Use separate circulation paths for collection and noncollection activities. This allows for higher levels of activity and effi ciency, for example allowing exhibitions and registration functions to happen at the same time as operations. This includes freight elevators. Again, many lenders to tem-porary exhibitions will expect this separation.

11.3


• Allow for convenient access to areas that regularly receive deliveries. This will allow for deliveries to be quickly processed and received into the appropriate areas. Additionally, many of these spaces (such as catering, kitchen, and retail storerooms) may be visited by or even operated by outside contractors, so keeping their spaces easily accessible but distinct from collections areas prevents their staff from being able to roam the larger museum facility.

• Storage is critical to a well functioning museum, but each storage area must have a specifi c function! Storage is something many museum professionals desperately need and often don’t have; however each square foot or meter of a building does cost money and storage must be carefully considered. Make sure that each storage area serves a specifi c function and that func-tion is clearly articulated. Be wary of requests for large storage areas for undefi ned uses such as exhibition furniture or old equipment; at many museums (as in many offi ces and homes) undedicated storage sometimes translates into space for unused, aging items, which will eventually be thrown out. A good rule of thumb is that if no one knows what is in exist-ing storage spaces, more storage may not be needed, but a good cleaning is. Dead storage should be avoided because it costs money to build and occupy and is a fi re hazard.

• Isolate food deliveries and garbage removal from collections movement areas. Food and garbage include organic materials that can attract pests and will hasten the destruction of other organic material such as canvas or wood. Their circulation throughout the museum must be kept entirely separate from those areas where collections will be kept or moved. Their move-ment routes should not intersect or use the same pathways as collections.

• Plan for the long-term management of garbage and recyclables. This requires coordination with local municipalities to ensure that immediate needs are met and that infrastructure for the long term is provided. The trend for garbage and recyclables over the last twenty years is that waste manage-ment has become increasingly complex, often resulting in increased space requirements. For example, many jurisdictions now have strict recycling policies making it essential to separate cardboard, white paper, plastics, electronics, and batteries from other garbage. Each of these categories then requires its own bin in the garbage area. Additionally, some munici-palities have reduced the frequency of garbage pickups in order to cut costs, meaning that garbage must be stored longer on-site, thus requir-ing more dumpsters, bins, and space. Increasingly, cold storage boxes for wet garbage from restaurants, cafes, and catering are required to man-age odor and pests. The good news is that waste reduction strategies are being pushed as an environmental sustainability measure, so hopefully over time this will mean less garbage overall—but in the short term it is essential to ensure that enough space is dedicated to this function.

PLANNING FOR STAFF

Increased staffi ng is one of the most predictable results of any museum capital project. Yet it is also one of the least well planned. Too often the attention of everyone involved is focused on the building and the objects in it, with-out adequate concern for the increased numbers and the changing needs of the people who have to make the building work. This chapter fi rst identifi es the link between staff growth and change, then considers how to plan for increases in personnel, and ends by reviewing space and facilities needed to accommodate greater numbers of personnel.

The text, fi gures, and tables in this chapter necessarily assume a relatively large and complex staff, in order to discuss the full range of issues and alter-natives. Museums with fewer personnel will be able to apply the same pro-cedures to their own organizational structure, recognizing that what appear here as separate positions may be combined into the duties of one staff mem-ber in their institutions.

STAFF GROWTH AND CHANGE

Amy Kaufman

New buildings enable new or expanded programs. Both require new or expanded staff. To some this may seem obvious, but to others it will come as a complete surprise—staff size needs grow as space and programs grow. While there are some economies of scale, a larger building will require more people to operate, maintain, and protect it. More rental events will require more people to market, sell, and coordinate. More visitors will require more ticket sellers, educators, and cleaners. More members will require more mailing, phoning, and answering of questions. Increased collections will require more curatorial assistants, data entry clerks, conservation technicians, and prepara-tors. More galleries will need more guards to protect the exhibits in them.

Time and again museums have been built that are conceived as walk-in exhibitions. The focus was on the building and exhibition development.

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Realistic projections of the staff required to operate the space and deliver the programming that will “activate” the space were never developed.

Remember that staff costs are the biggest slice of the operating budget. Building projects open up many possibilities, but setting priorities for which activities will be effectively staffed and how much space can be responsi-bly operated and maintained is a critical issue that requires careful attention. Right-sizing and sustainability start here.

12.1.1 Project Management Personnel vs. Institutional Staff

It is critical to distinguish between the new museum as an “institution” and the new museum as a building and exhibition design project. There are two different cultures at play:

• an institution-building culture, based on long-term vision and planning, and

• a project culture, based on short-term thinking driven by schedules and budgets.

When an institution—new or existing, government agency or nonprofi t association—is engaged in a major capital project, it usually sets up a special Project Team to balance the concerns of both the project and the institution. Otherwise, either the institution gets bogged down coping with the practical matters of the project or the project gets bogged down in the longer-term concerns of the institution.

It is recommended that institutional planning activities should remain with those who are or will be permanent staff, whereas the management of the project will be carried out by the Project Team. Generally, an Executive Committee comprised of both institutional and Project Team leaders should ensure that the two sides speak to each other and effectively work to the same goals.

A transition—or “ramp-down”—plan will be needed to phase out the Project Team once the institution is fully up and running and the capital project is complete. Some members of the Project Team may be asked to stay on permanently in institutional or special project roles.

12.1.2 Organizational Structure

Determining the optimal organizational structure is an important fi rst step that will enable detailed staff planning. Understanding the precise number and type of staff will be needed in order to develop an accurate business plan and to project administrative and support space requirements.

PLANNING FOR STAFF 4 1 9

The right organizational structure should facilitate the following outcomes:

• strong division heads to manage each major functional area;• divisions working together toward achieving institutional goals;• balanced reporting structure;• staff grouped by function so that like minded people are working together; • focused jobs (and job descriptions) that support productivity and

accountability;• a structure that supports development of clear priorities, swift decision

making, and internal communication.

If an organizational structure is already in place, it will be necessary to weigh the pros and cons of reorganization. If an existing organization is performing well, the goal should be minimal disruption, a slow and steady progression from what is already in place to the expanded structure. If drastic change is needed, it is even more crucial to understand the end game precisely:

• What needs to change?• What is the ideal structure that would support these changes? (The

answer to this question should be independent of any particular people who may pose issues in the current structure.)

• What is expected of each staff member? • Are there any barriers that will trip up functionality? If so, how can they

be remedied?• How will the transition take place?

It is important to organize the institution schematically before trying to load in every staff member. An example of a “Four Pillars” operating model is shown in fi gure 12.1. The boxes above the dotted line represent individual positions, while the boxes below the dotted line represent departments or major functional areas. Once the top tier is in place and the needed departments are identifi ed, planning for individual staff members within those departments can begin.

DEVELOPING STAFFING PLANS

Amy Kaufman

This section presents a four-step plan for projecting and planning for the number and needs of staff after completion of the capital project under consideration.

12.2


Figure 12.1 Four Pillars Organizational Structure for a Museum


12.2.1 Step 1: Assumptions, Scale and Priorities

Once the organizational structure and Project Team have been established it’s time to draw up a detailed staff plan. Assumptions that will be key drivers of staff requirements include but are not limited to:

• visitor experience and desired level of service;• attendance projections (see section 13.2);• level of programmatic activity;• strategy for communications and fund-raising;• anticipated approach to technology and tech-based programming;• amount of revenue to be earned and raised (see section 13.3);• operating schedule (see section 13.1);• size of the collection and development strategy (see chapter 5);• overall area of the museum.

Benchmarking institutions of similar size and scope is an extremely help-ful exercise to identify a reasonable scale or size range for the new staff. Col-lecting general data from fi ve to ten peer institutions will indicate a target range for the following areas:

• number of “full-time equivalents” (FTEs);• number of full-time employees;• number of part-time employees;• number of annual “person hours” in outsourced contracts such as for

security or cleaning.

Some institutions may be willing to share this information by depart-ment, which can be helpful, but it means a time commitment to a fi ner, more substantial analysis.

Benchmarking is both an art and a science. It is important to under-stand what unique circumstances may be contributing to the staff counts at the institutions that are being studied. It is also important to look at averages and the institutions that are most similar in size, scope, and structure, and then to contrast any outliers with higher or lower numbers. After careful analysis of both the museum’s own needs and data from benchmarking, a logical target range for the total number of FTEs should become clear. This does not mean that the new staff list must adhere precisely to that number. Rather, it is a foundational piece of research that will help build confi dence in the staffi ng and business plans, both of


which will require the buy-in of funders who know that staff will be the greatest operating expense.

At this point it is also important to identify institutional priorities that will guide decision making. These priorities will be revisited when editing the fi rst “blue-sky” draft of the staffi ng plan, in case it proves to be unaffordable. An example of a priority is: “The museum will have educators in the galleries during all public hours.” This priority of course may come at the expense of another service, program, or initiative. There is no right answer in how to set priorities or make tough choices. These priorities must be set by senior leadership, guided by the museum’s mis-sion and vision.

12.2.2 Step 2: Drivers, Functions, and Estimated Hours

Once the basic assumptions, scale, and priorities are understood, it’s time to take the analysis to the next level of detail: understanding what will be expected from each functional area or department. This accounting will prove to be an incredible tool as the operating plan and staff lists are drafted and refi ned.

A worksheet or spreadsheet should lay out the following:

• All the anticipated departments.• All the functions or activities that will take place by department. For

example, a Communications department may be responsible for public relations, social media, advertising, website, community relations, inter-nal communication, and visitor studies.

• The “drivers” that will infl uence the number of staff beyond basic func-tions. For example, the workload of the Communications department will be infl uenced by the number of special exhibitions, press events, and initiatives such as membership drives, festivals, special programs, sales, and partnership programming.

• Estimated “person hours” per week to carry out all the activities. Using the above example of a Communications department for a mid-size museum, it could be estimated that 200 hours per week on average would be needed.

• Estimated FTEs by department. This is done by dividing the man hours by the number of hours in a standard full-time work week. Using the above example, for a Communications department in a country with a forty-hour work week, a department of fi ve people is estimated.

Table 12.1 provides examples of drivers that will assist in determining the right number and type of staff for the new or expanded institution.


Table 12.1. Drivers Affecting Staff Projections

Department Examples of Drivers

Executive Number of trustees

Curatorial Number of special exhibitions, number of traveling exhibitions, size of collection, level of completed documentation/digitization

Education Number of programs, types of programs, number of school groups, age of program attendees, number of in-gallery educators

Collections Management Size of collection, rate of acquisition, collection development strategy, level of completed documentation/digitization

Exhibitions Number of special exhibitions, traveling exhibitions

Publications Number of catalogs, apps, multimedia publications

Library/Archives Size of collection, frequency of use

Digital Asset Management Number of requests for use, number of publications

Visitor Services Number of visitors, number of public hours per week

Security Number of visitors, area of public space, number of public hours per week

Facilities Management Number of visitors, area of building

Retail Number of visitors, area of shop, number of public hours per week

Food Service Concession or in-house operation? Number of visitors, area of café, number of public hours per week

Events Management Number of corporate members, variety of rental spaces

Theater Number of public programs, number of events, change in projection technology

Finance Number of staff, level of exhibition, and education programming

(continued)


Department Examples of Drivers

Information Technology (IT) Number of staff, variety of programs that must be supported (e.g., ticketing, point-of-sale, collections), initiatives such as distance learning

Human Resources (HR) Number of staff, number of interns, number of volunteers

Marketing Number of special exhibitions, initiatives such as membership drives, festivals, special programs, sales, and partnership programming

Public Relations (PR) Press events, initiatives such as festivals, special programs, sales, and partnership programming

Individual Giving Size of the operating budget, number of trustees and major donors

Corporate Giving/ Sponsorship

Number of exhibitions and programs that require funding

Grants (Foundation/ Government)

Number of grants to be written

Membership Number of members, number of visitors

12.2.3 Step 3: Staffi ng Plan, First Draft

The simplest approach to developing the fi rst draft of the staffi ng plan is to estimate the number of “full-time equivalents” (FTEs) needed in each department using the tools developed above. Additional tips for drafting the plan follow:

• Create hierarchy, although some departments may be too small to allow for a large structure, the goal should be to identify a departmental director, manager(s) for discreet functional areas, coordinator(s), and assistants(s).

• Have realistic expectations regarding staff members who are designated to carry out multiple functions. In practice, it is diffi cult to constantly switch gears and perform in multiple functional areas and/or report to more than one person.

• Understand that some departments may start out with only one or two people with an eye toward expansion in the future. This is acceptable,



provided this mini-department has good management and a means for fi tting into the broader institutional fabric.

• Understand that one FTE could mean two or three part-time people (that’s why they are called full-time equivalents). This is especially impor-tant when planning for shift-based operating departments such as Visi-tor Services, Security, and Retail.

• Estimate portions of FTEs as needed, such as 0.5 for someone who will be there half of the time.

• Interns and volunteers can be a great way to bolster resources, but they require consistent management, oversight, and benefi ts. They should gen-erally not be expected to handle money. Interns and volunteers should be considered part of a program area, often managed by Human Resources.

• Security and housekeeping are often contracted services overseen by per-manent staff. Educators stationed in the galleries are a relatively new trend, which has seen great success in the museum community. They may also be trained as light security, which helps to offset high security costs.

• Food service is recommended to be operated as a concession by profes-sional restaurateurs. If the plan is to operate in-house, an experienced restaurateur or catering consultant should be retained to assist with the development of a plan.

• Some positions may be temporary or outsourced, and may or may not be included in the staffi ng plan. Another option is to include these positions as line items in department budgets. For example, a contract conservator could be in the staff list as a contract position, or alternatively the annual cost could be in the collection care operating budget.

• Although some members of the Project Team may transfer into perma-nent positions, any temporary positions associated with the Project Team should not be included on the permanent staff list.

Once the staff list is complete, it’s time to put salaries to positions. Use industry standards as well as regional standards to establish salary ranges. In the United States, for example, there are salary surveys published by the American Association of Museums, the Association of Art Museum Direc-tors, and others that provide salaries by staff position, museum type, and geo-graphical region. Benchmarking against salary ranges in peer organizations in the same city or town is also recommended, if the other institutions are willing to share at least salary ranges directly.

12.2.4 Step 4: Right-Sizing

The fi rst draft of the staff plan often proves to be unaffordable. This is neither surprising, nor distressing. Planners simply need to go back to the assump-tions and priorities and make tough choices:


• Give some things up.• Pare some things back.• Introduce phasing by starting with the activities that will build momen-

tum. Then add staff as revenue builds.

This is an iterative process, and more than one cycle of adjustments to develop a workable budget may be needed. In the end, the expenditure on staff and benefi ts should be anywhere between 50 percent and 65 percent of the annual operating budget. The closer staffi ng costs are to 50 percent, the more that will be available for programming; as staffi ng costs rise above 60 percent, they are choking off allocations for museum programs. The iterative process of arriving at a sustainable staffi ng projection—which may result in compensatory adjustments in the space plan and capital budget as well—is an integral part of the museum planning process for any new facility, expansion or renovation.

STAFF SPACES

Lindsay Martin

Once the Staffi ng Plan has been projected for the institution after open-ing, it is possible to plan for work space in the new, renovated, or expanded building. Staff salaries and benefi ts typically account for 50–60 percent of a museum’s annual budget—the biggest investment a museum makes over time—so making sure that investment is physically well supported is in the museum’s best interest. A functional and high-quality space will allow staff to perform their duties effectively and generate the ideas, funding, and projects that make the museum a constantly evolving dynamic place.

Workspaces and employee expectations around them vary wildly by culture and region. Work atmosphere does help to attract and retain talent, so well-planned spaces make an institution more competitive in the market for that talent. Planning workspace therefore depends on the norms and expectations of the museum’s locale. For example, New Yorkers and Lon-doners may not require as much space per person as workers in other U.S. or U.K. locations, because they are used to close quarters in their apartments and public spaces; by contrast, in California’s Silicon Valley there may be an expectation that workplaces are creative places with high design, high technology, less formality, and fun amenities like an air hockey or “foosball” table. Decisions as to who qualifi es for a private offi ce and how much space must be provided in a minimal offi ce cubicle similarly vary widely from country to country.

Accordingly, this section outlines the key elements of contemporary museum workplaces with associated planning assumptions that will need to be adapted to fi t the needs of each unique institution.

12.3


12.3.1 Types of Staff Space

Museums employ a wide variety of staff, from executives to part-time ticket takers to electricians and other trades people. All of these employees need specifi c spaces to support their work and to ensure that they are able to exe-cute their duties in an effi cient and safe manner.

Workplaces increasingly offer a wide variety of spaces to meet the needs of their staff members as well as to comply with labor laws and union require-ments. Plans for staff spaces should refl ect not just those labor regulations that are currently in effect, but those that are likely to be introduced in the next fi ve to ten years. The extent of unionization of museum staffs varies widely, with some larger museums involving multiple unions representing different trades while others have no staff organization at all; consultation with each of these groups, even if it is only an informal employees’ asso-ciation, is advisable, so that planners can be aware of the perceived needs of those who will be working in these spaces.

12.3.1.1 Offi ces

Many staff members work in offi ces. Once thought to be a basic set of rooms or cubicles, offi ces are now seen as important spaces to cultivate institutional culture and foster positive communication and interaction. Within the offi ce area there are three types of space—private offi ces, landscape offi ces, and touch-down spaces. Each has specifi c space and design requirements.

Private offi ces: For some time now the private offi ce has been in decline as new offi ce formats and working styles have emerged. Executives and oth-ers who handle sensitive or confi dential matters do however continue to need the quiet and secure atmosphere of a private offi ce; many curators who need long periods of uninterrupted concentration insist that they need the same. Private offi ces for chief executives can range from 200 to 300 square feet (19–28 square meters); for department directors, chief curators or managers they can be 150–250 square feet (14–23 square meters), and for other staff they can range from 100 to 180 square feet (9–17 square meters). Key to these spaces is sound proofi ng, lockable doors, and the ability to block the view in from the larger workspace when needed. Even though the corner offi ce with windows remains a perk for high-prestige positions, in some places private offi ces are increasingly being located at the center of each fl oor, to allow those without a private offi ce who often spend more time at their desks to enjoy a window view. In Germany it is a legal requirement that all offi ces must have access to a view through a window.

Open offi ces: Open format or “landscape” spaces with cubicles can allow more staff to be accommodated in one large space, while still giving individu-als some visual privacy. Each employee may be allocated 75–90 square feet


(7–8 square meters) per cubicle, with government offi ce standards in some countries as low as 65 square feet (6 square meters), while others allow as much as 100 square feet (9 square meters) in an open offi ce format. Traditional cubicle dividers (6 feet or 1.8 meters high) can be too isolating, whereas the “open desk” system—separating workers with only the smallest partitions—can be too noisy; using 4-foot (1.2-meter) dividers affords adequate privacy, plenty of visibility, and allows sunlight into the rest of the space.

Touch-down spaces: Those who spend most of their working time in the galleries, workshops, or other locations can utilize “drop-in” workspaces where they can set up their laptop and work when not at their primary work station.

12.3.1.2 Workrooms and Labs

Many jobs in the museum take place in shops, labs, and other workspaces. Each function of the museum requires a specialized space, although it should be noted that today a computer is essential for almost every job. Computer workstations are therefore an important part of workrooms that serve as the “home base” to staff—allowing personnel to keep up with internal and exter-nal e-mail, schedules, reports, and other documents. Carpentry or electronics workshops, paint bays, frame shops, graphics studios, and model-making or mount-making shops will all have their specifi c requirements according to the tools and work tables appropriate to them. These workshops often require adjacent storage rooms for tools or materials, and in some cases these storage rooms must be specially isolated as storage for fl ammable materials. An adja-cent emergency fi rst-aid room equipped with a sink suitable for an eye bath should be considered. Conservation labs are the most sophisticated of these work spaces, so they are fully considered in section 7.4.

12.3.1.3 Project and Conference Facilities

Boardroom: A key space for meetings for the museum’s governing body as well as other large meetings with staff, donors, and stakeholders. Technol-ogy is a must—a variety of presentation formats, teleconference setups, and different lighting scenarios allow the space to host a wide range of meetings with ease. Comfortable seating, attractive design, and good views can make the space enjoyable while adjacent catering and restroom facilities enhance convenience. Given the confi dential nature of some high-level conversations that may take place in the boardroom, soundproofi ng is a must. An alloca-tion of 30–40 square feet (9–12 square meters) per person for seating around the conference table should suffi ce—so a boardroom for twenty should be approximately 700 square feet (65 square meters).


Meeting rooms: Museum work is highly collaborative—exhibitions, publications, public programs, fund-raising campaigns, and annual budgets all require intense amounts of coordination and interdepartmental collab-oration. Meeting rooms are therefore critical to facilitating a positive and productive work environment. As in the boardroom, technology is vital, with wireless Internet and both projection and video conferencing capabili-ties quickly becoming standard. A variety of meeting rooms are needed to accommodate groups of different sizes; generally groups of 4–6 (small), 8–10 (medium), and 14–16 (large) are good planning fi gures. An allocation of 20 square feet (1.9 square meters) of space per person in a meeting room should suffi ce—so that a small meeting room is 150 square feet (14 square meters), medium is 200 square feet (19 square meters) and large is 350 square feet (32.5 square meters).

Studios and project rooms: Much of the work of a museum is project-based—new exhibitions, gala events, publications, and many other functions require collaborative planning and ongoing dialogues. Spaces for this longer-term project work should be provided in addition to meeting space that turns over on a regular basis. For example, an exhibition design studio might be required to house a scaled mock-up of the galleries to test installation concepts for upcoming exhibits, or a project room may be used to host the auditors when they come for several weeks to conduct the annual review of the books. These should be spaces where items can be left up for prolonged periods of time and secured when not in use. Size will be determined by the nature of the work. Technology is critical in these areas as well as whiteboards and pinnable or magnetic walls.

Informal coordination spaces: Given the signifi cant amount of collab-orative work required in museums, there is a need for spaces to host two- to three-person informal conversations without having to book space in advance or distract other staff members. It is therefore useful to provide small spaces with doors for informal meetings where workers can quickly huddle without having to leave their immediate area.

12.3.1.4 Staff Amenities

The trend over the last decade has been to reduce the amount of space allot-ted to individuals in favor of more communal spaces to be shared by staff members. Some key amenities include the following spaces.

Staff entrance and exit: Some museum staff must enter the building before public hours, and some museum staff must exit after those hours. A dedicated staff entrance and exit is therefore needed where staff can pick up keys or access cards when entering, and leave them when exiting the building. Since this staff entry/exit should be monitored by security, one good location


is adjacent to the collections shipping/receiving dock, where a back-of-house security station is needed to monitor shipments arriving or departing after public hours. The space should be small, admitting one person at a time, with an external door providing access only to a small waiting space with a wicket or window through which entering staff can pick up their keys or access cards, and exiting staff can deposit them with the security guard on duty. The security guard controls the lock on the internal door.

Lounges: Spaces for staff members to relax on lunch or coffee breaks, hold informal meetings, and get away from their desks in order to focus. Lounges should be comfortable and enjoyable spaces, preferably with win-dows, that provide workers a respite from their desks or a break from their fl oor shift. Based on the location of the work areas in the building and the size of the staff there may need to be more than one employee lounge.

Lunchrooms or break rooms: Lunchrooms and break rooms are places for staff members to store and take their meals and breaks. These spaces can be located adjacent to or incorporated as part of the staff lounge. They should have a refrigerator, microwave, toaster oven, and other small appli-ances. Like lounges, these should be convenient to the work areas and more than one may be required in large facilities to ensure that they are easily accessible by staff.

Showers and locker rooms: If security personnel, cleaners, or others work in uniform, for security reasons they should not wear that uniform outside the museum, since that exposes them to potential attacks of thieves seeking whatever keys or code cards they might be carrying. At many his-toric sites or heritage villages educators or demonstrators may be required to work in costume, which again should not be worn outside the museum. In addition, many museum jobs can be dirty, so allowing other staff the oppor-tunity to shower as needed is important. Showers and lockers also encourage employees to consider cycling to work instead of driving, so they can improve the institution’s carbon footprint (see chapter 15) and reduce the need for staff parking. Accordingly, workers should be provided with a shower and locker room large enough to accommodate all those who are likely to use it; depending on the layout of the museum and the size of the staff, more than one facility may be needed. A separate locker room is advisable for volunteers to store lunches, purses, and street clothing while they are on duty.

Quiet rooms: If signifi cant numbers of employees are expected to work in open-plan offi ces or “touch-down” spaces, there is a need for quiet rooms to provide privacy and take personal time when needed. Quiet rooms are restful and relaxing places for staff members to address those items best not shared with the whole offi ce—prayer, lactation, a personal telephone conver-sation, or other private matters. Key considerations for a quiet room include visual privacy, discreet access, soundproofi ng, a small sink, a fridge or freezer (for breast milk or medicines), and a lockable door.


Prayer rooms: Although a “quiet room” may suffi ce for prayer in many museums, those located in cities or countries with a large Muslim popula-tion need to provide a prayer room large enough to accommodate a group of workers at one time, with indication of the direction of prayer and suffi cient fl oor space for enough prayer mats. Planners need to consider the optimal locations for these rooms and the numbers of workers who can be accom-modated in them.

Restrooms/washrooms/lavatories/toilets: Whatever they are called, facilities dedicated to staff-only are needed, even in the smallest museums. They should be located discreetly away from work and social areas, yet no more than one minute’s walk (approximately 250 feet/76 meters) from work-stations. If local culture allows, individual unisex cubicles are often best for staff, as they provide privacy and fl exibility.

Outdoor spaces: Stepping outside can provide staff with a change of scenery and a pleasant departure from the offi ce environment, especially in locations with an equable climate most or all of the year. Areas for eating, meeting, and even working outside are becoming increasingly common in the workplace. Since smokers will create a space if not given one, it is best to designate a staff smoking area in an appropriate space in accordance with local regulations in a discreet location not visible to the general public, outfi t-ted with signage and receptacles for discarded ashes and cigarettes.

12.3.2 Confi guration of Staff Spaces

There are a variety of ways to organize workspace, each producing a differ-ent atmosphere and effects on work styles. Planners should consider which is appropriate for a specifi c institution. The following are examples of different organizational typologies.

12.3.2.1 Narrative or Experience Model

This model infuses the workplace with the organization’s identity. It gives employees visual stimuli to cultivate organizational culture and acts as a dis-play of institutional memory. Workspaces are organized around a central theme such as a division or department and feature a variety of spaces: pri-vate and open-plan offi ces, touch-down workstations, breakout areas, social spaces, and meeting areas.

12.3.2.2 Nodal or Knowledge Connector

This offi ce confi guration supports a fl exible workforce with a fi xed point for resources. It focuses on fostering collaborations, promoting interpersonal relationships, and providing active learning environments, clustering private


and open offi ces, touch-down workstations, and generous interaction areas such as a lounge, breakout rooms, and recreation or focus areas. The layout deliberately encourages interaction among departments.

12.3.2.3 Neighborhood or Social Landscape

This particular type is designed as a social landscape to bring people together as a community. It mirrors the dynamic of a neighborhood—with chance encounters and the ability for group work. It normally comprises a mix of workstation types designed to be fl exible for differing work styles and proj-ects. It includes many types of social spaces, from two-person counter spaces to project group areas. Departments are located together but adjacent to each other so that interaction is facilitated.

12.3.2.4 Nomadic or Distributed Model

This is a relatively new type of workspace, developed in response to the mobile workforce, which is made possible by wireless and portable technologies. The typical layout is an organization of unassigned desks or workstations sur-rounded by a set of core services available to each worker. Workstations are wireless and designed to “plug into” the communications infrastructure with ease. This model offers meeting rooms for groups and solo booths for people to use their laptops, as well as lounges, places to socialize and unwind, and shared resources.

12.3.3 Workspace Needs by Staff Function

Each department within the museum has different duties and functions. Thus all have special needs in the workplace to ensure they can conduct their work in the safest and most effective manner possible. Table 12.2, provided at the end of this chapter, identifi es those needs by department.

12.3.4 Invest in the Future of the Institution

While capital projects have many demands, budgets are often tight, but plan-ners should take the long view with workspaces. They are investments in the future of the institution; working to keep staff members happy, moti-vated, effective, and healthy. Enhancements that will maximize the space and improve employee job satisfaction and productivity may include:

• Design and quality of appointment: While public areas are the fi rst pri-ority for high-quality design and appointment, staff spaces should be a close second. Enjoyable and appealing workspaces let employees know


that they are valued and important, and will help them want to come to work each day and enjoy the time they spend there.

• Interns and volunteers: Many museums rely on the important contribu-tions of this unpaid group to deliver on their missions. Spaces for them are needed when planning workspaces so that they can easily be part of the team, not just fi t in to any available space. Staff will be grateful that there will be room for volunteers to pitch in and help.

• Ergonomics: Working to make sure each individual’s workstation is adjusted to her or his personal needs will help staff be comfortable at work, reduce risk of repetitive stress injuries, and demonstrate that each individual is valued. Studies indicate that investments in this area have a strong payback in increased productivity, decreased sick days, and decreased workers’ compensation claims.

• Technology: Internet connectivity and new technologies are conduits to the future. They allow for increased collaboration, communication, and fl exibility in the workplace. A strong technology infrastructure is essen-tial in the workplace; it not only needs to be the best available technology from the beginning, but also should allow for upgrades and improve-ments as they become available.

• Sustainability: “Green” workplaces enhance health and productivity of employees. Natural light, low-VOC paints and other environmentally sensitive touches are now standard in many workplaces: see chapter 15.

• Plan for reinvention: Workspaces need to evolve to support new work-ing styles and patterns. Planners should provide maximum fl exibility to allow for reconfi guration and renovation as needed, approximately every seven to ten years.

• Allow room for growth: Even after allowing for increased staff as out-lined in the preceding section 12.2, a good rule of thumb is to add 20 percent more space to offi ces and other workspaces than is required to meet immediately foreseeable needs. This allows for staff to expand as programs and activities grow.


Table 12.2. Offi ce Requirements by Department

Department Space Considerations

Executive • Need high-quality spaces as these offi ces often host high-profi le meetings with trustees, donors, and visitors.

• Director’s offi ce should have immediate adjacency to the board room.

• Soundproofi ng and privacy is a must as discretion is critical for this group.

• Ability to host small meals and provide refreshments.

• Given that the lifestyle of directors and other executive-level staff is nonstop, an executive washroom with shower is helpful.

Curatorial • Quieter, more private space to allow for contemplative work like reading and writing.

• Individual private offi ces may be more appropriate, given nature of the work, at least for full curators.

• Requires touch-down space(s) to host visiting scholars, researchers, or guest curators.

• Proximity to library and collections storage is preferred.

Education • Frequent interactions with partners, volunteers, and part-time staff.

• Private offi ce for the head of Education to facilitate consultation with individual staff members; open-plan offi ces may suffi ce for all others.

• Requires lounge and locker space for part-time staff or volunteers.

• A work area large enough to accommodate groups of staff and volunteers meeting and working together to prepare school kits or other programming materials is necessary, along with an adjacent storage room for those materials.

Collections Management

• An on-the-go team working throughout the collections areas of the museum.

• Requires dedicated desk space for planning and coordination as well as touch-down spaces for working in collections storage, collections workrooms, shipping-receiving, packing-unpacking, and exhibition staging areas.

• Benefi ts from mobile tools and workstations which can allow them to work wherever the collections may be located, including the galleries.



Exhibitions • Project-driven group that conducts both planning and implementation.

• Need project space to mock up and prep upcoming exhibits.

• Preparators require workbenches in workshops with tools and materials storage adjacent, as well as access to staff lounges and lockers.

• Staff may expand and contract signifi cantly based on the amount of exhibit activity—workspace should be fl exible to accommodate fl uctuations

Conservation • See section 7.4 for details.

• Senior personnel need an offi ce adjacent to lab; others may work only in labs.

• Natural light required for labs, preferably from the north in the northern hemisphere, from the south in the southern.

• Adjacent storage areas needed for materials, some of which may require isolation in fl ammable storage.

• Adjacent collection storage area needed to store items subject to ongoing investigation or treatment.

• Adjacent emergency fi rst aid room with sink suitable for eye bath is advisable.

Publications • Highly collaborative and creative group that require space to facilitate this work.

• Writing and editing functions also require privacy and silence.

• Project spaces required for mock-ups and story boards.

• Natural lighting for checking proofs and colors.

• Increasingly tech-based.

Library/Archives • Requires space for processing and digitizing materials.

• Requires touch-down spaces to host visiting scholars, researchers or curators.

• Some workspace should be away from the public or library visitors so staff can concentrate when needed.

Digital Asset Management

• Allows for digitizing projects of all kind as well as computer-based work.

• Adjacent to server room(s).

Visitor Services • Private offi ce for managers as they supervise a large part-time staff and require discretion in conversations with employees.

• Lounge and lockers for part-time staff.

• Requires access to spaces for training from time to time.

(continued)



Security • Head of security needs a dedicated offi ce; others work in galleries or at security station in lobby or adjacent to the shipping-receiving dock.

• Dedicated security station required adjacent to and permitting surveillance of collections shipping-receiving area; this station can also accommodate staff entrance and exit.

• Need lockers, showers, and lounge spaces.

• Requires access to spaces for training from time to time.

Maintenance • Requires janitor’s closets on each level of the building, in both public and back-of-house areas; some closets will need foot sinks.

• Needs access to locker and lounge spaces.

Facilities • Requires desk space for planning and day-to-day functions.

• Engineers need workshop with workstations.

• Best located near loading dock, workshops, and mechanical rooms.

• Contractors and other service staff may need to be on-site for days at a time; spaces for them to set up and store equipment are helpful.

Retail • Private offi ce for managers as they supervise a large part-time staff and require discretion in conversations with employees.


• Back-of-house processing areas for incoming and outgoing merchandise.

• Ready access to stockroom.

Food Service • Private offi ce for managers as they supervise a large part-time staff and require discretion in conversations with employees.


• Each food service area may need separate kitchen(s), including catering kitchen adjacent to events or rental spaces, and kitchenette or coffee bar adjacent to board room

• Food in and garbage out of kitchens and food storage areas must not use or cross collection circulation routes.

Events • Requires attractive meeting space to host potential rental clients.

• Workspace adjacent to major events spaces.

• Chair and table storage must be adjacent to spaces where they will be moved in and out.

• Catering spaces should be adjacent to events and rental spaces.




Theater • Specialized based on nature and function of space and programs it hosts.

• May require:

• Greenroom;

• Technical work spaces;

• Offi ces, lounges, or lockers for production staff;

• Volunteer spaces for ushers.

Finance • Relatively quiet and private space with private printers and copiers.

• Ability to lock vaults, offi ces, and cabinets with sensitive documents.

• Access to a conference room for year-end and audit activities.

Information Technology

• Relative quiet and private space adjacent to server room(s).

• Frequent staff visits from all other departments.

• Need to store equipment and conduct minor repairs in work area.

Human Resources • Quiet and private space.

• Private printers and copiers.

• Soundproofi ng and visual privacy is essential.

• Meeting space is required for interviews and group discussions.

• Ability to lock offi ces and cabinets with sensitive documents.

• Training facilities may be required.

Marketing • Project-driven group that conducts both planning and implementation.

• Need project space for mock-ups.

• Staff can expand and contract signifi cantly based on the amount of activity; workspace should be fl exible to accommodate fl uctuations.

Public Relations • Private offi ces may be best given varying nature of work.

• Can be an extremely talkative group on the phone frequently with media, yet also requires concentration for writing and editing.

Individual Giving • Need high-quality private spaces as these offi ces often host meetings with trustees and present or potential donors.

• Ability to secure paperwork and data with donors’ personal information.


Corporate Giving/ Sponsorship

• Need high-quality spaces as these offi ces often host meetings with sponsors, funders, and potential funders.


(continued)



Grants (Foundation/ Government)

• Need high-quality spaces as these offi ces often host meetings with sponsors, funders, and potential funders.

• Requires quiet for writing.

• Requires production space for large submittals.

Membership • Ability to secure paperwork and data with members’ personal information.

• Requires production space for mailings and membership events.


ATTENDANCE, OPERATING REVENUE, AND EXPENSE PROJECTIONS

Ted Silberberg

The planners and management of a new or expanded museum often require a sense of how many visitors it is likely to attract, the size of the operating bud-get required to sustain it, and estimates for a variety of revenue and expense categories. These estimates or projections are commonly part of feasibility studies or business plans for new or expanded facilities. They are critical to right-sizing the institution.

A feasibility study may be defi ned as an independent and objective assessment of whether and under what circumstances a specifi c proposal or project is capable of being implemented. A feasibility study is often a requirement of funders, both public and private, and helps to provide the information to allow for a decision whether or not to proceed. A business plan differs to a certain extent because it assumes that the project is going ahead and therefore tends to have an even greater focus on identifying ways and means to increase the likelihood for implementation and long-term operational sustainability.

For most museums, “feasibility” really means a fi nancially manageable level of government and/or private support on an annual basis. This refl ects the reality that museums require ongoing fi nancial support and cannot oper-ate on the basis of earned income alone. According to the 2009 Museum Financial Information Survey, published by the American Association of Museums (AAM), median fi gures for a sample of 671 U.S. museums of all types indicated that about 28 percent of operating revenues came from earned sources (admissions, retail, public programs, memberships, or facility rentals), with 37 percent from private donors, 12 percent from endowments, and 24 percent from government sources.1 Since the determination of what is a “manageable” level of support becomes both a political and a community decision, the appropriate role of the consultant preparing the feasibility study is to identify how big the gap between projected expenses and earned income is likely to

CH

APT

ER 1

3

4 3 9


be and how it may be narrowed. To achieve this objective and serve the inter-ests of museums and their funders, the planning must be creative and credible and the projections as accurate and realistic as possible.

OPERATING ASSUMPTIONS

Whether the motivation leading to the need for attendance, operating reve-nue, and expenses is for a feasibility study or business plan, the work elements associated with both are largely the same. A visioning and strategic planning process, along with collections, market, and contextual or comparables analy-ses early in a planning process, help to inform site, facility, visitor experience, staffi ng, operational, and other plans for a new or expanded museum. Final-ized plans become the assumptions that underlie the projection of atten-dance, operating revenues, and expenses.

Assumptions play a crucial role in the planning process, because if the assumptions change, so too should the projections. The better the museum planning, and the associated assumptions that emerge from it, the more cred-ible the projections and thus the greater the likelihood for an implementable and sustainable project.

Among the variety of key assumptions that would have a substantial effect on attendance, operating revenue and expense projections are items such as those set out here:

• Site size, adjacencies, and features: Site is important for all projections, but is particularly important to the estimation of attendance levels. The availability of outdoor opportunities and parking and the nature and size of the spaces within a museum and around it will vary by site and have implications for facility planning. For example, a site in a mixed-use development may reduce the need for a museum to have its own separate restaurant. (See section 18.1 for a discussion of site evaluation.)

• External environment: What is offered by the museum itself has the greatest impact on attendance, operating revenues, and expenses. How-ever, it is also necessary to be aware of other plans near the site or in the community that might affect the market for a museum. For example, introduction of a conference hotel across the street from the museum three years in the future would affect projections.

• Physical elements of the museum: These include the size and adjacen-cies of permanent and temporary exhibition spaces, classrooms, theater or auditorium, and various revenue generators such as a retail store, food service, lobby, and other spaces used for rentals. The assumptions associ-ated with these spaces need to be clearly quantifi ed to be available for use in a variety of projections. Also important are collection storage and

13.1

ATTENDANCE, OPERATING REVENUE, AND EXPENSE PROJECTIONS 4 4 1

other nonpublic spaces for estimates associated with various operating expenses, such as building occupancy costs.

• Phasing: If it is to take place, and accordingly when specifi c physical elements will be introduced, phasing has important implications for the projections.

• Visitor experience: The concept, exhibitions, and programming to be implemented are of particular importance to attendance and visitor-generated revenue projections and help to infl uence recommended admission charges. Investment per square foot or square meter in the permanent exhibitions is also a useful indicator to inform one’s judgment regarding the likely appeal of the visitor experience to visitors.

• Admission charges by ticket category: Many museums around the world, including the national museums in the U.K., do not charge admis-sion. Some 40 percent of U.S. museums also do not charge admission, and among the 60 percent that do, amounts charged vary substantially. Iden-tifying appropriate admission charges (or recommending against them) emerges from the size of the exhibition and other experience space, the nature of the visitor experience, and benchmarks from charges at other museums in the community or at comparable museums of the same type in other communities.

• Revenue generators: These may include retail, rentals, membership, public programs, and other sources that may vary depending on the spe-cifi c museum and site. Recommendations of strategies to maximize rev-enue from these and other sources are an essential part of a high-quality business plan or feasibility study.

• Staffi ng levels and costs: As noted in the previous chapter, staffi ng, including salaries, wages, and museum-paid benefi ts, is the largest single expenditure for virtually all museums, generally accounting for 50–60 percent of all operating expenses. There is a tendency for museums to focus on strategies to increase attendance and revenues, but in fact meth-ods to control staffi ng costs are actually the most important way to lead to a sustainable operating budget. On the other hand, there is a need for realism as to the need for an appropriate staff to help a museum achieve its mis-sion and mandate, as discussed in chapter 12.

• Operations and marketing plans: These plans developed for the museum include the nature of and charges for a membership program, how funds are allocated to market the museum, the operating schedule, and a vari-ety of other potential plans or assumptions. The operating schedule, for example, affects public accessibility as well as staffi ng needs. A decision to open during evening hours helps to boost access and requires alloca-tion of staffi ng resources, but also reduces the time available to generate income from evening rentals.


A good planning study will clearly set out the assumptions on which projec-tions are based and how the projections were arrived at.

ATTENDANCE PROJECTIONS

Attendance projections may be developed on the basis of the market and comparables research; assumptions about future conditions, both external to and within the museum; and the judgment and experience of the ana-lyst. Attendance projections may be arrived at using a variety of formulas and other approaches. Each of the following methods has its weaknesses, emphasizing the importance of using a variety of methods and also the judg-ment and experience of the museum planner who is preparing the attendance projections:

• Extrapolation from historical attendance data for the subject museum: This provides a base level of attendance. Attendance growth over and above the base level would take into account the impact of assumed internal and external changes. For example, attendance per square meter/square foot of exhibition space for the existing museum may be extrapolated to take into account the larger exhibition space. However, this method does not take into account changes in the quality of the exhibition space, nor the fact that the ratio tends to decline the larger the space.

• Comparison with attendance totals and attendance trends of other museums: Analyses of museums of the same type elsewhere in the coun-try, and other museums of any type in the area may include comparison of attendance per net square meters/square feet of exhibition space for the comparable museums, and/or estimates of the market penetration of resident or tourist populations, or it may involve an appraisal method in much the same fashion as the value of a house is appraised in relation to other houses of the same type, or in the same area of a city. A weakness of the market penetration technique, however, is the large potential margin of error in low percentage estimates; for example, if the actual penetra-tion rate were 1 percent of the area’s population instead of an estimated 2 percent, a 50 percent error would have been made—a major error in actual visitor numbers, and in attendance projections.

Each of these methods requires that the base-level attendance data for the subject and comparable museums are accurate. Unfortunately, this is not always the case.2 Published or reported attendance fi gures are sometimes inaccurate for a variety of reasons:

13.2


• An inconsistent defi nition of who is a visitor. This emerges when survey questions and museum directories ask only for “attendance” as opposed to the more accurate “on-site attendance,” or the even more explicit “on-site attendance, not double counted.”

• Data reported to museum directories is provided during a high-atten-dance year, and not reported for subsequent lower-attendance years. The directory may simply repeat the old data, which are no longer accurate.

• Museum directors feel pressured to maintain or increase the reported attendance levels of their predecessors to meet expectations of public and private funders who expect increasing attendance as a measurable benefi t of their support, or they sometimes exaggerate attendance fi gures simply because they believe other museums do so.

If the information regarding attendance fi gures at the subject museum and other museums is inaccurate it can lead to projections of attendance that may be too high. The consequence of unrealistically high attendance projec-tions can range from rejecting a good site on the basis of a perception that it is too small to meet the attendance demand, to over-building and over-staffi ng a new or expanded museum. Accurate actual attendance fi gures are essential to right-sizing the museum being planned.

Another factor affecting attendance projections is that assumptions made about the size and nature of the museum during the early planning stage may not always come to fruition after the attendance projections are made. Changed assumptions, such as a reduction in the size of the new building or expan-sion, should result in changed projections—but only a relatively small percentage of new or expanding museum projects adjust the projections to take into account changes in the internal and external assumptions. For example, regarding exter-nal changes to assumptions, it might have been assumed that a planned new conference hotel would be built across the street; if subsequently it becomes clear that this is not going to happen, it should obviously affect the projections made. With respect to internal changes, if for example a 4-D theater that will substantially increase hands-on programming, additional staffi ng, and longer operating hours is not going to be implemented, attendance projections cannot be expected to be achieved, and need to be adjusted downward.

The development of ratios that emerge from changes to the size of exhi-bition space or from market penetration rates is helpful to creating a range of potential attendance. However, qualitative factors must be taken into account as well, some of which might suggest higher attendance, others lower atten-dance. These include:

• assessment of site strengths and weaknesses;• the impact of external factors;


• the nature and quality of the visitor experience;• market trends;• operating policies, ranging from admission charges to operating hours;• staffi ng levels.

Although attendance projections may be presented using detailed com-puter-generated tables with very precise fi gures, it must not be forgotten that these are only estimates and that rounded fi gures are actually far more cred-ible than those simply assuming variations in attendance of 5 percent per year. And since attendance projections are by nature order-of-magnitude it is far more credible to project one fi gure for each year projected, expressed as the mid-point of a range of +/-20 percent. This is more credible than three fi gures that are said to be “low, medium, high.” The effective projection is in any case the midpoint.

Attendance projections may be related to the planning of museum spaces by means of a “Design Day” calculation (see section 3.4). A Design Day may be defi ned as a high-attendance day used to help inform facility-size requirements, circulation, and parking needs. A Design Day is not a peak attendance day, but rather a typical busy day (such as a summer Saturday) for which capacities are designed. Design Day estimates are projected on the basis of the percentage distribution of annual attendance by month and day of the week.

Architects are often more interested in occupancy levels—the maxi-mum number of people who are going to be in the building (or in specifi c spaces within it). These can be estimated as a percentage of Design Day attendance—usually around 35–40 percent of total Design Day visitors—who are going to be in the building at the peak time on the Design Day. The resultant fi gure is the basis for projecting the need for café seating, toilets, and parking spaces.

Table 13.1 indicates the calculation of Design Day visitors and the occu-pancy level based on attendance estimates for the opening three years of operation in a hypothetical museum, an estimate that the Saturday in a peak attendance month will be 15 percent above average, and another estimate that 35 percent of daily visitors will be in the museum building at the peak time on the Design Day. In this example Design Day attendance is projected to be 995 visitors in Year 1 of operation of the new or improved facility, falling to 940 in Year 2, and stabilizing at 968 in Year 3; the occupancy level—the maximum number of people expected to be in the building at the peak time on the Design Day—is projected at 35 percent of total Design Day atten-dance, 348 in Year 1, falling to 329 in Year 2, and stabilizing at 339 in Year 3.

Table 13.1 also shows attendance projections for the main resident, school, and tourist market segments, and by admission ticket category. Generally, attendance among regional residents (usually defi ned to be within a fi fty-mile radius) is highest in the opening year and then declines to stabilized levels,


whereas attendance by school groups and tourists tends to increase over time. Projections of attendance by ticket category refl ect the market research, com-parables analyses, and the judgment and experience of the museum planner. Of note is the need to account for what are termed “indirect” paid visitors and unpaid visitors. Indirect paid visitors are members (who have already paid for the memberships that give them free admission), persons attending facility rental events, or others arriving to take part in scheduled programs such as a ticketed concert. These visitors should be counted in the attendance fi gures along with unpaid visitors, since all are on-site visitors to the museum.

Based on the foregoing, the attendance projections and Design Day cal-culation for a hypothetical museum might be as shown in table 13.1.

REVENUE PROJECTIONS

Attendance estimates directly inform projections of visitor-generated earned income including retail and café income and indirectly affect projections of membership and programs income. However, some earned revenue catego-ries such as rentals are not related to attendance levels; nor are contributed income sources directly dependent on attendance. The most common earned and contributed income sources are discussed in this section.

• Admissions: For those museums that charge admission, projected reve-nues emerge from a combination of the attendance estimates and recom-mended admission charges for each ticket category. Pricing the museum too high or too low relative to other museums and attractions in an area may have a negative impact on attendance and visitor-generated reve-nue. The process of establishing the right admission charge should also include assessing the likely average length of stay or duration of visit in a new, renovated, or expanded museum. The greater the length of stay, the more value for money spent by the visitor. Admissions revenue pro-jections must also take into account the value of various discounts that might be offered to help boost attendance levels.

• Retail sales: In some museums that charge admission (and in all muse-ums that don’t), total income from retail sales exceeds income from admissions. Maximization of such revenue is achieved by exposing as many people as possible to the shop and by planning a space of suffi cient size to stock a wide variety of items for purchase. Retail sales success also depends very much on the skill and knowledge of the retail store manager in developing the product line and understanding the market. Projections may be expressed as sales per visitor and/or as sales per square meter/square foot of public retail space that may be compared with fi gures at similar institutions. They also need to take into account online sales and discounts offered to members.

13.3

Tabl

e 13

.1.

Att

enda

nce

Proj

ectio

ns fo

r a

Hyp

othe

tical

Mus

eum

Att

enda

nce

Pro

ject

ions

(rou

nded

) fo

r Hyp

othe

tica

l Mus

eum

Year

1 %

Year

2 %

Year

3 %

Year

1Ye

ar 2

Year

3

Proj

ecte

d T

otal

On-

Site

Att

enda

nce

200,

000

170,

000

175,

000

Att

enda

nce

by W

eekd

ay/W

eeke

nd

Wee

kday

55%

50%

50%

110,

000

85,0

0087

,500

Wee

kend

s45

%50

%50

%90

,000

85,0

0087

,500

Tot

al20

0,00

017

0,00

017

5,00

0

Des

ign

Day

Cal

cula

tion

Tot

al P

roje

cted

Att

enda

nce

200,

000

170,

000

175,

000

Tot

al W

eeke

nd d

ay A

tten

danc

e90

,000

85,0

0087

,500

Ave

rage

Wee

kend

day

Att

enda

nce

856

817

841

Wee

kend

day

Att

enda

nce

in H

ighe

r Att

enda

nce

Mon

th (1

5% a

bove

ave

rage

)99

594

096

8

Max

imum

Num

ber o

f Peo

ple

in B

uild

ing

at O

ne

Tim

e (3

5%of

dai

ly to

tal)

348

329

339

Att

enda

nce

Pro

ject

ions

(rou

nded

) fo

r Hyp

othe

tica

l Mus

eum

Year

1 %

Year

2 %

Year

3 %

Year

1Ye

ar 2

Year

3

Att

enda

nce

by M

ain

Segm

ent

Non

-Sch

ool R

esid

ent

65%

55%

50%

130,

000

93,5

0087

,500

Scho

ol10

%15

%15

%20

,000

25,5

0026

,250

Tou

rist

25%

30%

35%

50,0

0051

,000

61,2

50

Tot

al10

0%10

0%10

0%20

0,00

017

0,00

017

5,00

0

Att

enda

nce

by T

icke

t Cat

egor

y

Adu

lt (2

5–64

)45

%40

%50

%90

,000

68,0

0070

,000

Seni

or/Y

outh

(13–

24)

15%

10%

10%

30,0

0017

,000

17,5

00

Chi

ld (4

–12)

8%9%

10%

16,0

0015

,300

17,5

00

Scho

ol G

roup

s10

%15

%26

%20

,000

25,5

0026

,250

Non

-Sch

ool G

roup

s2%

2%2%

4,00

03,

400

3,50

0

Indi

rect

Pai

d/U

npai

d20

%24

%23

%40

,000

40,8

0040

,250

Tot

al A

tten

danc

e10

0%10

0%10

0%20

0,00

017

0,00

017

5,00

0


• Food service: Refl ecting the enhanced social role of museums (see sec-tion 4.5), a rooftop café or a fi ne restaurant is often considered by many stakeholders to be the most attractive aspect of a new museum, expan-sion, or renovation. We usually recommend that food service should be outsourced to private-sector operators, rather than operated in-house by staff. Some smaller museums are foregoing separate food service opera-tions altogether, particularly if they are located within easy walking dis-tance of other restaurants or cafes; this refl ects the reality that capital costs for food service spaces and operations are among the highest in a museum and may be seen to contribute to the economic development of the area by encouraging visitors to eat and shop nearby, then return through a policy of museum admission as a full-day pass. Other smaller institutions are selling prepackaged sandwiches and desserts along with beverages as part of the retail operation; this offers some level of food service to visitors along with operational effi ciencies. The projections for museums with cafes or restaurants vary depending on whether they are outsourced or operated by museum staff: If outsourced, revenues may be estimated as a percentage of gross sales or a rent per square meter/square foot of space; if operated by museum staff, projections are of sales per visitor minus the cost of goods sold.

• Rentals: Many museums have found a signifi cant revenue source in making some of their public spaces available for rentals, sometimes in the evenings after visitor hours, or even while the museum is open to the general public. Over the last two decades rentals have been the most important growth center in the earned income of an increasing number of museums. Many new or expanded museums in the past decade have been planned and designed with the specifi c purpose of creating large lobbies, auditoria, theaters, and adjacent chair storage and catering facili-ties appropriate for rentals that may include wedding parties, corporate hospitality, and a range of other users. Income generated from evening rentals is often substantially larger than might be earned if the museum stayed open to the general public during that evening period. Rental agreements may restrict their customers to the assigned spaces (and must always restrict food and beverages to that area), or they may also open the exhibitions to the renting organization at a higher cost due to the consequent need to extend gallery security during that time. Rentals often introduce potential corporate and other supporters to the museum, which aids in boosting sponsorships and other contributed income.

• Membership: Although government line department museums seldom offer membership programs, most other categories of museums may ben-efi t in many ways from developing a membership base. Most museums


that do so offer both lower-level and upper-level membership categories. At museums that charge admission, the primary motivation for lower-level membership is usually value for money received in free admission and discounts on retail, programs, and other revenue centers. The pri-mary motivations for upper-level membership categories, often with names like Benefactor, Sustainer, and Patron, are either to support the mission of the museum, or to demonstrate community pride, or both. In fact, with discounts and other benefi ts associated with lower-level mem-bership categories, the costs of lower-level memberships often exceed the revenues earned, especially if a regular newsletter is part of the mem-bership package. Conversely, it is the upper-level membership categories that are usually far more profi table. This is because upper-level mem-bers do not expect substantial benefi ts and contribute far more money. An increasing number of museums are recognizing the differences. So while some provide guest passes in a “family plus” membership category to appeal to residents who wish to accompany their visiting friends and relatives, others offer upper-level members the opportunity to have guest passes distributed in their name to religious institutions, social service agencies, or disadvantaged schools who cannot afford admission charges. The upper-level member receives a tax receipt and the satisfaction of widening access to people who might not otherwise attend.

• Other earned income: Other sources of earned income include public programs (for example, fi lm or lecture series), educational programs, pay-for-photo opportunities, fi lmmaking or commercial advertising use, and interactive donation boxes. Amounts that might be generated from these sources vary largely on the basis of the level of effort to maximize income from them.

• Endowment/investment income: An endowment fund is created by donations that are not intended to be spent directly, but are invested so that only the interest they earn—or a large part of it—is used as museum operating revenue. Although it does occur in a few other countries, it is most common in the United States, where income from endowments amounts to close to 12 percent of total operating income from the interest or other investment return on the endowment principal. Some earn much more because they have long-established endowments, while others have no endowment at all. A capital project provides an ideal opportunity for an endowment to be established or grown as part of the capital campaign for the new or expanded facility. Unfortunately, capital cost overruns too often result in moneys ear-marked for the endowment being shifted to the capital project. An alternative approach, and one that is increasingly understood to be essential, is to “value-engineer” the capital project to fi t


the budget, and not touch the endowment. This recognizes the reality that supporting sustainable operations is often more challenging than raising capital funds.

• Contributed income or sponsorships: For government line department museums, revenue contributed by individuals or corporations is hard to come by. For others, this source is important, and may include donations, sponsorships, and annual giving by board members. The average U.S. museum generates more income from private contributions than from earned sources. Recognition of the importance of contributed income has led to the growth of Development departments at museums. One of the criteria for selecting directors at such museums is their ability to secure contributed income. With respect to projecting income from this source there are two main options. The fi rst is to estimate the income that might be generated based on income from this source at comparable museums and museum industry averages; the problem with this approach is that funding decisions to support museums are based on individual decisions in a community and are often unrelated to the experience of other muse-ums. The alternative and more credible approach is not to project con-tributed income but rather to indicate it as part of the bottom line on the projections spread sheet as “the amount required from contributed and grant sources to break even on operations” for each year projected. When the projections are for an existing museum, the bottom line is the “additional” amount required to break even, on the assumption that cur-rent contributed and grant income will be maintained as a base at their present levels for each year projected.

• Government grants: Government line-department museums usu-ally receive their revenue as annual appropriations, which is often over 90 percent of their revenue, and in some cases 100 percent. For muse-ums at “arm’s length” from government, or for not-for-profi t associa-tions the primary source of governmental operating support comes in the form of grants, which may be from federal, provincial, or municipal sources. In an increasingly uncertain government funding environment in many countries, some museums are seeking to identify in-kind sup-port opportunities from governments, and to fi nd more ways and means to demonstrate how they are meeting wider community needs to help justify ongoing support. In any event, grant eligibility criteria and the amounts available within them constantly change, and may be subject to national, regional, or local politics each year. For this reason, as with contributed income it is far more credible to project expenses minus earned and other revenues to indicate grant requirements, rather than to attempt to project amounts likely to be generated from government sources each year.


EXPENSE PROJECTIONS

If projections are for expansion of an existing museum it is important to build on a base level of current fi gures, and to take new assumptions and benchmarks from comparable museums into account; if for a new museum, planners must rely on the benchmarks and their experience and judgment. Although projections may be by department, it is far more useful for them to be by function, since that allows for more meaningful comparison among museums. In section 7.1 we reported on the proportion of expenses that are related directly or indirectly to maintaining a museum collection; there we needed to account for all related costs, so the costs of salaries and benefi ts were distributed according to the functions of the personnel being paid. For the purposes of making expense projections, however, the best approach is to separate staff and nonstaff costs. On that basis the following are the key issues associated with each of the main expense categories:

• Salaries, wages, and benefi ts: Salaries, wages, and benefi ts typically account for 50–65 percent of total museum operating budgets. Con-trolling staffi ng costs is thus of particular importance to the long-term sustainability of a museum. In fact, a common mistake for a new or expended museum is to over-staff at opening. Sometimes this refl ects unrealistic attendance and revenue projections. If actual revenues do not achieve the targets after the opening year there may be a need for staff layoffs, which are not positive for the image of the museum. It is thus important to avoid over-staffi ng at opening. Contracting out some ser-vices is one strategy, but the advantage of not having to pay benefi ts and other social costs may be offset by not having the continuity and loyalty of staff persons.

• Building occupancy costs: These include such costs as utilities, repairs and maintenance, insurance, and security systems. These costs are sensi-tive to attendance totals and particularly to peak attendance levels but vary primarily on the basis of the gross area of the building. Controlling the size of the building thus helps to limit building occupancy costs.

• Curatorial costs: These are costs associated with research, conservation, and documentation of the collection. These costs will vary by the type of museum and the extent of the focus on collections.

• Exhibition costs: When a museum opens or is expanded the initial exhibition costs for permanent collection display are included within its overall capital budget. After the museum opens operating expen-ditures need to be allocated for temporary exhibitions, and the routine maintenance of permanent collection exhibitions. Museums should also budget a reserve fund to accumulate over the coming years the cost of

13.4


eventual replacement or major refurbishment of the permanent collec-tion displays; for instance, if the new permanent collection exhibits are planned to have a life expectancy of ten years, the reserve fund should accumulate 10 percent of the total cost of the permanent collection dis-plays each year. Unfortunately, such a reserve fund for exhibit replace-ment is currently not common. However, the advantage is that the fund builds up over time starting in the high attendance/revenue opening year. This increases the likelihood for change in museums, a major rea-son for declining attendance when it does not take place. The costs of the temporary exhibitions will depend on their size, duration, and qual-ity, all of which may vary widely. Routine maintenance costs of displays will increase over time, refl ecting the wear and tear on the exhibits.

• Public and educational programming: Costs associated with public and educational programming generally exceed the revenues earned by those programs for which there are charges. This is because museums include many programs within the price of admission and because actual costs to deliver the programs exceed the revenues earned. This is particularly the case for educational programs and refl ects a major difference between museums and private sector attractions. Whereas a private sector attraction will aim at delivering programs that are profi table, museums are focused on achieving a mission and mandate that relate very much to learning.

• Marketing: Museums are increasingly recognizing that marketing is much more than just advertising and promotion. It may be defi ned as all ways and means to boost attendance, repeat visits, length of stay, and visi-tor expenditures. This defi nition includes signage, the website, placement of news stories and social networking, as well as packaging and partner-ship arrangements with other institutions. Most museums do not allo-cate adequate funds to marketing, advertising, and promotion, so being creative is especially important.

• General and administrative costs: This combines offi ce and related sup-plies, equipment, mailing, printing, telephone, travel, conferences, volun-teer perquisites, professional services, dues and subscriptions, credit card fees, entertainment, and other items that do not fi t into the other expense categories. These costs often relate to staffi ng costs, so considering ratios of general and administrative costs to staffi ng costs is a practical way to address all of these costs combined rather than seeking to project for every line item.

• Retail cost of goods sold: This may be informed by museum industry averages and the experience of the subject or comparable museums.

It is critically important that the museum’s mandate and purpose be at the core of business planning. For example, if museum staff costs account for


70–90 percent of the expense budget, the project is not likely to be “feasible” because there will be no budget for the staff to actually do anything. Similarly, if a preponderance of the staff is in the marketing, development, and the retail shop, revenues may be good, but the institution may no longer be a museum!

Stakeholders anxious to promote a capital project that is beyond the fore-seeable means of the museum sometimes urge that the project can be funded by borrowing. It is most important that a museum operating budget must not include a debt repayment category. Some museums have been constructed, ren-ovated, or expanded with bank fi nancing to compensate for insuffi cient gov-ernment and private funds to meet funding targets, but these very often put the operations of the museum into serious diffi culties. The problem faced by institutions that have created debt repayment obligations is that museums do not generate surplus operating income to allow funds to be allocated to debt repayment. A better strategy is phasing the capital project under these cir-cumstances. Section 20.6 examines fi nancing options and provides additional insight into appropriate borrowing and repayment strategies.

THE BOTTOM LINE: A REALISTIC APPROACH

Attendance, operating revenue, and expense projections in a feasibility study or business plan for a new museum, renovation, or expansion emerge from a review of the experience of comparable museums and other museums in the area, the experience of the institution itself (if it is an existing museum), and assumptions based on the concept for the project that impact the museum’s attendance, revenues, or expenses.

Ultimately, however, it is the experience and judgment of the museum planner that is brought to bear in preparing the projections. If the projections are to be credible and ultimately helpful to the museum, the planner must be knowledgeable about museums, independent, and objective. She or he must approach the task with a sense of realism. All too often the fi nancial projec-tions in feasibility studies or business plans are overly optimistic in order to justify the proposed development. The result of such projections is that unrealistic expectations are created, which can lead to a perception of failure of the new or expanded museum and staff inadequacy when the museum does not achieve the projections set out in the feasibility study. This has led in some cases to dismissal of the director, other staff terminations, and in a few instances to closure of the museum within a year or two of opening it. In some cases the creation of the museum may have been a mistake; but in most circumstances over-optimistic projections at the early planning stage led to over-building, over-staffi ng, and unrealistic expectations that simply cannot be met, whereas realistic projections could have provided a basis for a phased approach that could have been sustainable.

13.5

PLANNING FOR THE BUILDING

Part IV draws together the requirements and recommendations of the pre-ceding three parts of the Manual, focusing them on the ultimate product of the museum planning process—the Facility Strategy and Functional Pro-gram, or Brief, for the proposed capital project. Chapter 14 outlines the con-tents of these essential planning documents and shows how they are applied in the subsequent design development process, in collaboration with the architect, engineers, and the rest of the museum Design Team. The following chapter 15 underscores the importance of preparing these documents with a comprehensive understanding of the need for environmental sustainability, a core theme of this edition of the Manual.

Equally important at this stage is the need to agree on a budget and schedule through to completion of design and construction. Chapter 16 reminds us that this is the critical moment to ensure that the project is right-sized and that the museum really has the funding capability to achieve it. Only then are we ready to approve the budget and schedule to move forward to implementation of the project in Part V.

4 5 5

PAR

T IV

ESSENTIAL PLANNING DOCUMENTS

This chapter shows how the results of the analysis in parts I–III of this Man-ual can be brought together to develop a Facility Strategy and a full Func-tional Program, or Brief, the essential planning documents that are needed to express museum requirements in a format that is useful to all concerned—architects, engineers, and museum professionals alike. The fi rst two sections of the chapter lay the groundwork for these documents by providing a zoning analysis (14.1) and explaining the difference between net and gross areas of the building (14.2). Section 14.3 describes the documents themselves, while 14.4 shows how they can be applied in reviewing architects’ drawings and engineer’s specifi cations.

MUSEUM BUILDING ZONES AND FUNCTIONAL AREAS

Barry Lord

Zoning analysis is a useful tool in preparing the brief for a new museum, or for a renovation or expansion of an existing one—especially during the functional programming phase. By zoning analysis we mean an analysis of the disposition of space in the museum building according to basic museum functions. It may be applied to an existing building’s current space uses, or to the projection of a new building.

We have found in our museum planning practice that employing zoning analysis as part of the functional programming stage of all types of museum capital projects increases the accuracy of the initial forecasts of space require-ments and therefore of the preliminary cost projections upon which many fundamental decisions are based—including decisions on the concept itself and whether or not to go ahead with the project. It also provides museum professionals with a useful benchmark for design analysis and control. For this reason it is important to group spaces together by zone in all space pro-grams, planning, and design documents.

CH

APT

ER 1

4

14.1

4 5 7


Other uses of zoning are to facilitate the engineering of environmental control and air-handling systems (which need to achieve different standards in different zones), and to provide for appropriate levels of security in each zone. And because the defi ning characteristics of each zone have signifi cantly different capital and operating cost implications, zoning provides vital infor-mation to inform cost control.

When we began working systematically on museum planning in the late 1970s, most of the zoning analysis then being used for museum projects began with an apparently obvious list of activities—entry, ticketing, galleries, auditorium, food services, retail, collection storage, conservation, documenta-tion, offi ces, workshops, security—and on and on. Some were more sophisti-cated than others in their understanding of the variety of activities that take place in museums. It was not unusual to confront a list of nineteen or more zones. Done this way, zonal analysis is about as useful as a shopping list—an aide memoire perhaps, but not an analysis that can help architects, engineers, contractors, cost consultants, and museum professionals to understand what the museum needs and how the building essentially works.

In practice, we have found that there are just two functional criteria that distinguish museum space in a way that matters for all concerned:

• whether the space is normally open to the public or not, indicating a need for public and nonpublic zones;

• whether the space normally accommodates museum collections (owned or borrowed) or not, indicating a need for collection and noncollection zones.

These criteria are important for two main reasons:

• Museum-standard environmental controls, sophisticated lighting con-trols, and the highest levels of security are needed in the collection zones—all those areas in which the museum’s collections, or collections borrowed from others, are normally expected to be held or used.

• A high standard of fi nish and durability is expected in the walls, fl oors, and fi xtures of the public zones of the museum.

As noted in section 16.2, museums are among the more expensive of building types. The two most important determinants of the cost of museum space are:

• the requirement for museum standards of environmental controls, light-ing, and security, which results not only in high costs for systems facili-tating very tight controls, but also the costs of the building shell—walls, fl oors, and ceilings—required to house collections zone areas that are to

ESSENTIAL PLANNING DOCUMENTS 4 5 9

be maintained at constant relative humidity levels even though the exter-nal environment may be fl uctuating widely;

• the cost of high-quality and durable materials used for wall and fl oor fi nishes in the public zones of the museum. Famously, the Getty brought Carrara marble from Italy to Los Angeles; not every museum needs that standard, but there is usually an expectation that the materi-als will be impressive and will continue to look good after decades or a century of use.

Thus the most useful zoning analysis is based on these two criteria: either the space is intended to hold collections, or not; and either it accommodates the public, or not. By combining these two criteria in their possible combina-tions, we arrive at a need for four zones:

• Zone A: Public Noncollection Areas, such as the foyer, the lobby, the shop, a café, an auditorium, public washrooms, and similar spaces;

• Zone B: Public Collection Areas, both permanent collection display and temporary exhibition galleries, along with the museum library if it is open to the public;

• Zone C: Nonpublic Collection Areas, such as the collection storage rooms, the collection shipping-receiving areas, packing-unpacking space, crate storage room (since crates may be stored with collections inside them), curatorial workrooms, exhibition preparation workshops intended for work on the collections (so-called “clean” workshops), conservation labs, registrars’ workrooms and freight elevators used for transporting the collections. If the museum library is not accessible to the public, it would also be in this zone.

• Zone D: Nonpublic Noncollection Areas, such as the offi ces, noncol-lection storage areas and workrooms, retail stock storage area, security stations, staff washrooms, and so on. In practice, we have found it use-ful to distinguish between zone D1, the nonpublic noncollection areas where staff are likely to be (such as offi ces or workrooms) and zone D2, the noncollection nonpublic areas that normally accommodate things rather than people, such as noncollection storage rooms, even though the D2 spaces are of course occasionally occupied by staff or service person-nel when they use them.

For practical purposes in museum planning we have found it useful to add a fi fth zone:

• Zone O: Outside Areas that are not part of the net square meters or net square feet of the building. Especially for museums in locations that boast of a relatively pleasant climate year-round, these outside areas can


accommodate signifi cant public functions, such as an outdoor cafe; for any museum they may include surface or underground parking, approach and turning areas for collection and other service deliveries, a porte-cochere, a drop-off and pickup lay-by for cars or buses, a sculpture gar-den, and other features.

Nevertheless, in accounting for the built area of the museum it is the four zones A–D that matter. Their total space is the net square meters/net square feet area of the building (but see the next section 14.2 for the relationship of net to gross building area).

Figure 14.1 Four-Zone Diagram


The foregoing descriptions of the four interior museum building zones A–D describe them in terms of the spaces that will be found in them. However, it is even more important to defi ne them in relation to our two criteria—museum-standard environmental controls and the level of fi nish—in order to appreciate how this zonal analysis reveals the essential functions of the museum building:

• Zone A: Public Noncollection Area: zone in which environmental con-trols need to achieve human comfort levels only, but in which levels of fi nish and durability must be appropriate for public use.

• Zone B: Public Collection Area: zone with environmental controls and security designed for the preservation of the collection, and with a level of fi nish and durability appropriate to public use.

• Zone C: Nonpublic Collection Area: zone in which environmental con-trols and security are provided for the preservation of the collection, but with a level of fi nish adequate for staff use only.

• Zone D: Nonpublic Noncollection Area: zone requiring environmental controls adequate for staff comfort only, and levels of fi nish appropriate to staff use only.

Now the value of this four-zone approach for architects, engineers, and cost consultants can be more fully appreciated:

• Architects can group the spaces in each of the zones together, horizontally and/or vertically, to simplify circulation and gain the technical and fi nan-cial advantage of massing spaces with similar requirements.

• Engineers can most effi ciently deliver museum-standard environmental controls, lighting controls, and security where they are needed (zones B and C, the zones that normally accommodate collections), allowing the other two zones to be controlled to human comfort standard only.

• Cost consultants will recognize that zone B, the public collections areas, will be the most costly, since they require both museum-standard envi-ronmental controls, lighting controls, and security, plus the high levels of fi nish expected in the public areas of the building, whereas zone C will require the museum-standard levels of environmental controls, light-ing controls, and security, but not the costly level of fi nish needed for the public areas, while zone A, public noncollection space, requires the high quality of fi nishes and durability expected by the public, but not the museum-standard level of environmental controls; zone D, nonpublic noncollection space, is the least expensive area of the building, requir-ing neither the costlier fi nishes nor the museum-standard environmental controls.


A functional defi nition with a complete list of the kinds of spaces in each of the four zones therefore reads as outlined below.

14.1.1 Zone A: Public Area Not Used for Collections

This zone requires high-quality fi nishes but is less costly to build than zone B because environmental control is to human comfort levels only. This zone includes such functions as:

• entrance (air lock of 3 meters/10 feet between doors);• admissions;• assembly (foyer or lobby);• toilets, cloakrooms, public telephone;• orientation;• education rooms;• café;• auditorium;• shop.

14.1.2 Zone B: Collection Area Accessible to the Public

This zone comprises the museum’s temporary exhibition galleries, permanent collection display galleries, and any study areas with public access. Visible storage areas should be included here, since they offer public access. This zone is the most expensive space to build because it has both museum-quality environmental conditions and high levels of fi nish that must be both attractive to the public and durable. It is also the most expensive part of the museum to operate because museum-quality environmental standards, light-ing controls, and security conditions must be maintained to provide optimal conditions for the indefi nite preservation of the collection. Museums with rare book collections or archives for which public reading rooms are provided should include those reading rooms in zone B.

14.1.3 Zone C: Collection Area Not Accessible to the Public

These spaces are used for collection-related functions to which the visiting public normally has no access. As collections areas, they require environmen-tal control and security adequate for the indefi nite preservation of the col-lection, but since they are nonpublic, levels of fi nish need be adequate for staff use only. This zone includes not only spaces reserved for the permanent collection, but also spaces used to receive, unpack, document, prepare, exhibit, repack, and ship works of art, artifacts, or specimens that have been borrowed for the temporary exhibition program. Spaces include:


• permanent collection storage areas, which should be organized by mate-rial or medium (one for works on paper, one for metals, one for textiles, etc.) in order that each medium or material may be in the controlled environment most conducive to its indefi nite preservation;

• conservation laboratory;• photographic studio;• crating and uncrating areas, temporary exhibition storage, and crate storage

areas;• exhibition preparation workshop, often called a “clean” workshop because

collections will be there while work is in progress; • all corridors, elevators, and passageways through which collections may

be moved;• loading and unloading (shipping/receiving) area.

Because it requires museum-standard environmental conditions and high security, this zone of the building is more costly than, say, an offi ce block; but it is less costly than zone B, because fi nishes can be basic and utilitarian, as long as concrete fl oors, ceilings, and walls are sealed to prevent dust. Operat-ing costs will also be lower—provided that the design takes advantage of the nonpublic nature of these spaces—but will still be higher than noncollection spaces, because environmental controls must maintain conditions adequate for the indefi nite preservation of the collections. (The crate storage room is listed above in this area because crates are frequently stored with the artifacts or works of art in them.)

14.1.4 Zone D: Nonpublic Area Not Used for Collections

This zone is the least expensive to construct and operate, since it is used to conduct museum support functions that do not involve the physical presence of collections or the public. It includes such spaces as:

• staff offi ces (the days when museum staff could install items from the museum’s collection in their offi ces are long gone);

• staff amenities (staff lounge, lunchroom, lockers, showers, etc.);• “dirty” workshops (carpentry, metal, etc.);• shop stockroom;• carpentry storage;• packing materials storage;• building management headquarters;• security headquarters and lockers;• janitors’ equipment;• supplies storage;• electrical equipment storage.


It is useful to differentiate between two subzones of zone D:

• Zone D1: nonpublic noncollection spaces where people are frequently present (so that human comfort standards are needed) such as offi ces, staff amenities, and the security headquarters;

• Zone D2: nonpublic noncollection spaces where people will go only infrequently, such as the shop stockroom and the many noncollection storage rooms.

Zoning analysis is instrumental for planning new-built museum space, expansions, or renovation. With an existing museum, it is extremely valu-able as the fi rst level of analysis prior to developing a Functional Program, or Brief, for its expansion or renovation. The data about each zone of an existing museum building can be aggregated in a chart such as table 14.1, which was developed by the authors some years ago in the course of assisting the Win-nipeg Art Gallery (WAG) with a space and facility plan for its subsequent expansion, and is reproduced here courtesy of the Winnipeg Art Gallery and IKOY Architects Ltd. WAG had been housed in an outstanding purpose-built structure designed in 1967 by Canadian architect Gus da Rosa; zonal analysis of that original building yielded the following results:

Table 14.1 brought the following facts into sharp focus:

• WAG at that time was giving the visiting public access to about 62 per-cent of its usable space, close to the norm of 60 percent.

• Thirty-eight percent was used for back-of-house support functions, close to the norm of 40 percent.

• Over half the usable space (55 percent) was allocated to collections-related functions, 5 percent less than the norm of 60 percent. Of this, 37

Table 14.1. Analysis of Space Use in the Winnipeg Art Gallery before Expansion

B. Public Collections A. Public Noncollections Total Public

2,835 sq m30,500 sq ft (37%)

1,885 sq m 20,300 sq ft (25%)

4,720 sq m50,800 sq ft (62%)

C. NonpublicCollections D. Nonpublic Noncollections Total Nonpublic

1,330 sq m14,300 sq ft (18%)

1,505 sq m16,200sq ft (20%)

2,835 sq m30,500 (38%)

Total Collections Total Noncollections Total net area

4,165 sq m44,800 sq ft (55%)

3,390 sq m36,500 sq ft (45%)

7,555 sq m81,300 sq ft (100%)


percent of net usable space was used for exhibiting works of art, slightly less than the norm of 40 percent.

Continued collections growth and an expansion in the number of tem-porary exhibitions received, originated, and circulated by WAG meant that the collections-related support space (zone C) had become far too small rela-tive to the institution’s level of operation. This had caused severe constraints in the storage of works of art, and the crating, uncrating, and movement of exhibitions in and out of the building.

A planning process of the kind recommended in this Manual was used to analyze WAG’s future space requirements in each functional area for a twenty-fi ve-year planning period—to a Design Year twenty-fi ve years in the future, since the decision had been made to expand the building suffi ciently to accommodate the needs of the next quarter century. WAG’s director and board had provided the consultants with policy documents outlining a framework for planning, which were supplemented with interviews, analysis, and on-site observations by the museum planning consultants. WAG’s space needs were then set out by the consultants in a Functional Program that was provided to the architects at IKOY. The required spaces were identifi ed by zone and could thus be aggregated and compared to existing space use, as shown in table 14.2.

Table 14.2 expresses in quantitative terms the policy objectives that had been set by the board prior to the space planning exercise; for example:

• The increase in public noncollection space (zone A) refl ects the projected importance of self-generated revenues over the next quarter century.

• The greatest increase is in the proportion of nonpublic support space (zones C and D), from the original level of 38 percent to 44 percent of total usable space; this responds to the need to improve the security of collections and to increase staff effi ciency.

• The space allocation within the expanded 5,850 square meters (63,000 square feet) in collection zones B and C (on the left of the chart) shows how the ratio of public gallery space to nonpublic collections support space is altered: 59 percent is now gallery—including permanent collection gal-leries (as opposed to 68 percent originally); 20 percent is collection storage (compared to the previous 12 percent). Even so, the expansion increased gallery space (zone B) by just over 600 square meters (6,500 square feet).

Zoning analysis is a useful tool in the functional programming and sche-matic design stage for the following reasons:

• It clearly identifi es the amount of space that must be contained within the museum’s environmentally controlled “envelope” to be built to museum standard (collection zones B and C).


• It provides benchmarks which assist the Museum Project Team in moni-toring fulfi llment of the Functional Program, or Brief, in selecting design solutions and setting priorities.

• It is a framework for the preliminary unit cost plan, with zone B as most expensive and zone D as the least costly areas.

• It forms a basis for preliminary projections of building running costs, with zone B again as the most expensive.

Massing diagrams with proportionately sized blocks or “bubbles” are use-ful for showing the distribution of space by zones, which can be color-coded for clarity on planning documents. Block diagrams are often used to com-pare the four zones, sometimes supplemented by bubble diagrams showing circulation patterns within and between the zones. Such diagrams provide an analytical framework that is both easy to understand and grounded in fundamental museum requirements, and is the tool that will be most readily grasped by board members, museum staff, and architects in implementing the Functional Program, or Brief.

Zoning analysis is also useful in cost control, since the highest cost may be attributed to the public collections zone B, the lowest to the nonpublic noncollection zone D, with the other two zones usually at a medium cost

Table 14.2. Space Use Compared to Space Needs for the Winnipeg Art Gallery

B. Public Collections A. Public Noncollections Total Public

Original 2,835 sq m 30,500 sq ft (37%)

1,885 sq m20,300 sq ft (25%)

4,720 sq m50,800 sq ft (62%)

Needed 3,440 sq m37,000 sq ft (30%)

2,880 sq m31,000 sq ft (26%)

6,320 sq m68,000 sq ft (56%)

C. Nonpublic Collections

D. Nonpublic Noncollections Total Nonpublic

Original 1,330 sq m14,300 sq ft (18%)

1,505 sq m16,200 sq ft (20%)

2,835 sq m30,500 sq ft (38%)

Needed 2,415 sq m26,000 sq ft (22%)

2,510 sq m27,000 sq ft (22%)

4,925 sq m53,000 sq ft (44%)

Total Collections Total Noncollections Total

Original 4,165 sq m 44,800 sq ft (55%)

3,390 sq m36,500 sq ft (45%)

7,555 sq m81,300 sq ft (100%)

Needed 5,850 sq m63,000 sq ft (52%)

5,390 sq m58,000 sq ft (48%)

11,240 sq m121,000 sq ft (100%)


range. In the event of “value engineering” (a euphemism for cost cutting), zoning analysis is thus a most useful tool.

As the following diagram shows, for many museums, the public collec-tion zone ranges around 40 percent, with the other three zones distributed about evenly at 20 percent each. Note that this proportional distribution of zones is a frequently encountered norm, not an ideal.

As the Winnipeg Art Gallery example used in this section shows, it is by no means universal even for art museums. A natural science museum in a university will usually have far more space in its nonpublic collection zone C, where its systematic collections may be the subject of research. By contrast, a historic site, a children’s museum or a science center is likely to have far more public space in zones A and B. Thus planners must determine the appropri-ate proportions for each museum individually. The real use of this norma-tive diagram is as a checkpoint against which to search for the reason why a specifi c museum diverges from it, and to determine whether that divergence is an advantage (as in the case of the university natural history museum with a large study collection of specimens in zone C) or whether it indicates a problem—as a shortfall of zone C nonpublic collections space so often does, because the need for collection storage and treatment space, especially the provision for collection growth, is so frequently overlooked.

Functional Areas: Zoning analysis should be supplemented by another planning tool, functional area analysis, which may be defi ned as grouping spaces in clusters that refl ect functional relationships that need to be readily accessible to each other. Functional areas may combine spaces from different zones: for example, the Retail functional area will include the zone A shop, the zone D1 retail manager’s offi ce, and the zone D2 stockroom. The following is

Figure 14.2 Normative Distribution of Museum Zones


a list of functional areas that are frequently encountered, although there may be functional areas that are specifi c to a particular institution:

• Entry and assembly (see sections 4.5 and 4.6)• Visitor amenities (see section 4.6)• Food services• Retail• Special events or rentals• Audiovisual or multimedia• Live performance (see section 4.5.8)• Information and communications• Exhibition galleries (see sections 6.2 and 6.3) • Exhibition and collections support (see section 6.4)• Conservation (see section 7.4)• Research (see section 7.5)• Education (see section 4.4)• Administrative offi ces (see section 12.3) • Building operations (see chapter 11)• Staff amenities (see section 12.3)• Volunteer and docent programs• Security (see chapter 10)• Waste disposal (see chapter 11)

And so on. The functional areas list may be extended or cropped to meet the needs of particular museums, their functions and requirements. This level of analysis and grouping is helpful to allow all the members of the Museum Planning Team to check how each museum function will be fulfi lled. How-ever, it is important that it should be done only after the fundamental zoning analysis has been completed.

FROM NET TO GROSS AREA

Lindsay Martin

In planning for a new or expanded facility it is imperative to remember there are two types of area—net assignable or usable area (often called simply “net”) and gross building area:

• Net assignable or net usable area is the total of all of the functional spaces within a building—in museums this means spaces like lobbies, galleries, classrooms, offi ces, storage rooms, cafes, shops, toilets, shipping-receiv-ing areas, and all other usable, functional, enclosed space.

14. 2


• The gross building area is the total area of the building—which includes all the net assignable or usable areas plus the space required for wall thickness and structure, vertical and horizontal circulation, and mechani-cal rooms and chases.

The net assignable area is the amount of space that will be available for use, but the gross building area is the amount of space that will be the driver for capital and occupancy costs. As an example, fi gure 14.3 depicts which spaces in and around a museum exhibition gallery are net and which are gross.

The reason for the difference is easy to understand with reference to the planning and design process for a new building. The functional requirements of the building can and must be projected—that is what we are doing when we develop a space program as the fi rst part of a functional program. But the thickness of walls, the corridors, elevators, escalators, and stairwells, and the disposition of the mechanical-electrical spaces (including to what extent they

Figure 14.3 Net and Gross Area Diagram


will be centralized or dispersed) cannot be determined until the architecture of all the net spaces is resolved:

• only then can the contours of the internal and external walls be traced;• only then can the need for corridors, elevators, escalators, or stairwells be

identifi ed;• and only then can the engineers make decisions about the size and loca-

tion of the mechanical-electrical spaces that will be needed.

For those new to physical or architectural planning this can be a confus-ing concept. So rather than trying to think about a yet-to-be-built museum, think about a more familiar building, such as your home: there is the space you live in—the kitchen, the bedrooms, the bathroom—and there is all of the other space you are responsible for maintaining but don’t actually live in—the walls, the stairs, and the closet with the boiler or water heater. Over time the idea will become clear, so one will always be mindful to clarify which type of space is being discussed, as there is a signifi cant difference between the two and confusing them can lead to substantial planning errors.

Net usable space is important to determine and is the subject of the zon-ing analysis described in the preceding section. When space must be reduced, it is the net area that is affected. However, the gross building area must be projected in order to proceed with key planning steps such as preliminary cost estimates and development of a capital budget (see section 16.2), as well as site selection (section 18.1). The contractor must be paid to build the total space, including all the walls, corridors, elevators, escalators, stairwells, and the mechanical-electrical areas that cannot yet be planned, and it is the total space that the site must accommodate.

In order to project this total space throughout the planning and design process, a grossing factor is applied as a multiplier of the net assignable or usable area total. The multiplier is an assumption about how much of the overall building will be used for these purposes that cannot be accounted for in the net assignable area.

Of course all building types have both net and gross areas. But experience with museum buildings in many different jurisdictions has demonstrated that museum grossing requirements often surpass those for other types of build-ings by at least 10–20 percent. Those familiar with other building types are often surprised by how much gross space is required in a museum. The fac-tors that predict a high grossing requirement are the presence of generous circulation space, multiple access routes, internal circulation to and around specialized spaces such as theaters and auditoriums, high-tech or green build-ing systems, climate-controlled collections storage and galleries, and spaces with specialized exhaust and fi ltration systems such as conservation labs or fabrication workshops that require additional mechanical space.


Net usable space in a museum usually accounts for 60–70 percent of the total area, so that these other factors—thickness of walls, corridors, eleva-tors, escalators, stairwells, and mechanical-electrical space—take up 30–40 percent of the building area. For example, if the total built area of a museum building is 150,000 gross square feet (13,965 gross square meters), and the net usable, functional, assignable area amounts to 100,000 net square feet (9,290 net square meters), the net area accounts for 67 percent of the total building area, and the space needed for the thickness of walls, horizontal and vertical circulation space, and mechanical-electrical plant takes up the other 33 percent of the fl oor area in the building. Those percentages can be calcu-lated for an existing building, but if we were planning that building and had reached the conclusion that we needed 100,000 net square feet, in order to project the gross area requirement we would have to multiply the net square feet area by a grossing factor, which in this case would be 0.5.

Such a grossing factor is sometimes expressed as 0.5, since that gives you the additional space to assume for grossing purposes, or sometimes as 1.5, which is the multiplier of net area needed to arrive at the total amount of space required for the building. It may also be expressed simply in percent-age terms as a 50 percent grossing factor. Table 14.3 suggests how a gross-ing factor ranging from 50 to 70 percent may be made up of the various spaces involved, while table 14.4 shows how a grossing factor of 0.5 would be applied to the net usable space of 100,000 net square feet to conclude that the total space requirement for the museum is 150,000 gross square feet

In some other building types, spaces like lobbies and restrooms are some-times not included in net area but assumed to be part of the gross area. For museum planning, however, it is recommended that lobbies and restrooms should be accounted for in the net area as usable space. The reason is that in more common building types—such as offi ces, hospitals, or educational facilities—lobbies serve a basic security and reception function, whereas in museums they are mission-critical spaces to welcome and orient visitors and need to be planned to be highly functional—and are often quite large, like the enormous lobby in the new National Museum of China that opened in Tiananmen Square in Beijing in 2011. Similarly, other building types often

Table 14.3. Possible Distribution of Types of Spaces Included in Grossing Factor

Types of Space Ratio to Net Space

Wall thickness & Structure 10–15%

Horizontal Circulation 10–15%

Vertical Circulation 15–20%

Mechanical Rooms & Chases 15–20%________

Grossing Factor 50–70%


provide only enough restrooms to meet local code requirements, whereas museums require greater public restroom capacity with larger space alloca-tions to ensure that the peak attendance periods can be easily accommodated and that visitors have a positive experience—thus like lobbies restrooms in museums are highly functional spaces that should be included in the net usable or assignable area.

It must be noted that the type of architecture selected has a signifi cant impact on the overall gross building size. For example, signature architec-tural elements often include soaring atriums, angled walls, and additional spaces that captivate with vistas or create a unique building experience for visitors. While such spaces often make the museum experience more dra-matic and interesting, they are seldom functional spaces for delivering key mission-based programs like exhibitions, lectures, or classes. If such signature architecture is deemed appropriate for the project, a more generous gross-ing factor must be projected. Some notable architects have produced build-ing designs with almost half of the overall space devoted to walls, structure, circulation, and mechanical space (meaning a grossing factor approaching 100 percent!). On the other hand, if a less architecturally ambitious design is desired a grossing factor of 30–40 percent may be achievable.

It is highly recommended that the grossing factor be applied universally to the entire net program. Some may choose to apply different factors to dif-ferent spaces—but this is usually confusing, complicated, and tedious. Expe-rience has proven that it is ultimately unnecessary as the grossing factor is an assumption of a proportion that can only be refi ned through actual architec-tural design and engineering specifi cations.

Table 14.4. Sample Summary Building Program

Building Space SummaryNet Sq. Ft. Space Allocations

Zone A: Public Noncollections Subtotal 20,000

Zone B: Public Collections Subtotal 40,000

Zone C: Nonpublic Collections Subtotal 20,000

Zone D: Nonpublic Noncollections Subtotal 20,000________

TOTAL NET Assignable Area 100,000

Projected area for wall thickness and structure, vertical and horizontal circulation and mechanical rooms and chases using a 50% grossing factor for an 0.5 multiplier of the net area

50,000

________

TOTAL GROSS Building Area 150,000


In the end, the most important thing to remember is that realities of the spaces provided for in the grossing factor cannot be avoided. Walls, structure, circulation, and mechanical spaces are needed to make a building work! Don’t think that these can be minimized through clever design so that a lower grossing factor can be assumed, thus reducing building size overall and thus cost. Those who do not properly estimate the area required for grossing often fi nd themselves cutting space required to deliver mission-based work (net assignable area) to bring the overall building size down. Err on the side of caution: it is much better to be pleasantly surprised than disappointed. If the architect and engineers ultimately fi nd that they can achieve the program in a smaller overall building than was projected, there will be savings that can be invested in fi nishes, fi xtures, furnishings, or other project expenses!

FACILITY STRATEGIES AND FUNCTIONAL PROGRAMS

Lindsay Martin

The planning process, when done well, generates volumes of information. In order to move from planning to implementation one must establish the building requirements in order to communicate how the museum’s long-term needs translate into space, budget, and schedule. The essential planning document that establishes these requirements is the Facility Strategy and/or Functional Program, as they are called in American English; British usage refers to a Functional Program as a Brief.

Note that these essential planning documents convey requirements—the museum’s needs to make the building fully functional at the requisite level of sophistication. These requirements will be translated by the architect into design of the spaces needed, and into specifi cations by the engineers working on the project. In this sense the task of the programmer or museum plan-ner developing the Facility Strategy and/or Functional Program/Brief is to set the relevant standards and ask all the right questions, while the job of the architect and engineers is to provide creative answers that meet these standards.

The Facility Strategy is a narrative document that communicates the museum’s aspirations, space allocations and relationships, and technical requirements. Like all of these essential planning documents, it is design neutral and is an opportunity for the museum to provide direction to the Design Team. Its requirements can be met equally well by any architectural design style. But it is also the benchmark from which to evaluate architectural design functionally and to identify areas that require additional attention to meet the museum’s requirements. Key components of this document include the following:

14.3


Figure 14.4 The Museum Planning Process


• Planning Goals, Principles, and Assumptions (described in section 3.4)• A Zoned Space Program (see section 14.1 for zoning)• Functional Area Descriptions• Access, Adjacency, and Circulation Diagrams• Building Systems and Standards

A Functional Program includes all of the elements of the Facility Strategy but also adds Room Data Sheets.

14.3.1 Review of the Planning Goals, Principles, and Assumptions

Through the work done to identify the needs of people, collections, and operations, as outlined in the fi rst three sections of this book, a deeper under-standing of the new facility will be generated. As the Facility Strategy is being prepared, it is a good time to review the initial planning goals, principles, and assumptions developed to guide the initial planning process (see section 3.4) in an effort to refi ne them to best refl ect the current status of the project. The process of considering the museum’s needs very carefully, prioritizing where necessary and making tough decisions if required, should allow the scope of the project to become more detailed and concrete. This increased clarity will be invaluable to the museum’s leadership as they make decisions, as well as to the Design Team who will be able to focus on the design of the building in response to a well-articulated set of requirements.

The process of preparing the Facility Strategy or Functional Program provides an opportunity to make the project goals more specifi c than their initial statement, indicating the priorities that have evolved in the planning process. For example, the following goals:

• Establish museum as international leader.• Become a community hub.• Support permanent collection development and expansion.

Might be refi ned to:

• Establish museum as international leader in community engagement and conservation science.

• Become a community hub through innovative programs and enhanced social spaces.

• Support permanent collection development and expansion by increasing galleries and collection storage.


Similarly, planning principles should evolve to refl ect what has been learned in the planning process in order to provide strong direction to the Design Team. For example, the following principles:

• The new facility will focus on supporting research and will feature collec-tions storage, the library, research labs, and associated staff spaces.

• Staff offi ces will be located on-site, replacing the existing offi ces which are rented and located off-site.

• Visitors should be able to enjoy views out to the garden in public spaces.

Might become:

• The new facility will focus on supporting twenty-fi rst-century research and will feature collections storage, digital learning stations, research labs, and associated staff spaces. Because it was determined that in the future library resources will be accessed digitally and library holdings can be stored off-site.

• Staff offi ces should be located on-site, together on one fl oor, replacing the existing ones that are rented and located off-site. Discussion during the planning process indicated that staff would work most effi ciently if all colocated on one fl oor.

• Visitors will not enjoy views out to the garden in public spaces. This prin-ciple was removed as it was determined in the planning process that the garden would be too expensive to maintain, the windows would result in conservation and lighting problems, and the capital expenditure could be better spent on a green roof, which would enhance environmental sustainability.

Assumptions should become more concrete and plentiful. A list of ten items could easily grow to thirty. They should be as clear and specifi c as pos-sible. For example, the following assumptions:

• 90–120,000 gross square feet (8,360–11,150 square meters) of space will be added to the existing building.

• This facility will be planned to reach capacity in twenty years, when a new space solution will be implemented.

• Receptions for 300, dinners for 50, and lectures for 200 will be accom-modated in the building.

Might become:

• 80,000 gross square feet (7,430 square meters) of space will be added to the existing building, which will be entirely renovated. The planning


process showed that rehabilitating existing space in the museum’s present iconic building is just as valuable as adding new space.

• The museum will be closed completely during renovation and construc-tion. Since the building needs to be renovated, the museum leadership decided to suspend public operations during that period.

• This new facility will be planned to reach capacity in fi fteen years, when a new space solution will be implemented. Since the building is smaller, another space solution will be needed sooner.

• The existing facility will be renovated to last fi fty years before another major renovation is needed. This refl ects the decision to invest in the iconic historic facility.

• Receptions for 700, dinners for 200, and lectures for 1,000 will be accom-modated in the building. These changes refl ect the need for more earned income from public programs, development functions, and rentals to meet the revenue targets of the business plan that was developed during the planning process.

14.3.2 Zoned Space Program

The space program identifi es all of the spaces or rooms in the building. As the Facility Strategy is a design-neutral document, the space program is like the ingredients list in a recipe. The architect and Design Team will assem-ble all of the items together into the building, but all the right components will be there because they are identifi ed in the space program, which should include all net usable space.

The space program should look to identify each discrete space and provide:

• zone allocation (see section 14.1);• space name;• brief description;• area allocation (in net assignable area);• adjacent spaces.

It is easiest to manage this in a spreadsheet as it will allow for easy cal-culations and sorting of information. Also, spreadsheets can be easily evolved and adapted as additional information is needed. Table 14.5 shows an exam-ple of part of an actual zoned space program.

At the conclusion of a zoned space program, the net assignable area should be totaled and the grossing factor applied to arrive at the overall build-ing size. It is also useful to summarize total space in each zone by percent-age, since that facilitates further consideration of whether suffi cient space has been allowed in each zone. In the example shown in fi gure 14.5, the question

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would be whether all requisite spaces have been provided in zone D, which is at 10 percent, half of the norm. This may be satisfactory, especially if some offi ces will be off-site, but it does suggest that a review could be made not only of offi ce space and staff amenities, but also of all the other noncollection work and storage spaces in zone D. Perhaps some have been forgotten?

It is often useful to visualize the zoned space program with a space block or massing diagram, where each space in the building is shown proportion-ately. This helps all concerned to evaluate and compare the relative sizes dedi-cated to various functions, and possibly to adjust them if needed. Figures 14.6 and 14.7 provide examples of such massing or space block diagrams.

14.3.3 Functional Area Descriptions

An optional feature of some Facility Strategies is a supplemental description of the space by functional area. This is a narrative text that describes coherent functional sequences of spaces, and is sometimes easier for museum staff to understand than the zone analysis alone. For instance, the Functional Area Description for Retail will advise that the stockroom has to be readily acces-sible from the shop, even though the shop is in zone A while the stockroom is in zone D. Similarly, a Functional Area Description allows programmers to describe the Education Suite or the temporary exhibition support sequence of rooms as a unit, so that the Design Team and museum staff can equally appreciate how all the spaces work together. Functional areas that should be described include the following:

Figure 14.5 Space Use Analysis

Fig

ure

14.6

Sp

ace

Bloc

k D

iagr

am Z

ones

A a

nd B

Fig

ure

14.7

Sp

ace

Bloc

k D

iagr

am Z

ones

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nd D


• Entrance, Admissions, and Amenities• Retail• Food Services• Education Suite• Permanent Collection Display Galleries• Temporary Exhibition Galleries• Temporary Exhibition Support Space• Collection Storage• Conservation• Documentation and Digitization• Security• Building Management

There may well be others that are specifi c to individual museums. Each functional area description enables the programmer to explain in narrative terms how the zonal analysis and the access, adjacency, and circulation dia-grams that follow fi t together for effectively and effi ciently functioning pro-cesses of the museum.

14.3.4 Access, Adjacency, and Circulation Diagrams

The relationships between spaces in museums are critical to maintaining effi -ciency and best practice. Architects and engineers are expert in designing and constructing buildings—not in museum practice. The museum planner in consultation with the museum staff (if they are already in place) must com-municate the appropriate interactions among those areas identifi ed in the space program.

This is most easily done with access, adjacency, and circulation diagrams—block or bubble diagrams that communicate the relationships among spaces visually, showing how collection items, other goods and services, staff, and visitors of all kinds are supposed to enter, exit, and move throughout the building. These are conceptual diagrams and do not imply building design. Do not get caught up trying to determine what each fl oor in the building should contain—that is why architects and engineers are hired! But do pay attention to the adjacencies needed so that the museum can function effi ciently.

As their name suggests, these diagrams plot three factors:

• Access: Entrance to and egress from the building for things and people; the diagrams must indicate whether there is to be a separate school or tour group entrance, the need for a dedicated loading dock for collections separate from the one for other deliveries, the secure staff entrance and exit before and after public hours, garbage disposal and rubbish dump-sters, and emergency exits, for example.


• Adjacencies: The diagrams should show the sequence of support space for temporary exhibitions, the visitor amenities that must be adjacent to the lobby, and such details as the need for chair and table storage to be next to the multipurpose rental and events space.

• Circulation: The diagrams should trace the routes of collection materials for exhibitions from the loading dock through shipping/receiving, crat-ing/uncrating, and possibly other spaces to the display galleries or the temporary exhibition storage space; they should also show the route of food deliveries and garbage removal not just from the café, but also from exhibition openings or board meetings where refreshments are served.

The diagrams must respect principles of universal accessibility (see sec-tion 4.7) and should have separate circulation routes for:

• individual or family visitors;• tour groups;• school classes;• VIPs (lecturers, politicians, artists, or others who need discreet access and

a route that does not expose them to the general public until they are ready to present in the auditorium or gallery);

• collections, owned or borrowed, which should not intersect with or accompany routes for food, garbage, or any other organic material;

• other goods and services;• food and beverage;• garbage removal.

Figure 14.8 provides an example of an access, adjacency, and circulation diagram.

14.3.5 Building Systems and Standards

Museums are highly complex, technical, and custom-designed facilities. It is critical that performance standards for building systems be detailed and clearly expressed by the museum planner for the Design Team, their sub-consultants, engineers, and cost estimator. This level of detail is necessary as museums have signifi cant “upgrade items” from that of a typical building and could risk these items being unaccounted for in the initial budget or ultimately in the fi nished building—both of which would cause signifi cant problems.

The museum planner must be careful to write this document focused on the technical requirements and performance standards that are desired from the building. This approach will allow the architect and engineers to propose a range of creative and cost-effective solutions. If the systems and standards

Fig

ure

14.8

A

cces

s, A

djac

ency

, and

Circ

ulat

ion

Dia

gram


are written too prescriptively (i.e., focusing on how to achieve the standards) this will limit the effectiveness of the Design Team and preclude innovation in the project. Again, the purpose of the Facility Strategy or Functional Pro-gram or Brief is to state requirements, not specifi cations.

For example, the standard for museum-quality environmental control in collection zones B and C may be stated as a requirement for 50% relative humidity +/- 5% at 72°F (20°C) +/- 2 degrees 24 hours per day 365 days per year. The project engineer responds to that requirement with a specifi cation for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment that can provide that requirement. Similarly, the acoustic engineer will respond to the noise transmission criteria in the acoustics standard, and the lighting designer will plan to respect the requirement to be able to control light levels down to 50 lux (5 foot-candles) in those galleries that are going to be displaying textiles or works on paper.

The following list outlines the type of topics to be covered in this techni-cal narrative.

• Access • Acoustics • Adjacencies • Air Circula-

tion • Air Condition-

ing • Air Filtration• Air and Vapor

Permeability• Alarms• Approach• Audio• Building

Automation• Ceilings• Doors and Metal

Grilles• Electrical Systems• Elevators• Freight Elevator• Emergency Power

• Exhaust Systems• Exterior Lighting• Fenestration• Fire Doors • Fire Suppression

Systems• Flooding• Floors• “Green” Standards• Housekeeping• Humidifi cation/

Dehumidifi cation• Insulation• Intercom• IT Technology• Kitchen• Lighting• Lightning

Protection• Loading Docks• Materials and

Finishes

• Pest Control• Plumbing• Power• Public Address

System• Ramps• Security

Levels• Security

Recommendations• Shipping/

Receiving• Sprinklers• Sprinkler

Heads• Surveillance• Telephones• Universal

Accessibility • Vestibules• Walls• Windows


14.3.6 Functional Programs and Room Data Sheets

In order to expand a Facility Strategy into a Functional Program, room data sheets are added. These are detailed descriptions of each room that spell out function, spatial relationships, size and technical requirements, and per-formance standards. Essentially, this document integrates the information contained in the Facility Strategy, creating a room-by-room fact sheet that applies the building systems and standards and the adjacency requirements to each individual space.

The Design Team use the room data sheets as a checklist, ensuring that they have incorporated into the design all of the requirements in the pro-gram. Room data sheets also facilitate grouping spaces with requirements in common: The engineers will fi nd it very useful to be able to see grouped together all those spaces that require the museum collection standard of envi-ronmental controls. Room data sheets often also contain lists for fi xtures, fur-nishings, and equipment for each room (FF&E), which can be very helpful for budgeting and design.

Table 14.6 provides an example of a small section of the room data sheets from an actual Functional Program. Note that the level of detail in this exam-ple requires about two pages of data for each room.

Facility Strategies without room data sheets are suffi cient for an architec-tural selection process to proceed (see section 19.3), for concept design and even schematic design to get underway, and for relatively refi ned costing esti-mates. However, Functional Programs with room data sheets added should be developed before the beginning of the design development or detailed design phase of architecture. It is advantageous for architects and engineers to have them earlier, but certainly by the time detailed design has begun they should be provided with this level of detail. A full Functional Program with room data sheets added to the other components of a Facility Strategy may be retained by the museum’s Building Committee and used as a check-list throughout the design review process, while examining the construction documents, and eventually when reviewing the fi nished building at the time of substantial completion and commissioning.

14.3.7 Development, Review, and Verifi cation

These essential planning documents should not be developed in a vacuum. It works best to have a principal author, often the museum planner or a member of the project coordination group. The author should then strive to integrate and synthesize all of the information gathered during the planning for people, collections, and operations (as described in the fi rst three parts of this book) into the Facility Strategy and/or Functional Program. In order to ensure


that the information is accurate, the document should be circulated in draft to the entire Project Coordination Committee and Museum Project Team for review and comment. Once revised with the feedback from the internal review, the Facility Strategy or Functional Program should be reviewed and approved by the Building Committee before being provided to the Design Team as the basis for architectural design and engineering specifi cations.

Sometimes there is a hiatus between completion of these documents and the commencement of design. As knowledge about the project is constantly evolving, if the Facility Strategy is more than six months old at the beginning of architectural design, the fi rst step in the design should be verifi cation and revision of the document to capture any changes or shifts in thinking. This can be conducted by the initial author or by the architect.

USING THE ESSENTIAL PLANNING DOCUMENTS

Lindsay Martin

The essential planning documents are much more than the starting point of the building—they are the museum’s requirements for the project, and in order for the project to be successful, as many requirements as possible should be fulfi lled through design and construction. By using the Facility Strategy and Functional Program as tools throughout the design and construction process, issues can be identifi ed, studied, and resolved in a collaborative man-ner early on. Integrating the essential planning documents, documents to the design, engineering, and construction process works to ensure that the museum’s needs are met and that the issues are identifi ed as early as possible and costly change orders or retrofi ts are minimized. This section suggests how these documents can best be put to work!

14.4.1 Engaging Leadership

The Facility Strategy is fi rst and foremost a communication tool. It commu-nicates those needs that have been identifi ed as a priority to be addressed in the facility project. Approval of the Facility Strategy by the Building Com-mittee and in some cases the governing body of the organization is a key step. It should be vetted and owned by the Project Coordination Team before it goes to the Building Committee for approval. Building Committee mem-bers should have a clear understanding of the document when they approve it and/or prepare to take it to the governing body for an offi cial vote. This ensures that those with the fi duciary responsibility (and potentially provid-ing the majority of the funding) understand the purpose and priorities of the project.

14.4


Table 14.6. Example of a Room Data Sheet from a Functional Program

Room Number: 3.3.1

SPACE NAME: Feature Exhibition Hall

Program Group Galleries

Room Type Special Exhibitions

Zone: B

Identical Spaces: 1

Unit Area:(NSM)

1115

Total Program Area (NSM):

7877

OPERATIONAL

Functional Description:

This is a world-class venue for hosting local and international travelling and changing exhibits.

Usual Period of Use: Gallery Hours

Collections Present: Yes

Primary Adjacency: Admissions; Feature Artifact Acclimatization; Feature Exhibit AV Control Room; Feature Washrooms

Secondary Adjacency: Preferably on the same fl oor as the Main Lobby

Separations: BOH Collections, FOH and BOH Food Services and Garbage and transportation routes, washrooms, Museum Support Spaces.

Primary Access: Admissions; Back of House Feature Artifact Acclimatization; Back of House Corridor

Restrictions: Must have ability to charge separate admissions. Must be completely secure when Galleries are closed.

Access/Adjacency Comments:

Must be on same fl oor as Feature/collections loading dock

ARCHITECTURAL

Floor Loading (Live): 12.0 kPa

Floor Loading (Point): 10 kN anywhere on fl oor

Ceiling Suspension: Allow for a discrete grid of hanging points spaced 3 to 4 meters apart, each with 2.3 kN capacity


(continued)

Vertical Load on Walls:

200 kg per hanger

Clear Minimum Ceiling Height:

3.75 m

Insulation: Stable for at least 48 hours in the event of a loss of mechanical climate control systems

Daylight: Not Allowed

Privacy/Blackout: No

UV Exclusion: Screen UV content of Natural and Artifi cial Light Sources

Door Opening Minimum Size:

3.75 m high x 3.65 m wide

Noise Criteria: NC 30

MATERIAL & FINISHES:

Floor: Carpet Tiles and decorative fi nishes TBD

Walls: Seamless walls with standard suspension capability. Repeatedly nailable, painted with 5/8” fi re-rated gypsum wallboard over 3/4” plywood, with return air openings for the HVAC system at the bottom, separate from exterior structural wall construction. The space will need to be subdivided with a movable wall system pinned to fl oor.

Ceiling: Architectural painted decorative fi nishes TBD

Fire Rating: 2-hour rating

Room Number: 3.3.1

ENVIRONMENTAL Feature Exhibition Hall

Environmental Zone: 3

Room Control: Programmable individual control

Temperature: Summer 21° C; Winter 19° C; ± 1.5° C

Air Filtration: All particulates ≤1.0 µg/m³; pollutants as specifi ed



Humidity Control: Maximum fl uctuation of ± 3% RH for 95% of hours in a month

Exhaust: No

Supply Air / Outside Air:

Yes, CO2 sensor

Room Pressure: Positive

PLUMBING:

Plumbing General: None

Plumbing - fi xtures: None

Plumbing - water supply:

None

Plumbing - drainage: None

Plumbing - special: Ensure piping is not located directly above

ELECTRICAL:

Power General: Requirements to be determined through exhibition development process.

Power - outlets: Provide fl ush mounted fl oor power at 3m O.C. spacing in both directions and baseboard outlets around perimeter at 1.5m O.C.

Power - 3 phase:

Power - special:

Power - emergency: Requires emergency power for exiting lighting and signage

LIGHTING:

Lighting - level: as specifi ed in 8.6.24 OSR; coordinate with exhibit designer

Lighting - source: Ceramic Metal Halide Fixtures on Track Lighting System 1m O.C. over entire ceiling, coordinated with Gallery Designers and a 4m O.C. ceiling grid of Junction Boxes; provide separate housekeeping lighting system.

Lighting - dimmable: no

Lighting - control: provide programmable controls for multiple lamp switchings with manual on off in room

Lighting - quality: Color balanced to exhibit standards

Lighting - other:


TECHNICAL

Telephone: No

Intercom: No

Public address: Yes, Front of House

Digital Projection System:

Yes

Video/ Film/ Sound Recording/Broadcast:

No

Audio:

Communications - CCTV:

Yes

Communications - Data/Networking:

Yes. Consider possibility of publicly accessible WiFi on separate server.

Communications - other:

SECURITY/SAFETY:

Security Level: 3—Front of House security

Surveillance: Verifi ed passive infrared motion detectors and CCTV cameras. Cameras scan galleries and access points.

Security Special:

FIRE SAFETY:

Sprinkler System: Yes, with separate zone for shut off capability

Smoke Detectors: Yes

Extinguishers: Yes

Smoke Detectors: Yes

Heat Detectors: No

Extinguishers: Yes


14.4.2 Selecting the Design Team

Prospective architects, landscape architects, and exhibition designers should receive the Facility Strategy during the selection process (described in sections 19.3 and 19.4). By asking prospective designers to review the document and use the ideas expressed in it to begin a conversation with the museum’s leader-ship, it will be easily understood which prospective architects are good listeners as well as which are committed to addressing the museum’s needs. Those who pay little attention to it aren’t likely to be a strong fi t. As indicated in section 19.3, the Facility Strategy and/or the Functional Program may be provided to those competing for the architectural commission at various stages in the com-petition, depending on whether it is a one-, two- or three-stage competition.

14.4.3 Orienting the Team

The Facility Strategy and Functional Program should be distributed widely to all members of the Museum Planning and Building teams. To ensure that everyone has a shared understanding of the document, it should be presented to all involved parties with the opportunity for questions and clarifi cations. Team members should be well versed in the document and use it as a refer-ence point throughout the project planning. The project manager especially should use these essential planning documents daily (see chapter 17).

14.4.4 Author as Resource

The work of many staff members and consultants often goes into the devel-opment of these documents, however usually only a few will have a strong understanding of the entire document and all of its details. The author of the Facility Strategy or Functional Program in particular is a critical resource for the entire team. He or she is able to answer questions, clarify statements, and explain the document with ease—so be sure to introduce him or her to all of the players on the Museum Planning and Building teams in order to allow this specialized knowledge to be utilized by the entire group. Also, the author of the Facility Strategy and Functional Program usually has a deep understanding of how each building requirement came to be. This allows him or her to contribute to meetings and facilitate discussions around evolving or revising requirements as the design process proves that some aspirations can-not be delivered as initially planned.

14.4.5 Design Review

At key points in the architectural design process—to be determined by the client and the designer—reviews of the facility should be conducted to


understand which of the museum’s requirements are satisfi ed by the build-ing design and which requirements need further attention moving forward. This will work to focus time, thinking, and energy on those issues yet to be resolved and fl ag items early on so that the proper process can be imple-mented to produce creative solutions. Design reviews in which the fulfi llment of the Functional Program by the design is evaluated should take place at the completion of Concept, Schematic, and Detailed Design, but also at “percent completion” thresholds, perhaps 50 and 90 percent of design development, for instance, especially if these thresholds trigger invoices.

The Facility Strategy and Functional Program are great tools to guide this process and a reference point from which to evaluate progress toward ful-fi lling the museum’s needs. This can easily be done by evaluating the design against each portion of the document:

• Planning Goals, Principles, and Assumptions Does the design allow the museum to fulfi ll its goals? Are planning principles refl ected in the design or are some compromised? Is the design aligned with key assumptions or are some neglected?

• Space Program Are each of the identifi ed spaces accommodated in the building design? Do the spaces meet the area targets identifi ed? Are the confi gurations appropriate for the function of the space?

• Access, Adjacency, and Circulation Does the confi guration of space refl ect the proper spatial relationships? Is circulation for visitors easy and intuitive? Are collections paths separated from those for food and garbage? Is circulation for services and staff uncomplicated and discrete? Is access to nonpublic areas restricted?

• Systems and Standards Are the systems proposed capable of meeting the performance standards? Is each item in the document properly addressed through design? Which areas require further study and detail?

Will exhibition shipping and receiving meet international museum standards?

• Room Data Sheets Are the criteria for each room addressed? Which areas require further study and detail?

While reviews should be conducted at key times—such as transitions between design phases—this does not mean that the dialogue about align-ment with the planning documents should be restricted to these times. Rather the author of the Facility Strategy and Functional Program should be a key collaborator with the Design Team—helping them to understand the requirements and identifying solutions to meeting them. This allows for


a fl uid and generative relationship rather than one that is inherently based in opposition. Compromise is often inevitable—and can open creative pos-sibilities—but the value of referring to the Functional Program during design reviews is to ensure that everyone involved understands the implications of decisions being made throughout the design process.

For instance, a value engineering session for a British cultural facility involved a decision to standardize all the doors in the building in order to save costs. As authors of the Functional Program we observed that this deci-sion would have operating cost implications because the U.K. indemnity program requires that the standardized doors had only one hour of fi re pro-tection, whereas doors around collections must have two-hour fi re protection in order for the facility to qualify for government indemnity on incoming loan exhibitions, thereby eliminating insurance costs for imported tempo-rary exhibitions, which were important to the mission of this institution. The clarifi cation enabled the client to make an informed decision about the trade-off of capital and operating costs. Thus the purpose of design review is really to clarify issues so that informed decisions can be made.

At the time of commissioning the building—when the contractor hands over the keys to the users of the structure—the Building Committee and the project manager will fi nd the Functional Brief, especially the room data sheets, useful as a checklist to ensure that the building fulfi lls all expectations. Although these documents are not usually part of construction documenta-tion, they are useful aides-memoires for all involved of the functional inten-tions and requisites of the built space.

14.4.6 Documentation for Future Generations

Building projects can be monumental for a museum—some iconic museum buildings have been inhabited for hundreds of years. When being developed, it is nearly impossible to know what the ultimate fate of the facility will be—but planning with an eye to the future and detailed documentation of the plan-ning process, design intent, key decisions, discussion, and research fi ndings will always be of value. This information, often kept in an institutional archive, will prove invaluable to future generations of staff, engineers, and architects if and when the facility is modifi ed, expanded or renovated. The Facility Strat-egy and Functional Program are key components of this documentation, as are all of the subsequent design reviews and clarifi cation memos.

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

Sarah Brophy and Elizabeth Wylie

Section 1.3 of the Introduction establishes the context of sustainability in each of its meanings for all following chapters. Here we emphasize the importance specifi cally of environmental sustainability, urging a review of the essential planning documents outlined in the preceding chapter in order to ensure that these core issues have been fully considered before the Facility Strategy or Functional Program is fi nalized. This chapter shows how environmental sustainability affects and is affected by mission alignment, collections care, community engagement, and fi nancial viability. It also suggests that the cul-tural values of the institution should be linked to those of sustainability. The need for a sustainability policy and action plan is made clear, and the chapter concludes with a guide to the relevant standards and metrics of environmen-tal sustainability.

THE COST OF “GREEN”

It is a perpetual question: “Do sustainable choices make the building cost more?” Not surprisingly the answer is “It depends.” Are you measuring only the fi rst costs—those that go into building the building, not running it? Are you adding sustainable systems or making materials choices early in the design phase when they complement other choices, near the end when you have to change designs and systems to accommodate them, or during con-struction when they become costly change-orders? Are you calculating the costs you avoided of larger heating and cooling systems when you value the impact of the green roof, the earth berm, deeper insulation or mechanical and natural exterior shading?

Of course mistakes and poor choices can be costly, and technology or staff can fall short of predictions. Both situations can unbalance costs in ret-rospect, but these failures happen with or without sustainable choices as part of the project. Repeatedly we hear that those who incorporated green design

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from the outset found little or no change in the capital cost of the project and produced cost savings over the life of the structure; and that integrated design fosters a better building, which is increasingly a sustainably designed building.

The seminal work on this question is the Davis Langdon study, The Cost of Green Revisited (2007). This analysis concludes that “there is no signifi cant difference in average costs for green buildings as compared to non-green build-ings.” In a related study, the United States Government Building Council (USGBC) analyzed the actual energy use of buildings certifi ed for Leader-ship in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) to examine the accuracy of predicted energy savings of a more sustainable building in operation; the result was an average 28 percent energy effi ciency of the buildings in the study over code baselines.

MISSION ALIGNMENT

Three subjects are of special concern in achieving the alignment of environ-mental sustainability with a museum’s mission:

• Resource use• Collections care• Community engagement

15.2.1 Resource Use

Museums have earned the public trust, and ethical standards require their physical and fi nancial resources to be developed, protected and maintained to support the museum’s mission. Flagrant waste of resources—money, energy, or water, for instance—is a disservice to the public that supports the museum. Irresponsible resource use sends an antithetical message. Con-versely, a museum that demonstrates—and indeed celebrates—responsible use of resources and educates its audience about resource effi ciency can lever-age those actions to great advantage. As community leaders, especially if they are membership-based educational institutions, museums can enjoy the mul-tilayered benefi ts of using resources wisely.

Environmental sustainability is offi cially integrated with the mission of many museums in the United States. The American Association of Museums Code of Ethics underscores the connections between mission and resource use, while the AAM Accreditation Program is moving to include environ-mental sustainability among its measures of best practices. Elsewhere, other industry organizations have already recognized environmentally responsible resource use as a critical component of mission fulfi llment. The World Asso-ciation of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA) has noted the natural and obvious

15.2

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY 4 9 7

connection between climate change (and the loss of biodiversity) and mis-sion fulfi llment through environmentally responsible practice, and has issued reports with case studies and examples of specifi c actions and their benefi ts. Natural history museums and public gardens as well bear a special responsi-bility to optimize environmental sustainability.

15.2.2 Collections Care

Because energy consumption is tied so closely to the high standards and intense needs of collections care, evaluating effi cient use of energy resources is critically important to the fi eld.

Institutions with living collections—botanical and horticultural gardens, zoos, and some natural history or science museums—tend to be science based and have an obvious connection to the science of climate change, energy and water security, and the need for conservation. This understanding can lead to geographically focused and climate-specifi c program design that considers the wisdom of building and maintaining a tropical rainforest in a northern clime or housing an arctic exhibit in the desert.

Institutions with collections of artifacts, specimens, or works of art have also begun to understand the correlation of the use of resources—the energy and water needed to maintain conditioned spaces—and the monetary, envi-ronmental, and relative material cost of maintaining strict environmental conditions of 50 percent RH at 72°F (22°C) temperature as a macroclimate 24 hours a day, 365 days of the year within the building. Maintaining “fl at-lined” hygrothermograph charts in the entire museum is problematic, charg-ing mechanical systems and facilities operators with a challenging task, and using signifi cant amounts of energy in the process. Recent shifts in preventive conservation guidelines (see chapter 8) and consideration of microclimates within display cases for certain materials are forward-looking approaches to managing indoor climate more effi ciently.

New thinking includes:

• adopting acceptable set points in the range of 45–55 percent relative humidity (+/- 5 percent), with a total annual range of 40 percent minimum to 60 percent maximum and a temperature range of 59–77°F/15–25°C;

• recognizing that fl uctuations in temperature and relative humidity are what is most damaging, compared to steady but higher or lower fi gures, so that it is the changes that have to be minimized;

• considering different environmental conditions for the preservation of different materials.

In 2007 at Tenerife (Spain) the Getty Conservation Institute (GCI) gathered an international group of architects, engineers, conservators, and


conservation scientists to discuss sustainable climate management strategies for museums, libraries, and archives. An edited transcript is available on the GCI website of the Experts’ Roundtable on Sustainable Climate Management Strategies. Stefan Michalski’s contribution to the conference, entitled “The Ideal Climate, Risk Management, the ASHRAE Chapter, Proofed Fluc-tuations and Toward a Full Risk Analysis Model” is available on the same website. Michalski’s reference to “the ASHRAE chapter” is to the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers’ chapter 21 on “Museums, Galleries, Archives and Libraries” in the 2007 ASHRAE Handbook Heating Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Applications, published in Atlanta, Georgia. Michalski teamed with David Grattan at the Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI) in Ottawa to write their Environmental Guide-lines for Museums—Temperature and Relative Humidity (RH), of which the most recent version at time of writing is dated October, 2010.

Another important conference in 2007 was held in Copenhagen, and focused specifi cally on the potential of using microclimates within cases rather than macroclimates within rooms to achieve the necessary environ-mental controls. Tim Padfi eld and Karen Borchersen edited Museum Micro-climates: Contributions to the Copenhagen Conference November 19–23, 2007, which was published on the National Museum of Denmark’s website. Pamela Hatchfi eld summed up the present situation in her article in the January–February 2011 issue of Museum entitled “Crack Warp Shrink Flake: A New Look at Conservation Standards.”

15.2.3 Community Engagement

An increasingly aware public expects outward signs of institutional practice. Telling the story of a museum’s “green” actions and actively engaging in com-munity sustainability programs and initiatives offers a rich portal for educa-tion, fostering support from individuals, and encouraging partnerships with local and regional institutions and agencies. A statement can be made par-tially through easily identifi able “green” infrastructure such as rain barrels, green roofs, or alternative energy features, but for hidden features like under-ground cisterns, purchases of green energy, energy-effi cient lighting systems, low-impact materials, and avoided infrastructure the museum should spread its message through explanatory labels and exhibit panels, see-through walls highlighting energy systems, audio- or staff-led green highlights tours, and online dashboards and exercises that illustrate sustainable practices and prin-ciples. Museums can also plan spaces that foster sustainable programming and can fi nd pedagogical synergies with local educational institutions that are engaged in sustainable practice. Environmental sustainability programs offer great scope for the kind of community engagement outlined in section 4.2.


A QUADRUPLE BOTTOM LINE

As noted in section 4.1, in many places both the profession and its public have moved from expecting museums to be “for something” (primarily col-lecting or interpreting a topic) to being “for someone,” as in being for a com-munity of neighbors, learners, and partners sharing related concerns, values, or interests. This community engagement highlights the natural link between museums’ practice and environmental sustainability: if museums behave sus-tainably, they can encourage their communities to do so as well.

A museum committed to engaging the public and fostering a positive experience on social, cognitive, emotional, and physical levels cannot also ignore the visitors’ awareness and knowledge of, and concerns about or con-nection to sustainability issues. The museum’s visitors, neighbors, vendors, and community leaders all experience environmental issues outside the museum and bring an awareness of those experiences to the museum. Whether an institution chooses to engage in and/or interpret environmentally sustain-able practice—or not—such choices demonstrate institutional commitment to environmental sustainability.

But how does an institution make those choices? Once, the bottom line was the decisive factor. Then, as noted in section 1.3, the world became aware of the “triple bottom line” (Elkington, 1998) of decision making based on social, environmental, and fi nancial values, otherwise known as “People, Planet, and Profi t.” Now some industries are adding a fourth line appropriate to their particular line of work, a bottom line that supports cultural values.

For example, when museums are planning for a new learning space, the triple-bottom-line approach might focus on:

1. People: Is it a good place for learning? Will visitors be comfortable, focused, relaxed, yet attentive; is the environment well lit, preferably with daylight views, and does it have fresh air, good circulation, and appropri-ate thermal comfort?

2. Planet: Is the space managed with energy-effi cient, low-carbon sys-tems? Has it been made using materials with low or no impact on the environment?

3. Profi t: Museums are not profi t-making institutions, but fi nancial sus-tainability is critical: Is it affordable to create this space and to provide continued public access and programming?

For museums, the fourth P of the quadruple bottom line has to be “Pro-gram,” meaning the museum’s mission. As all preceding chapters make clear, much of our decision making about any proposed project is based on its support of institutional mission: the sustainability decision-making process

15.3


should also be based on mission. Leaving “Program” out of the triple bottom line risks setting it aside in sustainability decision making, possibly overlook-ing important mission-driven work while chasing environmental goals. In our example, the triple-bottom-line evaluation alone might result in a per-fectly comfortable, low-impact, cost-effective educational space that ends up nowhere near the exhibits or collections that are needed for content, or might result in a convenient space for school-group packed lunches that is too close to collections storage. The fourth bottom line addresses the space’s suitability for activities that respect and value the museum’s core purpose of collections care and education. So the fourth P for the learning center might stand for:

4. Program: Is the space well located for the safety of collections, prox-imity to objects, paper resources, and exhibits that are our educational resources? Does it have adequate space and equipment for appropriate, engaging program delivery?

Actively including all four concepts in decision making based on the qua-druple bottom line means that the plans make sense for the whole museum, not just parts of it. However, museums are cultural institutions, and the fourth factor is about cultural sustainability, so the reference to mission should inte-grate sustainability into the specifi c culture of the institution—whether it is an art, science, or history museum. This integration of cultural values with environmental sustainability is underway currently in various parts of the world:

• The document, “Measurable Bottom Line Objectives for Integrated Catchment Management Plans,” published by the Auckland (New Zea-land) Regional Council in its online Technical Report 078 in May 2009 provides an excellent summary of multiple-bottom-line evolution and describes the use of a quadruple-bottom-line approach involving the regional cultural values of the Maori in designing resource management projects and assessments.

• In the U.K., the University of Gloucestershire, in response to a report entitled Greening Spires on sustainability in higher education, has adopted a sustainability strategy that addresses the “fourth P” by teaching sustain-ability in core courses, not only in sustainability-related studies.

• The Museum of Northern Arizona’s Easton Collections Center in Flag-staff was built based on principles identifi ed by the Native American Advisory Board, who recommended that this indigenous community center should: • have “circularity of form”;• be connected with the cycle of the seasons;• be connected to the sacred mountains;


• be “alive” (with a green roof );• use local or regional materials;• use daylight where appropriate.

PROVIDING LEADERSHIP IN SUSTAINABILITY

The public relies on museums to be repositories of our collective humanity, just as the public relies on governmental agencies and other institutions such as libraries and hospitals to provide other services critical to sustaining our way of life. As David Thelen and Roy Rosenzweig observed in The Presence of the Past: Popular Uses of History in American Life (1998), museums are trusted “more than other institutions in our culture” and can use that leadership posi-tion to effect change.

Some of the earliest documented examples of green practice and build-ing in the museum fi eld appeared in children’s and science museums. The Madison (Wisconsin) Children’s Museum, for example, was committed to the healthiest environment it could provide for its young visitors, so creating its own green exhibit practice and sharing it with the rest of the museum fi eld was simply a clear statement of that museum’s institutional values. These exhibits used alternative materials and design methods, while the museum’s facilities staff used safer cleaning methods and materials. As the museum fi eld in the United States began to embrace green building practices, the museum sites became extensions of these institutional values. The green roof of the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco serves as a striking visual image of this change. Now many museums around the world are increasingly committed to sustainable practices, and they too, along with zoos, gardens, and aquariums, are responsible for sharing those practices, and the knowledge derived from them, for the good of the entire fi eld.

Taking advice from other museums that have been leaders in sustainability can signifi cantly improve the planning, design, and results of a museum planning pro-cess. When looking for a mentor institution, it is advisable to select those with related size and scope, climate conditions, and institutional needs in order to fi nd the best fi t, so that it is possible to build on the successes that are most transferrable. The website of the American Association of Museums’ Pro-fessional Interest Committee on Environmental Sustainability (PIC-Green) provides useful guidance.

In the course of the “environmental scan” that is part of strategic plan-ning prior to a project master plan (see section 2.2), museum planners should assess the community awareness of, and interest in, sustainability by identi-fying sustainable initiatives active in the community and exploring ways to participate as test sites or promotional and educational partners for these projects. For example, in new construction the museum should demonstrate desired community environmental behaviors by installing on-site storm water

15.4


management systems (“capture and reuse” or “capture and clean” as appropri-ate) or alternative energy systems recommended for that locality. For an exist-ing building, when it is time to replace, upgrade, or design energy systems, a museum that already leads on sustainability issues in the community will have a clear path for working with the local utility to create a model project with promotional and educational purposes beyond the basics of energy effi -ciency for the museum.

In establishing the museum as a leader in environmental sustainabil-ity, the global and the local should be combined in the planning and design process. International information exchange has fostered rapid increases in understanding of new building design and construction opportunities. While it is critical to evaluate the unique needs of each institution, community, and geographic region, projects can benefi t from international research in alter-native energy, engineering advances, materials science discoveries, and new health and environmental science knowledge. Museums can provide leader-ship in sustainability by partnering with research universities, vendors, and government agencies to test new systems, from green roof components and appropriate plantings to alternative energy systems, “no-energy” systems and new ways to manage materials and eliminate waste.

TAKING THE LONG VIEW OF THE PLANNING PROCESS

Museums are here for the long haul. They exist to gather, protect, preserve and educate forever—or as far into the indefi nite future as possible. Energy and water are indispensable for museums to operate and fulfi ll their mission. Forecasting risk and threat and preparing for them are important precautions, and museums can benefi t from looking beyond the fi ve-year horizon of most strategic plans. Building into longer-term planning a mechanism for constant evaluation of and improvements to rates of resource use and threats to future availability of resources is a critical component of museum management.

A baseline assessment of present facilities is the fi rst step in understanding long-term facilities needs. The so-called “Bilbao Effect,” a rush to expand or build new with signature “destination” architecture, produced a bubble of museum building, many of which (though not all) are successful new or expanded museums. These new structures offer glittering gathering spaces, retail opera-tions and other income-generating spaces that have benefi tted the museums and their communities through economic development partnerships tied to tourism and urban planning goals. But this is not a one-size-fi ts-all formula: strategies for new or expanded museum facilities should be tied to context and mission, and work best when considered in the long view against the backdrop of the “reduce/reuse/recycle” mantra that is as relevant to buildings as it is to waste disposal. Here are some recommendations for how to imple-ment such an assessment:

15.5


• A comprehensive analysis of your existing building(s) can answer many questions and identify solutions for space needs, systems issues, and new strategies for income generation. Is space used effi ciently? Does the museum have “dead storage” packed with outmoded case work and sig-nage, old offi ce furniture and other “stuff ”? In some older museums dead storage presents a gold mine of historiographic materials related to for-mer styles of display, and should therefore be treated carefully; very often, however, dead storage can be rethought and that space can be used more effectively. Can existing spaces be more fl exibly designed to do double duty, serving for example as education spaces during the day and social spaces at night? Does the museum have mostly empty double-height spaces that can be inter-fl oored? Can staff offi ces be moved to an annex? Can selective in-fi ll construction solve circulation and program needs? A comprehensive, forward-thinking space use program and master plan can help museum staff, trustees and donors imagine how to make the most of the building you have rather than defaulting to the grand new named wing that sparkles while the rest of the museum remains tired and cluttered.

• Consider the alternative of off-site collection storage (see section 7.2), perhaps with purpose-built or custom fi t-out high-performance storage systems. Today, access to collection information and images via digiti-zation (see section 7.3) makes off-site storage more acceptable. Many urban museums have already moved space-eating storage off-site and are using the (re)captured space for programs, exhibitions, or earned income functions. Some smaller museums are seeing the wisdom of storage con-sortia and are pooling resources around high-performance storage facili-ties with shared energy, security, and staffi ng costs.

• Engage in retro-commissioning. A comprehensive review of existing heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) and lighting systems can yield signifi cant results in terms of energy savings, refreshed train-ing for facilities managers, and innovative thinking around longer-term strategies for continual improvement.

• Thinking sustainably, planning a brief or functional program for a capital project should start and end with right-sizing (see section 16.1). A right-sizing sustainability mind-set looks at scheduling (can programs double up and use the same space on a staggered schedule?); fl exibility (can the space be changed and adapted easily for different uses over time?); and future expansion (can it be designed so that expansion can be phased in as needed?). The phrase “loose fi t = long life” is worth bearing in mind as the museum plans for the long haul.

• Equally important is staying nimble to adapt to new (and reclaim old) technologies for energy and water security. Can you get to a point where you generate all the energy you use on-site? (Longwood Gardens in


Pennsylvania is working toward this goal.) Can you design your building and site to capture and reuse water effectively? Strategies will be loca-tion-specifi c but the goal is to create diverse and redundant sources for energy and water.

• The most environmentally sustainable option when you do decide to build is revitalization and reuse of an existing building—whether this means renewing the present museum building with infi ll and selective expansion or taking a historic building and adapting it for extended life as a museum. The question of adaptive reuse versus new building is con-sidered in section 18.2, but from an environmental sustainability view-point the advantages are clear. Existing or heritage buildings are often in prime locales and have history and community attached to them. They have embodied carbon and energy; valuing that and their contributions to the social, cultural, and built fabric is important. If they have not been used or maintained and have fallen into disrepair, the museum has an opportunity to capture some signifi cant public good will by revitalizing them and connecting to a sense of place. There are also opportunities to create synergies with broader district or municipal economic develop-ment goals that in many urban areas are about density and revitalization of the urban core. This is the most environmentally sustainable approach, as it works against sprawl and works for community building and effi cient infrastructure from utilities to public transportation.

SUSTAINABILITY POLICY AND ACTION PLAN

Museum leaders are planners. We plan strategically for the future; we plan collections management, interpretive, and educational design; we plan for preservation; and we plan for disasters. We write policies for collection man-agement, security, conservation, or education. Policy and planning for sus-tainability is equally critical. A sustainability policy and action plan should be part of any museum planning process, and should infl ect the Brief or Func-tional Program for any capital project.

A museum’s sustainability policy should include:

• a sustainability vision statement;• alignment with the institutional strategic plan;• the role of each museum department and/or team involved;• guidelines for implementation.

Museums Australia has an excellent guide to preparing a sustainabil-ity policy entitled Museums and Sustainability: Guidelines for Policy and Prac-tice in Museums and Galleries on its website. Sustainability policies gained footing in the United States when, in October of 2009, President Obama

15.6


issued Executive Order 13514 requiring all government agencies to create strategic sustainability performance plans (SSPP). The Smithsonian Institu-tion’s SSPP, which focuses substantially on carbon reduction, is also available on-line.

The policy begins with a sustainability vision statement. Like the insti-tution’s general vision statement, a sustainability vision statement describes the impact that the museum aspires to make in the world or in the com-munity that it is serving or proposes to serve, but it does so in terms of the institution’s commitment to environmental sustainability. Tied directly to the institutional vision, mission, and strategic goals, the sustainability vision statement must be a guiding infl uence on the planning and design of the museum. For example, if the statement expresses commitment to steward-ship of distinct regional resources, such as a prairie landscape, tidal water resources, or the historic character of the area, these commitments should be refl ected in museum planning and design—such as open space and green roof space for prairie plantings; managing storm water run-off for volume, rate, and purity; or a design that supports smart growth principles.

The policy should be accompanied by an action plan with specifi c resources, goals, and evaluation expectations. It is important that the policy and the plan should be backed by the full weight of museum governance and senior management and be woven into the institutional infrastructure to cre-ate an institutional sustainability culture independent of personalities or poli-tics. The action plan can stand alone, be fully integrated into annual action plans, or better yet, both. Like any action plan, it should include activities; timeline; resources (people, money, materials); and goals.

Many museums feel overwhelmed at the outset by the need to create a sustainability action plan. A good fi rst step is the California Association of Museums’ (CAM) Green Museums Initiative and its online Green Museum Accord. The Accord is a nonbinding self-monitoring pledge to follow sus-tainable practice and share information and experiences to help other muse-ums take a green path. Using such online resources, professional education programs, consultants, and colleagues, museums can gradually develop an action plan and update it as knowledge and experience build.

Green Teams: Environmentally sustainable practices naturally work across departmental boundaries. In planning the staffi ng and management of the museum, one option could be to create a Sustainability department, but since almost all departments will be involved in implementing the action plan a Green Team (or teams) representing all concerned departments may be a better alternative. This depends greatly upon the institutional size, culture, and developmental stage of sustainability work. There is no one right way to design and manage a Green Team. Many institutions begin their green work with a voluntary group of Green Team members. As sustainability work gains momentum and reaches beyond your original activist group, the team makeup


may change to refl ect institutional needs. Whatever the team’s makeup, it should certainly be represented on a Museum Planning and Design Team for a capital project. Creating the Green Team after the project is built is a missed opportunity for input, ownership, and effectiveness of those who will most help incorporate sustainable practices into the institutional culture. The Association of Zoos and Aquariums website has helpful information on how to create a Green Team.

SUSTAINABILITY STANDARDS AND METRICS

The sustainability policy and action plan will need to identify the standards to be used to defi ne quality, and the metrics that will be applied to measure progress and determine success.

15.7.1 Standards

The fi eld of environmental sustainability is becoming crowded with a vari-ety of standards applicable to buildings, operations, management, and prod-ucts, although only a few are specifi c to museums. So far we have the online benchmarking program of the International Association of Museum Facility Managers, and the inclusion of sustainability as part of the American Asso-ciation for State and Local History’s Standards and Excellence Program for History Organizations, or StEPs. Slowly we will see the appearance of stan-dards specifi cally applicable to museums. These may include:

• pilot credits with LEED; • a movement toward adaptation of the U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency’s EnergyStar categories from their use in broader entertainment categories to make them museum specifi c;

• inclusion in AAM Accreditation Guidelines.

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14000 series is a well-recognized voluntary environmental management system helping insti-tutions establish sustainable practices and sustainable development. The World Green Building Council, a union of national green building councils from Albania to Vietnam, works to ensure that green buildings are part of compre-hensive carbon-reduction strategies. Perhaps the best-known set of standards is the U.S. government program, Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). In Europe some equivalent programs are BREEAM, Min-ergie, Passiv Haus Institut, and Green Star. There is also a Sustainable Sites Initiative for land development and management on any scale.

Whether using a museum-specifi c standard or an activity standard from outside the fi eld, museums need to conduct research to be sure the chosen

15.7


standard is appropriate, accurate, and useful. Different standards are appro-priate for different organizations at varying stages in their development.

A great deal of the work today focuses on reducing our impact on the environment, a focus on no waste, no harm. True sustainability will require not simply reduced impact, not simply remediation, but regeneration. Regen-erative and restorative work that creates buildings, products, and processes that rebuild ecosystems will be the next stage in the sustainability journey. Here are a few relevant examples of these pioneer efforts:

• The Society of Building Science Educators hosts a “Checklist for a Regeneration-Based Guide for Design and Construction,” adapted from a 1982 text by Malcolm Wells.

• William McDonough and Michael Braungart developed the concept of Cradle to Cradle®: products that harm neither the environment nor the humans who gather the materials and manufacture or use the items. These products are designed to return safely to new lifecycles either as part of the earth or as future equally safe products, all without harm to the environment or humans that are part of the material’s cycle from its fi rst “birth” to its subsequent ones. Cradle to Cradle® design “eliminates the concept of waste.”

• The Living Building Challenge is a metric developed by the Casca-dia Chapter of the U.S. Green Building Council, now managed by the International Living Future Institute with active programs in the United States, Canada, and Ireland.

As to sustainability standards for museum operations and programs, the Oregon Museum of Science and Industry is working on a project funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation to develop its existing Green Exhibit Certifi cation Guide into a green exhibit rating system. Museums can also aspire to win Green Restaurant Association certifi cation and may fi nd the online Green Non-Profi t program useful.

Regarding standards for materials or products, new ones appear fre-quently. Green Seal is one widely used certifi cation program. The Forestry Stewardship Council sets standards for wood-based materials, while a world-wide organization, the Society for Environmental Graphic Design (SEGD), provides guidelines (but not certifi cation) for developing sustainable print materials. Similar certifi cation programs or guidelines are being developed for many other types of materials.

15.7.2 Metrics

The common phrase what gets measured gets done is particularly apt when adopting and sustaining environmentally responsible practice. Museum


professionals know the importance of establishing baseline data when eval-uating programs and new interpretive approaches. This same skill set is invaluable in green practice. Everything from energy and water use to the institution’s waste stream and rates of public transit use among staff and visi-tors can be measured to understand impacts of variables and to demonstrate continual improvement along the ongoing sustainability journey—and it is a continual ongoing journey. Monitoring metrics fosters positive responses that keep the institution on a sustainable track.

Carbon and other greenhouse gas emissions metrics are some of the most commonly observed. An entire issue of the U.K. Museums Association jour-nal Museum Practice was devoted to carbon footprinting.

The Victoria & Albert Museum in London tells the story of its carbon-footprinting program and the changes precipitated by the exercise on its web-site. In the United States, the federal government requires its agencies to use a Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Reporting Protocol, while the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) provides a Greenhouse Gas Calculator.

As to energy and water calculations, in the United States the EPA’s Ener-gyStar program provides an online performance calculator called Portfolio Manager. The Water Footprint Network, its 130 partners and scientists of the University of Twente in the Netherlands have developed a Global Water Footprint Standard as a fi rst step in measuring our dependency on water availability.

Environmental sustainability has become an important dimension in museum planning, which merits consideration and reconsideration as the essential planning documents of the planning process are formulated.

All the published and online references in this chapter are detailed in the chapter 15 section of “For Further Reading” near the end of this book.

ESTABLISHING A PROJECT BUDGET AND SCHEDULE

Museum buildings are among the more expensive structures to construct. In section 16.2 cost consultants Breck Perkins and Victoria Cabanos advise that the cost of museum-quality space in North America as of 2011 may range as high as US$750 per square foot ($8,000 per square meter). Preliminary results of a 2011 survey of North American museum construction costs by RS Means, the database produced by Reed Construction Data using the Dodge Database for construction, confi rm this estimate but add more detail to a relatively wide range:

• Some fi ne art museums range even higher, to US$1,000 per square foot (over $10,000 per square meter).

• Natural history and science museums are in a mid-range, costing US$300–600 per square foot ($3,250–6,500 per square meter).

• Local history and maritime museums are at the low end of costs, just US$750–300 per square foot ($800–3,250 per square meter).

Of course the smaller museums that cost less also have reduced access to funding. And we know from our own experience that construction costs can be substantially lower in some parts of Asia, so that the higher end of the range would not be applicable there.

The relatively high cost of museum construction makes the subject of this chapter, establishing a project budget and schedule, a crucial one for the museum planning process. In response to the capital cost estimates in sec-tion 16.2 we offer section 16.3 on planning for fundraising by Melody Kan-schat, former president of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. In 16.4 we also note the value of considering both long-term and short-term phasing of projects in order to accomplish them over time. And in 16.5 we note the need for a carefully planned but always fl exible schedule. First, however, we need to reaffi rm a theme that runs throughout this book—the importance of right-sizing (section 16.1).

CH

APT

ER 1

6

5 0 9


RIGHT-SIZING

Catharine Tanner and Barry Lord

Right-sizing the facility program from the beginning of the process will help to ensure the realization of the building project (that the building gets built) and more importantly will ensure the functionality of the building in achiev-ing the mission of the institution and the appropriate support for all aspects of the operation of the museum over time—including both public areas and back-of-house.

Right-sizing the facility program will result in a facility that meets the needs of the institution within the capital and operating resources that are available to achieve an overall vision. Right-sizing will also contribute to design excellence by providing the architect with the functional requirements for the basis of design. A building program that is right-sized will fl ow from the project vision, and the museum’s mission and objectives. It will achieve:

• Leadership: in meeting project vision and objectives;• Functionality: providing a building that works for the purposes intended; • Effi ciency: preventing costly remediation by anticipating problems

through the review process;• Sustainability: meeting fi nancial parameters (both capital and operat-

ing), environmental and social objectives.

The concept of right-sizing the facility program applies to any building program, whether considering an expansion of an existing institution, build-ing a new facility on a new site, or looking at a mixed-use scenario.

Changes to the functional program become increasingly more expen-sive as design proceeds, even more so during construction, resulting in costly change or variation orders (VOs). Change is most expensive and diffi cult to achieve when it has to be undertaken as a remedial effort after construction has been completed. So right-sizing is an important consideration from the beginning of the program process through to the development of the draft program and then approval of the fi nal building program to be used as the basis for design.

Determining the Design Year for the project is an important fi rst step toward right-sizing. The Design Year is the last year for which the facili-ties being planned will be suffi cient. This decision is particularly important for institutions with growing collections, since collection storage must be projected to accommodate the collection as it will be at that time, not as it is now. Since most museum capital projects take about fi ve years from the planning stage to opening day, the Design Year must be at least fi ve to ten years from today; most institutions fi nd that twenty years is about right—still within a time period that can reasonably be projected, but far enough away

16.1

ESTABLISHING A PROJECT BUDGET AND SCHEDULE 5 1 1

that on opening day the museum’s stakeholders know that they won’t have to consider expansion again for at least fi fteen years. Bringing the Design Year closer is of course one easy way to reduce collection storage and display space requirements, but may make the project less appealing to stakeholders.

Agreement on the Design Year leads to considerations of life-cycle cost-ing (see section 20.3). If storage space is to be built to accommodate col-lections that will not be acquired until fi fteen years from now, that eventual storage space should be seen in life-cycle terms and may be put to other uses for the fi rst ten or twelve years. Right-sizing is not planning for a static struc-ture but for decades during which uses, functions, and values of the spaces and the facilities and equipment in them may change.

Initial projections of the scale of the building may be based on compa-rable institutions with relevant collections and public programs. It is use-ful to select several of these, especially those that are seen as “best-practice” examples, and to compare their space allocations for each vital function—how much display space they offer, how many seats are in their lecture hall, or how big are their shops. Such comparisons can be instructive in suggesting a range within which the new institution’s space allocations can be approxi-mated prior to writing a functional program. However, such comparisons can be misleading and should never be taken as decisive; the only way to get a right-sized space program is through the analysis and sheer hard work of a functional program.

Developing a functional program (see section 14.3) can be described as a building block process, establishing requirements and building from the inside out, whereas the architectural design that follows works from the out-side in. Whether working from an existing building or for a new institution, programming proceeds from the inside out:

• If the project is building a new structure for a new collecting institution, a quantitative analysis and qualitative collection development strategy pro-jected through to the Design Year (the last year for which we are plan-ning) is the fi rst level of analysis. Projecting the optimal display/storage ratio and display and storage densities (see chapters 6 and 7) for the col-lection at the size that it will have grown to be in that year facilitates an initial projection of gallery and storage requirements. This is the task of experienced museum planners, working with curators if they have already been appointed, or in consultation with stakeholders if the collection is just starting—as is the case with new museums of contemporary art.

• If the project is a renovation, relocation, or expansion of an existing building, the programming process begins with a quantitative and quali-tative analysis of that building. The present structure’s shortcomings and inadequacies identifi ed in that analysis are the basis for recommending improvements, additions, or enhancements that will better serve the


museum’s needs. Following on that analysis, however, the same collec-tion analysis and collection development strategy through to the Design Year as recommended for a new building must still be done. Analysis of the existing building alone will not take into account collection growth, which is decisive for determining display and storage space requirements, once the display/storage ratio, the mode of display, and the projected col-lection display and storage density are agreed.

Once the collection storage and care needs are met (including a con-servation lab if required, as described in section 7.4), it is important for the programmers to understand the museum’s intended public programming—exhibitions, education programs, theater requirements and the like. Three types of galleries may be projected:

• Long-term permanent collection display, the space requirements for which will depend on the mode of display and the anticipated display density

• Rotating permanent collection display, where more sensitive works will be regularly replaced

• Temporary exhibition galleries and their important support space from the shipping-receiving dock through crating-uncrating and other spaces (see section 6.4)

The education suite is an important public programming ensemble of spaces, beginning with the decision as to whether the museum wishes to have a separate entrance for school classes and other tour groups or not, as well as right-sizing the areas for assembly of school groups, storage of back packs, and often a school lunchroom, quite aside from the question of whether the museum wishes to provide classrooms and studios or to focus the learning experience in the galleries.

Visitor services are the next concern—the lobby, theater, retail, food services, and washrooms. These are dependent on the market analysis (see section 4.2) and the attendance projections (section 13.2), from which occu-pancy levels in the galleries at peak time on the Design Day and the needs for toilets, parking, and food service can be determined (section 4.6). Then come staffi ng projections, from which offi ce space, workshops, and staff amenities can be deduced (section 12.3).

Projecting space requirements therefore often follows this sequence:

• Permanent collection display galleries, long-term and rotating (see sec-tions 6.1 and 6.2)

• Temporary exhibition galleries and the support space for them (sec-tion 6.4)


• Collection storage (7.2) and conservation facilities (7.4)• Education suite (see section 4.4)• Theaters and event or rental spaces (4.5)• Visitor Services, including retail and food services (4.6)• Offi ces and other workplaces (12.3)

However, as indicated by the references in the above list to the sections of this book in which these space requirements are discussed, functional pro-gramming in practice seldom follows a linear sequence. Each component of a draft program is based on certain assumptions—about the volume of school tours or the likelihood of booking “blockbuster” art exhibitions, for example—and as right-sizing proceeds, each of these assumptions may be reconsidered, evaluated, and prioritized in relation to other demands.

For example, as experienced museum planners we know that a 5,000-square-foot (465-square-meter) temporary exhibition gallery can accommo-date 90 percent of the traveling exhibitions on offer, which should be suffi cient for many smaller and medium-sized regional museums; but if the museum wants to be able to organize or show major exhibitions—and believes that this capability is essential to making it sustainable—it will need to make at least 12,000 square feet (1,115 square meters) available for this purpose. The answer is likely to be a plan for (say) 7,000 square feet (650 square meters) of gallery space that will normally be used for rotating permanent collection dis-play, but is adjacent to the rest of the temporary exhibition galleries so that it can be used with them to accommodate larger shows when needed. A larger institution planning for a regular commitment to multiple or larger tempo-rary exhibitions may keep 12,000 square feet (1,115 square meters) available for its temporary exhibitions, and designate another 8,000 square feet (743 square meters) as rotating permanent collection display space so that it can increase its temporary exhibition capacity to as much as 20,000 square feet (1,858 square meters) when needed for true blockbusters.

Right-sizing is not about area only, but also about ceiling heights and corridor and elevator (lift) dimensions. Planners must know the museum’s Design Object—the largest two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects in the collection that the museum proposes to move through the collection zones (see section 3.4). A decision to lower the height of the loading dock door or to reduce the turning radius outside the doors of the collection ele-vator will seriously impede the museum’s functioning and sustainability for decades to come. Proposals to reduce the percentage of the exhibition galleries that are double-height from 40 percent to 15 percent may result in signifi cant cost savings, but must be considered with reference to the museum’s mission: if it is a transportation museum or a contemporary art museum where height is critical to the functionality of the galleries, such a drastic reduction should be rejected.


This right-sizing process is iterative, as planners reconsider each space in relation to the others. As the discussion of zoning in section 14.1 indicates, one way of approaching this is to compare the projected space distribution by zone with the norms of 40 percent in zone B (the public collections space) and 20 percent in each of the other three zones. Divergence from this norm may be due to very good reasons—such as a much higher proportion of collection storage in a university natural history museum with an important research mission—or it may indicate that space allocations need to be reconsidered, often because insuffi cient attention has been paid to zone C, the nonpublic collections zone that is functionally vital to all collecting institutions.

Thus right-sizing is integral to the functional programming process. The initial draft program is the fi rst time that the quantitative and qualitative requirements have been defi ned altogether. The total net square feet or net square meters that they indicate must be multiplied by a grossing factor rang-ing from 1.5 to 1.7 (see section 14.2), because it is the gross area that must be paid for. Once the total gross area has been projected, a preliminary cost estimate should be prepared by the cost consultant, either to begin to estab-lish the construction and project budget (if this has not yet been done) or to compare this estimate to the budget that has been established in advance. In doing so, it must be remembered that this estimate will be for the “hard costs” of construction only, not including the soft costs of fees or contingencies, as explained in the following section 16.2.

It is at this stage that the three sides of the triangle of program area, budget, and quality need to be balanced, as shown in fi gure 16.1. In the case of museums, quality means the standards of museum functionality—environ-mental control standards, for example (see chapter 8). Right-sizing is aimed at balancing all three sides of the triangle, but in doing so functional museum standards must be carefully considered so that they are not compromised.

Still another concern in a right-sizing review of the draft program is to evaluate it in the light of the business and operations plan, looking for oppor-tunities to maximize revenue generation and to reduce expenses, ensuring that the ongoing operation of the museum can be sustained. As chapter 13 indicates, both a preliminary feasibility study and a subsequent business plan must state clearly the assumptions on which the operating budget is based. If these assumptions are changed—especially if expectations are reduced—sus-tainability may be threatened. If, for instance, signifi cant revenue has been assumed to be derived from a well-appointed rental space, a blockbuster-sized exhibition gallery, and a fully equipped large-screen theater, a right-sizing decision to reduce the area of any of these spaces or to downgrade their quality—reducing the auditorium seating, lowering the temporary exhibi-tion gallery ceiling, eliminating the big screen, or planning the multipurpose space to do double duty as the school lunchroom, for example—then the revenue projections of the business plan cannot be achieved, and fi nancial


sustainability will be affected. Right-sizing must be carefully done with input from all concerned—experienced museum planners as well as cost consul-tants, architects, and engineers.

Major decisions can result from a right-sizing exercise:

• Selected reductions in some areas.• Need for off-site space for functions that don’t have to be in the main

building.• Restrained or sharply focused collections development.• Revised fund-raising and endowment goals (see section 16.3).• Changes in the operational plan.• Need to seek new supporters or partners.• Need to reduce certain programs such as eliminating in-house exhibition

design or production in favor of contracting out.• Need to strategically address storage issues, both collection and non-

collection—for example, it may not be possible to continue storing all those outdated vitrines in the hope that they may some day be useful again.

Figure 16.1 The Right-Sizing Triangle: Program Area, Budget, and Functionality


• Combining spaces together, such as the library and the café—a pleasant combination that can make the institution a favorite hang-out for young people.

• Multiple uses of the same space—as long as this doesn’t detract from the space’s primary function.

The draft program should be reviewed and the approved fi nal program right-sized before the detailed room data sheets are developed, providing the technical requirements for each space. The right-sized fi nal program should ensure that the museum can perform all of its functions as effectively as possible.

CAPITAL COST ESTIMATES

Breck Perkins and Victoria Cabanos

At the early planning stage of a project, the construction cost estimator works to establish a cost model that will meet the needs of the job in question. This model is made up of:

• hard costs;• soft costs;• related contingencies.

Generally speaking, soft costs—feasibility studies, ramp-up costs, design and other consultant fees, and other nonconstruction costs—will be determined in advance, with a dedicated portion of the budget set aside. A standard formula for contingencies—usually an agreed percentage—will be applied to determine this component of the budget. For purposes of this discussion, therefore, we will be talking predominantly about hard costs—actual construction costs.

In North America, Western Europe, and many other countries around the world, the overall hard costs budget should typically be about 65 percent of the total available budget for the project. The remaining 35 percent is applied to design fees, including the design architect, executive architect (sometimes called the architect of record), structural and mechanical-electrical (MEP) engineers, museum planner or programmer, landscape designer and civil engineer, and any other design consultants required for the project, as well as to contingencies. If, for example, contingencies account for 15 percent and the design architect’s fee is (say) 10 percent, all other fees and soft costs may very well add up to 10 percent, accounting for 35 percent in all, and leaving just 65 percent for hard costs. Fee schedules may be more modest in some countries in Asia, in which case a higher proportion of the total cost may be available for hard costs.

16.2


At the initial stages, the cost estimator will identify a regionally appro-priate museum or cultural building for comparison, determining an average per square foot cost for museum-quality space—which may range as high as +/- US$750 per square foot or +/-US$8,000 per square meter in North America or Western Europe as of 2011. Again, these costs will be lower in parts of Asia where labor costs are much less. But whatever the fi gure, it can be divided into the remaining amount, the hard cost budget, to determine a preliminary fi gure for the building area that the project budget can sustain. This fi gure may then be compared for alignment with the preliminary desired building program—and right-sizing can begin in earnest.

At the master planning stage, the preliminary hard cost estimate is based on a detailed comparison to historical information for similar build-ings, components, and assemblies. The cost estimator will conduct research into recently completed and historically and geographically close comparable buildings, escalating the order of magnitude of costs over time as tied to infl a-tion and other changes in the market for construction services and materials. This information will be used to project a comparable fi gure. As museum buildings are almost always unique in design, there will be a good deal of approximation in this process and many different sources of information will be consulted. The estimator will then compare this information to the rel-evant program brief, as delineated, and will extrapolate from this information to arrive at an approximate cost fi gure per square foot or square meter.

As an alternative to this approach, the estimator may take the massing diagrams for the project with all the required program spaces, along with a detailed rendering of the proposed design, and then interview the proj-ect designers as to their intent. The traffi c fl ow and egress path through the building or buildings will also be studied. Using the associated square foot or square meter calculations for the overall program, the estimator then builds a cost model of the museum with input from all members of the project Design Team. The resultant cost model includes a detailed scope of work based on the rudimentary criteria in each of twenty-one standard specifi cation divi-sions. The estimator’s assumptions are then listed in detail to validate his or her conclusions. This information is then presented to the Design Team for review, with a robust dialog following, pertaining to specifi c scopes of work listed, their appropriateness, and/or the possibility of alternatives. At the con-clusion of this process the master plan estimate is checked against the chosen historical and/or geographical estimate for comparison.

When estimating capital costs, it is important to work from the gross, not the net area. If the program presented is for net square feet or net square meters only, it is necessary to apply the grossing factor, as discussed in section 14.2, to arrive at a gross area that includes horizontal and vertical circula-tion, thickness of walls, and space for mechanical/electrical systems. Some net totals do not even include washrooms! In consultation with the Design


Team the estimator must determine whether the grossing factor should be to multiply by 1.5 or as high as 1.7. The estimator will then make a determina-tion of the total square-foot or square-meter area for the program after the grossing factor has been established.

The total square-foot or square-meter fi gure for the gross area will then be multiplied by a comparable per square-foot or square-meter cost deter-mined by averaging the per-square-foot or per-square-meter cost of several similar buildings. The predetermined appropriate contingency fi gure will then be applied, based on existing project information at its present level of development, knowledge of the site, plans for reuse of existing infrastructure, and building components at the time of the assessment. Typically, this con-tingency may range between 10 percent and 25 percent. Constructability of the overall concept along with careful consideration of site logistics and the specifi cs of a rural or urban setting should also be considered at this point.

With regard to site and setting, the estimator must understand the con-tours of the landscape as well as the logistics and means whereby the building will be approached. Subgrade conditions must also be considered and well understood, as compared to historical and relevant geotechnical information. Any adjacent structures that will remain must also be considered, especially with regard to the need for any bracing or stabilization during the demoli-tion, excavation, foundation, and superstructure phases of the construction. Seismic and fl ood records for the site are also important.

In the early planning stage, the objective is to consolidate all the com-ponents, bringing together all known project costs, then isolating the overall hard costs, to determine the projected budget and to verify that it is within the desired range, typically within 15 percent or less of the target budget.

Additional considerations include existing conditions; building life-cycle costs; and furniture, fi xtures, and equipment. Existing conditions, such as civil engineering requirements, subgrade conditions, and the overall condition of the site must be carefully evaluated and assessed with regard to historical data. Building life-cycle cost must also be studied, including an evaluation of the age of any existing infrastructure and equipment that will be maintained or repurposed from an existing building or structure, and whether it has adequate utility to support the newly planned building and the overall design.

Finally, costs for furniture, fi xtures, and equipment (FF&E) are generally isolated from this fi gure and are considered separately, as are exhibit costs. However, accommodations must be made to provide the necessary infra-structure to support things such as heavy display cases and vitrines, structures to support heavy works of art, and intensive use of power and mechanical systems to support installations or artworks. These supporting costs should be considered as a part of the hard cost budget.


FUND-RAISING AND FEASIBILITY

Melody Kanschat

Once planners have done their best at right-sizing (see section 16.1), and both capital and operating costs have been projected (section 16.2 and chap-ter 13), the question arises as to whether or how the necessary funds can be found. In the recent past, for many museums around the world this ques-tion would have been decided entirely by the relevant government ministry, and in some places this remains true. Even for government line department museums, however, in the present economic climate there is likely to be an expectation that the museum will raise some private sector support, at least in the form of sponsorship of some aspect of the project. “Public-private part-nerships” (PPP) are often advanced as the way forward. For a large number of museums, especially those at “arm’s length” from government or those that are independent not-for-profi t educational or charitable institutions (like many of the museums in the United States), fund-raising for individual and corporate donations of part or all of the cost of the capital project is an essen-tial part of the process of achieving the project.

During an open and participatory planning process, many facts that will shape the capital fund-raising campaign will emerge. A campaign plan should fl ow organically from that planning process. Answers to the many questions that are needed to develop an effective fund-raising strategy will become apparent through dialogue with senior staff and museum governance:

• What are the institution’s immediate and long-term needs? • Who will benefi t if those needs are fulfi lled? • What are the aspirations of the stakeholders—museum leadership, senior

staff, visitors, potential donors, peers—for the institution? • How will the institution’s reputation be affected if the goals are met—or

not met? • How to measure success? • How much is needed to reach the goals for growth—capital expansion, col-

lection and program development, staff resources, operational expenses? Over what optimum time period?

Much of the information already garnered during the planning process can be used to build a persuasive case for support and a realistic time schedule in which to raise the funds needed. But there is still more critical information that is required to create an effective fund-raising plan:

• Is the organization ready to begin its campaign? Who will decide when the time is right?

16.3


• Which programs, spaces, personnel, or positions have elicited the most excitement from community leaders and potential donors?

• What or who is less compelling, or could be viewed as a detriment to achieving success?

• What do potential donors desire in terms of recognition? • What input or control over decision making do potential donors expect

in return for their support? • Are there campaigns ongoing in the community that could compete for

potential donor’s attention? • Has the museum established a track record with the donor base of fund-

ing both operational needs and capital or programmatic expansion? • Is there suffi cient capacity within the potential donor population to fund

all of the museum’s priorities? • Is a robust annual fund-raising program in place? • Will annual giving be siphoned off by campaign giving? • Why are donors giving to the organization currently? • Is there adequate documentation of who the present donors are?

16.3.1 Campaign Organization

Decisions to adopt a strategic plan, build a building, or launch a capital campaign lie with the museum’s governing body, such as a board of trustees. As fi duciaries they oversee assets, set policies, hire and fi re the chief executive, and generally support the organization in fulfi lling its mission. A Campaign Planning Com-mittee should be formed at the outset of the fund-raising process. Committee members may include prospective major donors, members of the Finance and Building committees of the board, past campaign committee chairs, and poten-tial candidates for chairperson who can commit to lead the campaign through to its conclusion. The director, top administrators, and chief fund-raiser will staff the committee and set agendas. In addition to making important decisions and recommendations to the board of trustees throughout the campaign, members of this committee should become the institution’s most active fund-raisers.

16.3.2 Setting the Fund-Raising Goal

Setting the goal for the capital campaign is the responsibility of the Campaign Planning Committee, and must be ratifi ed by the board of trustees. Providing the facts necessary to arrive at the right goal falls to the professional staff and their consultants. It is critical that the goal is arrived at through a deliberative process that considers the following:

• Cost of construction: As indicated in the preceding section 16.2, this includes not only the cost of labor and materials (hard costs), but design;


engineering and consultant fees; and insurance, legal, and permitting fees (soft costs) plus an allocation for contingency.

• Cost of fi nancing construction: Cash to pay the contractor and con-sultants will not be due on the same schedule as the time frame within which donors intend to pay their pledges. Cash fl ow projections tied to the construction schedule will help the Finance Committee create effec-tive bridge fi nancing or a long-term capital fi nancing plan. Whether these funds are made available through self-funding (such as borrowing from reserves or the endowment) or third-party fi nancing (bank or bond fi nancing), the cost of having enough of the money in time for immediate needs must be considered when setting the overall campaign goal.

• Cost of operations and programming: It is vitally important to deter-mine for the fi rst few years that the new facility will be in service what its ongoing operational costs will be. The Facility Committee needs to work with experienced museum planners to derive a realistic estimate for the fi rst fi ve years, as outlined in chapter 13. Add to that the cost of additional staff (chapter 12), exhibits, and educational services that will be required to fully program the facility. Do not forget to estimate the costs associated with the opening (chapter 21)—grand events, large-scale installations, and additional security to handle the opening-week crowds. Will other facilities be shut down, or will the new construction bring effi ciencies to the ongoing operation? If so, with the aid of chap-ter 13 consider the variance (increase or decrease, but for a capital project almost always an increase) to the annual operating budget over the fi rst fi ve years that the new facility is in operation, and adjust the fund-raising target accordingly.

• Cost of fund-raising: During the period of a (say) fi ve-year capital cam-paign there will be additional costs associated with raising those cam-paign funds. Consider events, staff, consultants, business offi ce processes, software, marketing, and publishing case materials in developing budget projections.

• Endowment growth: Every capital fund-raising campaign should include an endowment goal. An endowment is a cultural organization’s savings account. The endowment is not spent, but money earned from its investment can be drawn to fund ongoing operations in the future. Estate gifts (planned gifts) that will not be realized for many years to come (after the demise of the donors) can be credited against the endowment portion of the overall campaign.

• Right-sizing and phasing: Understanding the donor base, its capacity, and its engagement with the museum is the most important piece of information needed to determine a capital campaign goal. The fund-raising goal cannot be set entirely on the basis of capital cost plus operating cost plus growth to the endowment. It must be based as well on the likelihood of success.


Can the museum raise $X over Y years? Having a sense of project tim-ing can help to create an announcement strategy that can be phased over time. It is much more gratifying to announce publicly that the museum has exceeded its goal and is adding scope to the campaign than it is to feel the sting of not being able to reach an overenthusiastic number. Using goal milestones within the context of a public relations plan will allow the organization to trumpet success throughout the course of the campaign and build continued interest in the community.

The fund-raising campaign may not be the only source of support for the project. If government or foundation grants are projected, or if private sector sponsorships are contemplated, it is important to make an entirely realistic estimate of the amount of funding available from these sources before sub-tracting that amount from the total capital cost of the project and thereby arriving at the recommended fund-raising campaign target. If possible, it is preferable to obtain the government or foundation support or the sponsor-ships before launching the campaign for individual and corporate donations.

16.3.3 Fund-Raising Feasibility Studies

A capital campaign feasibility study is an objective study of the institution’s fund-raising potential. It measures the readiness and capability of those who will ask for support and determines who should be asked to make lead gifts to the campaign. The answer to “Can the museum raise $X over Y years?” will come from this study. Such a study requires a frank discussion with key prospects about their interests, their view of the institution, and their own resources (fi nancial, social, and time). It also serves as a catalyst to identify and motivate volunteer leadership in raising funds for the organization.

To ensure confi dentiality and anonymity, fund-raising feasibility inter-views are usually conducted by a third-party consultant. Donors and trustee leadership often feel more comfortable speaking frankly to someone who is not emotionally and professionally tied to the organization. Being honest, occasionally brutally so, is not easy when one is worried about dashing the hopes or dreams of an energetic director or a hardworking development staff person.

A museum professional charged with developing and implementing a capital fund-raising plan should be actively involved in all aspects of the study, from selecting interviewees to crafting the questions that will be asked and preparing the fi nal report and plan that will be presented to the decision makers on the museum’s board or other governance group. In some cases, museum leadership can conduct the study themselves, provided that they feel confi dent they can have an honest and forthright discussion with participants


that will not affect future gifts or set up an expectation that the interviewee has some power to decide if and how the campaign will proceed. Keep in mind that the intent of a fund-raising feasibility study is not to ask for a gift, but rather to begin a conversation that may lead to a gift or a series of gifts from others. The most important information to be garnered from a fund-raising feasibility study is a measure of the larger community’s excitement about the organization and a sense of the size of gifts that are likely to come early in the campaign.

A campaign feasibility study should begin by identifying ten to twenty potential donors who are capable of giving major gifts to the campaign. The defi nition of “major gifts” will differ according to the scale of the project and the size and wealth of the community, but typically planners should expect that these ten to twenty top donors will contribute 50 percent or more of the overall fund-raising goal. In addition, the feasibility study should identify three to fi ve fund-raisers from the board of trustees who will be charged with asking for major gifts and one or two community or cultural leaders who can articulate an outsider’s view of the organization. Donors or trustees who have been signifi cant contributors to the museum in the past and/or have been active in campaigns at other institutions in the community should be recruited for this purpose. Through their personal and business relationships they should be connected to the museum’s donor base socially. They should either already be participating in the museum’s programs or have expressed excitement about the museum’s growth plans. Ideally, they should be part of the cultural leadership within the museum’s community.

The study proceeds by means of sixty- to ninety-minute face-to-face meetings between the top ten to twenty prospects and the museum’s fund-raising feasibility consultant or appointed representative. The prospect should be assured that his or her views and opinions will be kept confi dential and will be combined with other prospects’ views to help the organization determine the feasibility of its campaign. The need for the campaign; the goals of the expansion, renovation, or new building program; and the expected outcome should be briefl y explained. It is important to be sure that the consultant or representative can express those needs, goals, and outcomes in the same words that have been used in setting up the appointments. The consultant must also keep any commitments made with the interviewee as well—if the meeting was promised to take only an hour, it must be only an hour. Above all, make sure everyone—the board, the interviewee, the museum director, and the consultant or representative—understands that no one will be asked for a gift during the feasibility study.

Working with the consultant, prepare a series of questions to assess each prospect’s gift potential, attitude, timeline for participating, and issues that might stand in the way of his or her participation:


• What do you know about our organization’s mission, history, volunteer and professional leadership, place in the community, and rank among peers?

• What are our organization’s strengths and weaknesses? Can you rank the improvements that would be most important to you—does the museum need more visitors, a new building, better galleries, conservation labs, a larger or fi ner collection, or fewer collection pieces in storage?

• What would you like to see improve at our institution?• What is your impression of our institution’s management and fi nances?• If you have previously supported the museum, do you feel the money

you have given in the past has been used appropriately? Do you feel your gift was acknowledged appropriately? How do you feel about the way gifts you’ve given to other institutions have been used? What recognition methods—such as naming buildings—have you seen at other institutions that you have found innovative or interesting?

• What do you think of the goals of our program? Are there any specifi c areas that you feel are more compelling than others? Do you think this campaign will be compelling to others in the community like you? Who?

• Are you aware of any major fund-raising campaigns that are going on right now that might confl ict with our organization’s capital campaign? As a donor to other campaigns, are you comfortable with a pledge pay-ment schedule over fi ve years? More? Have you ever made a legacy gift such as a trust or a legacy in your will when you have participated in other campaigns?

• Do you believe our organization can raise $X over Y years to accomplish our goals? What level of gift do you believe we can expect from active community members like yourself? Who do you feel would be the most successful leader in asking for gifts from the community? Can you think of people who would be capable of considering major gifts to our cam-paign? Is there anyone special who should ask these major givers? Would you consider approaching these prospects with us? In what time frame could you make these calls?

• Are there other organizations in the community—foundations, corpo-rations, or government groups—with which you are connected that are capable of investing in our plan?

• Is there any other advice you can give us that might help us raise the funds needed to achieve our goals?

The information garnered from these one-on-one interviews should be the basis of a realistic report for the Campaign Planning Committee that lays out the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of moving forward with a campaign. It is important to resist the urge to use the report to “sell”


museum leadership on the probability of the campaign’s success. Rather, the report should be as straightforward and analytical as possible, devoid of emo-tion or pandering to what the director or the board may want to hear. The objectivity of a professional consultant can be helpful in delivering both neg-ative and positive outcomes. While the full report should be shared only with the museum’s governance or board leadership, an executive summary should be forwarded to the interview participants along with a note that thanks and informs them of the fi nal decision the board has made regarding moving forward with a campaign.

A fund-raising campaign feasibility study report should include:

• A brief summary of when and how many interviews took place and how the interviewees were selected;

• A narrative that anonymously weaves together interviewees’ perceptions about the organization, its proposed plans, the community, and other campaigns that are ongoing, and individual comments regarding likely success or failure. Using unattributed quotes can help convey an idea or position, but care must be taken that the interviewee cannot be identi-fi ed, and that promises of confi dentiality are being honored.

Table 16.1 provides a matrix that conveys suggested prospects, gift ranges, and/or likely leadership candidates or solicitors.

Table 16.1 Fund-Raising Feasibility Study Report Matrix

Prospect Range of Gift Connected toPrimary Interest

Other Information

#1 $5M John Smith Conservation Will not ask

#2 $1M Jane Doe General Event Committee

#3 $25M John Smith and Jane Doe

Public Spaces Will ask others

#4 $0 none None Will not participate

Sam Jones (not anonymous)

$10M All who were interviewed

Endowment Wants to chair campaign

#5 $5M Sam Jones Building Gift in will

George Shaw $250k Director General Will send check Monday


The report should also include an analysis of the messages or primary elements that will make up the fund-raising case. If interviewees have been asked to rate several aspects of the appeal on a simple 1–5 scale, a rating graph can quickly give the board a sense of the portions of the campaign that pros-pects found most appealing. Figure 16.2 illustrates a possible graph.

The report should be summarized with a narrative that expresses the consultant’s view of the fi ndings and a clear recommendation. Does the con-sultant recommend moving forward? Are there elements of the campaign that should be retooled to be more successful? Or are the fi ndings such that your donor population is not ready to support a campaign at this time? If so,

Figure 16.2 Ranking of Priorities per Capital Project by Potential Donors


there should be concrete suggestions of steps that must be completed to build higher confi dence among the donor population.

16.3.4 Campaign Plans

Once it is determined that the campaign should move forward, a campaign plan is needed. If the recommendation of the feasibility study is positive, a brief sketch of the campaign plan may be appended to the feasibility study for the Campaign Planning Committee’s consideration. Such an initial plan will be a fi rst draft. Each portion of the draft plan will be discussed and edited as the campaign progresses. Approving the plan and its components, and reviewing successive changes to it, can create a sense of ownership among the Campaign Committee leadership and will remind them of their ongoing responsibilities as Campaign Committee members.

A draft campaign plan should include the following:

• Primary case statement messages: “Who, what, when, where and why” is critical at this moment. A full case statement will come later and should include illustrations that will help articulate the case for campaign sup-port. While a case statement will not “make the sale” to a potential donor on its own, it is handy to leave behind to remind the potential or actual donor of what you talked about in person. The more professional and fi n-ished a case statement looks the more your prospective donor will believe your organization has a solid and successful plan.

• Goal and gift table: It is important to show the Campaign Committee how much of the goal will come from different segments of the donor popula-tion and how many prospects will be needed to reach the goal. Table 16.2 provides a hypothetical example, showing that for every gift level there must be more prospects than the number of donors needed; in this example over 900 prospects must be contacted to raise a total of 235 donations.

• Timeline: This should tie to the planning, design, and construction sched-ule; public relations plan; and the study fi ndings regarding timing of gifts.

• Campaign Committee roster: Suggested Campaign Committee members (including the chair if apparent), job descriptions for committee mem-bers, and a calendar of meetings.

• Naming opportunities: A list of recognition opportunities and their “prices.” Volunteer fund-raisers often feel more comfortable asking for a gift if they can stress the recognition benefi t the donor will receive in exchange for his or her gift. Will a garden be named for $5 million and a bench for $250,000? How long will the recognition remain in place—time limited or in perpetuity?

• Draft policies for accepting gifts: Will payment of pledges be accepted over fi ve to ten years? Will estate gifts (legacies in wills) be accepted, and if so

Tabl

e 16

.2.

Hyp

othe

tical

Gift

Tab

le

Gif

t Ran

ge#

of G

ifts

R

equi

red

# of

Pro

spec

ts

Req

uire

d”Su

btot

alC

umul

ativ

e Tot

alC

umul

ativ

e %

$25,

000,

000.

00

12

$25,

000,

000.

00

$25,

000,

000.

00

25%

$15,

000,

000.

00

14

$15,

000,

000.

00

$40,

000,

000.

00

40%

$10,

000,

000.

00

28

$20,

000,

000.

00

$60,

000,

000.

00

60%

$5,0

00,0

00.0

0 3

12$1

5,00

0,00

0.00

$7

5,00

0,00

0.00

74

%

$2,5

00,0

00.0

0 3

12$7

,500

,000

.00

$82,

500,

000.

00

82%

$1,0

00,0

00.0

0 5

20$5

,000

,000

.00

$87,

500,

000.

00

87%

$500

,000

.00

1040

$5,0

00,0

00.0

0 $9

2,50

0,00

0.00

92

%

$250

,000

.00

1560

$3,7

50,0

00.0

0 $9

6,25

0,00

0.00

96

%

$10

0,00

0.00

20

80$2

,000

,000

.00

$98,

250,

000.

00

98%

$50,

000.

00

2510

0$1

,250

,000

.00

$99,

500,

000.

00

99%

$10,

000.

00

5020

0$5

00,0

00.0

0 $1

00,0

00,0

00.0

0 99

%

< $

10,0

00.0

0 10

040

0$7

50,0

00.0

0 $1

00,7

50,0

00.0

0 10

0%

235

938


will they be recognized before they are realized? Will the value of a gift be based on its present value, or will it be discounted over the course of the pledge schedule? Who has the authority and what is the process to make exceptions to these policies?

• Development staffi ng needs and budget: Will additional consultant help be required? Are there extraordinary needs for printed materials, such as the campaign case statement, pledge forms, architectural renderings and video fl y-throughs, campaign letterhead, or donor recognition forms? Are gift offi cers and campaign managers needed to research prospective donors, manage solicitations with committee members, set up meetings, and steward campaign participants? Are there suffi cient resources in the museum’s offi ces to receive and process gifts?

• Public relations plan: It is important to show when lead gift announce-ments or the reaching of phased fund-raising goals might intertwine with important moments in the museum’s ongoing program—exhibition openings, staff hiring, awards and accolades, announcement of govern-ment or foundation grants or sponsorships, or construction milestones. Momentum will be an effective motivator during the course of the capi-tal campaign. The more success stories that donation solicitors and pro-spective donors are hearing about the institution during the course of the campaign, the more likely they will be to support it.

There are countless stories of successful capital campaigns and quite a few of those that failed. Some were deemed “impossible,” some “too small,” others “too big,” and some “readily fundable” during the early stages of plan-ning. Despite those projections, those that succeeded have several things in common:

• They were led by a professional staff and dedicated board leadership who remained fl exible in their approach.

• They listened and responded as they gathered information during the planning stages.

• They understood that the campaign plan and process would not be linear. • They were open to shifts in strategy and adjustments to the overall plan.• They remained active participants from the beginning to the end of their

campaigns.• They engaged and energized donors in the process and the planning at

every juncture, and were strategic about when to make portions of the plan public.

In short, successful Campaign Committees use the planning process itself as a fund-raising tool that can engender lasting excitement for the growth of their museum.


PRIORITIES AND PHASING

Barry Lord

Some years ago I was a member of a committee asked to comment on an architectural competition for the expansion of a major European museum. The museum’s permanent collection included many outstanding carvings and much wooden furniture—medieval, northern renaissance, and baroque pieces, mostly of oak. Its building, which had been constructed in the 1950s, featured a huge window wall along the entire length of its main permanent collection display gallery. With so much natural light streaming through fl oor to ceiling windows, even with ultraviolet fi lters, curtains and louvers, it appeared impossible to provide museum-standard environmental condi-tions to preserve the museum’s very valuable collection. Before the meeting to inspect the architects’ proposals, I asked one of the security guards in the main gallery whether it was possible to maintain a stable environment there.

“On a sunny summer’s day we hear a symphony,” he replied. “A sym-phony of squeaks as the wood of the furniture twists in its joints.”

Three architects had been shortlisted and paid to develop design con-cepts on which we were asked to comment. Each aimed to fulfi ll the brief they had been given—a temporary exhibition gallery, a pedagogical center, a café, a new shop, and new offi ces. As expected, they had focused on the potential for development on a site that the museum could use across the street, connecting it with the existing building by a bridge or a tunnel.

When it was my turn to comment on their plans I disappointed all three when I said that none of them met the museum’s needs—but I quickly added that it was not the architects’ fault. I explained that in my view the museum’s highest priority was to preserve its collection, but that its main permanent collection display gallery made this impossible in its present building, so that the fault lay in the Brief that they had been given. The Brief identifi ed real needs of the museum—for a temporary exhibition gallery and support space, an education suite, improved offi ces and visitor service amenities like a café and a new shop—but had not correctly considered the priorities of the institu-tion, which surely should have given fi rst consideration to the urgent need to conserve the display collection. My comments were initially received in frosty silence, but a few months later the museum relaunched the competition with a revised Brief that focused on the needs of the permanent collection.

The previous sections of this chapter, discussing the right-sizing of the museum (16.1), the capital cost estimates (16.2) and the capacity of the museum and its board to meet the funding requirements of the project (16.3), make it evident that planners of almost all museum projects will fi nd it necessary at some point in the planning and design process to prioritize the competing needs of the institution. If this is not done at the outset, it will almost certainly become necessary as the realities of costs and funding affect

16.4


the progress of the project. At times of “value engineering” (see section 20.4), while cutting costs to meet a constrained budget, prioritizing is sometimes done quickly and ruthlessly by project managers or engineers who are pressed for time as well as money to complete the project. Thus it is most important for the Museum Planning Team to agree on the priorities well in advance of such emergencies.

One of the best ways to address competing priorities is to phase a museum development project—setting out the objectives of the project in separate phases, rather than trying to accomplish everything at once. Phasing means identifying the goals of the project sequentially in successive phases, so that all of the museum’s needs are met, but not all at the same time. If the capi-tal cost estimates show that the entire project is beyond the capacity of the museum and its governing authority to raise the necessary funds, prioritizing and phasing should be on the agenda of the next board or Building Commit-tee meeting.

Prioritizing the competing needs and phasing fulfi llment of them requires not just determining which is most important to the museum’s mission, but also recommending the optimal sequence that will facilitate the achievement of all phases. In the example cited, once the pressing issue of the preservation of the permanent collection was recognized in the brief, it may not have been necessary to insist that solving the challenge of permanent collection display should become the fi rst phase of development; it may be in practice that the best course was to improve visitor amenities and the temporary exhibition gallery in the fi rst phase, in order to gain public and political support (and thereby funding) for a second phase focused on resolving the permanent col-lection display problems.

Thus phasing should begin with an agreement on priorities, but then must be planned creatively in response to the actual social, political, and funding situation of the museum. Attention to the fi nancial projections must address not only the capital fundraising capabilities of the board or its Fund-ing Committee, but also the museum’s operating budget—not as it has been, but how it will be affected by the added costs of each phase of the develop-ment. Phasing must be based on the museum planners’ understanding of the real needs of the museum, but it must be planned in close consultation with those responsible for the fund-raising campaign and the fi nancial manag-ers of the museum’s day-to-day operation. A succession of business plans may be needed to refl ect changes in the operating budget as each phase is accomplished.

Phasing very often makes an otherwise impossible project feasible. A long-range plan for the future of a museum’s entire campus may require forty or fi fty years to accomplish. Phasing can make it possible to achieve this devel-opment in two or three stages, each separated by ten to twenty years. Hav-ing a long-range plan makes it easier to convince public and private funding


sources for specifi c phases at all times throughout the project. In one example, a new museum project was considering whether to renovate an existing historic building that fell short of the area that had been projected for the museum’s needs, but if the museum could retain an option to take over an immediately adjacent property a decade after the initial development, it would be possible to plan a phased approach aimed at operation of the smaller historic facility for the fi rst ten years, with the second phase programmed for subsequent devel-opment—and fund-raising—a decade later. Phasing a museum development project informed by a prioritization of the museum’s needs and a creative but responsible appreciation of how one phase facilitates the next can make the dif-ference between a bold idea proposed in vain, and a rational, well-planned, and well-funded project implemented over many years.

Phasing is also necessary within a shorter time frame for successive stages of development of a project. This shorter-term phasing is based not only on prioritizing the museum’s goals, but also on an understanding of the neces-sary sequence of tasks that must be completed in order. Thus we may speak of a project being in the planning phase, then the design phase, the construc-tion phase, and so on, as detailed in the following section 16.5 on the project schedule.

SCHEDULES

Tom Seiler

A schedule for a museum project is a delineation of all the tasks—concurrent, consecutive, and overlapping—required to complete the project successfully. An accurately detailed schedule provides a framework within which to:

• monitor and control project activities;• assist in determining how best to allocate resources;• assess the impact of time delays;• track project progress.

Schedules for museum projects can vary considerably due to the location, size, program, environmental requirements, complexity, phasing, and funding sources of the undertaking. It is important to establish a preliminary schedule very early in the project process, with the major milestones and especially the target completion date agreed from the start. This schedule may be based on a desire to coincide with a new exhibition opening, a political anniversary, or some other programmatic event. It is very likely that this preliminary schedule will change as more detailed information is determined—such as exact project scope, budget, and construction proposals—but it is important to always have an agreed set of milestones and target completion date in view at all times.

16.5


In this age of “just in time” services, where expectations are that every-thing should be delivered immediately when it is needed, an important time consideration to keep in mind is the time required to procure services, be they project management, planning, design, or construction services. Another overlooked aspect of any schedule, especially when working on international projects, is the calendar of national, regional, or religious holidays and differ-ences in work weeks and time zones that can severely affect effi ciencies.

Simple, small, straightforward projects might be scoped and managed by in-house museum staff, assuming that they also have the time and expertise to do so. But most projects are beyond staff experience and require signifi -cant time to execute properly. A project manager (PM) will have the neces-sary skills and experience to manage the work, and one of the fi rst and most important tasks for the PM is to propose, manage, and revise the project schedule throughout the project lifetime (see the following chapter 17).

16.5.1 Types of Schedules

There are four major types of schedules for museum capital projects. All are related to each other and should be coordinated by the project manager:

• Master project schedule: The master project schedule gives an over-view of every major task to be accomplished, by whom and when, over the entire life of the project. It compiles individual activities or groups of activities in every phase of the project to display them in one docu-ment. This can serve as a valuable communication tool for conveying a high level of information and major milestones. This schedule is typically linked to all other schedules so that changes agreed in any one schedule are immediately refl ected in the master schedule.

• Milestone schedule: A milestone is the end of a stage or phase and is typically marked by a high-level event such as a major meeting, issuing of signifi cant documents, or the completion of critical work. A milestone schedule delineates all of these signifi cant events that have to be com-pleted in order for a phase in the project to be successfully completed.

• Detailed task schedule: Within each milestone are numerous tasks to be completed. The detailed task schedule lays these out, ensuring that all tasks are described by time frame, responsibility, and work product. These individual tasks are then referred to in the milestone schedule and master project schedule to make certain that all tasks are sequenced prop-erly and that work products are delivered on time.

• Financial schedule: To effectively manage the project cash fl ow, a fi nan-cial schedule is created to make sure that there are resources in place to pay for services rendered and materials installed in a timely fashion. Tied to the budget and the master and milestone schedules, estimates are


predicted for how much and when money will be required to compensate the consultants or contractor for each milestone achieved.

16.5.2 Components of a Master Project Schedule

The master project schedule progresses through fi ve consecutive (but some-times overlapping) phases:

• Planning (16.5.2.1)• Design and Documentation(16.5.2.2)• Construction (16.5.2.3)• FF&E and Exhibits (16.5.2.4)• Commissioning (16.5.2.5)

16.5.2.1 Planning Schedule

Initial planning will typically start with museum staff or governance deter-mining that there is a need (perhaps long endured) for renovation, an addition, or new construction, due to facility condition, the expansion of the collection, the revision of the museum mission, or other programmatic changes. Or a new museum may be evolving from a new idea; an opportunity to house an important collection; a social, community, or political commitment; a drive to preserve a historic building; or a combination of several of these motivations. These gestational discussions and explorations into potential funding sources can seem to be never-ending, but once a decision has been made to move for-ward into substantive conversations, professionals should be enlisted to bring information, expertise, and discipline into the process. A museum planning professional can be procured to clarify the vision for the institution, establish project goals and objectives, determine collection needs, undertake a facility assessment, and create a program brief that accurately refl ects the decisions and recommendations arising from this work.

This professional can be selected by recommendations from other expe-rienced institutions but typically is procured through a Request for Proposal (RFP) process, whereby an advertisement is posted online and in print media on numerous procurement sites. Generally, this process can take several months, even with a project that appears to be small and straightforward, to craft a suitable RFP, post on the procurement sites, allow potential respon-dents time to research and respond, select a shortlist of respondents, solicit additional information and interview the shortlisted professionals, make a fi nal selection, and draft and enter into a contract to undertake the planning work. Once engaged, a fi rst task of the museum planner will be to propose and agree with the museum’s governance on a schedule for the museum plan-ning phase.


16.5.2.2 Design and Documentation Schedule

Similar to the procurement of a museum planning professional, the engage-ment of an architectural team can be as time consuming, often even more. Depending on the complexity of the work and the vision of the museum, an architect of international stature may be sought and a design competi-tion may be desired to attract the highest caliber of architectural design. A person or architectural authority experienced in running a competition may fi rst need to be procured to defi ne, organize, and implement the competition. A competition seeking the highest level of design expertise can take at least four to six months, possibly over a year to complete depending on the level of detail and stages of selection.

Once an architectural team is selected, the design process (outlined in section 19.1) from concept to schematic to detailed (or developed) design can and should take several months to over a year depending on the scope of work. The best opportunity to thoroughly examine design decisions and understand the implications of those decisions is during this phase prior to documenting those decisions in construction documents. The construc-tion documentation stage is also lengthy, as the Design Team is completely recording all design decisions and specifying materials and systems. It is not unusual for the design and documentation stage of large complex projects to consume eighteen months or more.

16.5.2.3 Construction Schedule

The time required to procure a contractor varies with the method of contract-ing employed, as described in section 19.5. For a small job it may be possible simply to request an estimate from a contractor who previously success-fully completed other related work. But for most projects it will take several months to create and issue an RFP, shortlist, interview and select a candidate fi rm, and negotiate a contract. The construction time frame itself will vary considerably depending on project size, from several months to several years.

16.5.2.4 FFE and Exhibits Schedule

Concurrent to the construction work will be the design, construction, and installation of numerous fi xtures, furnishings, and equipment (FF&E) and the new exhibits. This work must be planned, designed, and fabricated while the building design and construction is underway (and will benefi t from close collaboration between building architect and exhibition designer), but it can-not be installed until after signifi cant building work has been completed. The master project schedule and the milestones schedule should identify exactly when these installations can begin, preferably after the building contractor


has completed work and moved out of a clean, dry structure. The dust of build-ing construction or paint dripped from a late ceiling fi nish can seriously disrupt the installation of high-priced display cases, interactive exhibits or precious artifacts. Achieving a smooth transition from building completion to exhibi-tion installation is one of the main goals of the project scheduling process.

Much care must therefore be taken to coordinate the work of the build-ing contractor and the exhibit suppliers. At the outset of the design and construction process, a decision must be made as to whether the exhibition designer and fabricators will work under contracts that are separate from those of the building Design and Construction teams. There are real advan-tages to encouraging collaboration between the building’s architect and the exhibition designer from the outset; however, this cooperation may in fact be better achieved if they have separate contracts, rather than making one report to the other or form an ad hoc joint enterprise. Similarly, the skills of a build-ing construction fi rm and exhibition fabricators are so different that again it is usually best to contract them separately, rather than asking a building contractor to supervise exhibition fabrication and installation.

In a large project these distinct contracts are likely to be refl ected in proj-ect management as well. A construction management/project management (CM/PM) contract may engage a construction management fi rm to coor-dinate work on the building while an exhibition project manager supervises the design, fabrication, and installation of the exhibits. The master project schedule must carefully identify the interface of the two.

16.5.2.5 Commissioning and Post-Occupancy Evaluation Schedule

Commissioning, the act of ensuring that work is completed and functions properly as designed, should commence immediately after substantial com-pletion but prior to the contractor leaving the site (see section 21.1). This ensures that most work is complete and that systems are in place to be tested but that the contractor is still present to make any required repairs or adjust-ments. The commissioning agent should then return prior to the expiration of construction warranties, typically a twelve-month period, to inspect and ensure that the systems are still functioning as designed. This post-occupancy evaluation is particularly important with regard to the effective operation of heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) equipment to maintain museum-standard environmental controls where required.

16.5.3 Scheduling Tools

The project manager (PM), responsible for effi cient overseeing of the entire planning, design, and construction process creates and maintains the master and other project schedules, ensuring that each piece of work is properly


sequenced and that each task is executed within the designated time frame. There are numerous scheduling programs employed by project managers. Historically, one of the most common (especially in the United States) was the Gantt Chart, with later developments of the Critical Path Method (CPM) and the Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) being employed. These tools allow a PM to allot time to and track specifi c tasks, whether con-current, consecutive, or overlapping. These tools can also track expenditures to facilitate fi nancial management of required funds. For complicated large-scale projects the Project Management Team might have a person dedicated exclusively to managing the schedule, with others reporting what level of work has been completed and what fi nancial actions have been taken.

16.5.4 The Nature of Schedules

Despite good intentions, diligence in planning and everyone’s best efforts, schedules have a way of falling apart. Decisions are not made on time, fund-ing does not appear as planned, materials cannot be delivered as prom-ised, weather causes delays, and subcontractors may not be able to deliver as planned. Variation orders (VOs) follow. Every project has problems with scheduling. Although these delays cannot be predicted, some or all of them should be anticipated, and a good project manager with a cooperative cli-ent, Design Team, and contractor can fi nd solutions to revise the schedule of milestones to meet the time frame of the master schedule. Keeping schedules up to date, and communicating the current schedule to all concerned, consti-tutes the ongoing work of the project manager, who is therefore the subject of the next chapter.

IMPLEMENTATION

A museum planning process that begins with institutional planning (and pre-planning), and coordinates planning for people, collections, and the build-ing, expressed in the essential planning documents described in chapter 14, equipped with a schedule and budget as outlined in chapter 16, ultimately culminates in implementation, the subject of this fi nal Part V of our Man-ual. Project management (chapter 17) is essential throughout this phase, as plans are made visual in architects’ drawings and programming requirements become engineer’s specifi cations (19). Controlling costs and cash fl ow (20) is crucial during this phase, as staff must be hired and trained and collections moved or reinstalled through to opening day (21). Site selection may have occurred much earlier, but because it is ideal if the location can be chosen after all right-sizing and sustainability considerations are in place, we have addressed it here in chapter 18.

These fi ve concluding chapters are intended as a guide to the transfor-mation of the project that occurs as the plans become designs, the designs become concrete, and the vision of the stakeholders becomes a daily opportu-nity for study, learning, and enjoyment of both visitors and staff.

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PAR

T V

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Tom Seiler

Regardless of size, implementation of a museum project involves a number of people. Each member of the Museum Planning, Design, and Construction teams will have concerns and objectives that may be divergent: a museum curator may feel her permanent collection exhibition is the most important function in the museum, the architect may wish to further his design inten-tions, and the contractor might be primarily focused on making a profi t. It is the role of the project manager (PM) to balance these and many other expec-tations, plan and coordinate the work, and provide remedies for setbacks that will inevitably arise.

This chapter, revised from the version written by Richard Harrison for the second edition, describes the role of project management in the museum planning, design, and construction process.

DEFINITION OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Project management is the act of planning, organizing, and managing resources to successfully complete specifi c project goals and objectives. In particular, this activity should:

• meet the client’s vision, goals, and objectives;• be completed on time;• be completed within budget;• achieve the quality of work envisioned.

THE PROJECT MANAGER (PM)

Determining who should be the manager of a museum capital project depends on several factors; the size of the job, the complexity of the work, and the experience and resources of museum staff. Small discrete jobs can

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be managed in many cases by in-house museum operations staff. But larger projects with sophisticated building systems—or even smaller but highly spe-cialized projects—demand signifi cant expertise and time devoted solely to them. Consequently, most major museum projects require a project manager who is not on the museum staff, has noteworthy design and construction management experience, and has training in project management tools and techniques.

This professional, like all professionals associated with the project, will have to be procured through a selection process. This process can vary from selecting a known consultant and quickly coming to an agreement and con-tract, to undergoing a Request for Proposal (RFP) process that can take weeks or months to complete. If the RFP process is necessary, time should be allotted to fi nd candidates, interview them, analyze proposals, and select the individual or fi rm, as the PM will play a vital role in the successful delivery of a museum project.

THE ROLE OF THE PROJECT MANAGER

The project manager (PM) needs to be—at least—seven people in one:

• delineator • coordinator • communicator • progress monitor • auditor • motivator • counselor

When effectively performed, these roles collectively constitute “leader-ship” of the project (17.3.8). All PM roles are signifi cant in achieving the project manager’s objectives, but the fi rst three—delineator, coordinator, and communicator—are perhaps the most important.

17.3.1 Delineator

Museum projects can vary in many ways: size; type (new construction, reno-vation, or addition); collection content; location; budget; and architectural style to name a few. A critical function of the project manager is to defi ne:

• what services are needed for a particular project;• who is the correct team member to provide those services;

17.3

PROJECT MANAGEMENT 5 4 3

• when those services should be provided;• in some cases, how much those services should cost.

The PM may also be asked to assist in the selection of particular con-sultants or teams to perform these services, such as architects or contractors.

17.3.2 Coordinator

An important function of the project manager is to ensure that the group of consultants responsible for completion of the project work as a team. Each team member’s role, responsibility, work product, and deadline for comple-tion must be exactly defi ned, understood, accepted, and coordinated so that the input from each team member is thoroughly completed, delivered at the correct time, and holistically integrated into the project process.

17.3.3 Communicator

The greatest challenge to team members is having all the information they need to effectively perform their services. A key role of the project manager is to ensure that all members of the Project Team:

• have all the information they require to perform their specifi c tasks;• are continuously provided with suffi cient information about the entire

project to ensure that they are aware of any changes, delays, or problems affecting their input;

• have this information within a time frame that ensures it can be used effectively.

17.3.4 Progress Monitor

If there has been effective task delineation, communication, and coordination, this role can sometimes be less demanding. However, in reality, competing priorities, geography, time zones, and scarce resources often make this role a demanding one if project objectives are to be met. It is imperative that the proj-ect manager constantly monitor the progress of team members to ensure that their participation and contributions are provided in a timely fashion.

Toward the end of the project the project manager initiates a “snag list” or “punch list” of tasks not yet performed—or not performed to the satis-faction of the client or the PM. Resolving the issues identifi ed on this list becomes the focus of successive meetings with the contractor, paving the way—not always without discord or dispute—toward substantial completion and commissioning.


17.3.5 Auditor

Project managers are not fi nancial auditors, but they do audit the construc-tion process. They should control:

• procurement of services;• letting of contracts;• confi rming levels of work completion;• authorization of payments.

The PM should have systems in place to confi rm that expenditures are in alignment with the budget and to ensure that work is completed on time to minimize disruptions. Just as important as quantity of work progress is the quality of the work in place. PMs or their consultants should have the technical expertise to determine that the work completed meets or exceeds the specifi ca-tions in the construction documents and that the systems perform as designed.

17.3.6 Motivator

Regardless of project size and advance planning, there are always unforeseen circumstances that can create challenges in the implementation process. Team-work and team spirit are important in completing a project on time and to the satisfaction of all concerned. If members of the team are not motivated to meet these problems directly and effectively, the whole project can be in danger of not meeting expectations or, in the worst case, incompletion. A key role of the project manager is to identify the cause of problems as quickly as possible, help correct them, and at the same time motivate team members to proceed forward professionally and enthusiastically in order to achieve successful completion.

17.3.7 Counselor

All team members have individual professional goals and objectives concern-ing a museum capital project. Museum staff and board members rightly feel personally involved in achieving the mission, collection, or facility. Consultants may feel strongly about certain design objectives. The livelihood of many team members can be at risk in the failure of a signifi cant undertaking. The project manager must understand the expectations and pressures on the team and be able to effectively manage these professional goals and personal feelings.

17.3.8 Leader

Taken together, each individual element in this section adds up to qualities of leadership. A good project manager is an effective leader, able to defi ne tasks,


coordinate work, effectively communicate, thoroughly monitor progress, and properly audit fi nances and quality, all while consoling and motivating the team to successful project completion.

DUTIES OF THE PROJECT MANAGER

The project manager has fi ve main duties to perform:

1. To keep records 2. To share information 3. To make decisions 4. To take action 5. To be accessible

17.4.1 Record Keeping

A signifi cant role over which the project manager has control is the keeping of all project correspondence, meeting notes, fi nancial records, and project schedules. The records listed here should be available to all who need them. As well as providing the framework within which a project develops, they are also a critical aspect of the distribution of information. The PM keeps and distributes as appropriate:

• minutes of policy-making meetings;• notes of project meetings and other meetings involving consultants and

contractors;• instructions to team members and contractors, particularly any variations

or amendments to these instructions;• memoranda or letters recording the issues, arguments, or circumstances

behind particular decisions or changes of plan;• documentation for monitoring expenditure against budgets;• documentation for monitoring progress against schedule;• documentation for monitoring overtime or other forms of additional

working hours, particularly where these have fi nancial implications;• records of petty cash and out-of-pocket expenditure;• records dealing with the issuing of drawings or other documents of

signifi cance—how many and to whom they went;• project schedules and meeting minutes that document reasons why

changes have been made to the schedule.

Change orders or variation orders (VOs) are documents that only project managers can authorize and circulate. PMs need to recognize situations that can be resolved only by a change order and normally will ask the most directly

17.4


related party (often the contractor) to prepare a variation order request, which details the proposed change and estimates its cost and its effect on the sched-ule. When the PM is satisfi ed with the accuracy of the VO request, it will be submitted with the PM’s recommendation to whomever the owner has authorized to approve or deny such requests on behalf of the client. If the request is approved by the client, the PM issues a change order or VO to the contractor or other concerned suppliers, ensuring that it remains accurate with regard to quality and quantity, time, and budget implications.

17.4.2 Share Information

In his role as the communicator and coordinator of information and work products of the project, the project manager, uses three main ways of sharing information:

• meetings (17.5.1.1);• documentation (17.5.1.2);• personal contact (17.5.1.3).

17.4.2.1 Meetings

The PM should schedule regular meetings for Project Team members to provide an exchange of information, and ensure that all team members are equally well informed. These meetings should be attended only by persons critical to making decisions and conveying that information back to the rest of the team. Meeting notes should be circulated very quickly to all concerned.

17.4.2.2 Documentation

The project manager is the custodian of all project records. All project-relevant documents, from the initial planning stages through construction completion, are collected and organized by the PM for distribution to the appropriate team members and for archival purposes.

Emphasis in this chapter has been on managing a project before it begins and while it is being implemented. Questions can frequently arise after a project is completed, sometimes years later. It is therefore important that the project manager ensures that the relevant documentation is brought together on completion of a project and fi led in such a way that it can be easily accessed.

17.4.2.3 Personal Contact

The project manager should make a special point of keeping in close contact with those members of the team who have responsibilities for specifi c parts of


the project, such as the architect, other designers, the contractor, and museum senior staff and board. The project manager has full knowledge of what is happening during each phase of the project and should augment the written correspondence by personal contact with these important members to ensure the timely and accurate fl ow of information.

17.4.3 Decision Making

Diffi culty in making decisions is frequently the cause of major delays. The implications of decisions can be far reaching and it would be irresponsible to advocate hasty decision making, but decision makers often delay for much more human reasons: timidity, lack of time to assess the pros and cons, or concerns about assuming the responsibility for the decision. The effective project manager, however, needs to have the experience and skill to assist the client in making decisions and in understanding that the decisions need to be permanent. This is particularly true with respect to variation orders. Respecting past decisions and learning to live with their consequences is equally important, and often just as diffi cult. Making sure that everyone has adequate information is one way in which the project manager can facilitate decision making and respect for previous decisions.

17.4.4 Action

As important as making decisions, ensuring that team members take action based on those decisions is paramount to project success. The project man-ager will have created a critical path schedule identifying when key actions need to be taken, whose responsibility they are, and the timescale for carrying them out. It is important to recognize that no matter how careful planning has been, unforeseen conditions can arise necessitating changes in the sched-ule. Even the smallest change can be very disruptive if not quickly identifi ed, resolved, agreed to by all parties, and appropriately acted on. In the event of value engineering—consultations among the entire Design Team includ-ing the cost consultant aimed at making recommendations to the client to implement changes in order to get the project back on budget or to cut costs if necessary—it is the project manager who must ensure that all involved understand the need for and precise nature of the changes agreed and the ways in which they affect each design discipline or construction trade.

17.4.5 Accessibility

The project manager is the central fi gure for every aspect of the museum project. To be an effective communicator, decision maker, and action taker, it is important that the project manager be available and accessible. Today’s


communications technology makes total accessibility possible. A good PM realizes that reasonable accessibility is a central part of the job that facilitates every aspect of it.

Closely aligned with accessibility is involvement. PMs need to be involved with every facet of the job, ensuring that they or their team know and understand every signifi cant piece of information and distribute it to the appropriate parties. They should be involved in every major decision-making discussion, guiding it to a swift and fair resolution and making sure that timely action is taken and the task successfully accomplished.

PROJECT MANAGER ENGAGEMENT

The project manager plays a critical role in ensuring the success of a museum project. Accordingly the PM should be engaged in the process as soon as possible after the board has made the decision to move forward with a build-ing project. Typically, the board and senior staff will have hired a museum planning professional to complete the initial planning, possibly a feasibil-ity study (see section 2.2), and certainly a Functional Program, or Brief, as described in chapter 14. The PM should be engaged either during the Func-tional Program process or directly thereafter to confi rm previous assumptions about programming, building systems, project schedule, and costs, and then to begin work with the architect (possibly aiding in selection of the architect), engineers, and other specialists, following through with the contractors to commissioning of the building.

17.5

SITE SELECTION

Choosing the location for a new or relocated museum or opting whether to expand an existing building or fi nd a new site is obviously one of the most important decisions in any museum planning process. Museum capi-tal projects often begin when a new site is offered, and even when this is not the case many stakeholders need to know the preferred site early in the process in order to support fund-raising for the project. For these reasons this chapter could have been placed much earlier in this book. However, we have placed it here in order to emphasize that all the issues discussed in the preceding 17 chapters should be considered before site selection is fi nalized.

The fi rst section of this chapter reviews the site selection process, while the second examines the question of renovating an existing structure versus building new.

THE SITE SELECTION PROCESS

Ted Silberberg

Selecting a site that will increase the likelihood for the implementation and long-term sustainability of a new or relocated museum is the objective of site selection. In order to improve chances of achieving this goal we need to consider:

• the relative importance of site location in museum planning (18.1.1);• key factors and motivations in site selection (18.1.2);• reducing a long list of site options to a short list (18.1.3);• narrowing evaluation criteria by identifying factors common to all sites

(18.1.4);• selecting the criteria for a site evaluation process (18.1.5);• developing a weighting system and rating scale (18.1.6);• who should carry out site evaluation (18.1.7).

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18.1.1 The Relative Importance of Site Location in Museum Planning

How important is the location of a museum to its likelihood for implementa-tion and long-term sustainability? Experience shows that location is important but is not the primary factor in attracting visitors or funders. With respect to attracting visitors, the most important factor is actually the “product”—the quality of the visitor experience. A high-quality museum in a poor location will attract more visitors than a poor-quality museum in a great location. So whereas there is often reference to the mantra “location, location, location” in real estate development, it is more apt to say “product, product, location” for museums.

If an existing museum wishes to enhance its attendance and revenue base, it should look at location as one of the important factors to consider. How-ever, a new site is not the solution that will overcome weaknesses in the visitor experience, nor should the present site be the scapegoat for poor attendance and revenue, as there are probably other major factors contributing to poor performance.

In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, museums were often located in parks in order to reduce air pollution, a consideration relevant to long-term preservation of the collections. With regard to collections care in the twenty-fi rst century, the nature and quality of the building, its security, and its environmental control systems are more important than the site of a museum.

Having established that “location, location, location” has only limited applicability to museums, it is still desirable to select a good site. A good site is a positive factor in making it convenient for visitors to attend and become repeat visitors or to allow visitors to combine museum attendance with shopping, attending a library, or visiting another attraction. A good site that contributes to revenue generation helps to secure the income necessary for a museum to meet its mission and maintain the highest standards of col-lections care, research, and education.

18.1.2 Important Factors and Motivations in Site Selection

Is a good site one that serves only the needs of the museum itself or should site selection also consider wider community needs? If selecting a site were motivated exclusively by seeking to boost attendance and earned income, the process would be relatively simple. Site selection would be based on answer-ing the question, “what does the market want?” However, the reality, as dis-cussed in chapter 13, is that most museums generate more annual operating funds from government and contributed sources (donations, sponsorships, and annual giving) than from all earned income sources combined. And

SITE SELECTION 5 5 1

many of the museums that rely on government support for operations include municipal governments among their funding sources. What this means is that selecting a site should be infl uenced not only by what the market wants and by museological considerations but also by what funders, both private and public, want. That means identifying wider community needs and seek-ing to help meet them if possible, through the site selection process. Munici-pal community needs often include downtown, waterfront, or neighborhood revitalization, and museums can be vital participants in these endeavors.

Sites in areas requiring revitalization are sometimes more physically constricted and face greater challenges associated with parking, public safety, and image. However, it is precisely because of these challenges and the community priorities associated with them that government and private funders are more likely to provide capital and operating support compared to a site near a highway, park, or other location that may be seen to best meet the market needs of the museum but not necessarily wider commu-nity needs. This does not mean that a poor-quality site should be selected only because it is perceived to meet wider community needs. However, it is essential that such needs be taken into account in the site evaluation and selection process and that evaluation criteria emerge from both what the market wants and what funders want.

18.1.3 Reducing a Long List of Site Options to a Short List

There are often numerous site options that might be considered for a new museum or for the relocation of an existing museum. Since sites excite pas-sion, it is neither effective nor effi cient to analyze too many sites—especially since a preliminary scan will usually show that some sites are not viable. A good number of sites for purposes of detailed analysis is a short list of three. To get down to that number from a longer list, an experienced site analyst should look at each of the long-listed sites and seek to identify compelling reasons why some sites should be eliminated.

Compelling reasons to eliminate sites from a long list include the following:

• Availability: The site might have numerous strengths, but if it is really not available, there is no point considering it.

• Timeliness: The plans for the museum call for construction as soon as possible, yet one or more sites under consideration would not be available for many years.

• Cost of acquisition: The museum wishes to allocate as much of its fi nan-cial resources to exhibits as to the building itself, rather than allocating substantial funds to acquire a site.

• Size: The area of the site will not accommodate the agreed space plan.


• Shape: The site is big enough, but it’s too long and narrow or too dis-jointed to accommodate the building.

• Disincentives to success: A site in a residential neighborhood in which residents are likely to complain about too much noise or traffi c associated with a successful museum should be avoided.

• Concerns of major funders: Opposition to a site by signifi cant funding sources should take it off the list.

• Strong physical constraints: The site might be in a fl ood plain, down-wind from a major polluter, or in an unsafe location.

• Other threats to collections care: The site cannot accommodate a proper loading dock with suffi cient turning room for collection deliveries, for example (see section 7.2.1.1).

18.1.4 Narrowing Evaluation Criteria by Identifying Factors Common to All Sites

The key to successful site selection is to develop appropriate evaluation criteria and a process of weighting the criteria and rating the sites. Just as the number of sites subject to detailed evaluation should be limited, so too should the criteria to evaluate the sites. One way to do so is to iden-tify factors that will remain unchanged no matter which site is selected. For example, if the size of the building, the space plan, facilities, exhibits, and programs would be identical no matter which site were selected, this allows the evaluation to include fewer criteria. And if the building, facili-ties, exhibits, and programs are identical no matter the site, it may also be assumed that there would be no differences in staffi ng levels and other operating expenses at any of the sites.

In an ideal scenario, all sites to be seriously considered would be available without acquisition cost to the project. This would eliminate site acquisi-tion cost as an evaluation factor. The more factors common to all sites, the simpler the site evaluation process, and the clearer the reasons for selecting a preferred site.

18.1.5 Selecting the Criteria for a Site Evaluation Process

While it is useful to limit the number of evaluation criteria, it is important that suffi cient criteria be considered to offer the basis for a comprehensive analysis. In general, for most site evaluations, a range of around fi fteen cri-teria is about right. In projects in which substantial fi nancial resources are provided for site evaluation, or where there are key special issues, the criteria might be broken down to include a larger number. For example, “access” as a criterion could be broken down into several criteria, including access by


automobile, access by public transportation, access by pedestrians, even access by boat or rail, depending on the site and the nature of the museum—access to live rail is a key criterion for a railway museum that operates rolling stock, for instance. And “appeal to various market segments” may be considered in the context of resident, school, and tourist segments separately, again distin-guishing separate criteria on that basis.

Examples of criteria that might be used are set out below, some of which might be reduced depending on specifi c circumstances.

18.1.5.1 Physical Planning/Museological Criteria

• Capacity: The size of the land or building available. In considering this criterion, reference is often made to capacity for future expansion, but while an opportunity for future expansion is important for some muse-ums, not all are likely to require expansion for many years; it may thus be important to avoid rejecting an otherwise excellent site on the basis of an opportunity for expansion that may not happen.

• Buildability: Consideration of geology, topography, and environmental and related issues affecting the potential to construct the proposed build-ing. (If there are substantial concerns, this might be a reason to reject a site and not include it in the detailed evaluation process.)

• Compatibility: With current and future adjacent and nearby land uses.• Amenities: Such as on-site or nearby parking availability, bus drop-off

locations, and outdoor opportunities.• Implications for collections care: This includes consideration of secu-

rity, conservation, and related issues (see section 7.2.1.1).

18.1.5.2 Market/Economic Considerations

• Visibility: Includes visibility from transportation routes and from “peo-ple places” such as other attractions and shopping. From the perspective of security, a site that allows entrances to be seen by residents, offi ce workers, hotel guests, or others will be far more secure than one that is isolated (see chapter 10).

• Access: Consideration of various modes of access, including by automo-bile, public transportation, and pedestrian access.

• Cost of parking: Including whether any type of parking validation sys-tem is in place to provide free or discounted parking to museum visitors.

• Capital costs: Includes site acquisition, development, and any demoli-tion costs, along with new construction or renovation costs. This does not necessarily require knowing the specifi c costs, only the relative differ-ences that may be quantifi ed in the rating system discussed below.


• Appeal to various market segments: Such as the main resident, school, and tourist segments and any special interest segments.

• Synergy: Extent of mutual benefi t of proximity to other land uses.• Identity of museum: Extent to which the museum will be able to estab-

lish or maintain a clear identity; or the inherent meaning of a site or existing building to the museum concept.

• Implications for capital funding support: This requires some level of understanding of preferences of major funding sources to be used as an evaluation criterion.

• Implications for operating revenues: This includes implications for admissions, membership, rentals, retail, and food service revenues.

• Implications for staffi ng and other operating expenses: In addition to staffi ng, which is the primary operating expense, this might include con-sideration of the impact of one site versus another on marketing costs.

There is inevitably some degree of overlap among the criteria, and cri-teria could vary further depending on any special issues in the project. It is essential, however, since the criteria selected may have a bearing on the results of the evaluation, that care is exercised to select criteria that will not bias the process.

18.1.6 Developing a Weighting System and Rating Scale

No matter how many criteria are used, it is clear that all criteria cannot be of equal weight in the site selection process. Using the criteria set out above and recognizing the special issues in a project, one might conclude that the appeal of the site to various market segments warrants a heavier weight than (say) the identity of the museum. Weighting may be scaled in a variety of ways. For instance, a scale of 1–4 might be used where a criterion with a weight of 1 is considered of lowest importance while a weight of 4 is of highest importance.

Having identifi ed the evaluation criteria and the weighting scale, it is then necessary to develop a rating system. This is best done in the following steps:

1. Develop a matrix that lists the sites and all criteria.2. Prepare a written evaluation comparing the strengths and weaknesses of

the sites according to each of the criteria.3. Based on the direction set out in the written evaluation, prepare a numer-

ical evaluation that corresponds to the written evaluation. A rating scale may be used, for example, from 1 to 5 with 1 representing the lowest rating and 5 the highest. Or the scale could be +3 to -3. This allows for a


zero or neutral rating, and allows the analyst to evaluate each site as posi-tive or negative in the context of the specifi c criterion.

4. To complete the evaluation, the rating for each site is multiplied by the weight to provide a score for each of the criteria.

5. The totals are then added to determine the rankings of the sites.

Table 18.1 puts forward a template for numerical evaluation.

Table 18.1. Site Evaluation Template

Numerical evaluation of sites compared

CriteriaWeighting Factor (1 to 4) Site A Site B Site C

Score with Weighting Factor Applied(Score 1 to 5)



I. Physical Planning/Museological Criteria

1. Criterion 4 score × 4 =

2. Criterion 2 score × 2 =

3. Criterion etc. etc.

4. Criterion

5. Criterion

6. Criterion

II. Market/Economic Criteria

7. Criterion

8. Criterion

9. Criterion

10. Criterion

11. Criterion

12. Criterion

13. Criterion

14. Criterion

15. Criterion

Total


18.1.7 Who Should Carry Out Site Evaluation?

Given the various criteria, a site evaluation should ideally be carried out by three different specialists: a market/fi nancial analyst, an architect or land use planner, and a museum planner in order to make sure that collections care issues are taken into account. However, a market/fi nancial analyst with knowledge of museum facilities and operations should suffi ce in most cases, since the bulk of the criteria used are market/economic. In any case it is imperative that the analyst(s) have experience in the planning and operation of museums and that they are completely independent and objective.

NEW BUILD VERSUS ADAPTIVE REUSE

Peter Wilson

Why wouldn’t a museum want a new building rather than a converted old one? After all, one’s fi rst thought is that a new building offers the museum that elusive prospect—a perfect container for its activities that can also be symbolic of whatever the aims and intentions of its sponsors might be. A reused building might suggest compromise from the outset—creating a museum within the constraints of an existing space envelope could be seen as symbolic of a serviceable renewal rather than an imaginative newness. For many countries or cities intent on enhancing their cultural life or standing, a new building symbolic of that enterprise is the only conceivable path to fol-low. Yet there are many museums that have successfully adapted old buildings to make new homes from themselves. Why have they done so?

There are a good many reasons why museums opt to house themselves in adapted existing buildings. Some reasons are practical rather than aspirational—a museum may be offered an existing building that is protected by a coun-try’s heritage legislation on very favorable fi nancial terms precisely because the potential uses of the protected building are constrained by the diffi culty of successful commercial reuse. Such buildings are often located in places where land suitable for building is diffi cult or expensive to obtain but where a museum organization really wishes to be located. It may be that the only way that the museum can afford a city center location, where substantial numbers of potential visitors will be passing by, is to accept that converting an existing building is necessary for their development. Or it might be that a heritage building, usually of an industrial nature, is located somewhere in the city where public policy or private development wishes to promote regeneration and the museum can access a level of public or developer funding support that would otherwise not be forthcoming. With the conversion of well-known historic buildings into museums has come a public familiarity with that possibility and conservation pressure groups now approach the preserva-tion of problematic buildings armed with anecdotal evidence of the successful

18.2


conversion of other buildings. Unfortunately, a deeper examination of the success of such conversions often reveals that it was the location or favorable fi nancing arrangements that made the project successful and not merely the building type: not every redundant electrical power plant can become a Tate Modern, nor can every disused rail terminus become Paris’s Musée d’Orsay!

However, pragmatic matters of location or cost are not the only moti-vators. Sometimes the architectural symbolism of a new building can be undesirable, especially if it is accompanied by an architectural sensibility that is at odds with the proposed exhibits. This circumstance is most com-monly encountered in contemporary art museums where the dominant style of much contemporary architecture is often perceived to confl ict with the reticence desired by artists or by the curators of their works. After all, the rectangular white box-shaped room with top lighting and a plain concrete or scrubbed timber plank fl oor is the norm for the display of a great deal of modern or contemporary art, adapted from the aesthetic of artist’s studios in several great cities. Artists desire environments that suit their work: they generally don’t want it to be provided with a setting controlled by an architect intent on creating an iconic structure. There is also a current artistic inter-est in “found space” with its presumed “neutrality”—a kind of cultural blank canvas—though this fashion, like all fashions, may fade over time. Industrial museums also have an interest in converted industrial premises—they can offer exactly the backdrop for their exhibits—and it is possible to imagine any number of specialist museums where a relevant historic building could be appropriate: a museum of rural life housed in a reused barn for instance.

Perhaps the most important reason for choosing to retrofi t an existing building is the one fully articulated in chapter 15, which observes that such a retrofi t is almost always going to be preferable from the viewpoint of environ-mental sustainability. One can think of possible exceptions to this rule, but the point made in that chapter is that this is almost always the case in terms of effi cient use of existing resources.

So, having understood that there are all manner of fi nancial, operational and cultural inducements to choose to adapt an existing building, what is par-ticular about undertaking a museum project where a building is to be adapted rather than created from new? Since it isn’t necessarily less expensive to adapt a building than to start from scratch, it is necessary to understand not only what costs will be associated with putting to rights any defects in the build-ing but also to have a clear understanding of the requirements of conserving or reconstructing any valued historic fabric: the services of consultants expe-rienced in repairing historic fabric will be invaluable not only in getting the correct cost estimates but also in forging links with any heritage organizations with statutory powers whose approval must be sought for the adaptation.

Costs can vary substantially depending upon the approach to adapta-tion. The writer was responsible for parallel projects at Tate Britain and Tate


Modern in the 1990s, which were very different in the approach taken to the conversion work. At Tate Britain new galleries were inserted into an existing museum courtyard that complemented the heritage rooms surrounding them (also fully restored) and all were provided with a full range of museum ser-vices and plant; Tate Britain was not strictly adaptive reuse, but the costs and requirements were similar in nature and complexity, and those charged with upgrading or extending an existing museum will do well to pay heed to the constraints outlined here. At Tate Modern only the outer shell of the former power station building remained at the time the building was adapted, and the project was substantially a new building within an old skin. The cost per square foot or square meter of new gallery and upgraded spaces within the elaborate building fabric of Tate Britain was double that of the equivalent dis-play space at Tate Modern, although the technical specifi cations were similar. The Tate Britain project costs were roughly equivalent to a new build.

So all that can be asserted with confi dence is that adaptive reuse isn’t automati-cally less costly than new building but in some circumstances, given a substantial measure of client discipline and austerity of intent, it may be. On the other hand, adapting a building of high heritage signifi cance with elaborate fabric could well prove considerably more costly than a new building.

Having established the constraints associated with a new use for an old building, it is necessary to choose an architect to undertake the conversion. The writer’s experience of this process suggests that it is wise for the client stakeholder body—and especially its agent, the competition jury—to enter this process with a clear statement of its expectations to which all can sub-scribe, for there are pitfalls to avoid. The principal issue concerns client and architectural aspiration. If the client aspires to a conversion that will provide a clear signal of change of use equivalent to the kind of impact of what is sometimes known as “iconic” architecture, this should have been discussed with the planning and heritage authorities beforehand to establish the likely constraints. Similarly, there’s a discussion to be had about whether the adap-tation should go with the grain of the internal organization of rooms and spaces or should set about challenging it. The latter will almost certainly be more costly and more time consuming in terms of getting statutory approvals, but it may offer solutions to internal planning diffi culties that are intractable unless the existing layout of the building is changed.

In common with the modernization of existing museums, adaptive reuse projects may well face all sorts of internal planning problems. In addition to the concerns listed in section 7.2.1.1.2, these may include:

• planning of adequate delivery space; • provision of adequately dimensioned museum object routes; • provision of suitable fi re protection; • fi re and smoke separation and means of escape;


• provision of a building envelope that meets strict modern energy use codes;

• provision of an integral vapor barrier that allows internal areas to be suit-ably climate controlled;

• inclusion of adequate routes for electrical and data cabling; • segregation of wet services to minimize risk of accidental water damage

to museum objects;• appropriate relationships between different functional areas because

suitably-sized spaces are not available in the right places.

These issues are hard enough to achieve in a new-build project: they can-not be completely avoided in adaptive reuse. Out of this apparently totally negative set of constraints good outcomes often arise (and who does not know of a purpose-built museum that has failed to avoid at least some of them?) because the need to solve a series of problems where the outcome must be a compromise forces the client’s team and the Design Team into a close relationship where the concerns of both need to be clearly expressed and understood. All successful projects require such close relationships to develop and fl ourish, and out of them comes a result that belongs neither to the designers nor to the clients but to them both.

Adaptive reuse projects almost invariably come under very close scrutiny from a large range of external stakeholders, and it is in the nature of such a project that consulting with and informing neighbors and the public at large is of great signifi cance. It is often the case that a conversion project is very welcome because it has saved a well-loved structure and almost certainly breathed new life into an area that was suffering from the very economic conditions that had been associated with the building’s disuse. However, a museum must not be seen to take liberties with a well-loved historic struc-ture, nor must renewed prosperity damage the living conditions of neighbors. All these considerations generally lead the whole Project Team to be involved in communicating effectively with those affected, and this is frequently done with intensity and a diligence that is not matched by a new-build project. Museum clients reusing historic buildings should plan to make a substantial investment in project communications, but they should also anticipate a sub-stantial payback from it.

There are differences in opportunity and required approach during con-struction too. Adaptation strategies can be more or less radical depending upon the nature of the existing building and the possibility, or otherwise, of stripping it back to a shell. Some buildings are of historic interest only because of the contribution they make to the city or town: it is their shape and outward appearance that is important and within their external shell, subject to the costs and complexities of preserving that shell, they can be extensively replanned to suit a museum use. Such cases are relatively rare, as


with the potential for adaptation comes a potential for commercial exploita-tion. In such cases there can be an initial enabling project, usually funded by the building’s existing owner, followed by a planned conversion with a relatively limited set of unknowns. More usually, a building has historically signifi cant interiors that can only be dealt with as the project proceeds, so there are many unknowns that (although they can be predicted by means of a risk analysis) require the client museum to manage a substantial contingency held against those risks. This tends to require a more sophisticated approach to the management and procurement of construction, which usually places a burden of additional client-side management on the project.

Finally, it is worth considering whether the constraints associated with building adaptation and reuse and the measures required to mitigate them offer lessons to a new-build museum project. Awareness of the opportuni-ties and risks associated with location or with fund-raising for a particular building typology are equally worthy of care when choosing to build new. The good communications and spirit of mutual understanding of goals that necessarily develop both within the team and with the wider community of stakeholders during the adaptation of an existing building can be just as use-ful to a new-build team—they just take more conscious effort to foster. After all, when you start with a blank canvas there’s no excuse not to resolve the space planning issues that beset reuse projects. Whichever route is chosen, consideration of the experience of others never fails to be benefi cial—looking and learning from them is the best advice possible.

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

While most of this book focuses on the Museum Planning Team, this chap-ter describes the design and construction team (section 19.1) and the stages through which their work progresses (19.2). Special attention is given to the process of selecting an architect (19.3) and an exhibition designer (19.4). Finally, section 19.5 reviews the contracting options that museum gover-nance should consider when moving on from design to construction.

THE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION TEAM

Tom Seiler

The three main members of any successful Design and Construction Team are:

• the client or owner; • the architect, supported by the rest of the Design Team;• the contractor, supported by subcontractors.

Each of these is usually not one person, but a group: the client is the museum itself, while the architect and the contractor are companies, not individuals (although both architecture fi rms and construction companies are likely to be led by strong personalities). The subcontractors similarly are in most cases specialized companies, although a few of them may be freelance specialists. This section reviews the roles of each of the three main players in the planning, design, and construction process.

19.1.1 The Client

The museum as a client legally consists of the institution’s governance, centered on the Building Committee. The director and senior staff may play an active role in contact with the architect, but one representative should be appointed as the offi cial liaison between the client group and the architect and contractor.

CH

APT

ER 1

9

19.1

5 6 1


This ensures a single source of input and decision making for the design and construction professionals. This representative may be a member of the museum staff, but for larger projects museums frequently engage professional owner’s representatives, who are themselves construction professionals.

The client’s main responsibilities are to:

• provide a clear vision with specifi ed goals and objectives; • approve and provide a concise description of program and functional

requirements;• provide timely responses to requests for information;• understand and approve agreed fi nancial implications of the proposed work;• dedicate the time and resources to work with the Design and Construc-

tion Team to successfully complete the project.

19.1.2 The Design Team

The Design Team for a museum can be very large, depending on the pro-grammatic elements required to fulfi ll the vision of the client. A Design Team for a museum project might include any of the following:

• acoustician• architects• building envelope specialist• civil engineer• communication consultant• electrical engineer• environmental sustainability (LEED) specialist• exhibition designer• food service consultant• interior designer• information technology (IT) consultant• landscape architect• lighting designer• mechanical engineer• museum planner• parking/traffi c consultant• plumbing consultant• road transportation consultant• security systems consultant• specifi cation writer• structural engineer• theater consultant• vertical transportation consultant

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 5 6 3

Other consultants may be required for unique site conditions, special-ized building systems, historic building conditions, or distinctive program requirements.

19.1.2.1 The Architect

In most museum projects, the architect is the leader and project manager for all design disciplines. He or she coordinates the team’s efforts, distributes informa-tion, and manages the other Design Team members to ensure a comprehensive and coordinated design product. The architect’s tasks are generally to:

• research, analyze, and understand the client’s needs;• identify the challenges, problems, constraints, and design opportunities

presented by the site, including existing buildings and their surroundings, and the Brief or Functional Program;

• conceive and direct concept design, schematic, and detailed design;• prepare technical studies, including alternative options;• advise on the need for other consultants; • prepare detailed design proposals for the client’s approval with cost estimates;• carry out detailed design of interior fi nishes, fi xtures, furnishing, and

equipment;• coordinate with the Design Team members to prepare construction doc-

uments (drawings, specifi cations, and schedules) for tender (bidding);• advise the client throughout the tender process;• visit the site to inspect the progress and quality of the work.

The architect’s responsibilities may be shared between the design archi-tect, who is responsible for the design, and the architect of record, an individual or fi rm that is often responsible for the construction documents. When the design architect is not registered in the municipality where the project is located, such a partnership may be mandatory. International design competi-tions often require foreign architects to partner with a fi rm within the coun-try who will serve as architects of record.

19.1.2.2 Structural Engineer

The structural engineer ensures that buildings and other structures can safely resist the forces to which they may be subjected. In general, the structural engineer’s duties are to:

• investigate, research, analyze, and report on the structural and substruc-tural conditions of the site, its immediate surroundings, and existing buildings;


• advise and work with the architect and other consultants on identifying appropriate alternative structural solutions, including the costs of these options;

• prepare appropriate calculations and assist in applying for relevant statu-tory approvals from building inspectors or others;

• coordinate with specialist sub-consultants and prepare construction doc-uments (drawings, specifi cations, and schedules) for tender;

• visit the site to make a general inspection of the progress and quality of the structural aspects of the construction.

19.1.2.3 Services Engineers

Engineers familiar with mechanical, electrical, plumbing, lighting, and other services will also be needed. The service engineers’ duties are to:

• investigate, analyze, and report on the optimum design, installation, and services as regards the comfort, safety and convenience, costs in use, and life-cycle costing of the proposed museum;

• advise and work with the architect and other consultants on identifying appropriate proposals, including alternatives and costs;

• prepare appropriate calculations and assist in applying for approvals;• coordinate with other consultants and prepare construction documents

(drawings, specifi cations, and schedules) for tender documents;• visit the site to make a general inspection of the progress and the quality

of services installation;• provide operational and maintenance advice.

Mechanical engineers and lighting designers should be incorporated early in the design process, as an environment conducive to preserving artifacts, specimens, or works of art while they are being effectively displayed is a prime consideration affecting all aspects of gallery design. Most other consultants should review the selected schematic design to ensure their input can be effec-tively incorporated into the design as it becomes developed and documented.

19.1.2.4 Landscape Architect

In museum projects that have external spaces, the services of a landscape architect will help to ensure that best use is made of these resources as a setting to complement the building and possibly display some parts of the collection in a beautiful and functional setting. This is particularly critical on sites where several buildings form a composition around a central outdoor space or series of spaces.


The role of the landscape architect, in collaboration with the building’s architect and other consultants, is to:

• research and analyze the client’s needs in relation to external spaces;• study the site, surroundings, climate, and native plant materials;• prepare concept studies for hard and soft landscapes;• provide detailed design proposals for landscaping;• assist in applying for approvals;• coordinate with the Design Team members and prepare construction

documents (drawings, specifi cations, and schedules) for tender;• visit the site to inspect progress and the quality of the landscape work;• advise on the maintenance of the landscape.

19.1.3 The Contractor

Museum construction can be a very complex process requiring numerous building specialists profi cient in unique aspects of construction, from tech-nical site work to elaborate building enclosure systems with specifi c gallery fi nishes and highly effi cient environmental systems. Similar to the roster of specialists for designing the building, there can be numerous specialist sub-contractors to construct it. Although there are several methods of selecting a Construction Team, on most projects one general contractor is selected to be responsible for the entire project and the work of the specialist subcontrac-tors. The general contractor’s duties are to:

• provide a detailed cost breakdown for all construction that has been contracted;

• take responsibility for all construction on the site for which the fi rm has been contracted;

• select the appropriately skilled subcontractors to complete their portion of the work successfully;

• coordinate all efforts of the subcontractors to ensure that everything is constructed as designed;

• provide a schedule for construction completion and manage the team of subcontractors to meet the completion date;

• lead biweekly progress meetings and site inspections with the owner’s representative, architect, project manager, and subcontractors to ensure that the work is being completed on time, within budget, and in the manner it was designed;

• advise the owner and the architect of any proposed variations with cost estimates, executing only those VOs that are approved and signed off by the owner’s representative;


• lead fi nal construction inspections to ensure the work has been satisfac-torily completed in accord with the construction documents;

• compile and give to the owner all material and product warranty and operating manuals.

STAGES OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Tom Seiler

Stages of design and construction vary slightly from one country to another and can also differ based on project size. As Susan Carmichael observed when she originally discussed this topic in the second edition of this Man-ual, in Britain the stages are defi ned by the Standard Form of Agreement 99 for large projects, Conditions of Engagement 99 for projects valued between £150,000 and £500,000, and Small Works 99 for smaller proj-ects, as well as the stages identifi ed in the Royal Institute of British Archi-tects (RIBA) Plan of Work document. In the United States, the American Institute of Architects (AIA) outlines a similar sequence in The Architect’s Handbook of Professional Practice. Other countries use different manuals to defi ne the stages, but there are strong similarities that can be delineated in the following broad steps:

• Planning• Feasibility Study• Functional Programming or Briefi ng • Design• Construction Documentation• Tender Action (Bidding)• Construction• Commissioning

19.2.1 Planning

Planning is the process of defi ning the vision, goals, objectives, and require-ments of a project. The planning phase of a museum capital project is the subject of most of this book. It must involve the key decision makers and those who can implement the project—the executive director, senior staff, and representatives of the museum’s governing body. It can be accomplished internally with museum staff only if the appropriate experience and skills are in place, but in many cases it involves a museum planning specialist or an architectural fi rm with expertise in this process. The essential tasks to be accomplished are:

19.2


• defi ning the mission and key objectives of the project to guide the design process (see section 3.4);

• defi ning the extent of the project in terms of schedule, budget, size, and construction quality (see chapter 16);

• determining and prioritizing the client’s programmatic needs and requirements (see chapter 14);

• determining criteria for assessing potential sites or buildings (see section 18.1);

• advising on the need for consultants and other services, which may vary according to the size, complexity and budget of the museum (see chap-ter 17);

• outlining a schedule and allocating monies for necessary services (see sec-tion 16.5).

19.2.2 Feasibility Studies

Once an initial framework of vision, goals, project extent, and criteria is established, studies can be conducted to determine the feasibility of accept-able alternatives. In addition to the content described in section 2.2, a feasi-bility study may:

• collect information on potential sites; topography, land use restrictions, fl oodplains, boundaries, easements, rights of way, utilities and services, as well as the criteria outlined in section 18.1;

• establish a preliminary brief in discussion with museum representatives and other consultants;

• demonstrate alternative strategies for site or building use, internal and external spaces, and phasing;

• advise on the need for planning permission and approvals, construction regulations, and statutory requirements;

• review design, procurement, and construction options and cost implications.

19.2.3 Functional Program or Briefi ng

A museum planner may lead the preparation of the Brief or Functional Pro-gram for the museum, working closely with museum staff. Active participa-tion of representatives of the director and curatorial and museum services is essential, along with initial cost estimates by the cost consultant or quantity surveyor. The Brief or Functional Program must be understood and approved by the client before proceeding to the design process. Its contents are fully described in chapter 14.


19.2.4 Design

The design of a museum typically goes through three levels of development:

• concept design;• schematic design;• detailed design, or design development.

19.2.4.1 Concept Design

Concept design proposals are relatively cursory studies that provide mini-mal detail to quickly propose and test design solutions to site and building constraints. An architect may prepare several alternatives with approximate estimations of construction costs. Some architectural competitions require shortlisted architects to prepare concept designs, and select the architect with the preferred concept; even so, the concept may be revised several times after the competition has been won. The concept design with which the British fi rm Foster and Partners won the competition for the Sheikh Zayed National Museum in Abu Dhabi, for instance, bears little resemblance to the concept that was eventually developed into the later design stages.

19.2.4.2 Schematic Design

At this stage, the architect can develop a scheme based on the architectural concept design, including all amendments agreed upon to date. The work will include:

• drawings of fl oor plans, preliminary building elevations and sections, models and/or computer-generated images to illustrate the size, char-acter, and spatial arrangements (both internal and external), the kinds of building materials, the appearance and the kind of structure and services required;

• cost estimates and a project schedule with possible start and completion dates;

• advice from the architect and other consultants of the implications of subsequent design changes on project cost and schedule;

• applications for planning permission, listed building historic preservation consents (if necessary), and other regulatory or governmental approvals (more formal than the consultations based on concept design that might have taken place at an earlier date);

• presentations (if required) to planning committees, civic societies, and other local or national consultative groups and/or funding organizations.


19.2.4.3 Detailed Design

Working closely with client representatives, the detailed building design for the museum will be developed (thus in some locales this stage is called Design Development) by the Design Team, major and specialist consultants, subcontractors, and suppliers, coordinated by the architects and agreed by the client. Architects’ drawings, engineers’ specifi cations, and in some countries a survey of quantities by a cost consultant (or quantity surveyor) compose the developed design or detailed design package. It is at the end of this stage that quantifi ed cost estimates can be obtained, either by a cost estimator or by a selected contractor. The client must agree to this developed design package prior to the commencement of construction documentation.

19.2.5 Construction Documentation

Construction documents form the basis of the legal contract between the museum client and the building contractor by thoroughly documenting the scope of work to be contracted. Drawings showing work to be accomplished from site work and utilities to architectural plans, building and wall sections, elevations, and construction details with engineers’ drawings for all building systems are compiled along with specifi cations that describe every building material and product to be purchased by the contractor form the construction document package.

19.2.6 Tender Action (Bidding)

As described in section 19.5, there are numerous methods of selecting a contrac-tor for a construction project. In many countries, most contractors are selected through an open request for bids based on the construction documents, and typically the qualifi ed bidder submitting the lowest price for construction is selected. In some situations contractors can be prequalifi ed based on previous experience or their relationship with the museum. The architect may advise on and obtain the client’s agreement on a list of qualifi ed contractors—usually not more than six—to be invited to tender. During the tender period, the bidders assess the nature, size, and complexity of the project, its site and location, and the materials and resources required that will affect their prices. The tenders (bids for the construction work) must be opened at an appointed time and place. The architect, quantity surveyor, and project manager can appraise and advise on tenders submitted. Due to time constraints, some contracts for initial work may be awarded prior to the main contractor commencing work.

On a phased project, tendering may proceed directly with a contractor whom the client has employed previously or, if appropriate, a price may be negotiated with a single contractor instead of a competitive tender.


19.2.6.1 Construction Contract

The construction drawings, schedules, and specifi cations are the documents that describe the scope of work to be performed by the contractor and the basis of the construction contract. In some countries, other correspondence and supplemental documents can be considered part of the contract; this distinc-tion should be clarifi ed so all parties understand the local or national protocols. These documents along with the contractor’s proposal and legal descriptions form the contract between the museum client and the construction contractor.

19.2.7 Construction

The construction contract governs operations on the site. The contractor is responsible for the construction site until construction is substantially com-plete, fi nal inspections and repairs have been made, and it is turned over to the museum’s governing body for use. The architect and contractor will administer the formal terms of the completion of the building contract, including appro-priate inspections and transfers of manuals, and assist the owner in under-standing warranty terms and conditions. After all construction is complete and accepted by the museum, the contractor will create and give to the museum “as built” drawings that delineate any variations from the contract documents that have been made and agreed to during the construction process.

19.2.8 Commissioning

Commissioning is the process of verifying that building systems have been constructed according to the contract documents, work properly at the time of substantial completion, and continue to function as designed within their periods of warranty. Additionally, commissioning ensures that all warranty information and operating manuals have been given to the museum’s build-ing supervisors and that they have been appropriately trained to operate all systems. This process can be undertaken by the Design Team or a third-party consultant to ensure objectivity. Review of construction documents by the commissioning team should begin prior to substantial completion, and due to the warranty periods of some building systems, the commissioning process can take more than a year to complete.

THE ARCHITECT SELECTION PROCESS

Catharine Tanner

Selecting an architect is a major step toward realizing the vision of the museum building project and should be given careful thought and preparation by all

19.3


stakeholders and by those who will be working with the architect directly. This is true whether the museum project is a new building, the expansion of an existing building, or a renovation.

Whether the project is modest in scale or a large scope, the architect will be working with the client for a signifi cant amount of time, and it is well worth the effort to consider carefully the process of selecting the architect. A small-scale museum building project may last two and a half years from the beginning of design, while a large project could take six to seven years to complete, as indicated in table 19.1. Five years is an average length of time for a museum capital project, and so is assumed as the project duration in the discussion of critical milestones in section 21.1.

A well-planned and sensitively managed architect selection process helps to ensure that the design process gets off to a good start and contributes signifi cantly to design success by creating a good fi t of the architect to the project and the working group. The fi rst question is one of timing—when to select the architect (19.3.1); next is to choose among the various types of architect selection processes (19.3.2); then we may consider the design com-petition process itself (19.3.3).

19.3.1 When to Select an Architect

An architect should be selected once the parameters of the museum project have been established. This includes:

Table 19.1. Duration of Museum Building Projects

Architectural/Construction PhaseTypical Project Durationin months

Project Size/Complexity

Small/Simple

Large/Complex

Architectural Contract Negotiation & Award 1 3

Schematic Design 3 6

Design Development 4 8

Construction Documents 6 12

Tender/Negotiation Period* 1.5 3

Construction 12 24

Building Commissioning 1 3

Building Opening

Range in Length of Time - in years 2.6 6

* not sequential tendering


• the vision for the museum that the facility is to support; • specifi c project objectives;• all the components that are needed to describe the functional program,

building standards, and the area that is required (see section 14.3);• the budget for the project—including “hard” construction costs and soft

costs such as fees (see section 16.2).

One of the architect’s tasks is to balance these requirements optimally in the design of the building. Figure 16.1 in section 16.1 on right-sizing illus-trates the need to fi nd this balance.

Museums are complex buildings and have particular functions, standards, and operational requirements that must be met at a variety of levels. When an architect is selected with this information provided, it is more assured that the end product will support the aspirations and activities of the institu-tion. Hence, the architect selection process should be formally initiated only once the project scope is defi ned and the Functional Program (or at least a Facility Strategy) has been prepared. The Functional Program (described in section 14.3) provides a clear and detailed delineation of the area require-ments for all the museum components, a space list describing function and size, information on the relationships between the spaces, and a description of how the building should function and operate. It also describes specifi c functional requirements for building-wide systems and standards, such as security needs, environmental control requirements for collections and access for visitors, staff and service or emergency personnel, as well as the movement of collections. The Functional Program will also note any special require-ments, such as sustainability objectives, energy performance standards, light-ing conditions for collections, exhibitions, and work areas, and the need for and restrictions on natural light.

The Functional Program provides a defi ned description of the scope of the project and provides a common base of information that the all the archi-tects in a selection process are asked to respond to. It also provides a baseline for the project and in that sense becomes an important standard in evaluat-ing the architects’ responses. If a full Functional Program is not available, a Facility Strategy (the same components except for the detailed room data sheets) should be utilized for the selection process. (Section 14.3 describes both documents.)

The architect selection process should not be the forum for developing the program for the museum project; rather it provides an opportunity to explore different ways of responding to the needs identifi ed in the program. So architect selection should not proceed until the program is agreed and articulated in the form of at least a Facility Strategy, if not a full Functional Program with room data sheets. This document provides the starting point


and basis for the design process. As someone who has advised on and man-aged many architect selection processes and competitions, I always fi nd it fas-cinating to see how many different and creative responses there can be from the architectural participants, all responding to the same set of information.

19.3.2 Types of Selection Processes

Museums are public buildings, and generally people associate the architect selection process with some public profi le or involvement. There are different ways to select an architect, and some may be more appropriate than others, depending on the scope of the museum project and the museum’s objectives for the selection process, the time schedule, and budget. There are three basic types of selection processes, with variations on each approach:

• By appointment: An architect may be appointed directly by the decision-making group, a museum director or Building Committee for example. In this case, the architect may be known by reputation, may have been recommended by peer museums, or may have undertaken work previ-ously for the museum and so is a known entity. A few well-known archi-tects decline to participate in competitions or other selection processes; their work is familiar to their potential clients, and the only way to obtain their services is by appointment.

• Qualifi cations-based selection: This is a process to select an architect on the basis of qualifi cations and experience in relation to the project scope. The process typically involves an evaluation of a response to a request for an expression of interest (EOI) that results in a short list of architects who are then invited to a site visit and an interview. This is a selection process for an architect, not for a design concept.

• Design competition: The purpose of the design competition, as the name implies, is to arrive at a design direction, approach, or concept for the museum. Depending on the scope and scale of the project, the requested product may be simple or complex, and the specifi cs of the selection process should refl ect that. This is a selection process for a design concept; the architect who is selected is the author of that concept.

19.3.2.1 Deciding on the Type of Selection Process

When deciding on the format for selecting an architect, the most important consideration is: What is the objective or purpose of the selection process? And what is the expectation of the result of the selection process? Is the focus to: select an architect to work with? Or is it to select the design for the museum?

If the primary focus is to select an architect with whom the museum can work well, so that there is a good fi t between the architect’s design philosophy


and the museum’s aspirations, then the selection process should emphasize opportunities for the architect to interact with the client team. In this case, a qualifi cations-based selection process would be most appropriate and could incor-porate activities such as interviews, charettes, public lectures, or presentations and visits to the offi ces of the architects under consideration. One museum director in Southern California arranged for a series of lunch meetings where individual architects were asked to provide a review of their work and their initial response to the site to a selected group of supporters and stakeholders. Discussion followed over lunch and a short list was created from this process.

On the other hand, if the primary focus is on selecting a concept design, then clearly a design competition is the most appropriate.

The length of time and budget available for the selection process may largely determine the type of selection process to be followed. Direct appoint-ment of an architect obviously takes the least amount of time and will be the least costly process to manage. The qualifi cations-based process that includes interviews for a set of invited architects would be next in terms of effi ciency in time and cost. Typically, the most time-consuming and expensive selection process is an open international design competition. The international archi-tectural competition for the Grand Egyptian Museum was one example—this open anonymous design competition was administered by the International Union of Architects (UIA).

Once the analysis is complete, the museum is in a position to decide on the most appropriate type of selection process for the museum project, which approach best meets their needs and aspirations and matches the resources of the institution.

19.3.3 The Design Competition

Design competitions typically provide a wide range of solutions that would not be possible by preselecting an architect. Design competitions can also generate excitement, discussion, and support for the project. Some form of design competition is often held to select the architect for a museum project.

The design competition is conducted in a competitive environment, and it is most important that the process is fair, consistent, and transparent. A well-planned competition should be straightforward to manage and benefi t to the museum, the architectural participants, and the community.

19.3.3.1 Competition Guidelines and Approvals

If the decision is to hold a design competition, the fi rst question to answer is whether there are any specifi c guidelines or rules that apply to conducting a competition and whether approvals must be sought from any agency with


jurisdiction over architectural competitions, such as a professional architectural association or a municipality. For example, the American Institute of Archi-tects (AIA) has published The Handbook of Architectural Design Competitions, which provides guidance (rather than requirements) on conducting a process for selecting designs and architects through the completion process. However, in Canada, design competitions must be conducted in accord with the regula-tions of each of the provincial architectural associations. Many countries, states, or provinces have comparable guidelines, often administered by an architec-tural association. So the fi rst step in an architectural competition is:

1. What guidelines or rules apply to holding a competition and what approvals must be sought?

19.3.3.2 Scope of the Competition

Is the architectural competition to be national, regional, or international in scope? This relates to the vision for the project and the level of involvement desired from the architectural community. Whatever the geographical scope, it is also important to clarify whether the competition process is to select only an architect or an integrated Design Team—including the architect, engineers, and landscape architect, possibly even the exhibition designer, for example. If the scope of the competition is to select only the architect (or architectural fi rm), will the other members of the team be selected through a parallel competition process or through another selection process altogether, or will the selected architect be asked to appoint them after selection? Step 2 in a design competition is therefore:

2. Confi rm whether the scope of the architectural competition is national or international and whether the scope of the competition is to select an architect only or a full Design Team.

19.3.3.3 Objectives of the Competition

In addition to confi rming the scope of the competition, it is also important to be clear about the primary objective for the competition. Is the focus of the competition to:

• Select an architect or architectural team on the basis of their qualifi ca-tions only (a qualifi cations competition)?

• Select an architect or architectural team and a design concept for the project (a qualifi cations and design competition)?

• Select a design concept for the project (a design competition)?


Identifying any one of the above objectives already starts to suggest a competition approach and emphasis on selection criteria:

• If selecting only an architect and team, it is important to be confi dent that this is a group whom the museum can work with in a process that will span a period of years to realize the vision for the project.

• A design concept is even more important. A signature architectural state-ment can become the symbol of a city, a region, or even a country and can become a catalyst for development. The Sydney Opera House, the Guggenheim Bilbao, and the Lowry in Salford are well-known examples of such iconic structures.

Thus the choice of objectives for the competition is an important one, pointing to one or other of the three types of competition:

• Qualifi cations competition: If the museum’s primary objective is to select an architect whom they can work with, a competitive review of submitted qualifi cations (including an outline of the philosophy of the architect and his or her approach to the project), visits to other fi nished buildings and offi ce or studio visits, and competitive interviews should be suffi cient to allow the museum to come to a decision.

• Qualifi cations and design competition: This approach places emphasis on both the qualifi cations and experience of the competitors as well as their design concept and abilities. The process typically involves inter-views with and/or presentations from a short list of competitors. Com-peting architects may be asked to submit their qualifi cations and a design concept together in one stage, or a request for qualifi cations may precede selection of a short list of those who will be asked to prepare a design concept. If a concept design is to be part of the process, the museum must allow the time and provide some reimbursement for this aspect of the competition to those who prepare them.

• Design competition: Whereas in the previous option the identity of the competing architects is known throughout the process, a competition that is based solely on design submissions is often anonymous (although not always), and carries with it the risk that the team who produce the selected design may not be suffi ciently experienced, may not have the capacity to undertake the project, or may not be compatible partners in the Design Team. On the other hand, a design competition is seen as providing younger, less recognized architects or fi rms with an opportu-nity to compete, which they might not otherwise have. Typically a design competition does not involve interviews or interaction with the competi-tors prior to selection of the design.


Each approach described above has implications for the cost, number of stages, and time required for the competition. In addition, it is both important and useful to consider any secondary objectives of the competition—such as gaining profi le for the museum or for the project, gathering recognition and public support for the project, or assisting the museum with fund-raising. The competition process can also provide opportunities for an exhibition of the design concepts, and for public input into the selection, if this is desired. The questions arising in this stage of planning the architectural selection process are therefore:

3. What is the primary objective of the architectural competition? Is it to:

• concentrate on the selection of an architect (or architectural team) to work with?

• select an architect (or architectural team) and a design concept?

• focus on selecting a design?4. Are there other objectives that should be identifi ed for the competi-tion, such as supporting the fundraising campaign or providing design concepts for an exhibition?

19.3.3.4 Open or Limited Architectural Competition

In an open competition anyone who meets the eligibility criteria may make a submission for consideration. The museum typically fi rst issues a request for qualifi cations (RFQ), followed by a process to select a short list of those architects who are invited to submit further information, usually including a design concept. A well-publicized open competition is likely to draw a large number of qualifi cation submissions and may locate a lesser-known but cre-ative architect who brings fresh thinking to the project—but a disadvantage is that more highly qualifi ed architects with museum design experience often do not care to participate in an open competition.

By contrast, in a limited competition, eligibility is determined by geogra-phy (national, regional, or international) or restricted to architects who have been preselected or invited by the museum. This preselection may be accord-ing to reputation or publication; as a result of visits to fi nished buildings; or recommendations to the museum by supporters, peers, and colleagues. Expe-rienced architectural fi rms with established reputations are more likely to participate in an invited competition.

Although an invited competition would likely be a more predictable and manageable process and the preselection criteria can be developed to ensure that the invited list includes architects with prior and relevant museum expe-rience, an open competition may either be a requirement of the procure-ment process or may be seen to be more refl ective of the open nature of the


institution or to provide opportunities for lesser-known architects. An exam-ple is the open international architectural selection process that we helped to organize for the Canadian Museum for Human Rights in Winnipeg, where an open competition was used in order to refl ect the international scope and open nature of the organization. Whatever the reasons, a most important question to resolve when planning an architectural selection process is:

5. Is the architectural competition to be open or limited?

19.3.3.5 One-Stage, Two-Stage, or Three-Stage Competition

Whether the selection will be made in one or more stages is still another decisive question to be settled in preparing for an architectural competition.

• A one-stage competition requires that the selection of the architect be accomplished in a single stage—and is typically based on either a qualifi -cations or design submission.

• In a two-stage competition, participating architects respond to a request for expressions of interest (EOI) in the fi rst stage by submitting their qualifi cations, on the basis of which a short list is selected to compete in the second stage by submitting design concepts for the project. The selected architect is identifi ed from the design submissions. The short-listed architects may be requested to make presentations of their design schemes to the jury or selection committee at the conclusion of the sec-ond stage.

• A three-stage competition begins again with the submittal of qualifi ca-tions in stage one, on the basis of which a “long list” of fi ve to fi fteen fi rms (possibly more) are invited to submit design concepts in stage two. A short list of three to fi ve fi rms are then invited to compete in stage three—the design stage—on the basis of their concept designs combined with a presentation and interview.

The competition process should be defi ned to ensure that the best pos-sible team for the project will be selected. If the intention is to hold an open competition, then it is important to consider what the level of interest is likely to be for the project and what the level of response might be. If a large number of entries are expected, the process required to directly select an architect out of these entries in a one-stage competition presents a daunting and diffi cult task to the jury members. An open competition for a museum in Eastern Europe a few years ago attracted hundreds of anonymous design concepts, each of which had to be evaluated both technically and aestheti-cally. Higher-profi le experienced architects are not likely to invest the time


and effort required for a process where the competition is high and the out-come is relatively uncertain.

An advantage of a two-stage competition is that the qualifi cations stage can be initiated with the current level of information on the project, once the competition process has been decided. A general description of the vision may suffi ce for stage one, with the Facility Strategy being pre-pared for the second stage, and the full Functional Program being given to the selected architect. While the overall process for a two-stage competi-tion will be longer than a one-stage competition, experienced architects are more likely to submit because the initial investment of time and effort merely to submit appropriate qualifi cations and experience is not as great, and the level of competition will be reduced in the second stage. In addi-tion, a two-stage competition will provide more sustained publicity and profi le for the project.

The three-stage competition typically includes the submission of a design concept in stage two and the selection of fi nalists who prepare and submit a more detailed design in stage three. This process provides more exposure to the architects and their process and working dynamic. The second and third stage each usually includes an interview and/or a public presentation and public exhibition of the submissions. Of course this option requires more time and is the costliest of the three.

Considering the importance and signifi cance of the project, the stature of the architectural team that is desired and the opportunity that the process provides to interact with the architect and increase the profi le of the project through public exposure and involvement will help determine the answer to the question:

6. Is the competition to be a one-stage, two-stage or three-stage process?

19.3.3.6 Eligibility of Entrants

The eligibility of entrants relates to whether the competition is national, regional, or international in scope and what professional qualifi cations are required. Conditions pertaining to the eligibility of competitors should be included in the Competitions Conditions document. A secondary question on eligibility is any requirement for architects from outside the region to associate with a fi rm registered in that jurisdiction. A further question is whether the entrants will be required to pay a registration fee as a prerequi-site to receiving the detailed competition documents and related information. The question to be resolved is:

7. What are the eligibility criteria for the competitors?


19.3.3.7 Decision-Making Authority

It is typical that the competition jury has the fi nal decision-making author-ity in the selection process of an architectural competition. Alternatively, the jury can be asked to make a recommendation to the museum’s governing body that has the ultimate decision-making authority. In many jurisdictions only the governing agency with control of the budget has the authority to make the fi nal decision. Architects are generally more favorably oriented to competitions where the jury has the fi nal authority in the selection process for the architectural competition. It is important to be clear on the question from the outset:

8. Who has decision-making authority in the selection process for the competition?

19.3.3.8 The Competition Jury

An architect selection committee or jury is responsible for reviewing and assessing the qualifi cation submissions and design proposals, selecting the semifi nalists (as required according to the structure of the competition), and either selecting the winning team and project or recommending the selection to the museum’s governing body. The jury is responsible for informing the museum in writing of the results of its assessment, deliberations, and recom-mendations at each stage of the competition. The chairperson of the jury supervises the writing of its report, in collaboration with the other members, immediately following the conclusion of each stage.

The composition of the jury is important and certain jurisdictions may have specifi c requirements. The museum, together with a professional advi-sor, will typically select the jury. The names and qualifi cations of the pro-posed members are submitted for review prior to announcing and confi rming their participation. It may be desirable to have international representation on the jury. The museum may be represented on the jury but should be in the minority.

The jury should be comprised of an odd number of members and should be a manageable size for convening meetings for discussion and decision making (at least three and not usually exceeding seven). Typically there is a majority of architects or persons knowledgeable about architecture (such as professors from schools of architecture) on the jury. The museum may either appoint a jury chairperson or leave the election of a chair to the jury mem-bers. The chairperson usually has full voting privileges. In either case, the primary function of the chairperson is to ensure that the jury’s deliberations proceed in a fair and orderly way. Professional or technical advisors are not


normally members of the jury and do not have a vote, although they may pre-pare reports or analyses for it. Decisions about composition of the jury should not be left until later, but should be decided in advance of a competition:

9. What is the number and composition of the jury?

19.3.3.9 Professional Advisor

A professional advisor is a consultant to the museum who is most directly responsible for planning, organizing, and managing a competition or archi-tectural selection process. The advisor’s role is to:

• defi ne the architectural competition process, organization, and structure;• assist in selecting the jury members;• prepare the competition documents;• provide procedural support;• advise the competition jury during the evaluation and selection process.

The professional advisor must be independent and objective and does not have a vote in the selection process.

19.3.3.10 The Technical Advisory Committee

The role of a Technical Advisory Committee is to support and supplement the activities of the jury by assessing the submissions at key stages as appro-priate for compliance of the entries with specifi c project requirements, and report to the jury through the professional advisor. This could include, for example:

• compliance with the competition rules and submission requirements;• compliance with functional aspects of the Functional Program;• estimated capital costs in relation to budget costs;• technical feasibility and constructability;• sustainability requirements;• landscape requirements.

The Technical Advisory Committee could, for example, include repre-sentation from:

• museum planners;• conservators;• building management specialists;


• engineering disciplines;• cost consultants;• specialist consultants (acousticians, for example);• the construction industry.

The Technical Advisory Committee will report to the jury as required at each stage of the competition.

10. Will there be a professional advisor and a Technical Advisory Com-mittee, and what will their role and composition be?

19.3.3.11 Competition Conditions

Once the framework for the competition has been established, a Competi-tion Conditions document can be prepared to describe the procedures and requirements of the architectural competition, which are then published and distributed to all competitors. The Competition Conditions document covers all aspects of the competition process and typically provides infor-mation on:

• a statement on the project vision;• background information; • project scope and description; • competition process and schedule;• submission requirements;• compensation and awards;• copyright, publication, and exhibition requirements.

Appendices should be added to provide:

• Functional Program when it is ready, or a Facility Strategy for stage one of a two-stage competition, or only the project scope and description for stage one, with the Facility Strategy provided in stage two and the full Functional Program being provided only at the end of the competition to the selected architect;

• site and context plans;• climate data;• other relevant information.

The Competition Conditions document can be prepared once decisions on the key criteria for the competition (answers to the preceding ten ques-tions) have been established.


19.3.3.12 Competition Schedule

Architectural competitions typically require between three and twelve months from the date of the launch of the competition, depending on the size and complexity of the project. In addition, time must be spent prior to the launch to plan the competition. Planning tasks to be completed prior to the launch would include:

• developing the building program;• preparing the Competition Conditions document;• determining the schedule;• setting the budget, including any prizes or compensation for short-listed

architects who prepare a design concept;• selecting the jury;• obtaining approvals for the competition from relevant authorities as

required;• establishing communication procedures and protocol for disseminating

information about the competition and responding to questions.

It is important that a realistic schedule is established that is refl ective of the signifi cance, scale, and complexity of the project and the competition objectives and process. The schedule should be carefully considered in mak-ing decisions on the key criteria and framework for the competition. It is necessary to determine a schedule at the outset:

11. What are the key milestone dates for the competition?

19.3.3.13 Compensation and Awards

The number and value of the awards for the competition should refl ect the process and objectives of the competition and acknowledge the level of effort related to the submission requirements. Awards will vary depending on the type of competition. Typically in an architectural design competition, the fi rst prize would approximate the fee for schematic design, and the total value of all prizes would approximate two times the fee for schematic design. In this instance, the prize for the winner would be considered an advance on the fee for basic architectural services.

However, there is also a trend in competitions to acknowledge the level of effort that is required and provide the same award to all the fi nalists (usu-ally three) in a design competition—with the winner gaining the additional right to negotiate a contract with the sponsor. In an invited competition, all invited participants should receive the same awards and stipends at each


stage of the competition. It is recommended that fi nalists who are required to travel to attend an interview or make a presentation should be compensated for their expenses. It is necessary to agree on these terms before launching a competition:

12. What will the format and level of compensation and awards be?

19.3.3.14 Communication Strategy

One of the major decisions in developing a communication strategy for a competition is the language to be used in the competition documents and all competition communications. Time needs to be allowed in the competition schedule for translation if communication is to be in more than one lan-guage. Other items to be considered in developing a communication strategy include:

• the level and quality of communication needs to refl ect the signifi cance of the project;

• defi ning the cost attached to developing a comprehensive communica-tion strategy;

• necessity to communicate through international networks and publica-tions, as well as national ones;

• including professional and technical associations and publications in announcing and communicating information about the competition;

• developing a website to host information on the competition with an open portion of the website available to all users and a restricted password-protected portion available to those competitors who have registered to participate in the competition, also providing a forum for competitors’ questions and answers;

• the role that a communication strategy can play in raising the profi le of the competition and building support for the project;

• developing a public participation program as part of the communication strategy;

• distribution of competition information to competition participants, including providing information on a secure website;

• recording interviews and presentations that are part of the architectural competition for use in documenting the development of the project and possible exhibition.

It is advisable to plan for competition communications in advance:

13. What will the communications strategy be for the competition?


19.3.3.15 Copyright, Publication, and Exhibition

The drawings and documents of the winning project typically become the prop-erty of the museum, which also has the option of retaining the materials and drawings submitted by the competitors at each stage of the process. However, the authors of all the submissions, including the winner, retain full copyright on their drawings until or unless assigned. Usually the competitor is asked to grant the museum free, exclusive, transferable, and irrevocable license to reproduce the work, primarily by way of photography, to publish it, convey it to the public by any means whatsoever, and to present it to the public at exhibition for pro-motional and publicity purposes. However, retention of the copyright on their submittals is important to ensure participation by major architectural fi rms.

In responding to and participating in the process, the competitors typi-cally agree that the sponsor shall retain unrestricted, but not exclusive, rights to display; photograph; copy; exhibit; or reprint, publish, or release for pub-lication any or all submitted graphics or written material, including draw-ings, narrative documents, and videotape productions without further notice or additional compensation to the competitors. This information should be included in the competition documents.

14. Clarify the position of the museum and the competitors on the issues of copyright, publication and exhibition, and include this item in the Competition Conditions document.

19.3.3.16 Competition Budget

The expense of a competition is borne by the museum and can be estimated by including the following categories:

• Overhead and salary for museum personnel and facilities involved• Fees for professional advisor (time-based or lump sum) plus expenses• Fees or honoraria and expenses for jurors and technical advisors• Awards of honoraria and expenses for competitors• Site visits of short-listed architects to inspect the site• Visits by museum or jury members to architects’ offi ces or previous buildings• Storage space for design submittals and exhibition space if needed• Meeting space for jury and for architects’ presentations• Base site model if needed• Communications and shipping costs• Public relations costs• Publication of competition results: exhibition, book, video, or website

15. What is the appropriate budget for the competition?


19.3.4 In Summary

The architect selection process, whichever format is selected, must be con-ducted in a way that is fair, equitable, and transparent. The Handbook of Architectural Design Competitions provides the following characteristics of a well-run competition:

• A conscientious client• A competent professional advisor• A thorough and carefully written program• Complete graphic and other illustrative materials• Fair and precise rules governing the competition• Clear submission requirements• A realistic schedule• A qualifi ed jury• Appropriate prizes and/or stipends• Arrangements for publicizing winning designs

Preparing answers to the fi fteen questions in this section and inscribing them in a Competition Conditions document with the aid of an experienced professional advisor before beginning an architectural competition is the best way to ensure fulfi llment of these standards of excellence.

SELECTION OF AN EXHIBITION DEVELOPMENT PROCESS AND DESIGNER

Joy Bailey

This book is about museum planning, whereas our companion book, The Manual of Museum Exhibitions (AltaMira Press, 2001) provides a parallel analysis of exhibition planning and design. However, many museum capital projects include a new permanent collection display or a temporary exhib-ition program as an important part of their appeal to both government and private sector stakeholders. Accordingly, there is a need to integrate exhib-ition planning, design, and fabrication with the museum planning, design, and construction process. Section 2.3 emphasized the importance of embed-ding exhibition planning in the museum planning process itself; this section addresses the question of connecting the implementation process for new permanent collection displays or temporary exhibitions with the implemen-tation of a museum building project.

Like the selection of an architect, deciding on an exhibition development process and designer can be one of the most exhilarating experiences in the creation of an institution. A museum’s permanent collection display is its pub-lic face— the vehicle through which visitors experience the museum’s mission

19.4


and understand what it is about or what it stands for. There are two phases in the ultimate completion of an exhibition planning and design process:

• Phase 1: Research and Needs Analysis• Phase 2: Selecting and Testing

19.4.1 Phase 1: Research and Needs Analysis

When creating a selection process, many people jump to an exhibition design competition, but it is advisable to carefully consider the best method for your organization based on organizational history, collection, staff chemistry, and cost implications. Advance research must be planned in order to create an exhibition that informs the understanding of the institution’s collection and is meaningfully interpreted to the public. The institution must fully defi ne its needs and wants during the creation of an exhibition. Among the steps that should be considered are the following:

1. Convene a meeting of staff: Discuss their vision for the exhibition. If this is an existing institution, conduct a 360-degree assessment of your current exhibition—what are the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and challenges of the present exhibition.

2. Conduct a best practice study: Look at other institutions that are either successful or unsuccessful in the development of their exhibitions. Iden-tify common threads: ideas, strategies, and tools that might be appropri-ate in your institution.

3. Arrange site visits: Interesting institutions and/or exhibitions should be seen in context. Meet with each institution’s staff to evaluate the effec-tiveness of the exhibition, asking such questions as whether it meets its intended objections, or is operationally effi cient.

4. Develop an Interpretive Plan: As discussed in section 4.3, an Interpre-tive Plan determines the museum’s themes and sub-themes, communica-tion objectives, and alternative means of expression. It is the precursor to an Exhibition Proposal.

5. Create an Exhibition Committee (EC): Ensure representation from the institution’s functional areas as well as outside specialists as may be necessary.

Based on the information gained throughout the research and analysis phase, especially on the Interpretive Plan, at the conclusion of Phase 1 the Exhibition Committee should complete an Exhibition Proposal that:

• describes how the exhibition will help the institution fulfi ll its mission, mandate, and purpose;


• articulates ways the proposed exhibition will make use of the collections and research resources of the institution;

• confi rms the subject matter of the exhibition, its primary thesis and main communication objectives;

• provides a description of the projected audience for the exhibition;• supplies a summary treatment of the overall theme, approach, and visual

and interpretation strategies envisioned for the project;• establishes a critical path in which the contribution of each section is

plotted and coordinated;• presents quantitative and qualitative evaluation criteria and target mar-

kets for the exhibition;• recommends the budget, personnel and space requirements, and sponsor-

ship goals for the exhibition (these should be reviewed and approved or revised by senior management);

• determines the type of exhibition development process that will be the best fi t for the institution.

Deciding on the most effective exhibition design process should include a consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of in-house versus out-sourced design development. Some museums that used to have in-house design capability have abandoned it in order to enjoy the greater fl exibility of contracting each major exhibition separately; yet even those institutions need to keep at least some graphic design capability and often retain some in-house design capacity for smaller projects. Table 19.2 presents some of the key advantages and disadvantages of in-house and out-sourced exhibition development and design processes.

19.4.2 Phase 2: Selecting and Testing

Based on the recommendations of the Exhibition Committee (EC), the institution’s staff and board should move forward with the approved process. If the EC decides to outsource exhibition design as well as production, it can choose to issue a sole-source contract, disseminate a request for qualifi -cations (RFQ) or proposals (RFP), and/or hold a design competition. The three main options are:

• Sole-source contract or “no-bid contract”: A contract is awarded to only one company or team without consideration of other companies or teams. This is usually due to the museum’s previous positive experience with that fi rm.

• Request for qualifi cations and/or proposals: Using the Interpretive Plan and the Exhibition Proposal as the brief for the request, the museum


Table 19.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of In-House and Out-Sourced Exhibition Design

In-house exhibition development and design

Advantages Disadvantages

• Museum staff already know many aspects of the mission, mandate, collections, regarding content and rationale for the exhibition

• Ability to accommodate changes in schedule, budget, shifts in institutional priorities

• Known levels of performance and quality from team members

• Established channels of communication

• Prior knowledge of how exhibit approaches and strategies are likely to work in the context of the institution

• Potential confusion of different institutional projects and priorities

• Greater diffi culty in holding team to established budgets and schedules because work is not governed by contract

• Levels of performance may not be high in required areas, owing to restrictions of budget, time and available personnel

• Higher staff costs for the institution

• Because of other institutional duties, some staff may lack time to keep abreast of latest developments in the fi eld

Outsourced exhibition development and design

Advantages Disadvantages

• Assured fi xed budget

• Fully managed project and schedule ensuring timely completion of the project

• Clearly established communication channels

• Reduced staff costs to the museum. Costs are expended on an as-needed basis usually as part of a capital cost

• New perspectives with and awareness of latest developments in the fi eld and required technical and creative skills

• The contracted team will be more responsive and accountable because work is governed by contract

• Changes later in the process result in additional costs

• An in-house staff representative is still needed to review and approve all work by outside contractors to ensure quality control

• Contract must be carefully drafted and administered to ensure satisfactory result to museum

• May require greater learning curve to understand content and rationale for the project

• Staff does not learn and develop from the experience of doing the exhibition in-house


fi rst posts online or sends to a preselected list an RFQ, inviting exhibition design fi rms to respond with their qualifi cations and experience in com-parable museums; the museum then selects a short list from among those who responded to the RFQ and sends them an RFP, enclosing the brief and asking them to develop a costed proposal to undertake the work. The museum may select the preferred fi rm directly or may appoint a jury who will recommend one of the short-listed fi rms, possibly after each of them has presented their proposals at an interview.

• Design competition: Whereas the previous method is aimed at selecting a design fi rm, a design competition has the objective of actually choosing an exhibition design on the basis of a design concept that each short-listed fi rm submits. The museum follows the same sequence of RFQ/RFP, but in the RFP specifi es the need for each short-listed fi rm to present a design concept for the exhibition. Depending on the level of detail or the extent of documentation requested (for example, is a model required?), there may be a need to provide an honorarium for the second- and third-place teams, while the team awarded fi rst place in the competi-tion will be invited to negotiate a contract to complete the design of the exhibition. Like the previous method, the design competition may be open, in which case the original RFQ is posted online for any interested fi rm to bid on, or it may be an invited competition, in which case the museum may not bother with the RFQ but simply go directly to an RFP that requests a design concept as part of the proposal.

Whether the museum opts to outsource or develop the exhibition in-house, the methods, skills, and personnel involved in the creation of an exhi-bition vary widely. Table 19.3 outlines the personnel and positions needed for an Exhibition Design Team. Roles of the Exhibition Design Team leaders who are marked with an asterisk (*) in table 19.3 are as follows:

Exhibition Team Coordinator: Facilitates meetings of the client team and keeps communication fl owing between the client and Design Team; is the responsible client representative who can sign off approved variation orders, and who will authorize payments to the Design and Fabrication Team upon approval of each stage of deliverables.

Project Manager (PM): Assumes responsibility for the quality and timely work of the whole team. Delivers consistently on budget and coor-dinates with architects, museum leadership and staff, and all contractors. A good exhibition project manager today should have relevant experience in designing high-quality interactive exhibits with multimedia components and reconstructed environments, as well as expertise in more conventional display cases and graphics. The PM must be able to integrate any audiovisual pro-ductions such as a destination fi lm or video and an online virtual exhibition as well as the three-dimensional physical exhibition.


Table 19.3. Personnel and Positions Needed for an Exhibition Design Team

Exhibition Committee Responsibilities

*Exhibition team coordinator (in-house or contracted)

• Develop RFQ/ RFP

• Respond to questions pertaining to the RFQ/ RFP

• Create a criteria ranking system for responses

• Technical checks of submittals

• Facilitate submittal discussion meeting with client team

• Interview of short-listed exhibition designers at their presentations, and selection

• Announce selected Exhibition Design Team

Senior staff—a representative of each of the museum’s functional areas, as listed in this section

Subject-area specialists

• Review RFQ and RFP documents and advise changes prior to distribution

• Read and review responses thoroughly

• Attend and participate in Review Panel meetings

• Select top fi nalists to receive RFP of the client team

• Recommend preferred Design Team

Design Team Members

*Project Manager

• Designers—3D, 2D

• AV/multimedia specialists

• Acousticians

• Graphic designers

• Content developers

• Prepare conceptual, schematic, and detailed designs for review, amendment, and approval

• Prepare documentation and specifi cations for tender (bidding process) for fabricators

Construction team

*Fabricators

• Model makers

• Mount makers

• Case makers

• Graphics Producers

• Woodworkers

• Multimedia or audiovisual show production

• Software specialists

• Build and install the exhibits to the detailed specifi cations

• Produce the audiovisual or multimedia programs for presentation as part of the exhibition


Many contemporary exhibitions involve a wide range of subcontractors—model-makers, mannequin suppliers, mount-makers, lighting designers and suppliers, carpenters, casework manufacturers, movie-makers, software special-ists, and so on and on. The PM must advise the client on the optimal way to “package” the contracts for the exhibition—whether all or many of the subcon-tracts should be grouped together under a prime contract with a general exhibi-tion fabricator or not; very often audiovisual production and online production are contracted separately, while all the three-dimensional components may be grouped together under one contract with a general exhibition fabricator.

Another major concern of the exhibition project manager is coordination with the building project manager. Their schedules overlap, exhibition planning and design should begin about the same time or very soon after building plan-ning and design. Exhibit infrastructure may be fabricated elsewhere for delivery to the site only when the contractor can hand over a clean, dry building. In practice, due to the pressure of preannounced building and exhibition opening deadlines, it very often becomes necessary for exhibition fi xtures and furnishings (such as display cases) to begin installation while the contractor’s employees are still at work applying fi nishes to the building. Of course the exhibition PM will try to hold back installation of artifacts, specimens, or works of art until after building work is fi nished, but even the installation of display cases and interac-tive exhibits can be dangerous, as they are exposed to dust, paint, and accidents that can happen when other workers are in the building engaged on unrelated tasks. Sometimes very large artifacts must be put in place before building ele-ments are completed around them, because they are too large to be moved into the gallery once it is completed. Both the building project manager and the exhibition project manager will try to avoid convergence of building construc-tion with exhibition installation, but deadlines sometimes make it unavoidable.

An important reason to engage the exhibition PM at the same time as the building PM is to ensure that the exhibition budget is not expended on cost overruns on the building. Construction costs very often increase due to a wide range of factors, such as supply of materials that are beyond the control of the client or the building contractor. If building VOs are approved and paid for with funds that were intended for the exhibition, the result can be a fi ne museum building with exhibits that look no different from what was in the old building, or in any case are lacking any of the meaningful components that could have been added, especially if these involve high-tech applications, which are the drivers of higher exhibition costs. A zealous exhibition PM will aim to preserve the exhibition budget, and resist the temptation of the Build-ing Construction Team to transfer funds to meet their overruns.

Another question that often arises between project management of the building and that of the exhibits is where the building ends and the exhibition begins—which inevitably is a budget question. If an exhibit requires a support structure integrated into the fl oor or ceiling, is that part of the building or is


it to be paid for from the exhibition budget? The building contract extends to general illumination of the galleries, but precisely at what point does the exhibi-tion contract take over responsibility for task lights on the exhibits? These and similar issues should be resolved at the contract stage. Even so, often enough they become problematic, especially if variation orders are involved.

Fabricators: Must have demonstrated profi ciency in building and install-ing high-quality exhibits of diverse presentation modes as required by the Interpretive Plan and the Exhibition Proposal—interactive exhibits, artifact-based presentation, multimedia installations, and integrated and authentic reconstructed environments, as well as display cases, plinths, and paintings. Fabricators must demonstrate a proven reputation for world-class museum standard quality workmanship and on-site installation that is done on time, on budget, and in coordination with all other contractors on-site.

A frequent client mistake in selecting exhibition designers or fabricators is to choose low-end bids in the hope of holding costs down. The result is very often a succession of variation orders (VOs) as the real costs are found to be unavoidable. An experienced PM should be able to warn against accepting such “low-ball” bids that only lead to grief as a constant stream of VOs must be approved and paid for.

Multimedia/Show Production: contractors must have a proven track record of developing unique audiovisual or multimedia shows in the museum environment, using and programming high-quality state-of-the-art cutting-edge technology. The Multimedia/Show Production Team must be expe-rienced at providing high-quality results based on authentic research and creativity. The fi rm must demonstrate experience in contributing to exhibi-tion design projects and working with exhibition designers and fabricators, including practice in creating and presenting storyboards and a willingness to follow and respect the direction of the museum staff, consultants, and design-ers. Especially productions that include archival footage often involve exten-sive research as well as fresh “shoots” of new material for the show.

19.4.3 Design-build or “Turnkey” Exhibition Design

A fi nal consideration in the client’s preparation of an RFP for exhibition design services is whether the project will be design-build or “turnkey,” mean-ing something that is ready for immediate use. On this option, the PM and/or the exhibition designer take responsibility for contracting the fabrication directly; although there may still be presentations to the client for quality control and content approvals, the team that bids on a “turnkey” contract will include all of the necessary professionals to design and produce the com-pleted exhibition.

Many institutions cannot consider this option due to government regula-tions forbidding design-build contracts in some jurisdictions; many exhibition


design fi rms will not accept turnkey contracts, so the work is often led by fabricators who subcontract the exhibition designers. Those museums that choose this option do so because of two main factors:

• Budget: A design-build team can work together to ensure cost control—by anticipating design changes, working together to fi nd cost-effective solutions and targeting the budget toward fabrication and production rather than to a time-consuming bidding process for fabricators that often requires bidders to build in multiple levels of contingencies, especially if the fabricator is expected to carry multiple subcontracts, each of which may convey a degree of risk. The consequent reduction in the volume of construction drawings and written specifi cations required for exhibit fab-rication can result in a reduced overall cost to the client in a design-build scenario. This will allow more of the client’s money to be placed on the design/fabrication processes rather than on management. In addition, the design-build team makes an up-front commitment to deliver the exhibi-tion for the set budget, whereas bidding on the basis of the construction drawings and specifi cations that are the result of the design process may result in some unpleasant fi nancial surprises when the tenders are opened.

• Effi ciency: The design-build process is also the most time-effi cient approach because the Design and Fabrication teams work closely together to ensure that exhibits are prepared within the required time frame. This approach allows the Design Team to focus more on the important detailed design from which fabrication can be initiated. Since the Design and Fabrication teams are working together earlier, the fabrication pro-cesses can begin earlier, ensuring the overall quality of the product that only time allows.

The choice of how to select the Exhibition Design and Fabrication teams must be taken in the context of the contracting option selected for the build-ing. The following section 19.5 addresses that question.

CONTRACTING OPTIONS FOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Tom Seiler

All museum projects center on four basic goals:

• Vision• Quality• Cost• Time

19.5


A successful project is one that fulfi lls the aspirations of the client (the mission of the museum) and is completed at the specifi ed level of quality on or before the desired deadline and within the determined budget. Each of these four goals is specifi ed within the contract documents defi ning and governing the project.

There are typically three parties involved in the design and construc-tion of a museum project: the museum client, the architectural team, and the contractor who constructs the building. As described in section 19.1, these parties can consist of numerous individuals representing different interests, organizations, or businesses.

19.5.1 Factors for Contracting Options

Determining the best contracting option to complete the work depends on fi ve key factors:

• Project complexity: Museum projects can vary in complexity from small, well-defi ned renovation projects to a large new building or com-plex of buildings incorporating the latest programming, exhibits, building envelopes, and systems technology. Small projects might be handled by museum operating and maintenance staff with little outside design and project management assistance. Highly complex projects will require man-agers, consultants, and contractors with extensive international experience.

• Client’s expertise: Museum staff and board members may have signifi -cant management and construction experience that can be invaluable during a building project. Depending on their knowledge, staff and board members have been known to undertake the defi ning and procurement of smaller, distinct building projects. Museum boards often have a mem-ber who is an architect or construction professional to advise them on facility projects, help with project management or other consultant selec-tion, and provide general counsel on construction issues.

• Quality, time, and cost: Construction quality, project schedule, and total costs are always factors in every construction project. Projects that require high levels of fi nishes or sophisticated building systems create signifi cant costs that demand a slower, more deliberate process and are ideally suited for the more traditional design-bid-build contract. Quick, relatively inex-pensive, and simple projects can sometimes be handled through limited design and scoped by a preapproved contractor.

• Design aspirations: Many museums, in an effort to raise their profi le in the community, region or the world, hire an architect of international stature. These professionals demand signifi cant design control, thus lim-iting project contract and delivery options. The most common way of


implementing this kind of high-profi le project is through the design-bid-build process, which provides the Design Team with signifi cant design control, time, and client interaction through the entire planning, design, and construction process.

• Funding: Museum projects, due to their typically high levels of fi nish, sophisticated environmental control systems, and ambitious program-matic intentions, can be very costly and require several disparate sources of funds to complete. Governmental, foundation, and private funding sources may have requirements for strict accounting and documentation that can dictate certain contracting procedures such as public advertising of a request for design and construction proposals. These requirements may narrow the procurement and contracting options.

19.5.2 Contracting Method Options

There are four general methods for contracting construction professionals:

• Traditional design, bid, build (19.5.2.1)• Design-build (19.5.2.2)• Construction management (19.5.2.3)• Preapproved contracting (19.5.2.4)

19.5.2.1 Traditional Design, Bid, Build

The design, bid, build process is the option most used to execute museum projects. The client group will typically procure a museum professional to undertake planning and an architectural fi rm to create and document a design. Once designed, the museum or its project manager request proposals or tenders (bids) to undertake the work based on the construction documents.

This process divides the three major steps into distinct pieces of work and allows the client and the appropriate consultants to focus on the work at hand at any one time. This also provides for work stoppages during the process to fully consider the programmatic, staffi ng, operations, and fi nancial implications of design decisions. Re-scoping of the work might need to occur to align the design with the available funds, or the client might decide to stop the process after design to complete fundraising campaigns. This process takes more time but provides the opportunities for thorough examination of each and every work product to ensure high quality, cost alignment, and the fulfi llment of client expectations.

19.5.2.2 Design-Build

Some fi rms have the capacity to both design and build a facility. They have architects, engineers, and other designers on staff; hire other consultants as


required; and can properly construct buildings all with in-house staff. They take complete responsibility for all facets of the project: vision, quality, sched-ule, and costs. Typically, the design-build team works with the client group to defi ne the building program, create a scheme, defi ne levels of fi nishes, and enter into a fi xed-fee design/construction contract. In the preceding section 19.4 on exhibition designer selection, this approach is called by its alternate name, “turnkey,” meaning a process where the client simply receives the “key” to a building that is ready to operate, rather than waiting through each of the design and construction phases.

Contracting with a design-build fi rm for a museum project can often facilitate the completion of the project in a signifi cantly reduced time frame as some initial phases of construction can be accomplished concurrent with later-stage design items. Once a scheme has been approved by the client, structural engineers can make conservative assumptions about design loads and foundations and can begin construction prior to the fi nalization of more detailed information such as building envelope or interior fi nish detailing.

One drawback to this contracting process is that the design-build team may not have extensive technical experience on staff to successfully com-plete a complex museum project. Another disadvantage is that decisions and design assumptions have to be made early and decisively in the process and can then become constraints against future design revisions. An additional shortcoming is that, due to the compressed nature of the design and con-struction schedule, many design assumptions have to be made; as a result, there can be numerous opportunities throughout the process for misunder-standings about intent, quality of fi nishes, and complexity of detailing.

19.5.2.3 Construction Management

Another option available to the client is to hire a construction manager (CM) to administer and manage individual contracts between the museum client and numerous prime contractors, each providing separate pieces of the over-all project work. The CM is not responsible for all the work as a general contractor would be. The advantages of this option are that the fee paid to a professional construction manager is typically less than the mark-up (the profi t) that a general contractor would charge, thus the client should realize overall project cost savings. A variant of this approach that is often used for very large projects is to have the construction manager subcontract an exhibi-tion project manager, resulting in what is known as a “CM/PM” contract in which the exhibition PM plays a role for the exhibits parallel to that of the CM for the building.

As the contracts are between the client and the individual prime con-tractors, the Design Team might need to create separate construction docu-mentation packages, requiring more time, intensive coordination to prevent


missing scope-of-work items, and potentially more documentation fees. This contracting option should be decided upon prior to construction documen-tation so the Design Team can minimize these factors. There is no general contractor assuming complete responsibility, and consequently there is more risk to the client that all the work might not be thoroughly and comprehen-sively completed, coordinated, and delivered on time. Any disputes between the primes about who is or was responsible for what piece of work can be the source of much aggravation and result in unanticipated costs to the client to resolve. Consequently, the use of a CM is best implemented when scope-of-work items can be easily defi ned, thoroughly coordinated and precisely contracted.

19.5.2.4 Preapproved Contracting

In many cases, a museum has worked over the years with contractors to achieve building improvements and has a positive relationship with these contractors, who are in their community. Museum colleagues may also make recommen-dations on contractors appropriate for the envisioned facility improvement. Consequently, some projects, if they don’t operate under procurement restric-tions, can be implemented by a short list of contractors who are preapproved by the client group or its representatives. This can apply to both design and construction professionals.

This preapproval delivery system can reduce the overall project schedule but can limit the discovery of professionals unknown to the client who might be able to execute the project faster, at a higher level of quality or at a lower level of cost.

19.5.3 Pricing Options

Another aspect of procuring construction services is to defi ne the most advantageous and equitable way to compensate the contractor. The three most common ways to pay a contractor are:

• Lump sum (19.5.3.1)• Measurement pricing (19.5.3.2)• Direct costs plus fi xed fee (19.5.3.3)

19.5.3.1 Lump Sum

The term lump sum refers to negotiating, agreeing to, and paying the contrac-tor one fi xed price for the entire scope of work in the construction documents.


All construction delineated is included. The contractor will receive an advance to buy initial materials, hire workers, and mobilize equipment. The client, architect, contractor, and sometimes funding source representatives meet on a monthly basis, determine the amount of work completed to date, and reimburse the contractor for materials installed and services rendered. These monthly payments will add up to the negotiated lump sum. Any additional changes in scope, materials or services (Variation Orders) once agreed to by all parties would be added on top of the lump sum. Many museum construc-tion projects operate under a lump sum contract, since the documents clearly delineate all work and a concise price can be generated by numerous general contractors bidding on the work.

19.5.3.2 Measurement Pricing

Measurement pricing is used when the total scope of work for a project is not clearly delineated but there is a desire to expedite the construction process by getting a builder under contract. Contractors can bid on the work by giving fees for discrete tasks, such as installing doors, toilets, light fi xtures, and other small items as needed. This method is helpful in comparing contractor costs with-out complete construction documents and is typically used on smaller projects where the work can be broken into smaller tasks. It is imperative that the archi-tect create some level of documentation of specifi ed materials and products to limit misunderstandings about what is to be produced. Measured pricing can be used to undertake midsize projects but great care should be taken to clearly delineate all the work and ensure every trade is adequately coordinated.

19.5.3.3 Direct Costs plus Fixed Fee

Another method of pricing construction is to pay the contractor for the direct material and labor cost of the subcontractors and provide a negotiated fi xed fee to manage and coordinate the work. This method allows the museum client exact pricing knowledge and the comfort of knowing the contractor’s mark-up for management. This can facilitate a very collaborative process between all three parties—client, designer, and contractor—as the contractor has no incentive to provide inferior workmanship or cheaper materials, nor to create more profi t through Variation (Change) Orders. Direct costs plus fi xed fee is therefore an option that should be considered for some museum capital projects.

Whichever contract option is selected, it is clear that the implementation of a museum planning process demands close control over costs and cash fl ow—the subject of the following chapter.

6 0 0

MANAGING COSTS AND CASH FLOW

The preceding chapter has introduced the architect, the contractor, and other players in the implementation process of a major capital project. It has also made clear that controlling costs and cash fl ow is a signifi cant concern in many museum projects. This chapter introduces the cost consultant and reviews some of the issues and challenges that are likely to be encountered in the life of a museum capital undertaking.

ROLE OF THE COST CONSULTANT

Breck Perkins and Victoria Cabanos

The role of the cost consultant in managing costs and cash fl ow is to main-tain an appropriate budget for the hard costs—the construction costs—of the project in its entirety. Project planning and ramp-up costs as well as all design consultant and subconsulting fees are generally excluded from the aggregate hard cost fi gure, which covers the construction trade costs only.

Furniture, fi xtures, and equipment (FF&E) are also typically excluded from hard costs, unless otherwise indicated. The cost consultant must be fully aware of the FF&E plan, however, to understand the necessary infrastructure required. Signifi cant and complex supporting structural and mechanical sys-tems are often required and included as a component of the overall hard cost project budget. Often this infrastructure must be in place to support vari-ous design options, identifi ed but not yet confi rmed. These considerations extend to the requirements of atypical structural systems to support diverse and unusually heavy installations, often in varied arrangements throughout the building. The associated impact on the project budget must be provided for even before the desired options have been fully verifi ed.

Cost consulting can be done by different methods, either interactive in collaboration with the Design Team from early on in the design process or after the design has been completed. The interactive and collaborative

20.1

CH

APT

ER 2

0

MANAGING COSTS AND CASH FLOW 6 0 1

approach process is preferable and should begin at the master planning stage of the project. In the best of circumstances the cost consultant will work with the Design Team in a workshop environment, facilitating a detailed and inte-grated understanding of the design intent for the project as a whole within the desired preliminary budget. This understanding is especially important when designing a complex building or structure such as a museum. The most important aspects of the design must be provided for and sustained as the process moves forward.

Required structural and mechanical-electrical systems must encompass and support the full range of anticipated art, specimens, or artifacts that will be displayed in the facility, from unique historical and scientifi c artifacts and centuries-old works on paper to contemporary monumental sculpture or multimedia presentations and everything in between. As described in chapter 8, they must also accomplish the appropriate standard of care for the artifacts, properly controlling for the necessary day lighting, temperature and humid-ity, as well as any targeted objectives for overall building sustainability such as LEED certifi cation (see chapter 15). As such, museums are by defi nition highly technical buildings.

The cost consultant must make every effort to preserve the project’s design intent, making sure it is not unduly compromised in the early (or later) stages of value engineering. Awareness of the most valued and impor-tant aspects of the design with a fi rm understanding of the project as a whole is essential to achieve realization of the design within the confi nes of the budget. Unwinding the design story with regard to the full range of primary design disciplines, including structural, mechanical and civil engineering, site plan, landscaping, and any other primary design components must be accom-plished to achieve the design within the preliminary stated budget. It is also essential to understand the planners’ and designers’ vision for the museum-goer or patron to experience the institution and collection as intended.

Understanding the procedure and layout whereby the structure will develop and the mechanical systems will be threaded through the resultant building is critical to this process. An iconic museum building may be highly translucent, unusually spare and refi ned in its detailing, or in other ways very restrictive and unforgiving in terms of the opportunities for locating systems and equipment. In addition, all systems must be located with consideration taken for regular updating and repair, all of which must be possible with the least disturbance to museum patrons and programming, and while ensur-ing the highest standard of care for the art, specimens, or artifacts. Simi-larly, museum-quality standards for security, light levels, temperature, and humidity must be met and precautionary systems must be in place to properly display the collection while protecting it from undue risk and exposure and maintaining ability for environmental control.


As noted in chapter 8, once a commitment to museum-standard envi-ronmental controls is made, the entire building envelope must become espe-cially robust. For example, any thermal breaches in the building envelope must be thoroughly and carefully mitigated. Whatever precise set points are agreed, maintaining museum standards requires an unusually stable environ-ment with consistent temperature and humidity. Any excess humidity must be properly vented out of the building, without encouraging the development of condensation leading to an ice dam. Additionally, most iconic museum structures are designed to have multiple exterior fi nishes, and getting them all to perform to the same standard criteria is challenging, especially at the joints, where multiple materials meet. It is therefore critical to have a precise understanding of the issues relevant to the design of a robust envelope in gen-eral and the specifi c structure in particular. All of these factors and the above will contribute signifi cantly to the overall hard cost for the project.

Achieving the required standard of care for museums’ collections will also have a signifi cant impact on the hard cost budget for the building. Ensur-ing proper care pertains to the delivery, display, and overall care of artwork, specimens, or artifacts in museum settings. The Smithsonian Standard is employed worldwide and is recognized as the exclusive methodology per-taining to the requirements for maintaining environmental control during the transport and delivery of art. It is applied to the entire building interior and is designed to maintain a constant humidity of 50 percent +/-5 percent and a constant temperature of no less than 70°F and no more than 78°F (21–25.5°C). Maintaining such a standard has a substantial impact on the overall capital and operating cost of the building. In new buildings a dock seal is also required, a sophisticated air lock located at the loading dock where deliveries for new acquisitions and rotating collections will occur. This will ensure that the proper atmospheric conditions are maintained between delivery vehicles through the entry sequence of the art into the building.

The nuance of creating this kind of support for museums’ collections impacts the building cost estimates at even the earliest stages. The overall design must proceed with an awareness of these requirements to properly accommodate and orchestrate this process, which is as important to the resul-tant building as the description and detailing of the program spaces for public assembly and display. In addition, at this early point in the process, appro-priate cost considerations must be taken with respect to building codes and public assembly standards.

In design workshop meetings, the cost estimator guides the Design Team with regard to these cost issues and strives to facilitate a more inclusive and robust design narrative from the earliest stages in the work. As the design progresses, removing place holders and assumptions from the undeveloped design and fi lling in more specifi c information at all levels, things are ana-lyzed and put through a quantitative survey for building components and


materials for the given design. As appropriate assumptions have been vetted, validated, developed, interpreted, and integrated into the design, reconcilia-tion of costs and assumptions with the Design Team follows.

Early design reconciliation meetings are held to determine the complete-ness of the scope and to confi rm the presence of all building systems within the most developed version of the design and estimate. The Design Team will then go through the detailed scope and systems as indicated, line by line, to review the estimate, making sure the assumptions made by the cost estima-tors are within the designers’ desired parameters. The budget is then estab-lished as a milestone design budget. This will then be accepted or rejected by the stakeholders for the submission and the team will then continue on with the design (or redesign) of the project. At times, peers will agree to disagree over some of the fi ner points of the estimate but typically the overall budget should not be varied or exceeded by more than 5 percent.

At the conclusion of the above-described process, the Design Team com-mences the concept level design work and drawings. Systems are then better and more fully designed and delineated for the overall structure, the building enve-lope, the building plant, site work, and landscape. The full Design Team then goes through the same workshop process as described above for all stages and iterations of the design listed in section 19.2, including schematic design, design development, and the preliminary preparation of contract documents, with some adjustments to refl ect different components of each phase. For example, in the schematic design stage, especially when dealing with a complicated building envelope, a dialogue begins with various specialty consultants about such specif-ics as curtain walls, lighting, or acoustics, and with some suppliers of elaborate wall types or specialty mechanical systems. This is done to enable global sourc-ing of necessary components and materials for the best quality and price. At this point one must also thoroughly research anything that is not commonplace.

In the design development stage, this dialogue becomes more specifi c. In this stage there are additional opportunities to adjust the overall design, per-forming considerate value engineering to guide the overall estimate back into line with the designated project budget. By this point in the design process, things have settled in a bit more, the design is less plastic, and alternate mate-rials and construction methods can be selected, favoring those that meet the desired criteria while better accommodating the target budget.

The construction documents phase is not generally conducted as a work-shop process, as most components and decisions are already set. In each of the previous phases, “considerate value engineering” will be undertaken, with the cost estimator working with the Design Team to determine what is com-plicating the overall design and adversely impacting the cost. Together they will look for alternatives, such as different materials and mechanical sys-tems that might diminish the overall cost while still meeting the delineated specifi cations.


Ideally, certainly by the middle of schematic design, a project manager or construction manager (CM) will be brought on board to perform peer review at various points in the process. The PM or CM will offer an opinion on each proposed milestone budget and then reconciliation between the CM and the cost estimator takes place again. The CM provides a second interpretation at an early stage and at each subsequent stage along the way. This is done to provide a second opinion, with more objective checks and balances to ensure scopes are compatible and complete and that the required budget is adequate for the project. Bid preparation and strict reconciliation with the CM goes on continuously during the preparation of schematic design, design develop-ment, and construction documents.

COST FACTORS SPECIFIC TO MUSEUMS

Breck Perkins and Victoria Cabonos

Most buildings are in some ways unique and as such each has its own indi-vidual and specifi c cost-mitigating elements. Museums, however, are by defi -nition iconic buildings with no two alike. Therefore, there is really no exact standard for direct cost comparisons.

One consistent factor though, is that all museums are treasure houses. Cultural and historical artifacts, works of art, rare specimens, and precious objects of all kinds are highly valuable and irreplaceable. For this reason, museum buildings require special design and systems considerations to ensure adequate care, such as extremely robust security and mechanical systems as well as both a high level of entry/egress and restricted access to handle the ebb and fl ow of museum patrons through the facility while simultaneously securing its contents.

As noted in the preceding section, one major cost driver for museums is the need to maintain the collections at a consistent level of humidity and temperature 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. The cost factor is not only in the sophistication of the heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) sys-tems. This standard also requires an unusually sturdy design for the building envelope, to mitigate—or better, eliminate—the chance of any disruption of the required temperature and humidity conditions, thus avoiding the devel-opment of moisture condensation and thermal bridging.

All of the above mentioned criteria exert a signifi cant impact on the project budget. Complicated mechanical and security systems, provisions for emergency and backup power, and a highly refi ned and secure building enve-lope will all increase the overall project budget. In addition, museum build-ings are often designed to employ unusually high-quality building materials, adding another level of expense to the project as a whole.

20.2


LIFE-CYCLE COSTING

Breck Perkins and Victoria Cabonos

One of the distinguishing aspects of budgeting for a museum is that we are building a structure that is designed to have an exceptionally long lifespan. While institutional buildings in general are designed to last, museums are typi-cally designed for a useful lifespan of at least 100 years. Understanding the design intent and the need for a great degree of adaptability must be applied to all aspects of the design. Over such a long period of time many things, from the nature and specifi city of mechanical systems to the state of the art in handling and displaying the art and artifacts is likely to change, perhaps several times.

Consolidation of the physical plant is strategically essential to good long-term maintenance. Keeping major mechanical systems in discrete areas will ensure the least disruption to the institution’s programmatic functions over time. Mechanical systems must also have a degree of redundancy, ensuring the ability to maintain a consistent environment for the physical plant regardless of equip-ment malfunctions or power interruptions. The provision of multiple pieces of equipment is always preferable to specifying a single large one. For example, two smaller chillers could be specifi ed instead of a single larger one. The engineering team must ensure that a properly redundant design for the physical plant can actually run to its designed specifi cations even under extreme circumstances.

Additionally, this equipment and all building assemblies must be eas-ily accessible for long-term maintenance, updating, and repair without dis-turbing or disrupting museum functions and exhibitions. Dampers, hatches, access doors, dust trays, and other controls in the plenum must be easy to reach. The Design Team must also take care to ensure access to any trapped spaces and to provide accessibility for both long-term replacements and day-to-day maintenance and cleaning.

Maintenance considerations such as fall protection, window cleaning, facade maintenance, and accommodations for the required scaffolding must be taken into account when developing the design as well as the cost models for the original construction. These considerations must be addressed in the early stages of the work and are considered to be a component of the original hard cost budget. Standards for the long-term care of the facility must be set and consistently applied over time to properly maintain the building and the environment required to support the programming and collections.

Life-cycle costing is therefore helpful for understanding the capital cost of museums. Since these buildings are constructed with a view to the long term, it is possible to see the relatively high initial capital cost in the perspective of a long life-cycle cost, as much as a century. Life-cycle costing on a shorter time frame—up to fi fteen years or so—also applies to the museum’s mechanical systems and the exhibitions themselves, facilitating a more rational expression

20.3


of capital cost investments per year of the life expectancy of these systems. In both cases, maintenance costs are an important component of life-cycle costs; deferred maintenance eventually becomes an impediment to fulfi llment of the mission in many museums.

VALUE ENGINEERING

Lindsay Martin

Almost every project, no matter how well planned, will arrive at a moment when the costs associated with the building or the long-term operating plan are not aligned with the budget established. This is natural, and should be seen as providing an opportunity to review the project carefully, making adjustments to ensure that each and every aspect refl ects the values of long-term sustainability. For example, in the architectural design process it is natu-ral to undertake some value engineering between each phase of design so that costs can be managed and controlled as the building is developed. Expect to encounter it more than once during the life of the project.

Value engineering is the term used professionally for this review focused on bringing aspirations in line with fi nancial reality. Value engineering is a systematic method to improve the “value” of the many products or services—a building or an exhibition, for example—by subjecting them to an examina-tion by function. Value is the ratio of function to cost :

Value = Function/Cost

Value can therefore be increased either by improving functionality or reducing cost. It is a primary tenet of value engineering that basic functions be preserved and not be reduced as a consequence of pursuing value improvements.1 The concept of value engineering was developed by General Electric during World War II due to the scarcity of resources—labor, materials, and parts—when engineers had to fi nd substitutes. They realized that this forced ingenu-ity often resulted in an improved product and reduced costs.

Value engineering when done properly enhances long-term sustainability. Museum planners, cost consultants, architects, engineers, and clients (all of whom are likely to be involved in a value engineering exercise) must be care-ful not to fall victim to simplistic cost shedding, which can often lead to sacrifi cing key functional elements to meet the fi nancial bottom line. The following principles can be useful when taking a project through the value engineering process.

1. The museum’s future and long-term health takes priority over the archi-tectural design concept. The building is meant to be the home of the museum for the foreseeable future; some museums have been in their building for

20.4


centuries, and others hope that theirs will last as long, perhaps with improve-ments every quarter century. If the museum is going to be in its home for a century, it is important to ensure that it is really going to function well. In the course of a value engineering exercise, it is a good idea to revisit plan-ning goals and principles (section 3.4) to make sure they are still going to be achieved after value engineering. Do not reduce capital costs if the reductions will result in increased operating costs long-term; life-cycle costs will go up, even if short-term capital costs are cut, and the increased operating costs must be paid year after year. Embrace the challenge for ingenuity through the process and push for solutions that both reduce cost and increase functional-ity. Areas where investment really benefi ts museums in the long run include:

• the building envelope;• capacious elevators (lifts);• building systems; • well-wearing fi nishes;• wall construction.

These and other measures that reduce ongoing operational or capital costs are good investments for long-term sustainability.

Value engineering must be done in service of the cultural institution, not the architectural design—no matter how beautiful, how sexy, how compel-ling it may be. Architects have made great contributions to museum design, especially in recent years; but at the end of the day, signature design elements that have limited impact on functionality may need to be reworked to be less expensive, whereas vital museum functions must not be compromised. A building with conventional stairs and elevators may serve an institution far better than one with a fanciful expansive staircase and inadequate elevators to move objects from the collection.

2. Work collaboratively to evolve the concept to meet realities. Quite often things don’t add up as expected—that is just a part of the process. Approach value engineering with an open mind; involve key members of the Planning Team in an iterative conversation about solutions and the potential paths forward. Focus energies on how key concepts and ideas can be achieved in new and different ways, rather than dwell on those that may not be able to happen as initially planned. The reality is that the only way to tackle the dif-ferential in cost is through change and compromise. The best solutions are often found after much discussion and debate; don’t be afraid of friction.

3. Big gaps require strong measures; inversely, small gaps require a light touch. Big problems can’t be solved without major solutions. Cost estimates 5–10 percent over budget can often be managed with relatively small tweaks or contingencies built into the project, whereas a cost differential of 15 per-cent or greater will generally require a reduction in overall building area. An


important fi rst step is to look at the net-to-gross ratio (see section 14.2); quite often building designs will exceed the planned ratio. If that is the case, push architects and engineers to reduce the ratio as much as possible. If that does not reduce enough space, look at the space program with a critical eye: What areas can be changed or reduced to manage costs, yet allow the integrity of other elements to be maintained? Examine and evaluate the big drivers of cost for possible reduction or elimination, such as:

• Atrium Lobbies: They take up more space than required to manage crowds and reduce available area within the building as they often span more than one level. They will also increase operating costs as a huge volume of air must be conditioned.

• Theaters: Raked seating is often very expensive if a fl at fl oor with risers can do the same job, possibly more imaginatively (see section 4.5.8).

• Galleries: These spaces are expensive in both capital investment and operations; make sure that the museum doesn’t have more than are really needed to deliver the program.

• Kitchens: These are extremely expensive areas to outfi t and build. So we need to ensure that these are not any bigger than they need to be.

As recommended in section 16.4, examine the potential of phasing—can the building or elements of it be constructed over time to increase feasibil-ity and allow more time to secure funding? It might be more prudent to postpone major elements rather than to reduce the quality or impact of the ultimate fi nished product.

Planners and clients should also be willing to explore the feasibility of a multisite solution. As real estate prices in major urban centers continue to climb, the optimal cost reduction solution may be to build a functional nondescript building for collections and other operations storage in a rela-tively inexpensive area of the city in order to reduce building costs at the expensive central urban public display site. Offi ces or workstations for posi-tions that don’t have to be located in the expensive main building can be placed elsewhere—although it is important to note that multisite operations increase operational cost and thus must be carefully evaluated as to long-term sustainability.

4. Understand the implications of each decision—good and bad. As choices are put forward, ensure that they are evaluated properly with opportunities and drawbacks identifi ed by a variety of members of the Planning Team. This will help to move the identifi cation of solutions forward but will also provide a record of the drawbacks that need to be addressed in the future or through operational means. Building projects are complex, so the more limitations are understood upfront, the better prepared museum staff will be to operate and manage the built facility. Recording these decisions with their rationales will


also enable future generations who work to maintain, repair and renovate the facility to be informed in their work by the original intent and an understand-ing of why a particular solution was selected.

CASH FLOW

Ashley Mohr

Effective planning and management of cash fl ow is a common interest of all museums, whether their revenue comes entirely or chiefl y from govern-ment subsidy or from self-generated income. Even if an organization is creat-ing tremendous value, without adequate cash the institution cannot pay its employees, invest in growth, or seize upon new opportunities. Such a lack of cash, resulting from a volatile or mismanaged cash fl ow, weakens an organi-zation and can cause it to fail. Thus, the process of forecasting and planning for anticipated cash fl ow is a critical tool in achieving fi nancial sustainability, especially during a capital project.

Cash fl ow is the difference between cash coming into an organization and cash going out of an organization over a given period of time. Cash fl ow management is the recognition of this in-fl ow and out-fl ow and understand-ing the current and future cash position of an organization. Cash fl ow is a constant concern for day-to-day operation, but becomes even more challeng-ing once a capital project has been launched.

Cash fl ow can be understood as the lifeblood of an organization, as a steady pump of cash is needed to keep an organization healthy. Banks and investors analyze cash fl ow and an organization’s cash position on its balance sheet to understand risks and the fi scal health of the organization before lending to or investing money with the organization. Highly volatile cash fl ow or inability to turn receipts into cash signals a risky operation and per-haps an unviable business model. On the other hand, smooth cash infl ow and coinciding usage of cash can signal strong fi scal health and good fi nancial management.

A cash fl ow projection is a forecast of an organization’s cash income and expenditures on a weekly or monthly basis. While projections will be tailored to the specifi c situation, the fundamental process is the same for all organi-zations. To create a cash fl ow projection, you must fi rst have an operating budget from which you forecast each month’s anticipated income and expen-ditures. From the budget forecast, the cash fl ow projection takes only cash income and cash expenses, and excludes noncash items such as depreciation of an asset, unrealized gains or losses on investments, and write-downs on inventory or accounts receivable.

If the museum is entirely or almost entirely supported by an annual line item in a government budget, receipt of funds may be largely predictable,

20.5


since budget cuts are usually infl icted on the coming fi scal year, rather than occurring in the middle of the year. For many museums, however, some or all of their income is self-generated and may vary from week to week. For those museums, as time passes cash fl ow projections should be updated monthly, if not weekly, with actual cash income and expense fi gures to keep the projec-tions as accurate as possible. Periodic updates to cash fl ow projections enable management to understand how the organization is performing against plan and what actions need to be taken, or expenses need to be scaled back, to ensure that cash fl ow stays positive.

20.5.1 From Operating Budget to Cash Flow Projection

Before a cash fl ow projection can be made, the organization must go through a budget process. This is as true for a capital project as it is for regular day-to-day operations.

The operating budget process for nonprofi t cultural institutions begins with the organization developing a program that will accomplish its mission as far as possible within the coming fi scal year. Next, the organization creates a budget for what that program will cost. Finally, the organization creates a funding plan to accomplish the program. If the funding plan falls short, then the program must be tweaked, and the process starts again. Budgeting for a nonprofi t is an iterative process, one that may depend on government or foundation grants, individual donations, or corporate contributions or spon-sorship in addition to earned income. Ultimately, the fi nancial goal is for the organization to formalize a plan for a “balanced budget,” a break-even oper-ating budget for the year. As actual expenses come in throughout the year, the budget is updated monthly, or quarterly, with actual numbers replacing forecasted numbers.

While creating the budget is the fi rst step, the budget does not refl ect the cash that is actually fl owing through the institution. Thus, even with an accurate budget that forecasts break-even operations, cash surpluses and defi cits can occur due to timing of cash receipts and payments. For example, if a museum that charges admission attracts a thousand visitors who pay with credit card, and receives ten pledges for charitable gifts that will not be paid for several months or years, the museum may report income but it has not received any actual cash. In the same time period, the museum needs to pay its employees, pay its suppliers, and perhaps acquire a work of art. In this scenario, the museum will incur a cash defi cit for the month and will need to collect enough receivables to offset the defi cit or borrow on a short-term basis to bridge the gap.

Every organization has a unique cash cycle, some harder to predict than others, and some exhibit wide variations between the cash coming into the


institution and cash paid out. This cash cycle is sometimes referred to as cash fl ow “peaks and valleys,” and is a common occurrence that many organizations experience. A seasonal museum, for example, may experience a peak during the holiday and summer seasons but a valley during other months. Museums operating in highly seasonal tourist destinations are familiar with the effect that cash fl ow peaks and valleys have on their self-generated income.

Another explanation for cash contraction is growth. As an organization ramps up investment in production and output, it incurs greater costs, and there is often a lag between incurring those costs and receiving any fi nancial returns from the additional value created. During a renovation, expansion, or relocation, therefore, careful fi nancial management should plan for, monitor, and manage the cash fl ow position to maximize the value of the organiza-tion’s assets and achieve solid fi nancial performance.

Forecasting cash fl ow does not need to be overly complicated. The best method for achieving accuracy is to track the in-fl ows and out-fl ows frequently. Routine cash management reviews should be performed to monitor prompt collection of pledges and depositing of payments. Cash fl ow projection is man-aging information and going through the process to understand how and why cash is fl owing through the organization over a specifi ed period of time.

20.5.2 Cash Flow Management during a Capital Project

It is usual for any organization to incur a defi cit as it is investing in growth. For nonprofi t organizations, a common reason that cash income lags behind expenses during growth, especially growth funded by a capital campaign, is that there is often a lag between cash investment in infrastructure and human capital on the one hand, and the receipt of cash pledged to fund the growth on the other. It is especially important to forecast cash fl ow during this time so that the organization can appropriately arrange fi nancing to fund expenses in the interim.

Chapter 16 describes a capital project’s budget and schedule. For cash fl ow planning and management purposes, a related but somewhat different cash fl ow schedule should be developed. A cash fl ow schedule should track the following and the timing of each occurrence:

1. Institutional Schedule: Operations • Describe how current operations will continue in the future (see sec-

tion 21.2).• Describe new operations due to the capital project and how they will

layer onto or replace current operations.• This schedule should outline expense drivers.• The main driver operationally is staffi ng and facility operations.


2. Institutional Schedule: Program • Describe how the exhibition program will work in the future. • Describe how new exhibition spaces and program will layer onto or

replace current operations. • This schedule will outline revenue and expense drivers. • For most museums the main driver is the exhibition schedule, which

often dictates all other programming.3. Project Schedule: Construction Project

• Project should be broken out by phase and by funding source. • Phases include planning and design, construction hard costs, soft

costs, direct and indirect costs (see section 16.2).• This schedule will outline main expense drivers of the project.

4. Funding Schedule: Capital Campaign (see section 16.3) • A schedule listing funding sources, restrictions on the funding, and

expected receipt of cash should be done at the onset of the project and updated as information becomes available.

• Funding sources include private and public fundraising. • Endowment tracking for new endowment gifts should be created, if

applicable.

Next, a budget should be created breaking out key assumptions from the schedule that will drive the budget numbers. For example, assuming average salary increases of 3 percent per annum or an increase in staff in 2020 due to completion of the project should all be listed in an assumptions section that can be updated and easily reviewed. The budget following should link to the assumptions.

Cash fl ow projections should be made for each period of time and fi nancing secured before a defi cit arises. New accounting codes should be created to help track all project-related and purpose-restricted cash fl ow sources and uses.

Donations or bequests of funds that are restricted for specifi c uses are realized only once the specifi ed purpose and related expenses have been met. For example, if funding is restricted for the use of a major new per-manent collection display, the funds can only be realized in the budget once the new exhibition begins incurring expenses. The funding should match the expenses until the funding is exhausted. The restrictions associ-ated with gifts and the timing of realizing the revenue should be carefully tracked.

Gaps in project cash fl ow due to the timeline necessary to collect pledges may necessitate consideration of fi nancing options, the subject of the follow-ing section.


FINANCING OPTIONS

Ashley Mohr

When looking at fi nancing options for a nonprofi t cultural or heritage insti-tution, it is important to understand the business model. Most cultural insti-tutions have some earned revenue from their operations but the majority of funding comes from government subsidy and/or the organization’s ability to fundraise. Fundraising comes in many forms, including government and foun-dation grants, membership subscriptions, sponsorships, and private contribu-tions. Annual contributions from the organization’s board of directors are an important factor in most independent not-for-profi t museums’ operating bud-gets, especially if government arts and heritage funding has been slashed, as it has in many countries. Some private not-for-profi t cultural institutions today receive little or no government funding; fi nancing options for them will depend on two factors—future cash fl ow and the wealth and commitment of the insti-tution’s board and its donor base (see section 16.3). In cases where government funding does play a signifi cant role, the government’s willingness to continue to fund the organization at the required level is the key factor.

A capital project may generate two kinds of defi cit—short-term cash fl ow shortages and longer-term fi nancial shortfalls.

20.6.1 Short-Term Financing Options

When borrowing money from a bank for any period of time, it is critical that the organization fully understands its cash fl ow, as the bank will consider the cash fl ow the primary source of repayment. While the bank may also secure the loan with collateral, the collateral is not the primary source of repayment. This is the reason why experienced museum consultants warn against museums acquiring long-term or high-interest-bearing bank debt, whether for a project or to sustain day-to-day operations: most museums cannot generate the cash fl ow needed to pay interest on the loan in addition to their routine expenses.

A line of credit with a bank is the most common fi nancial instrument used among nonprofi t cultural institutions to bridge short-term funding gaps. However, short-term fi nancing is typically not appropriate if the bor-rowing will need to be for longer than ninety days. Other options include a “revolver” account for construction costs or a short-term bridge loan, both of which can be repaid by entering into longer-term fi nancing options such as a bond issuance.

Similar to signing up for a credit card, there are several implications to be aware of when securing a line of credit with a bank. The implications of a line of credit are as follows:

20.6


• Costs, the fee for the line is a fi xed cost, whereas the costs of borrowing on it are variable.

• Collateral is tied up; for this reason gifts that are restricted for specifi c purposes cannot be used as collateral.

• Cash fl ow is what will repay the loan and therefore management of receivables is critical, so the bank will want to see a good track record of this. It is also important to have a diversifi ed revenue base.

This “credit” can be expensive, but it may be worth the annual fee for the ability to use it when needed.

20.6.2 Longer-Term Financing for a Capital Project

In the United States tax-exempt bonds are virtually always the best option for fi nancing capital projects of not-for-profi t institutions because the need for cash can be a long-term one that could stall the project, and tax-exempt fi nancing offers the lowest cost of borrowing and usually the best terms. To be eligible for tax-exempt bonds in the United States a nonprofi t institution must be what is called a “501(c)3 corporation,” meaning a nonprofi t that is of the type described in section 501(c)3 of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code. Comparable bond issues may be available in other jurisdictions.

Eligible uses of tax-exempt bonds include:

1. capital expenditures;2. refi nancing prior debt;3. reimbursing prior capital expenditures;4. working capital; 5. fi nancing costs, such as the cost of issuing the bonds, capitalized interest,

and reserves.

A single tax-exempt bond issue may serve one or all of these purposes, but the most common use is to fund a construction project, including the acquisition of land, buildings, and related infrastructure. Proceeds from a tax-exempt bond issuance are not allowed to fund capital project costs where funds earmarked for the project are already in hand, as the purpose of the bonds is to bridge a fi nancing gap and not to allow the organization to profi t from low-interest borrowing.

In most cases, the bond issue will be repaid by capital campaign funds, and therefore a bond issuance is only appropriate once the capital campaign is well underway and appropriate feasibility and audience testing has been done to ensure support of the project (see section 16.3).


Nonprofi t organizations should be aware of the sometimes burdensome implications of a bond issue, such as increased work for the fi nance and accounting departments, increased compliance requirements, and increased risk. Increased compliance requirements include collateral pledges and cov-enant agreements to maintain available fund balances to collateralize the loan or to assure adequate cash fl ow levels to repay debt. This can require signifi -cant paper work and increased due diligence, monitoring, and reporting for the organization. In addition, having to pledge collateral can tie up assets. There are many options as to structuring the bond, however, and it is pos-sible to structure the bond secured by a guarantee from a foundation or board members, which can allow the nonprofi t organization signifi cantly greater operating freedom.

Tax-exempt fi nancing may be used when appropriate because it can be an excellent tool to aid and enable growth. However, nonprofi ts are not in the business of speculation and should be conservative in their assumptions on growth and endowment revenue forecasting. A bond issuance should happen only after the capital campaign is well underway and appropriate feasibil-ity studies have been done—both a project feasibility study and a fundrais-ing feasibility study—to ensure sustainability of the project. Board members should act as stewards of the organization to ensure long-term sustainability through sound fi nancial management and strategic planning.

6 1 6

RAMPING UP TO OPENING DAY

Amy Kaufman

Our fi nal chapter accompanies the reader through the exciting but challeng-ing fi nal months as construction is completed, the building is commissioned, collections and staff move in, and the invitations for the opening are sent out. Much of the chapter provides milestones and checklists, because they are invaluable to all concerned, as the team that has been directing the capital project hands everything over to the museum personnel who will operate the institution from day to day. Evaluation must not be forgotten as all involved focus on opening day. We end with a reminder that the real proof of our suc-cess will be experienced on the many days after that one, as a new or improved museum preserves its collections and serves its community and their visitors.

CRITICAL MILESTONES

Every museum capital project is different, and has its own drivers and dead-lines. In general, however, a fi ve-year planning and design process culmi-nates in implementation—construction during the last two years followed by move-in and installation during the last year leading up to opening day. A major ongoing activity that must be integrated with the building planning process reviewed in this book is the planning, design, fabrication, and instal-lation of the exhibits, which is the subject of our companion volume, The Manual of Museum Exhibitions (AltaMira Press, 2001).

Figure 21.1 illustrates the entire process over this typical fi ve-year period:

• Years -5 to -3 are the period during which intensive planning as detailed in this book must take place.

• Years -3 to -1 are the development period during which design of both building and exhibits should be concluded and construction must begin.

• Years -1 to +1 are the period of implementation when construction is completed, the building is commissioned, and museum staff will begin operating the facility.

21.1

CH

APT

ER 2

1

RAMPING UP TO OPENING DAY 6 1 7

Figure 21.2 identifi es the major steps in each of these periods. The following outline lists the major initiatives and procedures that must

be implemented in order for these milestones to be reached.

A. Planning (Years -5 through -3)1. Vision and Mission

• Institutional Plan: foundation statements• Concept plan• Public programming strategy• Planned visitor experience

2. Feasibility Study or Business Plan

• Market analysis and marketing strategy• Comparables analysis• Concept assumptions: space, facilities, public programs• Staffi ng plan• Attendance projections for fi rst fi ve years after opening• Earned income strategy• Contributed income and investment strategy• Revenue projections for fi rst fi ve years after opening• Expense projections for fi rst fi ve years after opening• Subsidy assumptions• Transitional budgets and cash fl ow for each year leading up to open-

ing year3. Board Development and Fundraising

• Create governance strategy • Develop by-laws and other policies to guide board and staff

Figure 21.1 A Five-Year Process


Fig

ure

21.2

M

ajor

Mile

ston

es


• Establish and ensure compliance in all relevant legal areas such as taxes, investment, insurance, governance, charitable status, and employment

• Recruit and train full board• Appoint a Building Committee and a Capital Campaign Committee • Develop annual giving strategy• Secure government support • Secure sponsors or lead gift(s)• Prospect for key donors

4. Collection Analysis and Development Strategy

• Quantitative and qualitative collection analysis• Collection development strategy• Permanent collection display strategy• Temporary Exhibition Program plan• Museum learning program plan

5. Facilities Strategy and Functional Program or Brief

• Space program: right sizing• Access, adjacencies, and circulation diagrams• Building systems and standards • Functional program: room data sheets • Initial capital cost estimates

6. Selection of Architect and Project Manager

• Choice of architect selection process• Short-listing• Jury recommendation and board decision• Engagement of project manager

B. Development (Years -3 through -1)1. Branding

• Undertake research to effectively position museum • Develop message points • Develop graphic identity and style manual • Create marketing, public relations, and community engagement

plans, including website and social media2. Organizational Ramp-Up: Phase 1

• Ramp-up and transition plan • Agree on hiring timeline• Agree to ramp-up budgets• Write all job descriptions • Determine staff benefi ts package and Human Resources policies• Draft employee manual


• Hire tier-A staff: strategists, managers, and content developers• Develop detailed business and implementation plans for admissions,

retail, food service, group sales, special events/rentals, membership, and other earned income areas

• Develop Requests for Proposals and identify vendors or contract ser-vices as appropriate for food service, security, or cleaning if these are to be contracted

• Develop full operating plan to encompass visitor services, retail, secu-rity, facilities, information technology, theater operations, human resources, fi nance, and other applicable operational areas

3. Launch Capital Campaign, Including Endowment

• Develop case statement/statement for support• Develop multitiered fundraising plan• Secure government fi nancial support• Identify and pursue major individual gift prospects • Solicit grants from foundations, corporations, and government

agencies • Implement full strategy

4. Collection and Exhibition Development and Design

• Implement collection development strategy• Establish public programming goals• Explore and develop public programming partnerships in community• Draft public programming plan with implementation milestones• Develop Interpretive Plan for permanent collection display and tem-

porary exhibition program for opening year • Develop Exhibition Plan and use as brief for exhibition design • Identify, research, and conserve exhibition and other public program-

ming content• Plan and design exhibition(s) in-house or on contract• Initiate evaluation to test exhibition and public program plans through-

out the process• Contract exhibition fabricators

5. Monitor Fulfi llment of Brief (Functional Program)

• Review architects’ drawings and engineers’ specifi cations for compli-ance with Brief at agreed percentage completion milestones

• Adjust Brief to accommodate approved variation orders• Adjust Brief to accommodate approved value engineering

6. Building Design, Documentation, and Construction a. Schematic Design (SD) Phase Milestones

• Obtain client approval of concept design, commence SD work• Issue, review, and coordinate 50 percent SD package


• Issue, review, and coordinate 90 percent SD package with owner and Design Team

• Issue 100 percent Schematic Design package• Obtain 100 percent SD cost estimate to ensure compliance with

budget b. Design Development (DD) Milestones

• Obtain client approval of SD package and budget, commence DD work

• Issue, review, and coordinate 50 percent DD package• Issue, review, and coordinate 90 percent DD package with owner

and Design Team• Obtain 90 percent DD cost estimate to ensure compliance with

project budget• Issue 100 percent Design Development package

c. Construction Documentation (CD) Milestones• Obtain client approval of DD package and budget, commence

CD work• Issue, review, and coordinate 50 percent CD package• Obtain 50 percent CD cost estimate • Issue, review, and coordinate 90 percent CD package with

Design Team and building permitting authority, and start build-ing permit review process

• Obtain 90 percent CD cost estimate • Issue 100 percent Construction Documents

d. Construction Materials• Issuance of contractor Request for Proposals • Select contractor• Negotiate and sign construction contract• Obtain building permit• Ground breaking: mobilization of crew and commence work on site• Complete grading and start foundation work• Complete foundation work and start above-ground structural

frame (the building is now “out of the ground”)• Topping out: completion of the structural frame• Weather tight: completion of the exterior enclosure (roof, exte-

rior walls, windows, and doors)• Rough-in completion of all interior framing, and utilities (elec-

trical, plumbing, HVAC, IT, telecommunications, security). • Inspection by government building authority.• Finishing: completion of drywall and install all fi nal fi nishes, fi x-

tures and equipment.


C. Implementation: Years -1 to +11. Communications Rollout

• Design and produce signage and collateral materials• Launch marketing campaign• Launch public relations campaign

2. Organizational Ramp-Up: Phase 2

• Finalize institutional policies and procedures ranging from fi nancial to disaster preparedness, and from customer service to cleaning

• Identify purchasing needs ranging from technology systems to col-lection handling materials to retail displays

• Begin booking special events, rentals, and groups • Confi gure and install support systems: IT, fi nance, ticketing, retail• Develop and procure retail product • Implement membership program• Source and develop retail merchandise• Launch group sales and rentals program• Rollout other museum products and services • Design management reporting systems to track key performance

indicators3. Transition from Capital to Operating Budget

• Collect all pledges to capital campaign• Review and adjust business plan as needed• Review and adjust cash fl ow projections

4. Fabrication, Installation, and Testing of Exhibits

• Monitor off-site fabrication of exhibits, test prototypes and schedule delivery of exhibits

• After building contractors vacate a clean and dry building with HVAC tested and meeting museum standards for several months (ideally), fabricators arrive to install exhibits

• Exhibits snag list resolved; fabricators provide as-built drawings, operations and maintenance manuals, and warranties

• “Soft opening” with test groups (such as school tours) to evaluate and tweak exhibits as needed

5. Staff Begin Operations

• Tier-A staff (administrators, managers) hire tier-B (coordinators, assistants) and tier-C (frontline) staff

• Develop and implement training program and materials, institution-wide and by department

• Develop schedules and opening and closing procedures for frontline and other operational staff

6. Commissioning and Testing of Building

• Start up and testing: ensure that all systems are fully operational; snag list resolved


• Substantial completion: turn over the building to the owner for installation of owners’ equipment

• Certifi cate of Occupancy: inspection by governmental authority to approve occupancy of the building

• Submission of close-out documents: contractor provides as-built drawings, operations and maintenance manuals, product and labor warranties

• Contract reconciliation and fi nal payment: agreement by all parties that work is fully complete and retainage can be forwarded to the contractor

7. Opening Day!

• Planning and coordination• Contact professional fi rms and event planners to support grand

opening• Operational rehearsal and launch• Press and donor events and celebrations• Public opening and accompanying programming• Begin tracking key performance indicators• Launch evaluation program

OPERATIONS DURING CONSTRUCTION

If an existing museum is expanding, renovating, or moving into a new build-ing, plans and decisions regarding the current operation will be needed. These include the following:

• Identifying phases for transitioning into the new space• Defi ning the visitor experience for each phase• Managing earned and contributed income and expenses against the

budget • Setting priorities• Assessing and managing physical risk• Minimizing impact on staff effi cacy• Deciding if it’s worth the trouble to operate during construction

It is a delicate dance to run an operation in the midst of major construc-tion. If a new wing is being added and construction is never apparent to visi-tors or staff because it can be generally segregated, consider yourself lucky. The Modern wing at the Art Institute of Chicago was a good example; con-struction was in one quarter of a large site, with the other three quarters able to continue in operation with minimal impact for much of the construction period. However, if construction will come into any contact whatsoever with the museum’s daily activity—with visitors or staff, causing noise, dust, and

21.2


disruption—another dimension will be added to the planning. The phased construction of the new Visitor & Administration Center, Parking Garden and other upgrades at the Queens Botanical Garden in New York was an example of an institution that worked carefully in advance—and then every day—to accommodate visitors, members, staff, and community groups dur-ing a major capital project.

The decision to operate during construction is not a small one. Boards and senior staff should consider the pros and cons: physical risk, lost revenue, and a public that will be annoyed by disruption, whether through construc-tion or through closure. To some it is an obvious choice to stay open, espe-cially if programming is scheduled, revenue will continue to fl ow in, and the museum continues to be a public hub on which the community depends. Others may have the luxury of closing down and focusing on the future, although even in those cases not staying open through construction is a costly decision if earned income is important to the institution.

To make a decision it will be necessary to analyze the following qualita-tive and quantitative factors:

• Will visitors and members be provided with an experience that is up to the museum’s standard and will the visitor experience build excitement for what’s to come? Will this be true of all phases of construction?

• Can the museum afford to forgo earned revenue from admissions, retail, and programming?

• How will members (and membership net revenue) react to disruption? To closure?

• Will contributed income be negatively impacted?• Will an interruption in programming disrupt any grants or sponsorships?• Will the conditions allow for visitors and staff to be safely on site?• Will the conditions allow for the collections to be safely on site?• Would a partial closure or a move to a temporary site be an option? Is

there an opportunity to cultivate a partnership or audience in a new tem-porary location?

The decision to shut down or to stay open must be addressed in a tran-sitional operating plan, with its own business plan and communications plan that targets both external and internal audiences. These plans should be care-fully developed as follows.

21.2.1 Transitional Operating Plan

• Detail project phasing including timing for front- and back-of-house closures; circulation routes for visitors, staff, collections, noncollection


supplies, and rubbish. Don’t forget to consider potential noise and dust pollution.

• Agree upon an approach to risk management that addresses life safety as well as collection safety.

• Develop contingency plans and options that anticipate delays or poten-tial adjustments.

• Minimize disruption by planning well in advance for moving collections, staff, workshops, and other back-of-house areas. A collaborative consul-tative approach with those that will be affected is a must.

• Consider phasing in relation to the construction schedule; partial clo-sures of different areas may be appropriate for some months, minimizing the amount of time when the museum must be entirely closed—if at all.

21.2.2 Business Plan

• Project visitors by phase based on the programming schedule and the anticipated ability to provide safe and pleasant access to public areas. Con-sider timed tickets if it will be necessary to control the number of visitors.

• Project earned income by phase, taking into consideration necessary dis-counts for admission to offset the compromised quality of the visitor experience, the potential of limited access to revenue-generating areas such as the shop, café, and events spaces, and a likely drop in membership sales and renewals during construction.

• Project contributed income, taking into consideration a likely drop in annual giving for operations during a capital campaign for the building or the new exhibits. Also assume that major sponsorships and grants are more likely during and after the grand opening.

• Project expenses, which could either increase or decrease during construc-tion depending on the size and complexity of the operation that is main-tained. Certainly, there will be signifi cant new costs associated with moving and ramping up staff, purchasing new equipment, and so on; but the opera-tion itself may contract during construction, so there may be some savings.

21.2.3 Communications Plan

• Carefully manage external communications through as many vehicles as possible. Be honest about what visitors should expect. Don’t forget that this is also an opportunity to test new ideas and promote future programs by inviting the public in.

• Ensure consistent internal communications to maximize effi ciency and levels of visitor service, and minimize staff anxiety, confusion, and frustration.


21.2.4 Collections Relocation

• Establish a Collections Move Coordinating Committee that includes curatorial, conservation, collection management, exhibitions, security, building management, and administration staff representatives who have the authority to get done what is necessary to safely relocate the col-lection. The chair of this committee is the person who has 100 percent responsibility for and authority over the collections move.

• Plan a budget and schedule for acquisition of off-site space if necessary (such as leasing a warehouse), for purchase of temporary storage equip-ment and supplies, and for recruitment and training of additional staff if needed. Also budget for renovation of the temporary storage space if necessary, for packing and shipping, routine cleaning and more exten-sive conservation treatment, insurance, photography, and reinstallation of storage as well as displays after construction is complete.

• Plan to document all stages in the process with images and records.• Develop a security plan for the move in consultation with insurers. • Schedule regular meetings with the project manager to be able to plan for

the impact of any changes on collections. • Check fl oor loading capacity against requirements in both temporary and

eventual permanent storage space (see section 7.2). • Consider using the occasion to complete condition reports, inventories,

digitization, or other documentation processes, so that collection man-agement and care is enhanced as a result of the construction project.

• Consider keeping the objects in place and boxing them off with dust bar-riers, but investigate vibration risks carefully before deciding on such an option.

• If storage and display equipment is to be reused, plan for its temporary storage as well as that of the collections.

• Allow time for running-in of heating, ventilation, and air condition-ing (HVAC) systems in the new-built space; if possible allow for several months of HVAC operation to ensure that environmental control and air fi ltration standards can be maintained.

It is important to note that regardless of how well the transitional oper-ation is planned, there will almost certainly be constant changes. A small task force charged with making on-the-ground decisions on a daily basis will be needed. Schedule short daily meetings during which the project manager or owner’s representative can provide up-to-date information to operational department heads. Embracing fl exibility, fl uidity, and a positive proactive approach to collection management and visitor service will pull you through.


OPENING DAY—AND THE DAY AFTER

Opening day is not the end—it is just the beginning. It is the time to put plans into action. As the opening approaches, both the Project Team and the institutional staff will be working hard to ensure the readiness of the exhibi-tions and programs, operations, and the building itself. A successful opening will welcome stakeholders and the general public into a visitor experience that will inspire long-term use of and commitment to the institution.

21.3.1 The Opening

You only have one shot at opening day—and all the publicity and excitement that come with it. Programming and messaging should be carefully planned and orchestrated to communicate the full mission and mandate of the institu-tion. Aligning opening activities with institutional goals is critical since this is the moment that the public will be collectively engaged in understanding what the museum has to offer the community and the world.

Stakeholder and donor engagement during this period is especially criti-cal. These supporters should be considered a key audience for the opening, and therefore must be addressed in every step of the planning and roll-out. For most projects there may be multiple openings, with occasions reserved for these most committed groups.

The three basic components of the opening(s) are:

• Programming and Events• Branding and Communications • Public Operation

21.3.1.1 Programming and Events

A Programming and Events Committee should be formed to create a bal-anced package of exciting events and mission-based programming for the opening, which may take place over several days or weeks. Parties are fun, but meaningful programming that relates to exhibitions, signature approaches to education, partnerships, and other unique positioning opportunities will tell the world about the new institution. A balanced calendar of opening events should include:

• celebrations and appreciation events;• exhibition openings;• adult programs, including tours and social events that attract young

adults;

21.3


• school and educator programs;• family and teen programs;• scholarly programs that demonstrate how the museum will contribute to

the creation and dissemination of new knowledge;• tech-based interpretative experiences (such as apps and audio tours) and/

or traditional publications;• signature programs such as festivals or branded interdisciplinary

programs;• partnership programs that position the museum among institutions

locally and nationally.

The opening(s) will likely carry on for days, with donors and stakehold-ers invited in for the earliest events and given priority treatment as thanks for their support. This will be followed by a series of tours, programs and parties for the general public, the scholarly community, and other key audiences as appropriate.

Depending on the scale of the events, it may be wise to outsource some of the activities. An experienced professional event planner will be especially useful in leading planning and production of galas, festivals, and other com-plex events.

21.3.1.2 Branding and Communications

The opening is the fi rst opportunity to execute fully a new branding and communication strategy, which should have been in development for months (sometimes years) in advance. For the fi rst time the museum can express its new brand to the general public with a building and exhibits that communi-cate it clearly. With the opening comes the potential for unparalleled press and media exposure at levels that money could never buy. To maximize this opportunity, brand messaging must be clear and the communications plan must be robust. There may never be another chance for this much attention, so make good use of it!

Institutions often hire public relations and advertising fi rms to assist with the communications rollout. Some continue to work with the fi rm that helped develop the branding and communications strategy, graphic identity, and/or website. Others prefer to undertake some work in house with the support of a specialized fi rm to support in particular areas, such as press and media relations. Regardless of how you choose to execute, the communica-tions activities should include public relations, marketing, and community engagement. Depending on the positioning of the institution your strategy may aim for regional, national, or international coverage—or all three. Spe-cifi c activities will include:


• message points and standard texts for describing the mission, program-matic offerings, and anticipated impact of the institution;

• press relations and publicity, including press walkthroughs and conferences;

• social media; • print, radio, and television advertising, as appropriate; • collateral materials such as maps necessary for visitor informational pur-

poses (in multiple languages when possible);• a user-friendly and informative website that directs potential visitors on

how to reserve tickets and what to expect on the day of their visit in addi-tion to other interactive features

• special interest marketing, including events, to reach neighbors and com-munity groups, professionals, scholars, educators, students, tour opera-tors, and other pertinent groups;

• direct mail and/or e-mail campaigns to drive general attendance, mem-bership, and retail sales.

It is recommended that a communications task force be established to ensure alignment around the above activities and events, programming, development, and visitor service activities.

21.3.1.3 Operations

As discussed in section 9.2, a comprehensive operating plan is needed to “organize the action.” Executing that plan culminates at opening, with the fi nal round of new frontline staff emerging as fully trained ambassadors to the public. For operations staff, the opening means focusing on providing the best possible visitor experience while ensuring the protection of visitors and collections.

To test operations, some museums will choose to have a “soft opening.” This means that they will begin to operate without pubic fanfare or major promotion to enable staff to identify and address kinks in the system before the crowds show up. The drawback of a soft opening is that the excitement and exclusivity of the grand opening is diminished, since the press and pub-lic now have access to a semi-operational museum. The most advisable sce-nario is to opt for an “operational dress rehearsal” that uses staff (and possibly friends and family) to test the operation. Arrangements can also be made with a school to bring a few classes to test the exhibits in advance. Such test runs can then be followed by a full-scale grand opening that makes the most of promotional opportunities and ensures that funders and stakeholders receive initial access on a priority basis, before regular operations commence with the general public.


A successful operation will be ready to go with the following in place to serve the public:

• well-trained staff who are knowledgeable about all aspects of the museum, excellent communicators, and natural problem solvers;

• a system for controlling crowds and tracking attendance by type of visi-tor, whether admission is free or charged;

• universal design and universal accessibility to the agreed standard throughout the building (see section 4.7);

• customer service channels, in person as well as via phone and Internet to address:• questions and general information,• membership sales,• complaints,• visitors with special needs;

• intuitive signage and wayfi nding, starting from the external approach and extending throughout the building;

• convenient services and amenities such as restrooms, coat check, and public seating;

• printed and electronic information that explain what’s on offer, what’s coming up, how to become a member, and the layout of the new building;

• an intriguing and distinctive shop;• a café or restaurant—or recommendations for good places to eat that are

close by;• visitor service systems and procedures that address:

• reserving or advanced ticketing for timed entrance exhibitions and upcoming public programs or classes,

• booking and welcoming services for adult and school groups,• cash handling; opening; closing; and reconciling, • interface with other departments such as Security to control crowds

and Facilities to ensure cleanliness,• management of special programs such as coupons; book sales; and

corporate member perks;• Tours of the museum: docent-led or tech-based using such devices as

podcasts, cell phones, audio or multimedia systems.

21.3.2 Measuring Success

The museum is open! Success! But, beyond opening the doors, what exactly does success look like? How will institutional leaders and staff know that they have achieved what they have set out to achieve? The answer is through careful constant evaluation, analysis, and adjustment. Day 2, the day after the opening, is when a new round of thoughtful painstaking work begins.


21.3.2.1 Metrics

All museums should develop metrics that are relevant to their institutional goals and priorities. Tools to build these metrics can include:

• a strategic plan with measurable outcomes and target start and fi nish dates for each task (see section 2.2);

• business plans for revenue-generating areas with clear guidelines for implementation (see chapter 13);

• targets for contributed and investment income;• monthly and annual budgets for all functional areas and projects; • desired outcomes of new initiatives.

Both for-profi t companies and not-for-profi t organizations like muse-ums track key performance indicators (KPIs) to measure performance over time. Attendance, earned income, contributed income, and membership lev-els are the most common KPIs for museums.

Traditional metrics, however, often fall short of revealing the actual impact and effi cacy of an institution. More and more nonprofi t organizations are being challenged to measure success in qualitative terms as well as quantitative ones, and to measure qualitative output as well as quantitative fulfi llment of goals. What are the appropriate qualitative measures? Maxwell Anderson, director of the Dallas Museum of Art, proposed a new approach to measuring success at art museums, including such factors as quality of visitor experience, fulfi ll-ment of educational mandate, scope and quality of collections, contributions to scholarship, and standards of governance, to name a few.

In reality, it is necessary to examine both quantitative and qualitative factors. A monthly report that consolidates quantitative data and trends it against past years is strongly recommended as a management tool. This report can be supplemented quarterly or annually with qualitative information, spe-cialized metrics, fi ndings from formal evaluation, and even market data such as changing demographics or comparative KPIs from other area institutions.

21.3.2.2 Evaluation

Understanding the composition and perspectives of visitors immediately upon opening—and then tracking changes over time—is critical to long-term success. Evaluation will ensure that the museum achieves its planned outcomes by measuring, quantifying, and demonstrating effectiveness.

While normative and formative evaluation should have been used in ear-lier stages of planning the exhibitions and other public programs (see sec-tion 4.3), a range of end-product evaluations can be used to gain feedback once the museum opens:


• Summative evaluation: Measures the effectiveness of a project upon completion, including identifying which adjustments can still be made

• Program-based evaluation: Examines a particular program or activity• Meta-evaluation: Analyzes multiple evaluations or surveys to identify

overarching issues and examine them throughout an ongoing evaluation cycle

Gathering basic information on who the museum’s visitors are (and are not) is another important set of data to keep up with. Try to regularly gather information on:

• motivation for visiting;• place of residence;• age;• gender;• ethnicity; • income;• visiting alone, or with friends or family.

Given the variety of potential research tools available, a multipronged evaluation strategy that uses both quantitative and qualitative methods is recommended. A mix of visitor surveys, observation-based studies, in-depth interviews, focus groups, and community consultation should be used to eval-uate the success and indicate necessary adjustments. Some museums have one or more researchers or evaluators on staff to ensure that the museum is consistently making programming, business, and promotional decisions based on robust and timely information.

21.3.3 Adjusting and Evolving

Understanding what changes need to be made following the opening will come from an analysis of metrics and evaluation as described above. But information and feedback will also consistently fl ow in through suggestions and complaints from staff, visitors, members, donors, and community stake-holders—especially if staff ask for it every step of the way. Take it all in. Record it in a log or spreadsheet whenever possible. Provide comment cards and space for feedback on the website and in apps—whatever it takes to understand the full range of what needs to be addressed and in what order of priority, as well as what can be ignored. Great operations and experiences should strive to consistently improve. Adjustments that will likely be needed after the opening are likely to be:


• operational;• procedural;• physical;• programmatic.

21.3.3.1 Operational Changes and Staff Schedule Adjustments

Even the best-laid plans may need to be adjusted after opening. Some positions will evolve naturally as a response to customer service needs and feedback from the public. Other positions may change as a result of new operational processes. Still other changes may be made to meet demands that are purely internal. Aside from the Project Team, which will have completed the bulk of its work, those who will most certainly experience the most change are the frontline staff, which will have to adapt to new realities every day until the operation is stable.

• Front-of-house staff: It will almost certainly be necessary to adjust front-of-house staff procedures and schedules once the fl ow and weekday/week-end demand patterns can be established. The goal, of course, is to provide a high level of service and engagement with as few paid staff as possible. Some new hires may not work out, so if the museum has over-hired for the opening, the evaluation period may provide an opportunity to decrease staff accordingly; if on the other hand the museum under-hired and cannot meet demand, hourly staff may be increased to effectively cover the needs. The goal must be to deliver perfect visitor service as the new museum wel-comes the public not only at the opening, but on all the days thereafter.

• Project Team: A transition—or “ramp-down”—may be needed to phase out the Project Team once the institution is fully up and running and the capital project is complete. Some members of the Project Team may stay on permanently in a special-projects or institutional-planning capacity, but for others who are not part of daily operations it is helpful to have a plan that allows them to depart gracefully.

21.3.3.2 Procedural Changes

Although there will be an operating manual for the museum and handbooks for the various departments to govern how things should be done, adjustments to procedures may still be needed. Procedural adjustments generally pertain to:

• Internal communications: For example, whom does the admissions clerk call when a trustee has a complaint on a weekend, or the washroom needs to be cleaned urgently?


• Processes: For example, who is permitted to put up a sign, and how do the signs get put up? Such questions, which formerly did not occur, may become problematic in a new building with new opportunities that beget new issues.

21.3.3.3 Physical Changes

There is no doubt that there will be a “punch list” or “snag list” of small changes and fi nal details that need to be addressed after opening. However, it is also important to consider additional changes that may be needed once visitors have been observed moving through the spaces. Perhaps the place-ment of a text panel or desk causes a previously unforeseen bottleneck, visi-tors are consistently tripping over the same small step, or an important sign becomes unexpectedly obscured if there is a crowd. One aspect of an exhibit may turn out to be more attractive than expected, so that visitors are miss-ing other components. If your planning was comprehensive, disciplined, and integrated, these types of changes should be minimal, nothing more than minor physical adjustments; but it is important to remain open to them.

21.3.3.4 Programmatic Adjustments

Some adjustments to the exhibits or programming schedule may be needed. For example, there may be an error in the wall text or a program may sell out so quickly that additional dates can be added. Again, staff should remain alert to making changes to respond to demand.

Opening may signal the end of the capital project, but it is just the begin-ning for most of the museum’s operating staff and for the various publics that the museum will serve! Consider the fi rst two to three years a cycle of evalu-ation and adjustment. In the second year attendance is likely to fall from its opening year peak, but then usually rises to a stable level in year three. Three years is also an excellent milestone for realizing a fully mature and stable operation.

Conclusion

Gail and Barry Lord and Lindsay Martin

Readers who have come this far with us will agree that museum planning is not a linear process but an iterative one in which fi rst principles and prior decisions are continually being reexamined in the light of realities encoun-tered later on. Many of the issues discussed in later chapters of this Manual affect those in the earlier chapters. The fi ndings of a fund-raising feasibility study may well cause the museum’s leadership to reconsider the size of the new museum, or to phase the project; in either case, both the Functional Program or Brief and the business plan will have to be revised. Or the site selection process may discover a downtown site that is ideally located but too small for all of the museum’s space requirements, suggesting the need to consider off-site collection storage in an industrial suburb; the off-site stor-age will have to be planned, with both capital and operating budgets revised. In the dynamic process of any actual project, later changes will almost always affect planning decisions made at an earlier stage. That is why constant mon-itoring and ongoing evaluation by experienced museum planners is strongly recommended throughout the life of the project, not just in the planning and design stage. In addition, the project manager must have excellent commu-nication skills and good judgment in communicating changed circumstances to the entire Project Team.

In concluding a book on museum planning, it is therefore necessary to affi rm the need for creativity, fl exibility, and responsiveness to opportunity. A strong planning process is the best foundation for such creativity. It is critical to the ultimate success of the project that good planning should not descend into a bureaucratic preoccupation with detail, but that the planners should remain open to fi nding new ways to achieve the fundamental objectives of the museum in changed circumstances.

Museum projects are usually high-profi le and exciting. They attract creative people who will propose new concepts, brilliant designs, and the innovative use of new materials that can both look beautiful and be sustain-able. In the twenty-fi rst century there is also the challenge of involving the

6 3 5


communities that the museums serve—whether this is a nation, a state or province, a city, or a community of interests such as those of artists, histo-rians, archaeologists, or scientists—in the overall planning and direction of their museums. Highly skilled and fl exible consultants, museum planners, and project managers are needed to incorporate the new voices and new ideas that are infusing museums with so much life into projects that are completed on time and on budget, and that meet the needs of the museum in ways that are socially, culturally, fi nancially, and environmentally sustainable. We hope that this third edition of The Manual of Museum Planning continues the tra-dition of the previous editions by contributing to this process in ways that are most meaningful in the twenty-fi rst century.

Notes

CHAPTER 1

1. United Nations General Assembly, 2005 World Summit Outcome, Resolu-tion A/60/1, adopted by the General Assembly on September 15, 2005.

CHAPTER 4

1. Jeffrey Moss, “Who Are the People in Your Neighborhood?” sung by Bob McGrath and the Anything Muppets on Sesame Street.

2. Psychographics is the study of personality, values, attitudes, interests, and life-styles. Jairo Senise, “Who Is Your Next Customer?” Strategy + Business, August 29, 2007.

3. Tim O’Reilly, “What is Web 2.0?” O’Reilly Network, September 30, 2005, http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/news/2005/09/30/what-is-web-20.html (retrieved August 6, 2006).

4. Jennifer L. Novak-Leonard and Alan S. Brown, Beyond Attendance: A Multi-Modal Understanding of Arts Participation, based on the 2008 Survey of Public Par-ticipation in the Arts (Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Arts).

5. Lisa Brochu, Interpretive Planning: The 5-M Model for Successful Planning Pro-cess (Fort Collins, CO: InterpPress, 2003)

6. LaPlaca Cohen and AMS Research, Culture Track 2011 (New York: LaPlaca Cohen, 2011).

7. Carol Vogel, “On the Bowery, a New Home for New Art,” New York Times, March 28, 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/28/arts/artsspecial/28birth.html (accessed September 13, 2011).

8. “Making Green and Clean Part of Your Menu,” SCA Business Report (2010): 1–6.

CHAPTER 5

1. Nicholson Baker, “Deadline,” New Yorker, July 24, 2000. 2. See Ricky Erway, “Defi ning Born Digital,” http://www.oclc.org/research/

activities/hiddencollections/borndigital.pdf, accessed May 25, 2011.

6 3 7


CHAPTER 8

1. S. Weintraub, “The Museum Environment: Transforming the Solution into a Problem,” Collections: A Journal for Museum and Archives Professionals 2, no. 3 (Febru-ary 2006): 195–218.

2. Robert Waller, “Conservation Risk Assessment: A Strategy for Managing Resources for Preventive Conservation.” Preprints of the Contributions to the Ottawa Congress, September 12–16, 1994; A. Roy and P. Smith (eds.), Preventive Conser-vation: Practice, Theory and Research (London: IIC), 12–16; copy can be found at www.konservaattoriliitto.fi /060513/Offprint%201.pdf or www.museum-sos.org/docs/WallerOttawa1994.pdf

3. http://cool.conservation-us.org/waac/wn/wn32/wn32-1/wn32-104.pdf; Com-mission internationale de l’éclairage (CIE), Control of Damage to Museum Objects by Optical Radiation. CIE Technical Report, 157. Vienna: Commission internationale de l’éclairage, 2004; www.ies.org/store/product/museum-and-art-gallery-lighting-1029.cfm (new publication forthcoming in 2012); L. Harriman; G. Brundrett; and R. Kittler, Humidity Control Design Guide for Commercial and Institutional Build-ings (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, 2001; American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), “Museums, Libraries, and Archives,” ASHRAE Handbook: Heating, Ven-tilating, and Air-Conditioning Applications, SI Edition (Atlanta: ASHRAE, 2011); Steven Weintraub, “Demystifying Silica Gel,” Object Specialty Group Postprints, vol. 9 (Washington, DC: American Institute for Conservation, 2002).

CHAPTER 13

1. In other countries, earned-income levels are often in the same general range but support from private sources is much lower, with much more substantial support from government sources.

2. A more detailed discussion of this issue is found in, Ted Silberberg, “The Importance of Accuracy in Attendance Reporting,” International Journal of Arts Management 8 (2005): 4–7.

CHAPTER 20

1. “What Is Value Engineering?” SAVE International, http://www.value-eng.org/value_engineering.php (accessed October 19, 2011).

For Further Reading

Brenda Taylor

This section includes publications dated from 2000 to 2011 as well as all works referred to in the text of the Manual. For ease of reference, readings are arranged by chapter.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Elkington, John. Cannibals with Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Busi-ness. Conscientious Commerce. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers, 1998.

CHAPTER 2: MUSEUM PLANNING

Ambrose, Timothy, and Crispin Paine. Museum Basics. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2006.

American Association of Museums (AAM), and Elizabeth E. Merritt. National Standards & Best Practices for U.S. Museums. Washington, DC: American Asso-ciation of Museums, 2008.

American Association of Museums (AAM). Technical Information Service. Orga-nizing Your Museum: The Essentials. Edited by Sara Dubberly. Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, Technical Information Service, 2001.

Crimm, Walter L., Martha Morris, and L. Carole Wharton. Planning Successful Museum Building Projects. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2009.

George, Gerald, and Cindy Sherrell-Leo. Starting Right: A Basic Guide to Museum Planning. 2nd ed. American Association for State and Local History book series. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2004.

Lord, Gail Dexter, and Kate Markert. The Manual of Strategic Planning for Museums. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2007.

Roper, Kathy O., and Jeffrey L. Beard. “Strategic Facility Planning for Museums.” Museum Management and Curatorship 20, no. 1 (March 2005): 57–68.

Rosenblatt, Arthur, and Stephen A. Kliment, eds. Building Type Basics for Museums. New York: Wiley, 2001.

6 3 9


CHAPTER 3: MUSEUMS AS SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Association of Art Museum Directors. Professional Practices in Art Museums, Includ-ing the Code of Ethics. New York: AAMD, 2011.

Chait, Richard P., William P. Ryan, and Barbara E. Taylor. Governance as Leadership: Reframing the Work of Nonprofi t Boards. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2005.

Hopkins, Bruce R. Legal Responsibilities of Nonprofi t Boards. 2nd ed. Governance Series 2. Washington, DC: BoardSource, 2009.

International Council of Museums (ICOM). Code of Ethics for Museums. Paris: International Council of Museums, 2006. http://icom.museum/fi leadmin/user_upload/pdf/Codes/code2006_eng.pdf.

Kotler, Neil G., Philip Kotler, and Wendy I. Kotler. Museum Marketing and Strategy: Designing Missions, Building Audiences, Generating Revenue and Resources. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, c2008.

Lord, Gail Dexter, and Kate Markert. The Manual of Strategic Planning for Museums. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2007.

Marstine, Janet C., ed. The Routledge Companion to Museum Ethics: Redefi ning Ethics for the Twenty-First Century Museum. New York: Routledge, 2011.

Merritt, Elizabeth E., and Victoria Garvin, eds. Secrets of Institutional Planning. Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 2007.

Oster, Sharon, and William N. Goetzmann. “Does Governance Matter? The Case of Art Museums.” In The Governance of Not-for-Profi t Organizations (pp. 71–99). A National Bureau of Economic Research Conference Report. Chicago: Uni-versity of Chicago Press, 2003.

CHAPTER 4: PLANNING THE VISITOR EXPERIENCE

Andoniadis, Andrew. Museum Retailing: A Handbook of Strategies for Success: Selected Articles. Edinburgh, UK: MuseumsEtc, 2010.

Association of Science—Technology Centers. “Accessible Practices.” ASTC Resource Center. Accessed October 24, 2011. http://www.astc.org/resource/access/index.htm.

Babbage, Charles. The Exposition of 1851; or, Views of the Industry, the Science, and the Government, of England. London: J. Murray, 1851.

Barker, P., J. Barrick, and R. Wilson. Building Sight: A Handbook of Building and Interior Design Solutions to Include the Needs of Visually Impaired People. London: Royal National Institute for the Blind, 1995.

Barrett, Jennifer. Museums and the Public Sphere. Chichester, UK; Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

Bartholomew, J., et al. Rethinking Learning: Museums and Young People: A Collection of Essays. Edinburgh, UK: MuseumsEtc, 2009.

Black, Graham. The Engaging Museum: Developing Museums for Visitor Involvement. London: Routledge, 2005.

Breitkopf, Susan. “The State of Museum Dining: An Interview with Phyllis Rich-man.” Museum News 86, no. 5 (September/October 2007): 41–42. http://www.aam-us.org/pubs/mn/museumdining.cfm.

Brochu, Lisa. Interpretive Planning: The 5-M Model for Successful Planning Projects. Fort Collins, CO: InterpPress, 2003.

FOR FURTHER READING 6 4 1

Bugler, Jeremy. “Chamber of Horrors,” The New Society 1, no. 6 (1978): 55–56.Cameron, F. “Transcending fear—Engaging Emotions and Opinion: A Case

for Museums in the 21st Century.” Open Museum Journal—New Museum Developments & the Culture Wars, no. 6 (2003). http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/10293/20040121-0000/amol.org.au/omj/abstract245c.html?ID=28.

Canadian Standards Association (CSA). Barrier-Free Design: A National Standard for Canada. CAN/CSA-B651-M90. Toronto: Canadian Standards Association, 1990.

Caniglia, Julie. “On the Walker’s Acquisition of the Merce Cunningham Dance Co. Collection.” Walker Art Center Visual Arts Blog, March 24, 2011. http://blogs.walkerart.org/visualarts/2011/03/24/on-the-walkers-acquisition-of-the-merce-cunningham-dance-co-collection/.

Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST). “About Universal Design for Learn-ing (UDL).” CAST: Center for Applied Special Technology, 1999–2011. Accessed October 19, 2011. http://www.cast.org/udl/index.html.

Center for Universal Design (CUD). “The Principles of Universal Design.” NC State University, The Center for Universal Design, 2002, 2006. http://www.ncsu.edu/project/design-projects/udi/center-for-universal-design/the-principles-of-universal-design/.

Clark, T. S., and E. N. Corlett. The Ergonomics of Workspaces and Machines: A Design Manual. London: Taylor & Francis, 1984.

Davies, J. Eric, Stella Wisdom, and Claire Creaser. Out of Sight but Not Out of Mind: Visually Impaired People’s Perspectives of Library & Information Services. LISU Occasional Paper. Loughborough, UK: Library & Information Statistics Unit (LISU), November 2001. http://lboro.ac.uk/departments/dis/lisu/pages/publi-cations/stvtextonly.html.

Dernie, David. Exhibition Design. New York: W.W. Norton, 2006.Dreyfuss, Henry. The Measure of Man and Woman: Human Factors in Design. New

York: Whitney Library of Design, 1993.Falk, John H. Identity and the Museum Visitor Experience. Walnut Creek, CA: Left

Coast Press, 2009.Falk, John H., and Lynn D. Dierking. Learning from Museums: Visitor Experiences and

the Making of Meaning. American Association for State and Local History book series. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2000.

Falk, John H., Lynn D. Dierking, and Susan Foutz. In Principle, In Practice: Museums as Learning Institutions. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2007.

Freed, Geoff, and Madeleine Rothberg. “Accessible Digital Media Guidelines.” National Center for Accessible Media, 2006. http://ncam.wgbh.org/invent_build/web_multimedia/accessible-digital-media-guide/.

Friedman, Alan J. “Expanding Audiences: The Audio Tour Access Project at the New York Hall of Science.” ASTC Dimensions (August 2000): 7–8.

Houtgraff, Dirk, and Vanda Vitali. Mastering a Museum Plan: Strategies for Exhibit Development; Peter Gale, ed. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2008.

Howard, W. Gary, Holly Howard Ellis, and Karen Rasmussen. “From the Arcade to the Classroom: Capitalizing on Students’ Sensory Rich Media Preferences in Disciplined-Based Learning.” College Student Journal 38, no. 3 (September 2004): 431–441.

Hunter-Zaworski, K., and D. Watts. The Development of Ergonomic Guidelines for Electronic Customer Information Systems. Washington, DC: University Research


and Training Program Offi ce of Technical Assistance, Federal Transit Adminis-tration, U.S. Department of Transportation, December 1994.

Institute for Human Centered Design. “Universal Design.” Institute for Human Cen-tered Design. Accessed October 19, 2011. http://www.adaptiveenvironments.org/index.php?option=Content&Itemid=3.

Janes, Robert R., and Gerald T. Conaty, eds. Looking Reality in the Eye: Museums and Social Responsibility. Calgary: University of Calgary Press; Museums Association of Saskatchewan, 2005.

Jones, Ian, Robert R. Macdonald, and Darryl McIntyre, eds. City Museums and City Development. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2008.

Kirk, J. 2001. “Accessibility and New Technology in the Museum.” Paper presented at Museums and the Web Conference. Seattle, WA, 15–17 March, 2001.

Krum, Gregory, et al. Alive to Change: Successful Museum Retailing: A Collection of Essays. Edinburgh, UK: MuseumsEtc, 2009.

Lang, Caroline, John Reeve, and Vicky Woollard, eds. The Responsive Museum: Work-ing with Audiences in the Twenty-First Century. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006.

LaPlaca Cohen, and AMS Planning and Research. Culture Track 2011, April 2011. http://www.laplacacohen.com/studies/research/LaPlacaCohen_CultureTrack_2011_Report.pdf.

Leinhardt, Gaea, Kevin Crowley, and Karen Knutson, eds. Learning Conversations in Museums. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2002.

Lord, Barry, ed. The Manual of Museum Learning. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2007.

Lorenc, Jan, Lee Skolnick, and Craig Berger. What Is Exhibition Design? Essential Design Handbooks. Mies, Switzerland: RotoVision, 2007.

Louvre Museum. “Visits for Individuals.” Louvre Museum. Accessed October 19, 2011. http://www.louvre.fr/llv/pratique/detail_handicape.jsp.

Majewski, Janice. Smithsonian Guidelines for Accessible Exhibition Design. Washing-ton, DC: Smithsonian Institution, n.d. http://si.edu/Content/Accessibility/SGAD-3-of-3-2.pdf.

Metropolitan Museum of Art. “Limor Tomer Named New Concerts & Lectures General Manager at Metropolitan Museum.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, March 28, 2011. http://metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/news/2011/limor-tomer-named-new-concerts--lectures-general-manager-at-metropolitan-museum.

Mogerman, Josh. “Brookfi eld Zoo Uses Technology to Help Chicago Public School Students with Disabilities: Access Technology Partnership Named One of the Nation’s Most Innovative.” Inclusion Times 12, no. 1 (October 2004): 8–9.

Museum of Science, Boston. “Field Trip Resources.” Museum of Science, Boston. Accessed October 19, 2011. http://www.mos.org/educators/fi eld_trip_resources/fi eld_trip_resources.

Museum of Science, Boston. “Universal Design (Accessibility).” Museum of Science, Boston. Accessed October 19, 2011. http://www.mos.org/exhibitdevelopment/access/index.html.

National Center for Accessible Media (NCAM). “Media Access Generator (MAG-pie).” National Center for Accessible Media, 2010. Accessed October 23, 2011. http://ncam.wgbh.org/invent_build/web_multimedia/tools-guidelines/magpie.


Novak-Leonard, Jennifer L., and Alan S. Brown. Beyond Attendance: A Multi-Modal Understanding of Arts Participation. Research Report #54. Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Arts, February 2011. http://www.nea.gov/research/2008-SPPA-BeyondAttendance.pdf.

Offi ce of the Deputy Prime Minister. Building Regulations 2000: Part-M: Access to and Use of Buildings. 2004 edition (includes amendments to approved docu-ments and compliance guides 2010). http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/buildingregulations/approveddocuments/partm/approved.

O’Reilly, Tim. “What Is Web 2.0?” O’Reilly Media, September 30, 2005. http://oreilly.com/web2/archive/what-is-web-20.html.

Pallasmaa, Juhani. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2005.

Parks Canada. Design Guidelines for Media Accessibility. Access Series R64-182/5-1993E. Ottawa: Canadian Heritage, Parks Canada, 1993.

Pollock, Griselda, and Joyce Zemans, eds. Museums after Modernism: Strategies of Engagement. New Interventions in Art History. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007.

Preiser, Wolfgang F. E., and Korydon H. Smith, eds. Universal Design Handbook. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011.

Reich, Christine. Universal Design Guidelines for NISE Network Exhibits. Boston: Museum of Science, Boston, 2010. http://www.nisenet.org/sites/default/fi les/catalog/uploads/2971/ud_guide_exhibits_10_23_print.pdf.

Reich, Christine. Universal Design Guidelines for Public Programs in Science Muse-ums. Boston: Museum of Science, Boston, 2008. http://www.nisenet.org/sites/default/fi les/UniversalDesignGuidelinesPrograms_Guide_May10.pdf.

Reich, Christine. Universal Design of Interactives for Museum Exhibitions. Bos-ton: Museum of Science, Boston, 2005. http://informalscience.org/reports/0000/0337/2005_Universal_Design_Interactives_Report.pdf.

Ritchesin, C., G. Grace, M. Lantkow, and T. K. Gilles. Design Guidelines for Meeting the Access Needs of Blind and Visually Impaired Travellers in Transportation Ter-minals. TP 10067E. Ottawa: Canadian National Institute for the Blind; Trans-port Canada, 1989. Updated by: Going Places—Access Needs of Visually Impaired Travellers in Transportation Terminals: Design Guidelines. TP 12940E. Ottawa: Canadian National Institute for the Blind; Transport Canada, 1997.

Rose, David H., and Anne Meyer. Teaching Every Student in the Digital Age: Univer-sal Design for Learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Cur-riculum Development, 2002.

Rumble, J. “Lighting the Way.” Metropolis 14, no. 8 (April 1993): 71–75.Sandell, Richard. Museums, Prejudice, and the Reframing of Difference. London: Rout-

ledge, 2007.Sandell, Richard, ed. Museums, Society, Inequality. Museum Meanings. London:

Routledge, 2002.Singer, Beverly R. “The Making of Who We Are, Now Showing at the NMAI

Lelawi Theater.” The American Indian Quarterly 29, nos. 3–4 (Summer/Fall 2005): 466–477.

Smithsonian Center for Education and Museum Studies. “Smithsonian Education— Educators.” Smithsonian Education. Accessed October 24, 2011. http://www.smithsonianeducation.org/educators/index.html.


Smithsonian Institution Accessibility Program. Smithsonian Guidelines for Accessible Design. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1996 (revised March 2011). http://si.edu/Content/Accessibility/SGAD-1-of-3.pdf.

Spitz, Jennifer Amdur, and Margaret Thom, eds. Urban Network: Museums Embrac-ing Communities. Chicago: The Field Museum of Natural History, 2003.

Talboys, Graeme K. Museum Educator’s Handbook. 3rd ed. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2011.

“Tate Modern Announces New ‘Lunar’ Spaces in Oil Tanks.” The Telegraph (UK), September 9, 2011. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-news/8752399/Tate-Modern-announces-new-lunar-spaces-in-oil-tanks.html.

Tate Modern. “Tate Modern Multimedia Tour: Research and Evaluation.” Tate Modern. Accessed October 24, 2011. http://www.tate.org.uk/modern/multime-diatour/reseval.htm.

Tokar, Steve. “Keeping All Visitors in Mind: Universal Design at the Museum of Science.” Exhibitionist 22, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 31-34.

Tomlinson, Carol A., and Jay McTighe. Integrating Differentiated Instruction and Understanding by Design: Connecting Content and Kids. Alexandria, VA: Associa-tion for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2006.

United States Department of Justice. 2010 ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act) Standards for Accessible Design. September 15, 2010. http://www.ada.gov/2010ADAstandards_index.htm.

United States Department of Justice. Guidance on the 2010 ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act) Standards for Accessible Design. September 15, 2010. http://www.ada.gov/regs2010/2010ADAStandards/Guidance2010ADAstandards.htm.

Veverka, John. Interpretive Master Planning. Vol. 1, Strategies for the New Millennium, Vol. 2, Philosophy, Theory and Practice. Edinburgh, UK: MuseumsEtc, 2011.

Vogel, Carol. “On the Bowery, a New Home for New Art.” New York Times, March 28, 2007. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/28/arts/artsspecial/28birth.html.

Waite, Tyler, Jamie Kirkley, Rob Pendleton, and Lyle Turner. “MUSEpad: Support-ing Information Accessibility through Mobile Location-Based Technology.” TechTrends 49, no. 3 (2005): 76–82. http://66.39.39.78/Hot/TechTrends/Infor-mationInPlace-MUSEpad.pdf.

Watson, Sheila, ed. Museums and Their Communities. Routledge Readers in Museum Studies. London: Routledge, 2007.

Weaver, Stephanie. Creating Great Visitor Experiences: A Guide for Museums, Parks, Zoos, Gardens, & Libraries. Experienceology Guide. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2007.

Woodson, Wesley E. Human Factors Design Handbook: Information and Guidelines for the Design of Systems, Facilities, Equipment, and Products for Human Use. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981.

World Health Organization. “International Classifi cation of Functioning, Disabil-ity and Health (ICF).” World Health Organization, 2001. Accessed October 18, 2011. http://www.who.int/classifi cations/icf/en/.

CHAPTER 5: UNDERSTANDING COLLECTIONS

Gardner, James B., and Elizabeth E. Merritt. The AAM Guide to Collections Planning. Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, c2004.


Merriman, Nick. “Museum Collections and Sustainability.” Cultural Trends 17, no. 1 (2008): 3–21.

Simmons, John E. Things Great and Small: Collections Management Policies. Washing-ton, DC: American Association of Museums, c2006.

CHAPTER 6: PLANNING FOR DISPLAY

Carrier, David. Museum Skepticism: A History of the Display of Art in Public Galleries. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006.

Lord, Barry, and Gail Dexter Lord, eds. The Manual of Museum Exhibitions. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2001.

CHAPTER 7: PLANNING FOR COLLECTIONS CARE

Association of Art Museum Directors (AAMD). Statistical Survey. New York: AAMD, Annual.

Jaarsma, Sjoerd R., ed. Handle with Care: Ownership and Control of Ethnographic Mate-rials. ASAO monograph series. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2002.

King, Thomas F., ed. A Companion to Cultural Resource Management. Blackwell Com-panions to Anthropology 17. Chichester, UK; Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

Lord, Barry, Gail Dexter Lord, and John Nicks. The Cost of Collecting: Collection Man-agement in UK Museums. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce (H.M.S.O.), 1989.

UNESCO, Martijn de Ruijter, in cooperation with ICCROM (Catherine Anto-marchi, Isabelle Verger). Cultural Heritage Protection Handbook No. 5: Handling of Collections in Storage. Paris: UNESCO, 2010. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001879/187931e.pdf.

CHAPTER 8: PREVENTIVE CONSERVATION

ASHRAE. “Museums, Galleries, Archives and Libraries.” In 2011 ASHRAE Hand-book—HVAC Applications (ch. 23). Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, 2011.

Caple, Christopher, ed. Preventive Conservation in Museums. Leicester Readers in Museum Studies. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2011.

Druzik, James, and Bent Eshøj. “Museum Lighting: Its Past and Future Develop-ment.” In Museum Microclimates (51–56). Copenhagen: National Museum of Denmark, 2007. http://www.conservationphysics.org/mm/druzik/druzik.pdf.

Erhardt, D. and M. Mecklenburg. “Relative Humidity Re-examined.” In Preventive Conservation Practice, Theory and Research: Preprints of the Contributions to the Ottawa Congress, 12–16 September 1994, edited by Ashok Roy and Perry Smith, 28–31. London: International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artis-tic Works, 1994.

International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (IIC). The Plus/Minus Dilemma: The Way Forward in Environmental Guidelines. Held on 13 May, 2010, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Edited transcript. Dialogues for the New


Century: Discussions on the Conservation of Cultural Heritage in a Changing World. Milwaukee, WI: IIC, 2010. http://www.iiconservation.org/dialogues/Plus_Minus_trans.pdf.

Merritt, Jane, and Julie A. Reilly. Preventive Conservation for Historic House Muse-ums. American Association for State and Local History Book Series. Lanham: AltaMira Press, 2010.

Michalski, Stefan. “Light, Ultraviolet and Infrared.” In Ten Agents of Deterioration. Ottawa: Government of Canada. Department of Canadian Heritage. Cana-dian Conservation Institute, 2010. http://www.cci-icc.gc.ca/crc/articles/mcpm/chap08-eng.aspx.

National Fire Protection Association. NFPA 909: Code for the Protection of Cultural Resource Properties—Museums, Libraries and Places of Worship: 2010 Edition. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2010.

Waller, Robert. “Conservation Risk Assessment: A Strategy for Managing Resources for Preventive Conservation.” In Preventive Conservation Practice, Theory and Research: Preprints of the Contributions to the Ottawa Congress, 12–16 September 1994, edited by Ashok Roy and Perry Smith, 12–16. London: International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, 1994. http://www.museum-sos.org/docs/WallerOttawa1994.pdf.

CHAPTER 9: THE MUSEUM IN ACTION

International Council of Museums (ICOM). Running a Museum. Paris: ICOM, 2004.

Lord, Gail Dexter, and Barry Lord. The Manual of Museum Management. 2nd ed. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2009.

Merriman, Tim, and Lisa Brochu. Management of Interpretive Sites: Developing Sus-tainable Operations through Effective Leadership. Fort Collins, CO: InterpPress, 2005.

Renz, David O., and Robert D. Herman, eds. The Jossey-Bass Handbook of Nonprofi t Leadership and Management. 3rd ed. Essential Texts for Nonprofi t and Public Leadership and Management 18. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2010.

Sandell, Richard, and Robert R Janes, eds. Museum Management and Marketing. Leicester Readers in Museum Studies. London: Routledge, 2007.

Smith, Rupert. The Museum: Behind the Scenes at the British Museum. London: BBC Books, 2007.

CHAPTER 10: SAFETY AND SECURITY

Hawks, Catharine A., Michael McCann, Kathryn A. Makos, Lisa Goldberg, David Hinkamp, Dennis C. Ertel, Jr., Patricia Silence, and Susan H. Butts, eds. Health & Safety for Museum Professionals. New York: Society for the Preservation of Natural History Collections, 2011.

Matthews, Graham, Yvonne Smith, and Gemma Knowles. Disaster Management in Archives, Libraries and Museums. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2009.


Menegazzi, Cristina, ed. International Symposium: Cultural Heritage Disaster Pre-paredness and Response: Proceedings (Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad, India, 23–27 November 2003). Paris: ICOM, 2004. http://archives.icom.museum/disaster_preparedness_book/index.html.

Merritt, Elizabeth E., ed. Covering your Assets: Facilities and Risk Management in Museums. Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 2005.

CHAPTER 11: SERVICES AND SUPPORT

Cotts, David G., Kathy O. Roper, and Richard P. Payant. The Facility Management Handbook. 3rd ed. New York: American Management Association, 2010.

CHAPTER 12: PLANNING FOR STAFF

Association of Art Museum Directors. Salary Survey. New York: AAMD, Annual.Canadian Museums Association (CMA). “HR Toolkit: Human Resources Guidelines.”

Canadian Museums Association. Accessed October 30, 2011. http://www.museums.ca/Publications/Reports_and_Guidelines/HR_Toolkit/?n=15-23-281.

New England Museum Association (NEMA). The Employer’s Handbook: A Guide to Personnel Practices & Policies for Museums. 2nd ed. Arlington, MA: NEMA, 2004.

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Programme on Institutional Management in Higher Education. Managing University Muse-ums. Education and skills. Paris: OECD, 2001.

CHAPTER 13: ATTENDANCE, OPERATING REVENUE, AND EXPENSE PROJECTIONS

American Association of Museums (AAM). U.S. Museums Continue to Serve Despite Stress. Annual Condition of Museums in the Economy. Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 2011. http://www.aam-us.org/upload/ACME11-report-FINAL.pdf.

American Association of Museums (AAM). Museum Financial Information Survey. AAM, Annual.

Frey, Bruno S., and Stephan Meier. “Cultural Economics.” In A Companion to Museum Studies, ed. Sharon Macdonald (ch. 24, 398–414). Blackwell Compan-ions in Cultural Studies 12. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006.

Gurian, Elaine Heumann. “Free at Last: A Case for Eliminating Admission charges in Museums.” Museum News (September/October 2005). http://www.aam-us.org/pubs/mn/MN_SO05_gurian-free.cfm.

Haywood, F. “Is Free Thinking on the Way Out?” Museums Journal 109/7, no. 13 ( July 2009).

Silberberg, Ted. “The Importance of Accuracy in Attendance Reporting.” Interna-tional Journal of Arts Management 8, no. 1 (Fall 2005): 4–7.

Smithsonian Institution. Offi ce of Policy and Analysis. The Costs and Funding of Exhibitions. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, August 2002. http://www.si.edu/opanda/reports/EXCost.pdf.


CHAPTER 15: ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

American Association for State and Local History (AASLH). “Standards and Excellence Program for History Organizations (STEPS).” American Association for State and Local History (AASLH). Accessed October 20, 2011. http://www.aaslh.org/steps.htm.

American Association of Museums (AAM). “AAM Accreditation Program.” Ameri-can Association of Museums. Accessed October 21, 2011. http://www.aam-us.org/museumresources/accred/index.cfm.

American Association of Museums (AAM). Code of Ethics for Museums. Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 2000. http://www.aam-us.org/museumresources/ethics/coe.cfm.

American Association of Museums Professional Interest Committee on Environ-mental Sustainability. “PIC Green.” American Association of Museums. Accessed October 20, 2011. http://www.aam-us.org/getinvolved/comm/green.cfm.

American Association of Museums (AAM). “Reimagining and Reinventing Accred-itation.” American Association of Museums. Accessed October 19, 2011. http://www.aam-us.org/museumresources/accred/accredreinvention.cfm.

American Society of Landscape Architects, Lady Bird Johnson Wildfl ower Cen-ter at the University of Texas at Austin, and United States Botanic Garden. “Sustainable Sites Initiative.” The Sustainable Sites Initiative (SITES). Accessed October 21, 2011. http://www.sustainablesites.org/.

Association of Zoos & Aquariums (AZA) Green Scientifi c Advisory Group. “The Zoo & Aquarium Green Guide: Suggestions for Beginning or Expanding a Sustainability Program.” Association of Zoos & Aquariums, 2011. http://www.aza.org/uploadedFiles/Conservation/Commitments_and_Impacts/Green_Practices/The%20Zoo%20and%20Aquarium%20Green%20Guide.pdf.

BRE Global. “BREEAM: The World’s Leading Design and Assessment Method for Sustainable Buildings.” BREEAM. Accessed October 23, 2011. http://www.breeam.org/.

Brophy, Sarah S., and Elizabeth Wylie. The Green Museum: A Primer on Environmen-tal Practice. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2008.

Brophy, Sarah S., and Elizabeth Wylie. “It’s Easy Being Green: Museums and the Green Movement.” Museum News (September/October 2006). Accessed Octo-ber 28, 2011. http://www.aam-us.org/pubs/mn/MN_SO06_easy-green.cfm.

Brophy, Sarah S., and Elizabeth Wylie. “Saving Collections, Saving the Planet.” Museum (November/December 2009). Accessed October 28, 2011. http://www.aam-us.org/pubs/mn/savingcollections.cfm.

Chamberlain, Gregory, ed. Greener Museums: Sustainability, Society and Public Engage-ment. UK: Museum Identity, 2011.

“Carbon Footprinting.” Special issue, Museum Practice (May 17, 2010). http://www.museumsassociation.org/museum-practice/carbon-footprinting.

Elkington, John. Cannibals with Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Busi-ness. Conscientious Commerce. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers, 1998.

Feeney, C., S. Trowsdale, N. Mark-Brown, and C. Stewart. Measurable Bottom Line Objectives for Integrated Catchment Management Plans: Extended Version. Prepared by Landcare Research Manaaki Whenua and Environmental Communication


Ltd for Auckland Regional Council. Technical Report 2009/078. Auckland: Auckland Regional Council, 2009. http://www.arc.govt.nz/albany/fms/main/Documents/Plans/Technical%20publications/Technical%20reports/2009%2051-100/TR2009_078%20-%20Measurable%20bottom%20line%20objectives%20for%20integrated%20catchment%20management%20plans%20%28extended%20version%29.pdf.

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). “FSC Policy & Standards.” Forest Stewardship Council. Accessed October 21, 2011. http://www.fsc.org/policy_standards.html.

The Getty Conservation Institute. Edited Transcript of the Experts’ Roundtable on Sus-tainable Climate Management, Tenerife, Spain, April 2007. The Getty Conserva-tion Institute, 2007. http://www.getty.edu/conservation/our_projects/science/climate/roundtable_transcript.pdf.

Grattan, David, and Stefan Michalski. “Environmental Guidelines for Museums: Temperature and Relative Humidity (RH).” Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI). Last modifi ed September 29, 2011. http://www.cci-icc.gc.ca/crc/articles/enviro/index-eng.aspx.

“Green and Lean.” Special issue, Exhibitionist (Spring 2009). http://name-aam.org/resources/exhibitionist/back-issues-and-online-archive.

Green Globes. “Building Environmental Assessments.” Green Globes. Accessed October 23, 2011. http://www.greenglobes.com/.

Green Museums Initiative. “Green Museums Accord.” Green Museums Initiative. Accessed October 23, 2011. http://www.calmuseums.info/gmi/Accord.html.

GreenNonprofi ts. “Green Nonprofi ts: Certifi cation.” GreenNonprofi ts. Accessed Octo-ber 21, 2011. http://www.jolera.com/greennonprofi ts/new/certifi cation.htm.

Green Restaurant Association (GRA). “Green Your Restaurant.” Dine Green: Green Restaurant Association. Accessed October 21, 2011. http://www.dinegreen.com/.

Green Seal. “Green Seal—Home.” Green Seal. Accessed October 21, 2011. http://www.greenseal.org/.

Green Building Council Australia (GBCA). “Green Star.” Green Building Council Australia. Accessed October 23, 2011. http://www.gbca.org.au/green-star/.

Hatchfi eld, Pamela. “Crack Warp Shrink Flake: A New Look at Conservation Stan-dards.” Museum (February 2011): 40–43.

Holo, Selma, and Mari-Tere Alvarez, eds. Beyond the Turnstile: Making the Case for Museums and Sustainable Values. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2009.

International Council of Museums (ICOM) and the World Federation of Friends of Museums (WFFM). “Declaration of the International Council of Muse-ums (ICOM) and the World Federation of Friends of Museums (WFFM) for Worldwide Sustainable Cultural Tourism.” ICOM, December 2007. http://icom.museum/fi leadmin/user_upload/pdf/Statements/ENG/tourism2007_eng.pdf.

International Organization for Standardization. “ISO 14000 Environmental Man-agement: ISO 14000 Essentials.” International Organization for Standardization. Accessed October 21, 2011. http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_14000_essentials.

Kerschner, Richard L. Providing Safe and Practical Environments for Cultural Prop-erty in Historic Buildings—and Beyond: Contribution to the Experts’ Roundtable on Sustainable Climate Management Strategies, held in April 2007, in Tenerife, Spain. The Getty Conservation Institute, 2007. http://www.getty.edu/conservation/our_projects/science/climate/paper_kerschner.pdf.


Madan, Rachel. Sustainable Museums: Strategies for the 21st Century. Edinburgh, UK: MuseumsEtc, 2011.

Making Green and Clean Part of Your Menu. SCA Business Report. Neenah, WI: SCA Tissue North America, 2010. http://www.talktork.com/shared/pdf/Tork_Report_Green_Clean_Dining.pdf.

McClanahan, Keith. “IAMFA—Benchmarking Program.” International Associa-tion of Museum Facility Administrators. Accessed October 20, 2011. http://www.iamfa.org/benchmarking.asp?L1=0&L2=0&L3=0&L4=0&L5=1.

McDonough, William, and Michael Braungart. Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things. New York: North Point Press, 2002.

Michalski, Stefan. The Ideal Climate, Risk Management, the ASHRAE Chapter, Proofed Fluctuations, and Toward a Full Risk Analysis Model: Contribution to the Experts’ Roundtable on Sustainable Climate Management Strategies, Tenerife, Spain, April 2007. The Getty Conservation Institute, 2007. http://www.getty.edu/conserva-tion/our_projects/science/climate/paper_michalski.pdf.

MINERGIE®. “MINERGIE® Basics.” MINERGIE®. Accessed October 23, 2011. http://www.minergie.ch/basics.html.

Morris, Peter, and Lisa Fay Matthiessen. The Cost of Green Revisited: Reexamining the Feasibility and Cost Impact of Sustainable Design in the Light of Increased Market Adop-tion. U.S.A.: Davis Langdon, July 2007. http://www.davislangdon.com/upload/images/publications/USA/The%20Cost%20of%20Green%20Revisited.pdf.

Museum of Northern Arizona. Accessed October 21, 2011. http://www.musnaz.org/. Museums Australia. “Museums and Sustainability: Guidelines for Policy and Prac-

tice in Museums and Galleries.” Museums Australia, 2003. http://www.muse-umsaustralia.org.au/userfi les/fi le/Policies/sustainability.pdf.

Oregon Museum of Science and Industry (OMSI). “Green Exhibit Checklist.” Exhibit SEED: Social, Economic, Environmental Development. Accessed October 21, 2011. http://www.exhibitseed.org/green-exhibit-checklist.

Padfi eld, Tim, and Karen Borchersen, eds. Museum Microclimates: Contributions to the Conference in Copenhagen, 19–23 November 2007. Copenhagen: The National Museum of Denmark, 2007. http://www.natmus.dk/graphics/konferencer_mm/microclimates/pdf/musmic150.pdf.

Passiv Haus Institut (PHI). “Passive House Institute.” Passiv Haus Institut. Accessed October 23, 2011. http://www.passiv.de/07_eng/index_e.html.

Rosenzweig, Roy. The Presence of the Past: Popular Uses of History in American Life. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998.

Smithsonian Institution Offi ce of Facilities Engineering and Operations. Strategic Sustainability Performance Plan. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2010. http://si.edu/Content/Pdf/About/Smithsonian-Institution-Sustainabil-ity-Perf-Plan.pdf.

Society for Environmental Graphic Design (SEGD). “SEGD: Homepage.” Accessed October 21, 2011. http://www.segd.org/home/index.html.

Society of Building Science Educators (SBSE). “A Regeneration-Based Checklist for Design and Construction.” SBSE Teaching Resources. Accessed October 21, 2011. http://www.sbse.org/resources/index.htm.

Society of Building Science (SBSE). “Explanation of ‘A Regeneration-Based Check-list for Design and Construction.’” Accessed October 21, 2011. http://www.sbse.org/resources/docs/wells_checklist_explanation.pdf.


Turner, Cathy, and Mark Frankel. Energy Performance of LEED for New Construction Buildings. Final Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Green Building Council, March 4, 2008. http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=3930.

United States Environmental Protection Agency, and United States Department of Energy. “Energy Star.” Energy Star. Accessed October 20, 2011. http://www.energystar.gov/.

United States Environmental Protection Agency, and United States Department of Energy. “Portfolio Manager Overview.” Energy Star. Accessed October 20, 2011. http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=evaluate_performance.bus_portfoliomanager.

United States Green Building Council (USGBC). “Leadership in Energy and Envi-ronmental Design (LEED).” U.S. Green Building Council. Accessed October 21, 2011. http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CategoryID=19.

Universities UK. Greening Spires: Universities and the Green Agenda. London: Univer-sities UK, January 2008. http://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/Publications/Docu-ments/green_spires.pdf.

University of Gloucestershire. “Sustainability.” University of Gloucestershire, 2008. http://insight.glos.ac.uk/sustainability/Pages/default.aspx.

Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A). “Sustainability at the V&A.” Victoria and Albert Museum. Accessed October 21, 2011. http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/s/v-and-a-sustainability/.

Water Footprint Network. “The Global Water Footprint Standard.” Water Foot-print Network, February 2011. http://www.waterfootprint.org/?page=fi les/GlobalWaterFootprintStandard.

The White House Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ). “Federal Agency Strategic Sustainability Performance Plans.” Council on Environmental Quality. Accessed October 20, 2011. http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/ceq/sustainability/plans.

Wines, James. Green Architecture. Edited by Philip Jodidio. Köln, Germany: Taschen, 2000.

World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA). “Environmental Sustain-ability.” World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA). Accessed October 20, 2011. http://www.waza.org/en/site/conservation/environmental-sustainability.

World Green Building Council (WorldGBC). “World Green Building Council: Home.” World Green Building Council. Accessed October 21, 2011. http://www.worldgbc.org/site2/.

Wylie, Elizabeth, and Sarah S. Brophy. “The Greener Good: The Enviro-Active Museum.” Museum ( January/February 2008). Accessed October 28, 2011. http://www.aam-us.org/pubs/mn/green.cfm.

CHAPTER 16: ESTABLISHING A PROJECT BUDGET AND SCHEDULE

Ahern, Tom. How to Write Fundraising Materials that Raise More Money: The Art, the Science, the Secrets. Medfi eld, MA: Emerson & Church, 2007.

Association of Fundraising Professionals (AFP). “Association of Fundraising Professionals—AFP.” Association of Fundraising Professionals. Accessed October 25, 2011. http://www.afpnet.org/.


The Center on Philanthropy at Indiana University. “The Center on Philanthropy at Indiana University.” Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis. Accessed October 25, 2011. http://www.philanthropy.iupui.edu/.

The Chronicle of Philanthropy. “The Chronicle of Philanthropy: Home.” The Chronicle of Philanthropy. Accessed October 25, 2011. http://philanthropy.com/section/Home/172.

Council for Advancement and Support of Education (CASE). “CASE: Home.” CASE. Accessed October 25, 2011. http://www.case.org/.

Dove, Kent E. Conducting a Successful Capital Campaign. 2nd ed. The Jossey-Bass Nonprofi t and Public Management Series. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000.

Kihlstedt, Andrea. Capital Campaigns: Strategies that Work. 3rd ed. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett, 2010.

Mossman, Melville J. Facilities Construction Cost Data. Kingston, MA: R.S. Means, 2010. Annual.

Rosso, Henry A. Hank Rosso’s Achieving Excellence in Fund Raising. Edited by Eugene R. Tempel. 2nd ed. The Jossey-Bass Nonprofi t and Public Management Series. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2003.

R.S. Means. Square Foot Costs. Kingston, MA: R.S. Means, 2011. Annual.

CHAPTER 17: PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Kendrick, Tom, and Project Management Institute. The Project Management Tool Kit: 100 Tips and Techniques for Getting the Job Done Right. 2nd ed. New York: AMA-COM American Management Association, 2010.

Project Management Institute (PMI). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide). 4th ed. Newtown Square, PA: PMI, 2008.

CHAPTER 19: DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

American Institute of Architects (AIA). The Architect’s Handbook of Professional Prac-tice. Edited by Joseph A. Demkin. 14th ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2008.

American Institute of Architects (AIA). The Handbook of Architectural Design Compe-titions. American Institute of Architects, 2010. http://network.aia.org/resources/viewdocument/?DocumentKey=401c1518-c434-4850-8194-826f0d55a126.

Burden, Ernest. Illustrated Dictionary of Building Design + Construction. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005.

Committee of Canadian Architectural Councils. “Canadian Rules for the Conduct of Architectural Competitions (Document Five).” January 1988, Revised 1990. Updated by the RAIC website: http://www.raic.org/architecture_architects/architectural_competitions/index_e.htm.

Council of Architecture (COA). “Competition Guidelines.” New Delhi, India: COA, 2002. Accessed August 25, 2011. http://www.coa.gov.in/practice/competition.htm.

Lord, Barry. “Is It Time to Call in an Architect? Perhaps Not Yet.” International Journal of Arts Management 7, no. 1 (Fall 2004): 4–8.

Naredi-Rainer, Paul von. Museum Buildings: A Design Manual. Boston: Birkhaüser, 2004.


Royal Architectural Institute of Canada (RAIC). “Competition Categories.” Archi-tecture Canada RAIC/IRAC. Accessed August 25, 2011. http://www.raic.org/architecture_architects/architectural_competitions/categories_e.htm.

Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA). CE/99: Conditions of Engagement for the Appointment of an Architect. London: RIBA, 2004.

Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA). “Competitions: Client Guidance.” architecture.com. Accessed August 25, 2011. http://www.architecture.com/UseAnArchitect/FindAnArchitect/Competitions/GuidelinesForClients.aspx.

Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA). “Outline Plan of Work 2007 (Amended November 2008).” RIBA, 2007. http://www.architecture.com/Files/RIBAPro-fessionalServices/Practice/OutlinePlanofWork%28revised%29.pdf.

Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA). RIBA Agreements 2010 Complete Refer-ence Set. London: RIBA, 2010.

Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA). SFA/99: Standard Form of Appointment for an Architect. 1999. London: RIBA, 2004.

Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA). SW/99: Small Works. London: RIBA, 2004.

Union Internationale des Architectes (UIA), International Competitions Commis-sion. “UIA Guide for International Competitions in Architecture and Town Planning: UNESCO Regulations Terms of Application.” 2nd ed. Paris: UIA, 2008.

United Nations Educational, Scientifi c and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). “Revised Recommendation Concerning International Competitions in Archi-tecture and Town Planning.” In Records of the Twentieth Session of the General Conference, Twentieth Session, Paris, 24 October to 28 November 1978: Volume I: Resolutions. Annex I, p3-10. Paris: UNESCO, 1978. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001140/114032e.pdf#page=168.

CHAPTER 20: MANAGING COSTS AND CASH FLOW

SAVE International. “What Is Value Engineering?” SAVE International. Accessed October 25, 2011. http://www.value-eng.org/value_engineering.php.

Glossary

Brenda Taylor

The following is a brief list of some of the technical terms used by museum planners and specialists involved in the museum planning process.

Absorption chiller: a water chiller for building cooling which creates a cooling effect through the use of a heat source, such as steam or hot water.

Addendum: information or changes to a project currently out for bids, issued by the building owner or his representative before fi nal bids are accepted, to refl ect a change in the project design.

Air-Handler Unit (AHU): Air-handler units supply heating and cooling for public spaces, galleries, and offi ces. Air handlers are devices used to condition and circulate air as part of a heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system.

Air pressure differential: the disparity in atmospheric pressure on either side of a separation, causing migration of water vapor through or around any openings in the separation.

Architect: a professional specializing in all aspects of the design of new or renovated built space, its environment, systems, and facilities.

Architect of Record: a local architect licensed to practice in that jurisdiction, who is usually responsible for continuing the process from conceptual through to detailed design.

As-built drawings: drawings showing the building and its systems as they are, an important step in planning renovations or restoration.

Assistive technology: Adaptive or rehabilitative devices for people with varying forms of functional limitation.

Associative collection: museum objects acquired only when they have a direct asso-ciation with a specifi c location, person or event.

Bonding: the practice of having contractors secure guarantees from a surety company of their bids, performance, and/or payment for labor and materials to complete the building.

Brief: instructions for the architect or designer from the client or user pertaining to the requirements for space, facilities, or exhibitions. See Functional Program.

Buffer wall construction: a double-wall building method used in extremely cold climates to ensure that the exterior walls within a room are maintained at a constant

6 5 5


room temperature, with a buffer zone between them and the exterior wall of the building, sometimes used to allow installation of a vapor barrier on the outside of the inner wall.

Building codes: regulations, ordinances, or statutory requirements of a government unit relating to building construction and occupancy, generally adopted and admin-istered for the protection of public health, safety, and welfare.

Building committee: a group appointed by the museum’s board to oversee and con-trol a construction or renovation project.

Building Management System (BMS): System with related controls and monitor-ing devices that manages ventilation, lighting, power systems, fi re systems, and secu-rity systems.

Building system: the relationship of the fabric of the building to the services, enclo-sures, and fi nishes of the facility.

Building within a building: a design principle whereby all rooms that must maintain high relative humidity are placed in the center of the museum building, with rooms that do not have this requirement surrounding them. This means that none of the walls around high relative humidity spaces are exterior walls.

Business plan: a document that projects the viability of a project under certain conditions or assumptions, which in the museum context may include a collections analysis; a public programming plan; statements of mission, mandate, and purpose; recommendations as to institutional status and structure; space and facilities require-ments; staffi ng requirements; market analysis; marketing and operational recom-mendations; projections of capital and operating expenditures and revenues, and an implementation schedule.

Capital costs: the one-time costs of acquiring a site and constructing a building or renovating a facility; includes site acquisition, development, and any demolition costs, along with new construction or renovation costs.

Cash fl ow: the difference between cash coming into an organization and cash going out of an organization over a given period of time.

Change order or Variation order (VO): a contract document issued by the client to the contractor, authorizing an alteration in the original design or specifi cations of a building or exhibition under construction or installation.

Chiller: a piece of equipment that usually chills water, which is then used to cool the inside of a building: heat is rejected by either an exterior condenser, or through the use of condenser water.

Collection analysis: quantitative and qualitative study of the contents of a museum collection in meaningful groups or classifi cations, and of the spatial and facilities requirements of the collection, including projection and provision for its future growth over a stated time period, and for the security, documentation, and preserva-tion of the collection.

Collection Development Strategy: establishes priorities and targets for col-lection growth for the planning period through to the Design Year; identifi es

GLOSSARY 6 5 7

methods for achieving these goals; allocates resources in terms of staff, space, and facilities.

Collection policy (or Collection management policy): statement of the subject matter of a collection, its temporal and geographical limits, and any requirements as to material, conditions, size, or other factors for inclusion in the collection, together with the terms, procedures, and forms under which acquisition (gift, loan, bequest, purchase) or deaccessioning may occur.

Commissioning: the process of verifying that building systems have been con-structed according to the contract documents, work properly at the time of sub-stantial completion, and continue to function as designed within their periods of warranty; additionally, commissioning ensures that all warranty information and operating manuals have been given to the museum’s building supervisors and that they have been appropriately trained to operate all systems.

Compactor storage: a museum storage system employing storage units which can be moved to allow access when required and then “compacted” to occupy a minimum fl oor area.

Competitive bidding: comparison of tenders submitted by contractors for work specifi ed; the tender selected usually being the lowest in other sectors, but not always in the museum fi eld due to the need for museum standards of quality.

Conceptual design: a design stage which describes the concepts and general layout of how the design will meet the program needs.

Condensation: liquifi cation of water from air, usually on those windows or wall sur-faces that have lower temperatures than the surrounding air.

Condenser: the part of a cooling system that rejects heat, usually to the outside.

Conservation: maximizing the endurance or minimizing the deterioration of an object through time, with as little change to the object as possible.

Construction budget: the sum established by the owner as available for construction of the project, including contingencies for bidding to contractors and for changes during construction.

Construction documents: drawings and specifi cations created by an architect that set forth in detail requirements for the construction of the project.

Construction manager: supervisor of a building’s construction or renovation, report-ing to the project manager.

Contemplated change order: contract document issued by the client to the contrac-tor, advising that an alteration in a design or specifi cation is being considered, and possibly requesting a cost estimate for the proposed change.

Continental temperate climate: a climate with moderate mean temperatures, but seasonal extremes and low rainfall.

Contract documents: all written information pertaining to the agreement between the client and the contractor, including instructions to bidders, form of tender, con-tract agreement, statement of conditions, specifi cations, drawings, schedules, and addenda thereto.


Contractor (or General contractor): individual or company who undertakes to ful-fi ll a contract to build or renovate a structure.

Cost consultant: see Quantity surveyor.

Cost plus fee contract: agreement by the client to pay the contractor the cost of con-struction plus a sum of money for administration and profi t, usually employed when all information or risks involved in a project cannot be foreseen.

Critical asset identifi cation: process of identifying assets that are critical to the insti-tution’s ability to fulfi ll its mission.

Criticality: correlation of the probability of a security risk and the degree of its impact (vulnerability), used to determine priorities among security requirements.

DDC: direct digital control, using computers to control environmental systems directly.

Defects liability period: time (usually 12 months after substantial completion) dur-ing which the contractor is required to correct any defects discovered in the building,

Desiccant: chemical compound which tends to attract and hold moisture from sur-rounding moist air, and liberates moisture in the presence of dry air; useful in con-trolling environments within a vitrine.

Design and construction team: the architect (supported by the rest of the Design Team) and the contractor, supported by subcontractors; each of these is usually not one person, but a group.

Design-build (or Turnkey): a method of project delivery in which the owner con-tracts directly with a single entity that is responsible for both design and construction services.

Design Day: the occupancy level for which space and facilities are to be designed. It is not the peak day, which might occur only once every few years. It is instead a busy day, often a weekend day, which may occur perhaps twenty to twenty-fi ve times a year, for which the space and facilities should be adequate.

Design development or Detailed design: the architect prepares more detailed drawings and fi nalizes the design plans, showing correct sizes and shapes for rooms; also included is an outline of the construction specifi cations, listing the major materials to be used.

Design Object: the largest artifact, specimen or work of art that must be accom-modated not only in galleries and storage rooms but also in corridors, elevators, and loading docks in the collection zones—anywhere that the collections may be moved, displayed, studied, or treated.

Design Team: the group of consultants and practicing professionals retained by the museum’s board to determine the disposition of spaces, materials, and facilities, based on the functional program approved by the board. The Design Team will include the architect, engineers, and interior and exhibition designers.

Design temperatures: the temperatures which are equaled (not exceeded) for those portions of the total hours observed.

Design Year: the last year for which the building being planned will provide suf-fi cient space and facilities.

GLOSSARY 6 5 9

Dew point: the temperature at which air is saturated with water, and condensation occurs, often on window or wall surfaces with differing temperatures on either side.

Diffusers: heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning equipment that introduces air into a space with the purpose of mixing or diffusing the air without blowing it directly on people or objects.

Direct expansion: a cooling system similar to a residential air conditioner, where a refrigerant is used to cool the air and then rejects the heat directly to the outside air.

Documentation: preparation and maintenance of a permanent record of the history and description of collections and all transactions related to them.

Dry bulb temperature: temperature read from a normal thermometer.

Dual-duct system: a central air-handling system that provides a set of common hot and cold ducts to serve the environmental control zones, where a zone is tempered by introducing a varied mixture of warm and cool air from the ducts. Usually has a “mixing box” for each zone.

Economizer: a device which provides cooling by using cool outside air. Air-side economizers do this by bringing in large amounts of cool outside air; water-side economizers do it by exposing building cooling water to cool outside air.

Effl orescence: surface accumulation of salts on exterior surfaces of buildings, usually around apertures or roof line.

Engineer: a professional specializing in the planning of site or building systems, facilities, or functions: may be further specialized in structural, mechanical, electrical, or other fi elds.

Enthalpy: total heat content of air.

Enthalpy controller: monitors both the air temperature and the latent heat of the water vapor present in the air as part of an air-conditioning system, so that exterior air is brought into the building only when this enthalpy factor is lower than that of return air.

Environmental sustainability: condition of a building or institution oriented to minimizing pollution of air and water, and maximizing replenishment of natural resources utilized.

Evaporator: the part of the cooling system that absorbs heat, almost always a coil that has air blown across it.

Exfi ltration: air that escapes from a conditioned space to the outside, usually through small cracks and openings in the building envelope.

Exhibitions: Comprehensive groupings of artifacts, specimens, works of art, ideas, multimedia or interactive devices, models, mannequins, replicas, or graphics that form a complete presentation for the public to enjoy and learn from.

Exposure time: the maximum time that unprotected ears may be exposed to different intensities and frequencies of noise.

Facilities Planning: deducing the space and facilities required for the collections in storage and on display, for the public programs and amenities, and for the needed support facilities and work spaces for staff.


Facilities programming: a broad planning activity usually undertaken by a specialist consultant to determine the facilities required by an institution undergoing physical expansion or alteration, including the design and performance criteria of those facili-ties, as well as social and behavioral factors.

Facility management: encompasses multiple disciplines to ensure functionality of the built environment by integrating people, place, processes, and technology.

Facility Strategy: a design-neutral narrative document that communicates the muse-um’s aspirations, space allocations and relationships, and technical requirements; key components of this document include Planning Goals, Principles, and Assumptions (described in section 3.4), a Zoned Space Program (see section 14.1), Functional Area Descriptions, Access, Adjacency, and Circulation Diagrams, and Building Sys-tems & Standards (see section 14.3).

Fan-coil unit: a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning device, usually part of a “two-pipe” or “four-pipe” HVAC system, where each environmental control zone has a fan-coil unit that circulates the zone air over one or two water coils that can provide heating or cooling, and where the water is heated or cooled by a central boiler or chiller.

Feasibility study: a determination of the viability of a proposed or existing institu-tion, or of the further development of an institution, including fi nancial feasibility, marketing prospects, funding sources, visitation and revenue projections, structural suitability of an existing building, viability of various proposed sites, and other factors, undertaken by specialist consultants independent of the project itself with a view to making explicit the conditions under which a proposed project may be viable, usually not in terms of a profi t-making or even a break-even budget, but in proportion to the requirement for subsidy, endowment, or other sources of contrib-uted income.

FF&E: furniture, fi xtures, and equipment.

Fire compartments: the subdivision of space by noncombustible or fi re-resistant barriers to retard the spread of fi re.

Fire-preventive design: an architectural design that incorporates a signifi cant num-ber of fi re-preventive or fi re-resistant features into a building, such as compartmen-talization of spaces, use of fi re walls, fi re doors, and so on.

Fire rating: standardized projection of the length of time a building material or con-struction can withstand fi re without collapsing or allowing the fi re to pass through.

Foot-candle: non-metric unit for measuring light intensity (10.76 lux = 1 foot-candle).

Functional area descriptions: grouping spaces in clusters that refl ect functional rela-tionships that need to be readily accessible to each other; functional areas may com-bine spaces from different zones (for example, the Retail functional area will include the zone A shop, the zone D1 retail manager’s offi ce, and the zone D2 stockroom).

Functional Program (or Brief ): a systematic document written in the users’ lan-guage describing the functions required of the building and its systems and facilities,

GLOSSARY 6 6 1

its circulation patterns, and adjacency and access requirements, including a room-by-room identifi cation of every technical variable (light, humidity, fi ltration, etc.) affect-ing each room in the building; includes all of the elements of the Facility Strategy but adds room data sheets. “Brief ” and “Functional Program” are British and American terminologies, respectively.

Functional requirement: the facilities required for a project, stated in nontechnical user language.

Gross area: total of all the space allocations in a building program or brief space list, multiplied by a percentage factor to allow for thickness of walls, mechanical-electri-cal service areas, and both horizontal and vertical circulation space. The proportion of gross to net area is often in the range of 1.5 to 1.7.

Gross building area: the total area of the building—which includes all the net assign-able or usable areas plus the space required for wall thickness and structure, vertical and horizontal circulation, and mechanical rooms and chases.

Grossing factor: a multiplier of the net assignable or usable area total; the multiplier is an assumption about how much of the overall building will be used for these pur-poses that cannot be accounted for in the net assignable area, specifi cally thickness of walls, horizontal and vertical circulation space, and mechanical-electrical areas.

Heat pump: a reversible mechanical refrigeration device that can swap the evapora-tor and condenser functions at will, allowing the device to do heating and cooling.

Holdback: a percentage of the value of a construction or renovation contract with-held from the contractor until substantial completion.

Humidistat control: a method for the control of the heating system in order to keep relative humidity constant by putting the humidistat in control of the thermostat; especially useful in historic buildings, where maintaining high temperatures and con-stant relative humidity at the same time is impossible or harmful to the fabric of the building, but where temperatures below those comfortable for human occupation can be tolerated at certain times of the year, due to seasonal operation.

HVAC: heating, ventilation, and air conditioning.

Hygrothermograph: a device for monitoring and recording fl uctuations in relative humidity.

lES: Illuminating Engineering Society, professional society for lighting designers and engineers.

Infrared radiation (IR): a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength range that is longer than visible (above 700 nm).

Interpretive Plan: states what the museum wants to say (its communication objec-tives), to whom the museum wants to say it (a target market analysis), and what the preferred ways of saying it are (the optimal means of expression).

Latent heat: heat associated with a change in moisture content of the air, as opposed to sensible heat. It is heat that is there thermodynamically but is “latent” or not mea-surable by a simple dry-bulb thermometer.


Life-cycle cost analysis: a technique designed to assist the economic decision-mak-ing process in obtaining optimum economic solutions to facility accommodation problems from all available alternatives, taking into account both initial capital costs and consequent owning, leasing, or operating costs as well as revenues incurred dur-ing the entire life of a facility.

Light: that part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum that the human eye can detect, in the frequency range of 400–700 nanometers (nm).

Lumen output: measure of the quantity of light produced by a lamp.

Luminaires: light fi xtures.

Lux: metric unit for measuring the intensity of light (10.76 lux = 1 foot-candle).

Lux level: the amount of visible light to which a museum object is being exposed; most accurately calculated as lux-hours per annum, being the lux level at any given time multiplied by the number of hours the lights with that lux level are turned on the object.

Makeup air: the exterior air that enters into a museum building, compensating for air lost through exhaust or leakage.

Mandate: outlines both the range of material culture for which the museum takes responsibility (academic disciplines, geographic and chronological range) and the reach of the museum in terms of audience (local, national, international, age focus, families, seniors, and so on).

Manometer: a gauge for measuring air pressure differences.

Market: the actual and potential public for a museum.

Marketing: all ways and means to provide museum services to visitors by stimulating and increasing attendance, length of stay, visitor satisfaction, expenditures and return visits, not merely through advertising but through customer services and activities that will meet the museum’s objectives and motivate visitors to return.

Market analysis: the process by which existing and potential markets for a museum may be understood and/or predicted.

Market segmentation: analysis of the potential visitors to a museum into groups suf-fi ciently homogeneous that the institution can effectively plan programs to meet the needs of each segment, and prioritize its development of staff, facilities, and budget accordingly.

Meta-evaluation: analyzes multiple evaluations or surveys to identify overarching issues and examine them throughout an ongoing evaluation cycle.

Micro-environment: a climate-controlled and secure space for the display or storage of artifacts or specimens within a sealed case or frame, used in buildings where such control is not feasible in entire rooms.

Mission: an objective, brief, and hopefully inspiring assertion of a museum’s long-range reason for existence, which serves as the foundation of all policy development.

Multizone system: a heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning system where each envi-ronmental control zone is served by its own duct from a common central air-handling system, where cool or warm air is provided in the appropriate duct to temper each zone.

GLOSSARY 6 6 3

Museum: a nonprofi t permanent establishment open to the public and administered in the public interest, for the purpose of conserving and preserving, studying, inter-preting, assembling, and exhibiting to the public for its instruction and enjoyment objects and specimens of educational and cultural value, including artistic, scientifi c (whether animate or inanimate), historical, and technological material.

Museum planner: a museum professional specializing in the planning of museum space, facilities, functions, services, operation, and/or administration.

Museum planning: the study and practice of facilitating the preservation and interpretation of material culture by ordering all those components that comprise a museum into a constructed or renovated whole that can achieve its functions in a sustainable way with optimal effi ciency.

Museum research plan: begins with the mission and vision statement, invokes the research policy, states the museum’s goals in its research programs, and prioritizes the research projects in relation to the museum’s current goals and objectives.

Net area: total of all usable or assignable areas allocated on the space list in the Brief or Functional Program, without accounting for thickness of walls, mechanical/electrical service areas, either horizontal or vertical circulation space.

Nonpublic collection area: zone of a museum in which environmental controls and security are provided for the preservation of the collection, but with a level of fi nish adequate for staff use only.

Nonpublic noncollection area: zone of a museum requiring environmental controls adequate for staff comfort only, and levels of fi nish appropriate to staff use only.

Nonpublic nonperformance area: all back-of-house spaces including dressing rooms, storage, costume and set shops, and the green room.

Nonpublic performance area: the area that the performers occupy during a perfor-mance, which may or may not be a stage.

Object theater: employs a mix of multimedia, replicas, sets, and artifacts to tell a museum’s or an exhibition’s story.

Operating (or Running) costs: ongoing expenses of a museum, including salaries and benefi ts, building occupancy costs, maintenance, security, curatorial and con-servation expenses, administration, marketing, and the cost of public programming.

Opportunistic collecting: museum objects acquired as they become available pro-vided they fi t the collection mandate.

Orientation theater: provides a short introduction to what visitors can expect during their visit, or to the subject matter of the museum.

Ozone: oxidizing by-product of electronic air fi lters, dangerous from the viewpoint of conservation.

Peak noise criteria (PNC): Measures the ambient noise in a room, giving greater weight to noise within the range of frequencies used by broadcast media.

Program-based evaluation: examines a particular program or activity.

Program budget: estimated cost of a capital project based on its Functional Program, refl ecting the performance and quality criteria indicated by that program.


Preventive conservation: the applied science of categorizing and understanding risk and identifying methods for controlling risk in order to minimize damage to collections.

Project budget: the sum established by the owner as available for the entire project, including the construction budget, land costs, costs of furniture, furnishings and equip-ment; fi nancing costs; compensation for professional services; cost of owner-furnished goods and services; contingency allowance, and similar established or estimated costs.

Project management: the act of planning, organizing, and managing resources to successfully complete specifi c project goals and objectives.

Project manager: an individual or company, independent of or on the museum staff, whose function is to bring under a single coordinating authority all those involved in a project’s implementation, in order to ensure that the project objectives are achieved and that it is completed on time, within budget, to an agreed level of quality, and with minimum disruption to other functions.

Public collection areas: zone of a museum with environmental controls and security designed for the preservation of collections (owned or borrowed), and with a level of fi nish and durability appropriate to public use.

Public noncollection area: zone of a museum in which environmental controls need to achieve human comfort levels only, but in which levels of fi nish and durability must be appropriate for public use.

Public nonperformance area: commonly known in the theatre world as “front-of-house,” this is the space where audiences gather prior to a performance and during any intermissions or breaks in the performance.

Public performance area: the space where the audience gathers to watch or experi-ence a performance.

Quadruple bottom line: a fourth bottom line that supports cultural values is added to the Triple bottom line of social (people), environmental (planet) and fi nancial values (profi t); for museums, the fourth P of the quadruple bottom line has to be program, or mission.

Quantity surveyor (or Cost consultant): a professional consultant specializing in the estimation of quantitative requirements to achieve qualitative goals, and therefore projecting capital cost and occupancy cost estimates for buildings, systems, facilities, and functions.

Rain-screen principle: an approach to designing walls in which the outer shell of a cavity wall functions to shed precipitation.

Refrigerant: a chemical compound that is compressed and then allowed to expand to move heat from one place to another.

Relative humidity (RH): the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the absolute humid-ity of sampled air to that of air saturated with water at the same temperature.

Representative collection: museum objects selected to represent the variety in that range of objects, or to represent ideas, periods, concepts, or themes.

GLOSSARY 6 6 5

Research policy: establishes the museum’s commitment to research, confi rming that time, money, personnel, and facilities will be dedicated to it in keeping with the museum’s mission.

Restoration: returning a building or artifact as far as possible or as far as desired to an earlier condition or appearance, often (but not always) its original state, through repair, renovation, reconditioning, or other intervention.

Retrofi tting: renovation of a building for uses other than its original intention.

Reverberation: the time a sound needs to become inaudible; the longer the rever-beration time, the more diffi cult it is to comprehend speech.

RFP: Request for proposals.

RFQ: Request for qualifi cations.

Right-sizing: adjusting the size of a building to optimize sustainability.

Risers: vertical distribution of a building system such as an electrical riser to feed electricity up through a building.

Risk: possibility of occurrence of an event that may adversely affect the normal func-tions of an institution.

Risk analysis: calculation of the priority of security needs in terms of the possibility of all threats, the criticality of those threats, and the vulnerability of the institution to them.

Room data sheets: detailed descriptions of each room that spell out function, spatial relationships, size, and technical requirements and performance standards; they inte-grate the information contained in the Facility Strategy, creating a room-by-room fact sheet that applies the building systems and standards and the adjacency require-ments to each individual space.

Schedule of rates: an offi cial list of prices of units of work common to the construc-tion industry.

Schematic design: the stage of planning a building or exhibition that follows on the design concept phase by developing drawings that indicate the contours and character of the building or exhibition according to the general requirements of the Functional Program or Interpretative Plan, usually including fl oor plans and three-dimensional views (or presentation drawings) of each building or exhibition component.

Seismic bracing: structural reinforcement to resist earth vibration, required in areas susceptible to earthquakes or tremors.

Selective presentation: display of collections in thematic exhibitions, with speci-mens or artifacts not relevant to the theme held in storage and not on display.

Sensible heat: heat that causes the air to change its temperature, as opposed to latent heat; heat that can be “sensed” by a simple dry-bulb thermometer.

Set point: the condition to be attained and maintained by environmental control equipment, such as humidifi ers or dehumidifi ers.

Shop drawings: see Working drawings.


Signal to noise ratio (S/N): the difference in decibels (dB) between a signal such as speech and the background noise around it, such as the hum of air-conditioning or the sound of traffi c; the higher the S/N ratio, the better for communication.

Single-zone system: a heating, ventilation, and environmental control zone is served by its own air-handling system, which then provides cool or warm air as needed to its zone.

Soniscope: an instrument to measure sound waves on an oscilloscope, used to detect cracks in a building structure.

Sound frequency (pitch): the rate of repetition of the cycles of sound waves; the unit of frequency is the Hertz (Hz), the number of cycles per second.

Sound intensity: the level or loudness of sound caused by the pressure of the sound waves on the ear; loudness is measured as the ratio of the sound pressure to that of the pressure for a just-audible sound.

Specifi cations: detailed statement of work to be done by each contractor, materials to be used, standards to be met, procedures to be followed, matters of jurisdiction between contractors and procedures to resolve jurisdictional disputes, procedures for change orders, and so on.

Statement of purpose: a concise identifi cation of the functions of a museum in rela-tion to the objects defi ned in its mandate.

Statement of user requirements: summary of needs, expectations, and performance standards desiderated by all those individuals or groups intended to utilize a facility or structure, including staff, volunteers, and the general public.

Stipulated lump sum contract: simplest form of construction or renovation contract, in which a fi rm price is bid by contractors on the performance of all work required to specifi cations.

Substantial completion: erection of a structure to a point at which it can be used for its intended purpose, after which the holdback can be released to the contractor.

Summative evaluation: measures the effectiveness of a project upon completion, including identifying which adjustments can still be made.

Sustainability: sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the pres-ent without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Sustainability action plan: accompanies the sustainability policy; includes specifi c resources, goals and evaluation expectations.

Sustainability policy: includes a sustainability vision statement, alignment with the institutional strategic plan, the role of each museum department and/or team involved, and guidelines for implementation.

Sustainability vision statement: describes the impact that the museum aspires to make in the world or in the community that it is serving or proposes to serve, in terms of the institution’s commitment to environmental sustainability.

Swing galleries: exhibition space that is available for major traveling or temporary shows, but at other times will be used for rotating exhibitions of sensitive material from

GLOSSARY 6 6 7

the permanent collection that needs to be changed regularly for conservation purposes.

Systematic collection: artifacts or specimens selected to exemplify an entire range of signifi cant types or variants within that collection category.

Target form of contract: method of contracting in which the contractor accepts a “target” maximum price, and shares any savings with the client according to a prede-termined formula.

Technical specifi cations: statement of functional requirements of a building in terms of performance requirements explicit enough for the relevant engineer or designer to design each element or function.

Terms of reference: requirements set by the board or its committees for a capital project, or for a planning study, making explicit the extent and limitations of the study or project, used as a basis for submitting tenders on a planning project by plan-ning consultants.

Thematic exhibition (or Contextual exhibition): a mode of exhibition of works of art, specimens, or artifacts arranged to illustrate a theme, subject or “story line” in order to facilitate comprehension of their signifi cance in relation to that theme, often employing graphic or other interpretative devices to place the objects in context for the visitor.

Thermal break: a portion of insulation material built into the frame of a metal win-dow or door in order to interrupt what would otherwise be a thermal bridge, bringing cold into the building.

Thermal bridging: connection between one temperature area and another, such as exterior and interior, by a continuous building material.

Thermography: use of infrared photography to record heat given off by a surface, used to record heat leaks and to document the thermal effi ciency of buildings.

Threat assessment: process of identifying threat categories and adversaries, assess-ing the intent of each adversary, capability of each adversary, frequency of past inci-dents (history), and an estimation of the threat relative to each critical asset.

Threat, vulnerability, and risk assessment (TVRA): A TVRA is an offensive and defensive methodology to identify, analyze and weigh existing conditions and objec-tives of a physical protection system against critical assets, unwanted events, threats, and vulnerabilities for identifi cation of risks.

Tracer gases: vaporous chemicals that can be monitored through a building to mea-sure air leakage.

Triple bottom line: decision-making based on social, environmental and fi nancial values, otherwise known as “People, Planet and Profi t.”

Trust: the group that is accountable to the public and to the institution for the man-agement of the property and affairs of a museum. It is the ultimate legal entity and governing authority.

Trustee: a person who holds property in trust for another; frequently one of a body of persons responsible for managing the affairs of an institution that holds property in trust for the public.


Turnkey Project: See Design-build.

Ultraviolet light (UV): rays beyond the visible spectrum of light that are the chief cause of color fading and chemical changes due to exposure to light; a form of elec-tromagnetic radiation with a wavelength range shorter than visible (below 400 nm).

Unit price contract: agreement by a client to pay for a contractor’s work according to a fi xed rate per unit times the number of units to be performed.

Universal Accessibility: the ability of users to have equal opportunity and access to services, products, systems, and environments, regardless of economic or social situa-tion, religious or cultural background, gender, or functional limitation.

Universal Design: design of products, environments and services to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL): the application of UD to education and the learning environment, as well as to tools, materials, and techniques that facilitate cognition.

Unwanted event statements: brief, simple statements comprised of three parts: statement or description of the impact on the asset (the loss); a connecting phrase such as, “due to”; statement of the resulting unwanted event.

Value: in a building, the ratio of function to cost: Value = Function/Cost

Value engineering (or cost cutting): a systematic method to improve the “value” of any products or services—a building or an exhibition, for example—by subjecting them to an examination by function.

Vapor barrier: an impermeable barrier to prevent movement of water vapor into a building.

Vapor plumes: wisps of condensing air vapor indicating breaks in the vapor barrier of a building.

Variable air volume (VAV) system: environmental control zones are served by a common duct system providing cool air, where each zone is tempered by introducing a varied volume of cool air from the system. Usually has a “VAV box” for each zone.

Variation order request (VOR): details the proposed change and estimates its cost and its effect on the schedule (see Change order).

Visible storage: provision of public access to part or all of a complete museum col-lection by means of systematic presentation of artifacts, specimens, or works of art as in closed storage, but presented in a public gallery, normally on shelves or in draw-ers behind or under glass, with publicly accessible catalogues providing interpreta-tion either by means of laminated fl ip-cards of entire catalogue entries, or computer screens where similarly detailed information is available.

Vulnerability assessment: a defensive methodology used to determine the likelihood that an adversary can successfully exploit a system’s or asset’s vulnerabilities. See also Threat, vulnerability, and risk assessment (TVRA).

GLOSSARY 6 6 9

Water source heat pump: a heating, ventilating and air-conditioning system where the environmental control zones are served by a circulating loop of water, where each zone has its own heat pump (compressor, evaporator, condenser, circulating fan, and fi lter) which can heat or cool the zone by running the heat pump compressor to either cool the air and heat the water loop, or heat the air and cool the water loop.

Wet bulb temperature: temperature read from a thermometer whose bulb has been covered with a suitable wick that has been thoroughly wetted with water. If water evaporates from the wick when the wet bulb thermometer is placed in an air stream, the temperature read by the thermometer will be lowered.

Working drawings (Shop drawings or Construction drawings): the Drawings component of the Construction Documents that, together with the specifi cations, are issued for use in actual construction.

Zoning Analysis: an analysis of the disposition of space in the museum building according to basic museum functions; it may be applied to an existing building’s cur-rent space uses, or to the projection of a new building.

Index

6 7 1

AAM. See American Association of Museums

AAMD. See Association of Art Museum Directors

ablutions, 181access control systems (ACS), 387–88; con-

fi guration, 388; verifi cation, 388accessibility: community, 70; exhibition

and collections support space, 233–34; Facility Strategy, 482, 484; Functional Program, 482, 484; natural security, 397; planning, 124; of project man-ager, 547–48; sensory, 159–61; storage, 271–73; of theater, 127. See also universal accessibility

ACS. See access control systemsact-of-parliament museums, 51adaptive reuse: communication and, 559;

community and, 559; new build versus, 556–60; problems facing, 558–59

administration: exhibition responsibilities, 99; expenses, 452

admissions: revenues, 445; security, 366aesthetics: contemplative, 215; planning, 124air-handling unit (AHU), 327–28, 329;

facility management, 413–14air quality: conservation laboratory, 294;

storage, 258alarms: audible, 174; false, 387; nuisance,

387; universal accessibility requirements for, 174; visual, 174

amenity planning, 139–53; staff, 429–31American Association for State and Local

History, 506American Association of Museums (AAM),

439; Accreditation Program, 58–59, 496, 506; Code of Ethics, 496; Financial Sur-veys, 79; Professional Interest Committee on Environmental Sustainability, 501

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 370

American Society of Heating, Refrigera-tion and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), 330, 498

Anchorage Museum, 59Anderson, Maxwell, 631archaeology: collections, 190; Exhibition

Plan, 223; storage, 260architect, 10, 12, 296, 558; by appointment,

573; conservators interactions with, 297–98; design, 562; landscape, 564–65; qualifi cations-based selection, 573, 574; of record, 562; responsibilities, 562, 572; role of, 36; selection, 570–86; timing, 571–72; zones and, 461. See also design competition

The Architect’s Handbook of Professional Prac-tice, 566

architecture, 472; destination, 502; iconic, 558; symbolism, 557

archival collections, 191, 195arm’s length institutions, 49, 56artifact content development, 96Art Institute of Chicago, 57, 623art studio planning, 116artwork: content development, 96; decora-

tive, 190–91; fi ne, 190–91ASHRAE. See American Society of Heat-

ing, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers

assistive technology, 159; listening, 174–75; universal accessibility and, 174–75

Association of Art Museum Directors (AAMD), 247

Association of Children’s Museums, 80Association of Science-Technology Centers,

80associative collections, 200–201; growth of,

211

6 7 2 INDEX

ASTM. See American Society for Testing and Materials

attendance: comparisons, 442; computer-ized ticketing systems for, 76; daily, 76; early-twenties, 76; feasibility study, 20; historical, 442; inaccuracies, 442–43; low weekday, 76; operations assumptions, 440–42; poor weather weekend, 76; pro-jections, 442–45, 446–47; records, 75–76; resident market, 84; school groups, 84–85; special events, 76; target market, 86. See also Design Day; peak hour visita-tion level; visitors

audience: learning for different, 111–15; learning for underserved, 113, 115; man-date defi ning, 46

audio guides, 105Australian Museum in Sydney, 13–14authenticity, 193

Babbage, Charles, 89background checks, 374bag storage, 148Baker, Nicholas, 192bar codes, 272BAS. See building automation systembenefi ts, 451bidding, 569; purpose, 29Bilbao Effect, 502biological attack, 326black boxes, 108blindness, 157–58BMS. See building management systemboardroom, 428book: collections, 191–92; traveling log, 236Borchersen, Karen, 498borrowing power, factors, 227–28Boston Museum of Science, 160Braille, 170, 171branding, 628–29Braungart, Michael, 507break room, 430British Museum, 274–75broken windows theory, 398bronze disease, 221Brooklyn Museum, 125–26budgets, 14; conservation laboratory,

295–96; design competition, 615; light-ing, 318; line departments, 48; operating, 610–11; research, 300. See also capital cost projection; cash fl ow; cost consul-tant; cost estimator; expenses; fi nancing; funding; revenue

Bugler, Jeremy, 90

building: program summary, 472; security, 366, 379–81, 395–99; storage, 252. See also gross building areas; net areas

building automation system (BAS), 344building envelope, 334, 602; construction

details, 336; design, 335–36; goals and limits for, 338–40; insulation of exterior glaze, 336; temperature and, 337

building management system (BMS), 409Building Team, 30, 32; roles and responsi-

bilities of, 31, 33, 34business plan, 20–21, 43; during construc-

tion, 625; feasibility studies compared to, 19–20; right-sizing, 514–15

California Academy of Science, 501California Association of Museums, 505Campbell, Thomas P., 135Canadian Museum for Human Rights, 44,

56capital cost projection: additional consider-

ations, 518; contingencies, 516; design fees, 516; feasibility study, 20; furniture, fi xtures, and equipment, 518; gross area and, 517–18; hard costs, 516, 518; pre-liminary, 20; soft costs, 516

Capital Project Team, 54carbon, 508cases: base, 385–86; frame, 385; glazing, 385;

hinges, 385; locks, 385; relative humidity, 338; removal from, 386; security, 384–86; temperature and, 337–38

cash fl ow, 609–12; contraction, 611; cycle, 610–11; defi ned, 609; gaps in, 612; schedule, 611–12; temporary exhibitions and, 228

cash fl ow management, 609; during projects, 611–12

cash fl ow projection, 609; from operating budget, 610–11; updating, 610

catastrophic events: code compliance and, 307; emergency preparedness planning for, 307; insurance requirements, 307; local experience, 307; strategies for miti-gation of, 308–14. See also gradual events; severe events

CBR. See chemical, biological, and radio-logical agents

CCD. See color charge-coupled deviceCCTV. See closed circuit televisionCDC. See Centers for Disease Controlceiling: conservation considerations, 346,

349; exposed structures, 349; galleries, 107–8; gypsum, 349; plaster, 349; risk

INDEX 6 7 3

management, 349; security, 400; storage, 252, 255; tamper protection, 400; tile, 349; wood, 349

Center for Universal Design (CUD), 154Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 380“Checklist for a Regeneration-Based Guide

for Design and Construction,” 507chemical, biological, and radiological agents

(CBR), 380–81chemical instability, 325–26chemical stability, 322–23children: adolescents, 112, 114; eight to

twelve, 114; four to seven, 111–12, 114; infants and toddlers, 111, 114; learning, 111–12, 114; RFID and, 378; security, 377–78; seven to twelve, 112. See also family

Chipperfi eld, David, 135circulation: conservation laboratory, 299–

300; exhibition and collections support space, 231; exhibition production, 245; Facility Strategy, 482–83, 484; Func-tional Program, 482–83, 484; path, 241; shipping and receiving, 240, 242; storage, 257, 262, 264, 266; universal accessibility guidance for, 177

civil society model, 49–50classroom planning, 116clients, 561–62; contracting and expertise of,

595; responsibilities, 562climate control: active, 338–44; conserva-

tion laboratory, 294; costs, 634; design of, 331, 340–42; energy saving systems, 342; load capacity, 340; loading dock, 237; quantum versus incremental increases in cost, 340–41; shipping and receiving bay, 237; standards, 485, 602; sustainability and, 339–40, 497; system controls, 342; system failure, 308; zones, 341–42

closed circuit television (CCTV), 237, 257, 390

cloud computing, 290–91code requirements, 339–40; catastrophic

events and, 307. See also universal accessibility

collecting mandate, 196–99; acquisition criteria, 198; associative limit, 197; cat-egories, 197; geographic limits, 197, 198; quality standards, 198; summary, 201; temporal limits, 197

collection: analysis, 26, 205–10; archaeologi-cal, 190; archival, 191, 195; associative, 200–201, 211; balancing, 202; basics, 189–95; book, 191–92; born digital,

192–93; classes, 193–95; comprehensive approach to, 204; condition of, 209; con-temporary, 191; cost of, 246–50; costume, 190; cultural heritage, 192; decorative art, 190–91; defi ning, 189–90; demonstra-tion, 195; digitization of, 285–91; envi-ronmental requirements, 340; especially sensitive objects, 222; ethnographic, 191; of exceptional or outstanding items, 199–200, 211; fi ne art, 190–91; growth to Design Year, 210; guidelines, 202; histor-ical growth patterns, 210–11; impervious objects, 221; intangible, 192–93; inter-pretive potential of, 209; life of, 246–50; living, 527; mandate and, 195; materials, 206; mission and, 195; museum planners and, 205; Museum Project Team and, 204–5; natural history specimens, 190; newspaper, 191–92; number of objects by category, 205–6; opportunistic, 201, 211; oral histories, 192; periodical, 191–92; phasing, 202; physical attributes of, 250; planning process, 202, 204–11; pres-ervation of, 43–44; purpose, 209, 220; qualitative analysis, 208–10; quantita-tive analysis, 205–8; reasonably sensi-tive objects, 221–22; relocation during construction, 626; representative, 200, 211; requirements, 250; reserve, 194–95; review, 274–75; roles, 193–95; security, 366, 382–95; site selection and, 552; size, 206; social history, 191; space require-ments, 205–10; staff and, 204; study, 194; suitability of, 209; sustainability and, 497–98; systematic, 200, 211; technology, 190; textile, 190; three-dimensional, 190–91, 206; two-dimensional, 191–92, 206; types, 189–90, 199–201; typical growth patterns, 211; uses, 193–95. See also cases; display; exhibition; exhibition and collec-tions support space; galleries; nonpublic collection zone; public collection zone

collection, permanent: analysis, 221; clas-sifi cation of, 221; display, 220–25; evalu-ation, 225; research, 92; shipping and receiving, 235; strength of, 227

collection development strategy: consider-ations, 209–10; goals of, 209; purpose of, 26

collection management, 201–2, 203; direct, 247; indirect, 247

collection pathways: facility management, 415; security, 382

Collection Policy, 195, 221; framework, 196–202

6 7 4 INDEX

Collections Move Coordinating Commit-tee, 626

color: contrast and, 170; digitization and balancing, 289; temperature, 318

color charge-coupled device (CCD), 257color rendering index (CRI), 318–19color rendering properties, 318–19; fi ber

optics, 321; fl uorescent lamps, 320–21; fl uorescent lights, 320; incandescent lamps, 320; LED, 321; metal halide lamps, 321; natural light, 322; tungsten halogen lamp, 320

commissioning, 570; purpose, 29; retro, 503; schedule, 536

communication: adaptive reuse and, 559; community, 54–61, 70–72; design com-petition strategy for, 584; exhibitions and, 90; Interpretive Plan and, 94–95; limita-tions, 158; opening day and, 628–29; plan during construction, 625; procedural changes in internal, 633; project manager and, 543; sustainability and, 6; universal accessibility requirements, 180, 182–86

community, 68; accessibility, 70; accom-modations, 152–53; adaptive reuse and, 559; categories, 54–55; conversation, 70–72; depth, 71; digital engagement, 71; engagement, 54–61, 71–72; focus groups, 72; galleries, 117; individuals and, 55–56, 71; input, 69; leveraging good rapport with, 73; maintaining contact, 73; mean-ing for, 68–69; needs, 66–73; observation, 70; output, 69; site selection and, 581; support, 43; surveys, 71; sustainability and, 498; town hall style meetings, 72; understanding, 66–67; workshops, 72

competition, 123; between museums of same type, 79–81; patterns among, 81; priority, 531; questionnaire, 80–81. See also design competition

comprehension: limitations, 158–59; uni-versal accessibility requirements, 180, 182–86

concept plans, 17–18; vision statements, 18Condition Report, 239Conditions of Engagement 99, 566Confederation of Fire Protection Associa-

tions Europe, 312confl icts of interest, 35conservation, 305–6; carpet, 345; ceiling,

346, 349; entrance considerations, 345; exhibition, 98, 99; exposed structures, 346; fabric covered panels, 346; fl oor, 345, 347–48; galleries, 345; gypsum

board, 346; linoleum, 345; plaster, 346; stone, 346; storage, 345; tile, 345, 346; walls, 346, 348–49; wood, 345, 346

conservation laboratory: adjacencies, 299–300; air quality, 294; budget, 295–96; circulation, 299–300; climate control, 294; construction, 298; design, 296–300; energy consumption, 297; exhaust fans, 293; feasibility study, 295; feedback, 297; fenestration, 298–99; fl exibility, 299; fl oor loading, 294; fl oor vibration, 294; Func-tional Program, 293–94; lighting, 293, 298–99; location of, 293; mission and, 292; options for dedicated, 292; planning, 291–96; schedule, 295–96; security, 383; size of, 292–93, 299; visits, 294

construction: adaptive reuse versus new, 556–60; building envelope, 336; business plan during, 625; collections relocation during, 626; communications plan dur-ing, 625; conservation laboratory, 298; contract, 570; contracting options, 594–99; contract negotiation, 29; cost, 12–13; daily activity coming into contact with, 623–24; details in building envelope, 336; feasibility studies, 567; fund-raising and, 520–21; operations during, 623–26; plan-ning, 566–67; purpose, 29; schedule, 535; security, 396; shut down during, 624; stages, 566–70; storage, 251, 254–56, 267, 269

construction documentation, 568, 603–4; purpose, 28–29

construction manager: contracting and, 597–98; peer review, 604

Construction Team, 32, 561–66; roles and responsibilities of, 34

consultants: role of, 37. See also cost consultant

Contemporary Art Center in Cincinnati, 146

contemporary collections, 191contracting, 565–66; client expertise and,

595; complexity and, 595; construction, 29, 570, 594–99; construction manager, 597–98; cost, 595; design and, 595–96; design-build, 596–97; direct costs plus fi xed fee, 599; exhibition design, 588, 589, 591, 592; factors, 595–96; food ser-vices, 362; funding, 596; lump sum, 598–99; measurement pricing, 599; options, 596–98; preapproved, 598; pricing options, 598–99; quality, 595; schedule, 595; traditional design, bid, build, 596

INDEX 6 7 5

contrast, 169–70; color and, 170copyright, 585Corcoran Gallery of Art, 57corporate membership programs, 60corporations, 60corridors: exhibition and collections sup-

port space, 234–35. See also collection pathways

corrosive activity, 327cost consultant: design intent and, 601;

design workshop meetings, 602–3; meth-ods, 600–1; role of, 37, 600–4; zones and, 461

cost estimator, 517–18The Cost of Collecting, 53The Cost of Green Revisited (Langdon), 496costume collections, 190counters, 177–79CPM. See Critical Path MethodCPTED. See Crime Prevention through

Environmental DesignCradle to Cradle, 507creativity, 58, 635–36CRI. See color rendering indexCrime Prevention through Environmental

Design (CPTED), 396–97; 3D approach to, 398–99; activity support, 398; defi ni-tion, 398; design, 399; designation, 398

Critical Path Method (CPM), 537CUD. See Center for Universal Designcultural heritage collections, 192cultural identity, 42; tourism and, 86; value

engineering and, 607cultural resources, 44; analysis, 19; into cul-

tural capital, 19cultural sustainability, 7–8; mission and, 8curator: exhibition responsibilities, 99; the-

ater policy, 137; workroom lighting, 304curatorial brief, 93–94curatorial independence, 60

Darwin Centre of the Natural History Museum in London, 200

data outlets, 256DAVID. See Digitally Analyzed Video

Intrusion DetectionDavies, Chris, 13dead storage, 416, 503deafness, 158decibels, 182decompression play areas, 152decorative art collections, 190–91deliquescence, 326Dercon, Chris, 134

design: for all senses, 159–61; architect, 562; building envelope, 335–36; capital cost projection and, 516; climate control, 331, 340–42; compromises, 494; concept, 95, 493, 568, 603; conservation laboratory, 296–300; contracting and, 588, 591, 592, 595–97; cost consultant and, 601, 602–3; Crime Prevention through Environmental Design, 396–99; detailed, 28, 95, 493, 568; development, 95, 603; exhibition, 36, 93–97, 100, 586–94, 591; feasibility studies, 567; fi nal, 95–96; green, 343; for learning, 121, 124–25; lighting, 564; lobby, 147–48; market analysis, 74; percent completion thresholds, 493; planning, 566–67; reconciliation meetings, 603; review, 492–94; schedule, 535; schematic, 28, 95, 493, 568, 603–4; staff workspaces, 432–33; stages, 596–600; studio, 242; uni-versal accessibility physical requirements for, 163–67; workshop meetings, 602–3. See also universal design

Design and Construction Team, 561–66design competition, 535, 573, 590; approv-

als, 574–75; awards, 583–84; budget, 585; communication strategy, 584; compensa-tion, 583–84; Competitions Conditions, 579; conditions, 582; copyright, 585; decision-making authority, 580; entrant eligibility, 579; exhibition, 585; guide-lines, 574–75; international, 574; invited, 577; jury, 580–81; limited, 577–78; objectives, 575–77; open, 577–78; pro-fessional advisor, 581; publication, 585; qualifi cations, 586; schedule, 583; scope of, 585; secondary objectives, 587; stages, 588–89; summary, 586; technical advi-sory committee, 581–82

Design Day, 63; defi ned, 64, 444Design Object, 63; defi ned, 64; doorways

and, 255; right-sizing, 503; three-dimen-sional, 65; two-dimensional, 65

Design Team, 296, 561–66; Facility Strategy, 492; Functional Program, 492; roles and responsibilities of, 34, 590, 591, 592–93

Design Year, 63; collections growth to, 210; defi ned, 64; right-sizing, 510–11

The Difference Engine, 89differentiated instruction, 161–62Digitally Analyzed Video Intrusion Detec-

tion (DAVID), 257digitization: authenticity of, 193; of collec-

tion, 285–91; color balance, 289; cost of, 287; dedicated spaces for, 288–89; goal

6 7 6 INDEX

of, 287–88; image quality, 288; impacts of, 286–87; integrating, 287; large scale, 289; planning space for, 287–90; record shot, 288; storage, 290–91; studio quality, 288; technology, 285; traditional func-tions and, 285–87

dimensional instability, 325dimensional stability, 323dioramas, 215–16; content development, 97discovery centers, 116display: base, 385–86; contextual, 215;

frame, 385; glazing, 385; hinges, 385; life expectancy, 225; locks, 385; of permanent collection, 220–25; removal from, 386; security, 383, 384–86; sensational, 223; thematic, 215. See also cases

display density, 208; changes in, 217; right-sizing, 511; wall space, 214

display mode, 208, 212–20; changes in, 217; common, 215–16; defi ned, 214; example analysis, 217, 218, 219; inaccurate projec-tions, 219

display/storage ratio, 208, 213, 214, 249; right-sizing, 511

documentation: construction, 28–29, 568, 603–4; exhibition, 101; project manager, 546; strategic plan, 17; sustainability, 501

donors, 523; ranking, 526doors: Design Object and, 255; high protec-

tion level, 407; low level protection, 402; medium protection level, 404–5; security, 402, 404–5, 407; storage, 255

dress rehearsal, 629

earned-income, 449, 638n1earthquakes, 309–10EAS. See electronic asset surveillanceEC. See exhibition committeeeducation: exhibition, 101; institutions,

57–58; right-sizing, 512. See also learningEdwards, David, 58egress systems, 393; fi re, 310Egyptian Supreme Council for Antiquities,

227electrical security, 394–95electronic asset surveillance (EAS): acceler-

ometer, 389; capacitive proximity, 390; magnetic, 389; microwave, 389; pressure, 389; radio frequency, 389; video analyt-ics, 390

elevators: exhibition and collections support space and, 234–35; universal accessibility requirements for, 176, 178

emergency generators, 394–95endowments, 449–50energy effi ciency, 319, 343; climate control,

342; fi ber optics, 321; fl uorescent lamps, 320; incandescent lamps, 320; LED, 321–22; metal halide lamps, 321; natural light, 322; tungsten halogen lamp, 320

EnergyStar, 506engineers: mechanical, 296–97, 594; offi ce,

410; role of, 36; services, 564; storage, 251; structural, 563–64; zones and, 461

entrance, 145–49; conservation consid-erations, 345; security, 376–77; staff, 429–30. See also doors

environment: collection requirements, 340; external conditions, 331; gradual events, 308; layered approach to, 335; loan requirements for temporary exhibi-tions, 329–30; monitoring systems, 344; occupant requirements for, 339; pas-sively buffered, 334–38; on preservation, 315–34; risks and special requirements for, 328–29; roof and, 335; security and, 396–97; specifi cation development, 330–34; storage, 258–59; sustainability and, 6, 339–40; SWOT analysis and, 16; universal accessibility, 175–80; walls and, 335, 336. See also climate control

Environmental Guidelines for Museums—Temperature and Relative Humidity (Michalski & Grattan), 498

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 508

EOI. See expression of interestEPA. See Environmental Protection Agencyergonomics, 433ethnographic collections, 191evaluation: exhibit planning, 97–98, 99;

formative, 98, 225; front-end, 97, 225; meta, 632; by museum planners, 635; ongoing, 635; opening day, 631–32; per-manent collection, 225; post-occupancy, 536; program-based, 632; purpose, 29; security, 399; site selection, 552–54, 555; summative, 98, 225, 632

event spaces, 128–29; right-sizing, 129exhibition: administration responsibilities,

99; communication and, 90; conserva-tion, 98, 99; contemplative aesthetic, 215; curatorial responsibilities, 99; defi ned, 89–91; design competition, 615; docu-mentation, 101; education, 101; expenses, 451–52; installation responsibilities, 100;

INDEX 6 7 7

interactive, 97; interpretation responsi-bilities, 100; market-based, 224; meaning, 90; media specialist responsibilities, 100; monitoring, 98–99; open-plan, 107; proj-ect manager, 100–101; proposal, 92–93, 617–18; publications, 101; public pro-gramming managers responsibilities for, 101; public relations responsibilities, 102; research-based, 224; schedule, 565–66; security, 102, 366; storyline, 107; study, 99; systematic, 216; technology, 90; text, 96; virtual, 212; webmaster responsibili-ties for, 102

exhibition, temporary, 225–30; borrowing power and, 227–28; cash and, 228; envi-ronmental loan requirements, 329–30; requirements, 227–28; right-sizing, 543; setup, 229; shipping and receiving, 235–36; sources, 226; space required for, 228–29; staff and, 228

exhibition and collections support space, 230–45; activities and workfl ow, 231–35; adjacency considerations, 233–34; cir-culation space, 231; corridors, 234–35; diagramming, 233; elevators, 234–35; functional areas of, 230; general access, 233–34; imaginary walkthrough, 233; periodic planned events, 232; routine events, 231; scheduled and unscheduled events and, 232; shipping and receiving, 235–42; unanticipated events, 232

exhibition committee (EC), 587exhibition design, 586–94; best practice study,

587; design-build, 593–94; fabricators, 593; in-house versus out-sourced, 588, 589; Interpretive Plan, 587; meeting, 587; multimedia show production, 593; needs analysis, 587–88; no-bid contract, 588; planning, 93–97; project manager, 590, 592–93; research, 587–88; responsibilities, 100; role, 36; selecting, 588, 590, 592–94; site visits, 587; sole-source contract, 588; subcontractors, 591, 592; team coordina-tor, 590; testing, 588, 590, 592–94

Exhibition Plan: anthropological muse-ums, 223; archaeology museum, 223; art museum, 222; common approach to, 213–14; ethnographic museums, 223; history museums, 223; idea museums, 223; industry museums, 224; natural his-tory museums, 223–24; science museums, 224; technology museums, 224; transpor-tation museums, 224

exhibition planning, 242–45; content devel-opment, 96–97; cost planning, 97; debate, 91; design and, 93–97; evaluation, 97–98, 99; installation, 98; operation, 98–99; phases, 91–99; production, 98; research, 91–92; spaces for, 106–9

exhibition production: adjacency, 245; cha-rette room, 243; circulation space, 245; clean workshops, 244; coordination, 242; design studio, 242; dirty workshops, 243–44; fabrication facilities, 243–44; installation, 244–45; maintenance space, 243–45; model room, 243; planning, 98; responsibilities, 100; scale, 243; staging, 244–45; storage, 244; supplies, 244; tools, 244

expenses: administration, 452; benefi ts, 451; control with zones, 466–67; curatorial, 451; exhibition, 451–52; feasibility study, 20; marketing, 452; occupancy, 451; operations assumptions, 440–42; projec-tions, 451–53; public programming, 452; retail, 452; salary, 451; space determi-nants, 458–59; wage, 451. See also specifi c expenses

Experts’ Roundtable on Sustainable Climate Management Strategies, 498

expression of interest (EOI), 573extension programs, 120–21

Facebook, 71facilities: effective, 358–59; function of, 358;

operations, 358–59; research, 303–4; theater production, 138. See also building; gross building areas; specifi c facilities

facility management: air-handling unit, 413–14; break areas, 410; carpentry shop, 411; chiller rooms, 414; collection pathways, 415; defi ned, 408; electrical main, 412; engineers offi ce, 410; events storage, 415; fi lter storage, 411; fi re pump room, 413; garbage removal, 415–16; information technology closet, 413; janitorial closets, 411–12; lamp room, 411; loading dock, 415; locker rooms, 410; machine shops, 410–11; mechanical, electrical, and plumbing, 412–14; offi ce, 409–10; paint shop, 411; prep space, 414–15; respon-sibility for, 409; shipping and receiving, 415–16; sprinkler supply, 413; staff areas, 409–10; staging areas, 414; storage, 410–12, 415; supply storage, 410; support spaces, 414–15; table and chair storage,

6 7 8 INDEX

415; third party kitchen, 414–15; tool storage, 410; utility connections, 412–13; water main, 412; workshops, 410–12

facility planning, 21–25; implementation, 24–25; master plan, 23–24; opening day, 25

Facility Strategy, 457, 473–91, 572; access and, 482, 484; adjacency and, 482–83, 484; author, 492; circulation and, 482–83, 484; components of, 473, 475; defi ned, 473; Design Team, 492; development, 486; for future generations, 494; leader-ship engaged with, 487; orientation, 492; preparation, 475; review, 486–87, 492–94; standards, 483, 485; verifi cation, 486–87; zones and, 477–79

false alarms, 387family: accommodations, 151–52; activity

areas, 152; food services, 152; learning, 113; restrooms, 151

feasibility study, 18–20, 23; attendance, 20; business plans compared with, 19–20; clear statement, 20; conservation labora-tory, 295; construction, 567; defi ned, 19, 439; design, 567; Executive Summary, 20; external assessment, 19; internal assessment, 19; key issues, 19; market analysis, 19; operating expenses, 20; pre-liminary capital cost projection, 20; pur-pose, 27; staff and, 20; SWOT analysis, 19. See also fund-raising feasibility

fenestration, 298–99FF&E. See furniture, fi xtures, and

equipmentfi ber optics, 321fi eld-of-view (FoV), 390–91, 391fi nancing: line of credit, 613–14; long-term,

614–15; revolver account, 613–14; short-term, 613–14. See also fund-raising

fi ne art collections, 190–91fi re, 310–12; detection, 310; egress systems,

310; physical barriers, 310; prevention measures, 310; pump room, 413

fi re resistance, 312; storage, 254, 257fi rst aid room, 148–49fi rst responders, 374, 375fl oods, 312–13fl oor: carpet, 348; ceramic tile, 347; concrete,

347; conservation considerations, 345, 347–48; conservation laboratory, 294; linoleum, 348; risk management, 347–48; sealed or stained, 347; stone, 347; stor-age, 253, 254; universal accessibility and, 164–65; wood, 347–48

fl uorescent lamps, 316; properties, 320–21

focus groups: community, 72; objectives, 78food services, 129–31, 425; accommoda-

tions, 153; contractors, 362; for families, 152; mission and, 130; operations, 362; planning, 119; revenue, 448. See also restaurants

Ford Foundation, 57Forestry Stewardship Council, 537foundations, 57foundation statements, 23, 43, 45–47FoV. See fi eld-of-viewfree day/night, 105FTEs. See full-time equivalentsfull-time equivalents (FTEs), 421functional areas, 467–68; descriptions, 479,

482; exhibition and collections support space, 230

Functional Program, 30, 457, 473–91, 567, 572; access and, 482, 484; adjacency and, 482–83, 484; author, 492; circulation and, 482–83, 484; conservation laboratory, 293–94; Design Team, 492; development, 486; for future generations, 494; leader-ship engaged with, 487; orientation, 492; preparation, 475; purpose, 27; review, 486–87, 492–94; right-sizing, 541–42; room data sheets, 486, 482–87; standards, 483, 485; technical specifi cations, 28; verifi cation, 486–87

fundamental functions, 46funding: capacity study, 23; contracting, 596;

gap, 51fund-raising, 519–22; approval, 527; cam-

paign plan, 519, 527–29; Campaign Plan-ning Committee, 524–25; construction and, 520–21; cost of, 521; critical infor-mation for, 519–20; gift acceptance poli-cies, 527, 529; gift table, 527, 528; goal, 520–22, 527; major gifts, 523; naming opportunities, 527; operations and, 521; organization, 520; phasing, 521–22; pri-mary case statement messages, 527; public campaign for, 529; public programming and, 521; right-sizing, 521–22; staff, 529; strategy development, 519; successful, 529; timeline, 527. See also donors

fund-raising feasibility, 522–29; intentions of, 523; interviews, 523–24; matrix, 525; narrative, 525, 526; questions, 523–24; report, 525–26; selling, 524–25; sum-mary, 526; third party, 522

furniture, fi xtures, and equipment (FF&E), 600; capital cost projections and, 518; schedule, 535–36

INDEX 6 7 9

galleries: ceiling, 107–8; character of, 106; community, 117; conservation consider-ations, 345; dimensions of, 106; lighting, 108–9; proportions of, 106; right-sizing, 542; security, 366, 383; size, 212; swing, 229; value engineering and, 638; walls, 107. See also cases; display

Gantt Chart, 537GCI. See Getty Conservation InstituteGehry, Frank, 59, 106gender accommodation, 153General Electric, 606Getty Conservation Institute (GCI), 497–98Gift Agreement, 221glare, 169governance, 48–53; appropriate, 43; choice of,

51–52; transformation, 51; types, 51–52Governing Body, 33government: direct departments, 51; rela-

tionship with, 56; subsidizing, 248–49gradual events, 308grants, 450; staff research, 301Grattan, David, 498Great Exhibition at Crystal Palace, 89Greenhouse Gas Reporting Protocol, 508Greening Spires, 500Green Museum Accord, 505Green Museums Initiative, 505Green Teams, 505–6Griffi n, Des, 13–14gross building areas, 468–73; capital cost

projections and, 517–18; defi ned, 469; diagram, 469

grossing factor, 470, 471; space distribution in, 471; universal applications, 472

Gulbenkian Foundation, 57

Hadid, Zahal, 146The Handbook of Architectural Design Compe-

titions, 575, 586Hatchfi eld, Pamela, 498heating, ventilating, and air conditioning

(HVAC), 314; storage, 256Hertz, 183high-intensity discharge lamps (HID), 316;

properties, 321historic buildings, 556Horniman Free Museum, 90HVAC. See heating, ventilating, and air

conditioninghygroscopic materials, 338

ICF-10. See International Classifi cation of Functioning, Disability and Health

ICOM. See International Council of Museums

IDS. See intrusion detection systemsilluminance, 168illustrations, 96images, 96incandescent lamp, 315–16; properties, 320India, 51Indianapolis Museum of Art, 631information: actionable, 67; frustration with,

72; fund-raising, 519–20; meaningful, 67; opening day, 632; prioritizing, 73; project manager sharing, 546–47; relevant, 67; sharing, 72–73; statistically signifi cant, 71; unbiased, 71; universal accessibility and tactile, 170–71

information technology (IT), 290–91; facil-ity management, 413

institutional context, 54institutional evolution, 41–45institutional plan, 21; foundation statements,

23; purpose of, 26; right-sizing, 23institutional status, 50; space planning and, 52intellectual property, 301International Association of Museum Facil-

ity Managers, 506International Classifi cation of Functioning,

Disability and Health (ICF-10), 155–56International Council of Museums (ICOM),

1, 50, 58–59International Living Future Institute, 507International Organization for Standardiza-

tion (ISO), 506Internet, 56, 143internships, 433Interpretive Plan, 94–96, 213; communica-

tion objectives, 94–95; components of, 94; exhibition design, 587; means of expression, 95; themes, 94, 95

interviews: fund-raising feasibility, 523–24; objectives, 78

intrusion detection systems (IDS), 388–89; objectives, 388

investment income, 449–50ISO. See International Organization for

Standardizationisolation room, 239IT. See information technology

John Michael Kohler Art Center, 149, 150

Kanschat, Melody, 509key control, 383–84; basic concepts, 384;

electronic, 387

6 8 0 INDEX

key performance indicators (KPIs), 631knowledge economy, 58KPIs. See key performance indicators

Le Laboratoire, 58lamp life, 319; fi ber optics, 321; fl uorescent

lamps, 320; incandescent, 320; LED, 321–22; metal halide lamps, 321; natural light, 322; tungsten halogen lamp, 320

landscape architect, 564–65Langdon, Davis, 496leadership, 43; Facility Strategy engaging,

487; Functional Program engaging, 487; project manager, 544–45; right-sizing and, 510; strengths of, 53–54; sustain-ability, 501–2; weaknesses of, 53–54

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED), 496, 506

learning, 216; activities, 110; adolescents, 112, 114; adults, 113, 114; children eight to twelve, 114; children four to seven, 111–12, 114; children seven to twelve, 112; design for, 121, 124–25; for differ-ent audiences, 111–15; diversity, 161–62; evolution of, 110; facilitated, 115, 118; families, 113; infants and toddlers, 111, 114; lifelong, 110, 113; multigenerational groups, 113; planning space for, 109–21; potential modes of, 110; seniors, 113, 115; styles, 112–13; support space for, 121, 122–23; for underserved audiences, 115. See also Universal Design for Learning

Learning Center, 118; purposes, 115lecture halls, 116LED. See light emitting diodesLEED. See Leadership in Energy and Envi-

ronmental Designlevelling, 96libraries: planning, 117; relative humidity,

304; research, 303–4life-cycle costing, 605–6; maintenance and,

605light damage: fi ber optics, 321; fl uorescent

lamps, 321; incandescent lamp, 320; LED, 322; metal halide lamp, 321; natu-ral light, 322; tungsten halogen lamp, 320

light directionality, 319; fi ber optics, 321; fl uorescent lamps, 320; incandescent lamps, 320; LED, 321; metal halide lamps, 321; natural light, 322; tungsten halogen lamp, 320

light distribution, 319; fi ber optics, 321; fl u-orescent lamps, 320; incandescent lamps, 320; LED, 321; metal halide lamps, 321;

natural light, 322; tungsten halogen lamp, 320

light emitting diodes (LED), 321–22lighting: budget, 318; conservation laboratory,

293, 298–99; criteria for selecting, 318–20; cumulative exposure, 317–18; curatorial workroom, 304; damage, 308, 317–18; design, 564; gallery, 108–9; high sensitiv-ity to, 317; infrared, 315–16; insensitive to, 317; low sensitivity to, 317; moderate sensitivity to, 317; radiation and, 315–22; recommended levels, 316–17; security, 394; signs, 172–73; sources, 320–22; storage, 255–56, 258; ultraviolet, 315–16; universal accessibility requirements, 168–70; vis-ible radiation, 316–18; zoned, 256. See also color; lamp life; specifi c light sources

light intensity control: electric lighting, 319; fi ber optics, 321; fl uorescent lamps, 320; incandescent lamps, 320; LED, 321; metal halide lamps, 321; natural light, 319, 322; tungsten halogen lamp, 320

line departments, 56; budgets, 48Linnaean classifi cation, 259Living Building Challenge, 507loading dock, 236–38; climate control, 237;

facility management, 415; hydraulic plat-form lift, 237–38; security, 382; theater proximity to, 127

lobby, 145–49; comfort of, 126; crowd control, 147; design, 147–48; group, 147; planning, 119; services, 146; space required for, 147; support spaces, 148–49; value engineering and, 608

location identifi ers, 271; approaches to, 271–72

Location Log, 271Longwood Gardens, 15, 131–32Lord, Barry, 13–14Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 509Los Angeles County Museum of Natural

History, 283lounges: examples of, 131–32; staff, 430The Lowry, 45, 48, 55–56, 59Lowry, L. S., 45luminance, 168lux, 317

Madison (Wisconsin) Children’s Museum, 501

magnetometer, 378maintenance: exhibition production, 243–45;

life-cycle costing and, 605; security and, 398

INDEX 6 8 1

management capacity, 43mandate, 45; audience defi ned through,

46; collections and, 195; confl icting, 58; defi ned, 46; opening day and, 627; over-lapping, 58; target market and, 87. See also collecting mandate

maps, 171maquettes, 97market: exhibition program based on, 224;

expenses, 452; site selection and, 553–54; strategy, 26. See also audience; museum marketplace; resident markets; school groups; target market; tourism

market analysis, 73–88; benefi ts of, 74; contextual, 78–82; design concepts, 74; existing, 74–82; feasibility study, 19; museum-specifi c data analysis, 75–78; need for, 74; parking, 74; potential, 82–86; public spaces, 74; purpose, 26; resident, 83–84

McDonough, William, 507“Measurable Bottom Line Objectives for

Integrated Catchment Management Plans,” 500

mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP): facility management, 412–14; footprint, 412; layout, 412; system failure, 309

mechanical security, 380–81media: exhibition design and, 593; open-

ing day exposure, 628; script treatments, 96–97; social, 106; specialist, 100; view-ing rooms, 117

meeting rooms: planning, 116; staff, 429membership: corporate programs, 60; rev-

enue, 448–49MEP. See mechanical, electrical, and

plumbingMerce Cunningham Dance Company,

135–36metal halide lamps, 316; properties, 321Metropolitan Museum of Art, 135Michael Clark Company, 135Michalski, Stefan, 498milestones: critical, 616–23; development,

617, 618; fi ve-year process, 616, 617; implementation, 617, 618; outline, 617–23; planning, 617, 618; schedule, 533

mission: collections and, 195; conservation laboratory and, 292; cultural sustainabil-ity and, 8; defi ned, 45–46; failing, 8; food services and, 130; opening day and, 627; sustainability and, 496–99

MoAD. See Museum of the African Diaspora

mobility limitations, 156–57moisture content: organic material and, 326;

temperature and, 323Moussa, Amr, 72multipurpose rooms, 117multisensory representations, 159–61;

methods, 160–61; universal accessibility requirements, 168–75

Musee de Quai Branly, 223Musée du Louvre, 160Le musee national d’histoire naturelle,

223–24Museo Guggenheim Bilbao, 59Museum Loan Network, 59museum marketplace, 79; other attractions

and, 81–82Museum Microclimates: Contributions to the

Copenhagen Conference November 19-23, 2007 (Padfi eld & Borchersen), 498

Museum of Northern Arizona, 500–1Museum of the African Diaspora (MoAD),

55museum planner, 10–12, 534; collections

and, 205; evaluation by, 635; role of, 37museum planning, 474; assumptions, 62–63,

65; briefi ng, 27–28; as continual process, 10; cost, 13; defi ned, 9; diagram, 10, 11; duration, 601; eclectic, 11; goals, 9, 61; long view, 502–4; milestones, 617, 618; need for, 9–14; for people, 39–40; people involved in, 35–37; preplanning, 14–21, 26; principles, 62; process, 22; proportion of budget at each stage of, 14; review, 475–77; roles and responsibilities, 33–34; stages, 26–29; too early/too late syndrome, 11

Museum Project Team, 30, 32; collections and, 204–5; roles and responsibilities of, 31, 34

museums: associations, 58–59; as collec-tors, 39; director, 35; as presenters, 39; as sources of wonder, 39. See also specifi c museums

Museums and Sustainability: Guidelines for Policy and Practice in Museums and Gal-leries, 504

Museums Association, 50Museums International, 1

National Art Museum of China, 24–25National Fire Protection Association

(NFPA), 312National Heritage Board in Singapore, 52National Institute for Occupational Safety

and Health (NIOSH), 380

6 8 2 INDEX

National Jazz Museum of Harlem, 125National Museum of the American Indian,

130, 136; critics of, 223natural light, 316; intensity control for, 319;

properties, 322net areas, 468–73; defi ned, 468; diagram,

469Neue Museum, 135New Museum in New York, 149The New Society (Bugler), 90newspaper collections, 191–92New York Hall of Science, 160NFPA. See National Fire Protection

AssociationNicks, John, 189NIOSH. See National Institute for Occupa-

tional Safety and Healthnonpublic collection zone, 459, 462–63;

defi ned, 461; functions, 463nonpublic noncollection zone, 459; defi ned,

461; functions, 463not-for-profi t organizations, 49–50nuclear radiation, 309–10nursing stations, 151

OAL. See Offi ce of Arts and LibrariesObject Record, 271occupancy levels, 444; environment require-

ments, 339; expenses, 451Offi ce of Arts and Libraries (OAL), 246offi ces: open, 427–28; private, 427. See also

specifi c offi cesopening day: adjustments after, 632–34;

branding and, 628–29; calendar, 627–28; communication and, 628–29; com-ponents of, 627; evaluation, 631–32; events, 627–28; evolution after, 632–34; facility planning, 25; information, 632; mandate and, 627; media exposure dur-ing, 628; metrics, 631; mission and, 627; one shot at, 627; operations, 629–30; programming, 627–28; public relations fi rms hired for, 628; scale of, 628; suc-cess measurements, 630–32. See also dress rehearsal; soft opening

operating budget: balanced, 610; cash fl ow projection from, 610–11; process, 610

operating hours, 353operations: areas of, 356; attendance,

440–42; best people for, 352; challenges for, 364; during construction, 623–26; exhibition planning, 98–99; expenses, 440–42; facilities, 358–59; food services, 362; fund-raising and, 551; integrated

approach to, 355; opening day, 629–30; organizing, 355–63; planning, 351–52; procedural changes in, 634; retail, 360–61; security, 359–60, 393–94; stor-age, 149; theater, 361–62; in typical day, 353–55, 354–55; visitor services, 357–58

operations management: analysis, 364; com-mittees, 363; reporting, 364

operations plan: right-sizing, 514–15; transi-tional, 624–25

Operations Team, 54opportunistic collections, 201; growth of, 211oral histories, 192Oregon Museum of Science and Industry,

537O’Reilly Media, 69organizational changes, 633outreach, 120–21outside area zone, 459–60overnight programs, 121owner’s representative, 562; role of, 36

package shows, 226Padfi eld, Tim, 498parking, 143–45; calculations, 144; example

projections, 145; market analysis, 74; planning, 119; staff, 144; stroller, 151–52

participatory museum, 56patrols, 372–73peak hour visitation level, 64peak noise criteria (PNC), 182“People, Planet, and Profi t,” 499performance indicators (PIs), 16periodical collections, 191–92PERT. See Program Evaluation and Review

Techniquepest infestation, 308, 313–14; storage, 258Pew Charitable Trusts, 57phasing, 530–32; collections, 202; defi ned,

531; exhibition planning, 91–99; fund-raising, 521–22; strategic plan, 17; value engineering and, 608

physical changes, 634physical instability, 325–26Ping!, 160PIs. See performance indicatorspixels, 286Planning Team, 30–37; agreement on, 30;

structure, 30plural funding model, 49PM. See project managerPNC. See peak noise criteriaPolice Scientifi c Development Branch

(PSDB), 392

INDEX 6 8 3

pollutants: gas phase fi ltration, 328; particu-late fi ltration, 327–28; risk and, 327–28

pop-up shop, 132post-occupancy evaluation, 536PPP. See public private partnershipprayer rooms, 431preparation space, 122The Presence of the Past: Popular Uses of His-

tory in American Life (Thelen & Rosenz-weig), 501

preservation: of collection, 43–44; environ-ment and, 315–34

prioritizing, 530–32; competing, 531; defi ned, 531; information, 73; staff, 420–22; value engineering, 606–7

private ownership museums, 50–51private sector, 60–61; diversity of, 60; wealth

creation from, 60procedural changes, 633–34productivity planning, 124Program Evaluation and Review Technique

(PERT), 537programmatic adjustments, 634progressive collapse, 380Project Coordination Team, 32; roles and

responsibilities of, 31, 33; staff and, 418project manager (PM), 533, 536–37;

accessibility, 547–48; action by, 547; as auditor, 544; as communicator, 543; as coordinator, 543; as counselor, 544; decision making, 547; as delineator, 542–43; determination factors, 541–42; documentation, 546; duties of, 545–48; engagement, 548; exhibition, 100–101; exhibition design, 590, 592–93; infor-mation sharing, 546–47; involvement, 548; as leader, 544–45; meetings, 546; as motivator, 544; peer review, 604; personal contact with, 546–47; as progress moni-tor, 543; record keeping, 545–46; role of, 36, 541, 542–45

project rooms, 116PSDB. See Police Scientifi c Development

Branchpublications: design competition, 615; exhi-

bition, 101; storage, 149. See also specifi c publications

public collection zone, 459; defi ned, 461; functions, 462

public noncollection zone, 459; defi ned, 461; functions, 462

public private partnership (PPP), 519public programming, 98; audio guides, 105;

demonstrations, 105; expenses, 452; free

day/night, 105; fund-raising and, 551; guided tours, 104; lectures, 103; manager responsibilities, 101; master classes, 104; opening day, 627–28; organized trips, 104; plan, 23, 27; registered, 102, 103–4; right-sizing, 542; sight lines, 186; special events, 105; specialized rides, 103–4; spe-cialized tours, 103; storytelling, 104–5; universal accessibility and, 184–86; unregistered, 102, 104–6; viewing spaces, 185, 185–86; youth clubs, 103

public relations: exhibition, 102; for opening day, 628

public spaces, 74punch list, 543, 634purpose statement, 46–47

quantity surveyor, 37Queens Botanical Garden, 624

radio frequency identifi er (RFID), 272; chil-dren and, 378

ramps: gradient of, 175; landings on, 175–76; universal accessibility requirements, 175–76

reading areas, 131registered societies, 51relative humidity (RH), 315; biological

attack and, 326; cases, 338; chemical instability and, 325–26; control, 333–34; corrosive activity and, 327; dimensional instability and, 325; fl uctuations in, 324, 332, 341; inorganic materials, 325, 326–27; library, 304; organic materials and, 324–26, 325; physical instability and, 325–26; risks and, 323–27, 332; storage, 258, 338; temperature and, 323–27, 341

religion accommodations, 153rentals, 448replicas, 97representative collection, 200; growth of, 211request for proposals (RFP), 534, 542, 588request for qualifi cations (RFQ), 588research: archive, 304; budget, 300; curato-

rial workroom, 304; exhibition design, 617–18; exhibition planning, 91–92; exhibition program based on, 224; facili-ties, 303–4; intellectual property and, 301; laboratory, 304; library, 303–4; on permanent collection, 92; policy, 301; staff grant applications, 301; storage equipment, 269

research plan, 300–304; annual prepara-tion of, 302; approval, 303; individual,

6 8 4 INDEX

302; integration, 302; requirements, 302; review, 302

resident markets: analysis, 83–84; attendance maximized in, 84; defi ned, 83

residual vision, 157resource centers, 117restaurants, 129–31; challenges, 130–31restrooms: family, 151; locating, 151; plan-

ning, 119; quality of, 149–50; size of, 150; staff, 431; universal accessibility requirements, 179–80, 181. See also toilets

retail: effective, 360–61; expenses, 452; func-tion, 360; operations, 360–61; physical considerations, 132–33; planning, 119; revenue, 445; security, 366; successful, 132. See also pop-up shop

retro-commissioning, 503revenue: admissions, 445; contributed, 450;

endowments, 449–50; food services, 448; grants, 450; investment income, 449–50; membership, 448–49; operating assump-tions, 440–42; other earned income, 449; projections, 445, 448–50; rentals, 448; retail, 445; sponsorships, 450; target mar-ket, 87; ticketing, 445

reverberation, 182–83RFP. See request for proposalsRFQ. See request for qualifi cationsRH. See relative humidityRichman, Phyllis, 130right-sizing: business plan, 514–15; deci-

sions based on, 515–16; defi ned, 23, 510; Design Object, 513; Design Year, 510–11; display density, 511; display/storage ratio, 511; education, 512; effi ciency and, 510; event spaces, 129; functionality and, 510; Functional Program, 511–12; fund-raising, 521–22; galleries, 512; insti-tutional plan, 23; leadership and, 510; loading facilities, 237; operations plan, 514–15; public programming, 512; staff, 425–26; storage, 511–12; sustainability and, 503, 510; temporary exhibitions, 513; theater, 128; triangle, 515; visitor services, 512; zones, 514

risk management, 365–70; benefi ts of, 331–34; ceilings, 349; costs, 306, 331–34; elements, 305–6; fl oor, 347–48; process, 306; walls, 348–49

risks: assessment, 305–6; catastrophic events, 307, 308–14; categorizing, 307–8; con-stant occurrences, 308; gradual events, 308; manmade disasters, 313; mitigating,

369; pollutants, 327–28; rare occurrences, 307; relative humidity and, 323–27, 332; severe events, 307–14; special environ-mental requirements and, 328–29; spo-radic occurrences, 307–8; temperature, 322–23; transit, 313; treatment, 306. See also specifi c risks

roofs: environment and, 335; high protection level, 407; low level protection, 401–2; medium protection level, 404; security, 401–2, 404, 407

room settings, 216Rosenzweig, Roy, 531Rotakin target, 392Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, 131Rubin Museum of Art in New York, 131

safety: planning, 125; storage, 264salaries: expenses, 451; surveys, 425Salford, England, 44–45, 48, 55–56SAM. See Seattle Art MuseumSan Francisco Museum of Modern Art

(SFMOMA), 130San Francisco Redevelopment Agency, 55schedule: adjustments in staff, 613; cash

fl ow, 611–12; commissioning, 536; conservation laboratory, 295–96; con-struction, 535; contracting, 596; design, 535; design competition, 583; detailed task, 533; exhibition, 535–36; exhibition and collections support space and, 232; fi nancial, 533–34; framework provided through, 532; furniture, fi xtures, and equipment, 535–36; master project, 533, 534–36; milestone, 533; nature of, 537; planning, 534; post-occupancy evalua-tion, 536; preliminary, 532; tools, 536–37; types, 533–34

school groups: attendance, 84–85; cost, 85; curricula of, 85; proximity of, 85; as tar-get market, 87–88

screening, 378–79seating, 151; universal accessibility require-

ments, 177Seattle Art Museum (SAM), 226security, 14; activity support, 398; admis-

sions, 366; advice, 399–400; background checks, 374; building, 366, 379–81, 395–99; building, existing, 396; building, new, 396; cases, 384–86; ceilings, 400; chil-dren, 377–78; collection pathways, 382; collections, 366, 382–95; conservation lab, 383; construction, 396; cost of, 249;

INDEX 6 8 5

display, 383, 384–86; doors, 402, 404–5, 407; effective, 359–60; electrical, 394–95; electronic, 369–70, 386–95; entry and exit, 376–77; environment and, 396–97; evaluation, 399; exhibition, 102, 366; fi rst responders and, 374, 375; function of, 359; fundamentals of, 374; galleries, 366, 383; general, 366, 370–75; high protec-tion level, 405–7; improvement, 399; inner layer, 372; key control, 383–84, 387; layered, 370–72; layout, 384; light-ing, 394; loading dock, 382; low level protection, 401–2; maintenance and, 398; mechanical, 380–81; medium protec-tion level, 402–5; middle layer, 371–72; monetary interactions, 376; natural access control, 397; natural surveillance, 397; objectives, 366; opening and closing, 376; operations, 359–60, 393–94; outer layer, 371; patrols, 372–73; physical, 370; plan-ning, 125; policies, 370; procedures, 370; protection of people, 376–81; response, 374; retail, 366; roofs, 401–2, 404, 407; rule of thumb, 373–74; screening, 378–79; sensors, 387; shipping and receiving, 237, 238; site, 366; spaces understood by, 382–83; staff, 372–74, 421–22, 424–25; storage and, 257, 382, 386; structural, 380; tamper protection, 400; territorial reinforcement, 397–98; ticketing, 366; training, 373; trust, 374; visitors, 377; walls, 400, 401, 402–3, 405–6. See also alarms

SEGD. See Society for Environmental Graphic Design

seminar rooms, 116Sesame Street, 68severe events, 307–8; climate control system

failure, 308; handling and transport, 308; pests, 308; strategies for mitigation of, 308–14

SFMOMA. See San Francisco Museum of Modern Art

shipping and receiving: adjacency for, 240, 242; circulation for, 240, 242; crate storage, 239; equipment used in, 238; exhibition and collections support space, 235–42; facility management, 415–16; inspection, 235; isolation room, 239; loans, 235–36; packing and unpacking, 238–39; permanent collection, 235; secu-rity, 237, 238; shared space, 236–40; sup-port space, 240; temporary exhibitions,

235–36; temporary storage, 239; traveling exhibitions, 235–36. See also loading dock

shipping and receiving bay, 236–38; climate control, 237; multiple, 236

sick room, 119sight lines, 186Sigmund Freud Museum, 200–201signal-to-noise ratio (S/N), 182signs: embossing, 170; lighting, 172–73;

mounting, 170; tactile, 170; in theaters, 185; universal accessibility requirements, 170–74; viewing angle, 172; viewing dis-tances, 172

silica gel, 338Singer, Beverly R., 136site selection: acquisition cost, 551; availabil-

ity, 551; collections and, 552; common factors, 552; community and, 551; con-siderations, 529; disincentives to success, 552; economic considerations, 553–54; evaluation criteria, 552–54; evaluation template, 555; location, 550; market con-siderations, 553–54; motivations in, 550–51; museological criteria, 553; new build versus adaptive reuse, 556–60; physical constraints, 552; physical planning cri-teria, 553; process, 549–56; rating scale, 554–55; shape, 552; size, 551; timeliness, 551; weighting system, 554–55

situational awareness systems, 392–93Small Works 99, 566Smithsonian Institution, 59, 160Smithsonian National Gallery of Art, 132Smithsonian Standard, 602smoking, 312S/N. See signal-to-noise ratiosnag list, 543, 634social diversity, 162–63social history collections, 191social media, 106social networking, 55, 56; visitor surveys

and, 77–78social roles, 41social spaces, 121–39; complexities, 133–34;

target market and, 133Society for Environmental Graphic Design

(SEGD), 507Society of Building Science Educators, 507society service, 47–61soft opening, 98; drawback of, 629sound: exposure time, 183; frequency, 183;

intensity, 182; quality, 183; reverbera-tion, 182–83; systems, 183; theater, 137;

6 8 6 INDEX

universal accessibility requirements, 180, 182–83. See also peak noise criteria; signal-to-noise ratio

special-interest organizations, 59specimens: content development, 96; natural

history, 190sponsorship: revenue, 450; theater, 137sprinklers, 310–12; dry pipe, 311; facility

management, 413; output variety, 311–12; pipe types, 311; pre-action, 311; sup-ply, 413; traditional, 311; wet pipe, 311

SSPP. See strategic sustainability perfor-mance plans

staff: amenities, 429–31; assumptions, 420–22; benchmarking, 421–22; break room, 430; burnout, 12; collections and, 204; costs, 418; drivers, 422–23, 424–25; entrances, 429–30; estimated hours, 422–23; facility management areas, 409–10; feasibility study and, 20; front-of-house, 633; functions, 422–23; fund-raising, 529; growth and change, 417–19; hierarchy, 424–25; increased, 417; informal coor-dination spaces, 429; labs, 428; locker rooms, 430; lounges, 430; lunchroom, 430; meeting rooms, 429; museum planning and, 11; offi ces, 427–28; open offi ces, 427–28; organizational structure, 418–19; outdoor spaces, 431; parking, 144; priori-ties, 420–22; private offi ces, 427; project and conference facilities, 428–29; project management personnel and, 418; project rooms, 429; quiet rooms, 430; reorganiza-tion, 419; research grant applications, 301; restrooms, 431; right-sizing, 425–26; role of, 35; scale, 420–22; schedule adjust-ments, 633; security, 372–74, 421–22, 423, 425; showers, 430; spaces, 122–23, 426–33; storage access, 272–73; studios, 429; temporary exhibitions and, 228; the-ater support, 140–43; touchdown spaces, 428; workrooms, 428, 432

staff plans, 419–26; drafting, 424–25staff workspaces: confi guration, 431–32;

design of, 432–33; distributed model, 432; experience model, 431; as future investment, 432–33; growth room, 433; knowledge model, 431–32; narrative model, 431; neighborhood landscape, 432; nodal model, 431–32; nomadic model, 432; quality, 432–33; reinvention plans, 433; requirements by department, 434–38; social landscape, 432; sustain-able, 433; technology in, 433

stairs: storage, 258; universal accessibility requirements, 176

Standard Form of Agreement 99, 566standards, 11; climate control, 485, 602; col-

lecting mandate, 198; evolution of, 250; Facility Strategy, 483, 485; Functional Program, 483, 485; sustainability, 506–7. See also specifi c standards

Standards and Excellence Program for His-tory Organizations (StEPs), 506

StEPs. See Standards and Excellence Pro-gram for History Organizations

storage: air quality, 258; anthropological, 260; archaeological, 260; assessing cur-rent, 274–75; auxiliary equipment, 264; bag, 148; basement, 253; benefi ts of, 250; building, 252; by cabinet size, 281; ceil-ings, 252, 255; circulation, 257, 262, 264, 266; by classifi cation, 259–60; coat, 148; compact high-density mobile, 269–71, 533; comparative methods, 279; compar-isons, 270; composite, 262; conservation considerations, 345; construction, 251, 254–56, 267, 269; cost, 249, 270; crate, 239; customized solutions, 267; data out-lets, 256; dead, 416, 533; detailed calcula-tions, 277, 279; digitization, 290–91; by discipline, 259–60; doorways, 255; effi -ciency, 264; engineering, 251; environ-ment, 258–59; equipment, 267, 268, 269; estimating need for, 273–82; events, 415; exhibition production, 244; exterior walls, 254–55; facility management, 410–12, 415; fi lter, 411; fi re resistance, 254, 257; fi rst fl oor, 253; fl oors, 254; footprint, 275; freestanding, 269; function, 416; general public access to, 273; ground fl oor, 253; heating, ventilation, and air condition-ing equipment, 256; inorganic, 262; intellectual access to, 271–72; interior walls, 255; internal staging, 266; by item dimensions, 280; layout, 262, 264, 266; lighting, 255–56, 258; locations within building, 252–53, 253; by material, 261; by medium, 261, 263–64; mode, 207–8, 259–61, 274; multilayered, 251; by nomenclature, 259–60; nonmechanized, 269; by object type, 261; off-site, 283–85, 284; on-site, 283–85, 284; operations, 149; optimal site for, 251–56; order-of-magnitude calculation, 275, 276; organic, 262; partition walls, 255; pest infestation, 258; planning, 250–85; plumbing, 256–57; power, 256; practical organization

INDEX 6 8 7

considerations, 264; protection, 252; public access to, 272–73; publications, 149; quality, 252; racking, 282; relative humidity, 258, 338; right-sizing, 511–12; room construction, 254–56; safety, 264; scholars access to, 273; security and, 257, 382, 386; services, 256–58; shipping and receiving temporary, 239; site character-istics, 252; space, 122; specialist access to, 272–73; specialized solutions, 266–67; special situations, 275; staff access to, 272–73; stairs, 258; standard solutions, 266; students access to, 273; suitability of, 252; supply, 410–12; sustainability and, 533; systems, 266–67; table and chair, 415; temperature, 258, 337–38; tiering, 260–61; tool, 410; top fl oor, 253; unique item approach, 279; by use categories, 260–61; visible, 109, 179–82, 180–81, 207, 216, 273, 322; volume, 275; weight bearing, 252; work areas, 266. See also display/storage ratio

storage density, 207, 259; order-of-magni-tude by, 277, 278; right-sizing, 511

storytelling, 104–5strategic plan, 23; goals, 17; internal docu-

ment, 17; key issues, 17; objectives, 17; phasing, 17; public document, 17; strengths, 16; structure of, 15–16; threats, 16; weaknesses, 16. See also strategic sus-tainability performance plans

strategic sustainability performance plans (SSPP), 505

stroller parking, 151–52structural security, 380study centers, 109sustainability, 3; achieving, 343–44; action

plan, 535; climate control and, 339–40, 497; collections and, 497–98; com-municating, 6; community and, 498; complete, 7; consequences of, 342–44; cost of, 495–96; cultural, 7–8; defi ned, 342; diagram, 7; dimensions of, 6–8; earliest documented examples of, 501; economic, 6–7; environmental, 6, 339–40; hybrid solutions, 343–44; lead-ership, 501–2; metrics, 507–8; mission and, 8, 496–99; planning, 125; policy, 504–6; quadruple bottom line, 499–501; requirements, 6; resource use, 496–97; right-sizing and, 503, 510; social, 6; staff workspaces, 433; standards, 506–7; storage and, 503; value engineering and, 606; vision statement, 505

SWOT analysis, 15; benchmarking, 16; environment scan, 16; external assess-ment, 16; feasibility study, 19; internal assessment, 16; preparation for, 16

systematic collection, 200; growth of, 211

Talking Signs, 160target market: attendance, 86; ethnic minor-

ity as, 88; examples, 87–88; growth potential, 86; mandate and, 87; mass appeal, 86; overseas, 88; revenues of, 87; school groups as, 87–88; size of, 86; social spaces and, 133; time spent in area, 86; tourism and, 87, 88

Tate Britain, 557–58Tate Modern, 135, 169–74, 170–73, 557–58;

annual re-hang, 222tax exempt bonds: compliance requirements,

615; eligible uses of, 614teachers resource center, 117teamwork, 30; value engineering, 607technology: assistive, 159, 174–75; collec-

tions, 190; digitization, 285; exhibitions and, 90; staff workspaces, 433. See also information technology; specifi c technology

temperature: building envelope, 337; cases and, 337–38; chemical stability and, 322–23; color, 318; dimensional stability and, 323; moisture content and, 323; per-missible, 341; reaction rate and, 322–23; relative humidity and, 323–27, 341; risks, 322–23; storage, 258, 337–38. See also climate control

tender action, 599; purpose, 29terrorism, 380textile collections, 190Thai Creative and Design Center in Bang-

kok, 131theater, 134–39; accessibility of, 127; acous-

tics, 137; box offi ce, 137, 140; curator policy, 137; fl exibility of, 127; function-ality of, 127; location, 136–37; non-public nonperformance zone, 139, 140; nonpublic performance zone, 138–39; object, 136; operations, 361–62; plan-ning, 116; presenting, 137; producing, 137; production facilities, 138; proximity to street noise and loading dock, 127; public nonperformance zone, 138, 140; public performance zone, 138; renting, 137; right-sizing, 128; sight lines, 186; signs, 185; sound, 137; sponsorship, 137; staff support, 140–43; support space, 128, 140–43; technical requirements, 138;

6 8 8 INDEX

universal accessibility and, 183–84; value engineering and, 608; viewing spaces, 185, 185–86; zones, 138–39

Thelen, David, 531thematic hanging, 222threat, vulnerability, and risk assessment

(TVRA), 366–68; components of, 368; process of, 368

ticketing: computerized, 76; revenues, 445; security, 366

toilets: planning, 119; universal accessibility requirements for, 179–80, 181

tourism, 59–60; accommodation type, 85–86; cultural orientation of, 86; enhancing, 59; origin of, 85; target mar-ket and, 87, 88; time spent in area, 85; trip purpose, 85

tours: audio guide, 105; back-of-house, 272, 273; guided, 104; specialized, 103

training, 373transit, 143–45; risks, 313; severe events, 308traveling log book, 236trustees, 553; confl ict of interest and, 35; role

of, 35tungsten halogen lamps, 316; properties, 320TVRA. See threat, vulnerability, and risk

assessment

UDL. See Universal Design for LearningUFGS. See Unifi ed Facilities Guide

Specifi cationUnderwriter’s Laboratories (UL), 370Unifi ed Facilities Guide Specifi cation

(UFGS), 391–92uninterrupted power supply (UPS), 314, 395United Nations Convention on the Rights

of Persons with Disabilities, 154United States Government Building Coun-

cil (USGBC), 526United States Green Building Council, 507universal accessibility, 155, 162, 483; alarm

requirements, 174; assistive listening devices, 174–75; changes in level, 164; circulation space guidance, 177; clear fl oor and ground spaces, 164–65; com-mon-use ablutions guidance, 181; com-munication requirements, 180, 182–86; comprehension requirements, 180, 182–86; control and operating mecha-nisms, 167–68; counters, 177–79; eleva-tor requirements, 176, 178; environment, 175–80; fl oor and ground surfaces, 164; forward reach, 166; lighting, 168–70; physical design requirements, 163–67;

in practice, 163–86; protruding objects, 165–67; public programming and, 184–86; ramps requirements, 175–76; reach range, 165; restroom requirements, 179–80, 181; seating requirements, 177; sensory and multisensory requirements, 168–75; side reach, 166; sign require-ments, 170–74; sound requirements, 180, 182–83; stair requirements, 176; tactile information, 170–71; theaters, 183–84; toe and knee clearance, 165; toilet requirements, 179–80, 181; walkway requirements, 175–76; wash-hand basin guidance, 181; wayfi nding requirements, 171; wheelchair turning space, 164

universal design, 153–86; defi ned, 154–55; intention of, 154; scope of, 154

Universal Design for Learning (UDL), 161unwanted event statements, 367, 368–69UPS. See uninterrupted power supplyUSGBC. See United States Government

Building Council

vacuum cleaners, 328value engineering, 30, 32, 295, 603–4; big

gaps, 607–8; collaborative, 607; cultural identity and, 607; defi ned, 606; develop-ment of, 606; galleries, 608; implications of, 608–9; kitchens, 608; lobby and, 608; phasing and, 608; planning goals, 607; priorities, 606–7; small gaps, 607; sus-tainability and, 606; theaters and, 608

variable air volume (VAV), 342variation orders (VO), 510, 537, 545–46VAV. See variable air volumevending machines, 120Victoria and Albert Museum, 109, 216video surveillance systems (VSS): assessment

requirements, 392; objectives, 390; Rota-kin target, 392; Unifi ed Facilities Guide Specifi cation, 391–92. See also closed circuit television

visible storage, 109, 179–82, 180–81, 207, 216, 273, 322

vision, 45; defi ned, 47; residual, 157; sight lines, 186. See also blindness; Braille; color; lighting; signs

vision statements: concept plan, 18; sustain-ability and, 535

visitors: behavior observations, 77; defi n-ing, 443; demographically grouped, 75; geographically grouped, 75; psycho-graphically grouped, 75; security, 377; socioeconomically grouped, 75

INDEX 6 8 9

visitor services: effective, 357–58; function of, 357; operations, 357–58; right-sizing, 512

visitor surveys: designing, 77; non, 82–83; social networking and, 77–78; value of, 77

Viso, Olga, 136visual limitations, 157–58; categories of, 157VO. See variation ordersvolunteers, 433; spaces, 122–23VSS. See video surveillance systems

WAG. See Winnipeg Art Gallerywages, 451Walker Art Center, 135–36walkways: universal accessibility require-

ments, 175–76. See also collection path-ways; corridors

walls: concrete, 348; conservation consider-ations, 346, 348–49; display density on, 214; environment and, 335, 336; fabric covered, 349; galleries, 107; gypsum board, 349; high protection level, 405–6; low level protection, 401; medium pro-tection level, 402–3; plaster, 348; risk management, 348–49; security, 400, 401, 402–3, 405–6; stone, 348; storage, 254–55; tamper protection, 400; wood, 348

Waltz, Sasha, 135wash-hand basins, 181washrooms. See restroomswater damage, 312–13Water Footprint Network, 508wayfi nding, 171WAZA. See World Association of Zoos and

AquariumsWeb 2.0, 69webmaster, 102

web resource space, 122websites, 105, 143Wells, Malcolm, 507wheelchair turning, 164white box, 108Who We Are, 136wind, 314Winnipeg Art Gallery (WAG), 464–67Wordpress, 71workshops: community, 72; cost consultant

design, 602–3; exhibition production, 243–44; facility management, 410–12. See also specifi c workshops

World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA), 496–97

World Green Building Council, 506World War II, 606

X-ray, 378

youth clubs, 103

zones: analysis, 457–68; architects and, 461; block diagrams, 466, 480, 481; climate control, 341–42; cost consultants, 461; criteria, 458; defi ning, 461; diagram, 460; engineers and, 461; expense control, 466–67; Facility Strategy and, 477–79; lighting, 256; nonpublic collection, 459, 461–63; nonpublic noncollection, 459, 461, 463; nonpublic nonperformance, 139, 140; nonpublic performance, 138–39; other uses, 458; outside area, 459–60; pub-lic collection zone, 459, 461, 462; public noncollection zone, 459, 461, 462; public nonperformance zone, 138, 140; public performance, 138, 140; right-sizing, 514; theater, 138–39, 140; visualizing, 479

Manual of - The Eye Lord... · 2020. 1. 17. · 11 Services and Support 408 Vincent D. Magorrian...

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