MAHPERD Journal

M A H P E R D J O U R N A L

Vo l u m e 2 , I s s u e 0 2

THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE MISSISSIPPI ASSOCIATION OF HEALTH, PHYSICAL EDUCATION, RECREATION & DANCE

E D I T O R I A L B OA R D

JOHN ALVAREZ

BRANDI PICKETT

KATHY TUCKER

SHANE MCNEIL

R E V I E W B OA R D

MATT DALRYMPLE

MARY ANN SIMPKINS

MARY L. JONES

DEBORAH MYERS

JERRY MAYO

BETTE MILLER

DON ROCKEY

CHERI ANGLIN

TAMIKA BRADLEY

ROSE HICKEY

BRIAN LYONS

CHRISTINE ROCKEY

W. ANDREW CZEKANSKI

BRANDI CHILDERS PICKETT

3

Rachel K. Jones, M.S.Graduate Student, Troy University, Troy, AL

Heather D. Niemic, M.S.Graduate Student, Troy University, Troy, AL

J. Brandon Sluder, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Troy University, Troy, AL

E F F E C T O F N U T R I T I O N A L

K N O W L E D G E A N D P H Y S I C A L

AC T I V I T Y E N J OY M E N T O N

H I G H S C H O O L S T U D E N T ’ S

P H Y S I C A L F I T N E S S L E V E L S

EFFECT OF NUTRITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ENJOYMENT4

The purpose of this study was to examine

the relationship between nutritional

knowledge and physical activity enjoyment

on physical fitness levels of high school

students. The participants in this study

consisted of male (n=37) and female

(n-31) physical education students from a

rural public school in southeast Alabama.

The participants (n=68) performed two

fitness tests: the PACER fitness test which

consisted of a 20 meter shuttle run to

measure cardiovascular endurance and

the sit and reach test to measure hamstring

and lower back flexibility. The fitness tests

were not explained or practiced prior to the

testing day. Two surveys were administered

following the fitness tests. The first was the

PACES survey which measured physical

activity enjoyment.

The second survey was the nutrition

survey by Parmenter and Wardle, which

measured nutritional knowledge and

dietary selections.

The results of each test were recorded

and compared using averages

(descriptive statistics). The results

of the study suggest that nutritional

knowledge did not have a positive

impact on male or female high school

students’ physical fitness levels.

However, physical activity enjoyment

did have a positive impact on male’s

physical fitness levels. The current study

did not show a positive impact between

nutrition knowledge or enjoyment on

physical fitness with female students.

Keywords: Physical Fitness, High School,

Physical Activity Enjoyment, Nutritional


INTRODUCTION

Childhood obesity has more than tripled in the past 30 years. The percentage of

adolescents aged 12–19 years who were obese increased from 5% to 18% over the last 30

years (CDC, 2012). Currently, only five states — Illinois, Iowa, Massachusetts, New Mexico

and Vermont — require physical education every year from kindergarten through 12th

grade (Hotakainen, 2012). Alabama recommends, but does not require, at least 50 minutes

per day of physical education in grades 6-12. High school students also must complete

a 1.0 credit personal wellness course, Lifelong Individualized Fitness Education for

graduation (NASPEAHA, 2010). The deficiency in funding for physical education has led

to many programs being limited or cut completely. This lack of physical activity being

offered to youth could be one of the factors in the rise of obesity. Younger children

are typically much more active throughout the day than older adolescents resulting in

unhealthy and overweight adolescents who are less motivated to participate in physical

activity (Chase et al., 2007; Pate et al, 2007; & Xiang, et al, 2011).

In order to measure physical fitness levels FITNESSGRAM is widely used by physical

educators around the nation. FITNESSGRAM was developed by The Cooper Institute

in an effort to provide physical educators with a tool to help them assess the students

fitness level and communicate this to parents and students. The assessment measures

the components of health-related physical fitness that have been identified as vital to

students’ overall health and function: aerobic capacity, body composition, muscular

strength/endurance, and flexibility (Human Kinetics, 2012).


Several studies have found that continued engagement in physical activity seems to be

linked to enjoyment of the physical activity (Motl et al, 2001). The PACES survey has

been used by many researchers to determine physical fitness enjoyment in all age groups

to help determine if correlations exist between physical activity enjoyment and physical

fitness (Moore et al, 2009).

Proper nutrition has an important impact on an individual’s health (CDC, 2009).

In general, healthy people are usually more fit. Food is what fuels the body so it is

important to put the right kinds of fuel into the body. Since food has such an important

role in and individual’s health it would seem that individuals with greater nutritional

knowledge would have a higher fitness level. The nutritional survey created by

Parmenter and Wardle (1999) investigated this theory. Their participants were adults

from the general public in England for the pilot study and undergraduate students for

the final study.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between nutritional

knowledge and physical activity enjoyment on physical fitness levels of high school

students. The researchers intended to discover if there was a relationship between

high school students’ nutritional knowledge, physical activity enjoyment, and physical

fitness levels. In addition, the researchers wanted to compare nutritional knowledge

and physical fitness between genders.


METHODS

PARTICIPANTS: In order to recruit participants at a rural school in southeast Alabama the

researchers verbally explained the study to all high school students enrolled in physical

education class and asked student volunteers. This was done at the end of their physical

education class. The teacher agreed to allow the researchers time at the end of class to

explain the project and ask for volunteers. Student assent and parental consent forms

were sent home with the students. Those students who returned the signed form were

participants in the study. The participants consisted of male (n=37) and female (n=31)

students enrolled in physical education classes. Their participation occurred during one of

their regularly scheduled physical education classes. The fitness tests were not explained

or practiced prior to the testing day.

TESTING PROCEDURE: The study utilized a single visit data collection design to

investigate the relationship between nutritional knowledge, physical enjoyment, and

fitness levels. The participants (n=68) performed two fitness tests: the PACER fitness test

which consisted of a 20 meter shuttle run to measure cardiovascular endurance and the sit

and reach test to measure hamstring and lower back flexibility. After the fitness tests, two

surveys were administered. The first was the PACES survey which measured enjoyment of

physical activity, ten question survey using a 7 point Likert-type scale with a possible score

of 70. See table 1 for selected example questions from the PACES survey.


The second survey was the nutrition survey created by Parmenter and Wardle. The survey

measured nutritional knowledge and dietary selections using 67 multiple choice questions.

See table two for selected example questions from the nutrition survey. The results

of each test were recorded, compared and reported using averages and percentages.

Descriptive statistics were utilized for data analysis.


TESTING LOCATION: All testing took place at the field house of the rural, public high

school in Southeast Alabama. The sit and reach and the two surveys were completed in

the field house while the PACER test was preformed behind the field house on an all-

purpose court. Both the fitness test and the surveys were supervised by the researchers.

RESULTS

The FITNESSGRAM Standards were used to determine if students were in their Healthy

Fitness Zone (HFZ). In the current study, students were categorized as being “in the HFZ”

if they were in the HFZ for both the PACER test and the Sit and Reach test. The results of

the study indicate that 35% of the males (Table 3) and 0% of the females (Table 4) were

categorized as “in the Healthy Fitness Zone”. Nutritional knowledge did not have a positive

impact on male or female high school students’ physical fitness level. However, physical

activity enjoyment did have a positive impact on male student’s fitness levels. Female

students showed no difference.


DISCUSSION

Motivation played a large role in the current study, not only in enjoyment of physical

activity outside of the class setting, but in it as well. Johnson (2003) described motivation

as the observable process of getting students to learn. Many of the students treated the

fitness tests as they would any mandatory classroom assignment despite the ability to be

active and deviate from the normal routine. Adolescents want to know, “What’s in it for

me?”, “How will this experience be meaningful?”, “Why me why now?”, and “What’s in it

for me today?” says Chase et al. (2007). Their research suggests that when people feel

better about themselves, they see the benefits, and understand the opportunities for

improvement, their behavior will change. In order to motivate students, Johnson (2003)

says teachers must first get students to believe that their physical education class is an

important part of their education and that it is applicable to their life outside of school.

There were some limitations in this study that would need to be addressed if it were to

be replicated. Only two measures of health related fitness were used in this study due

to time constraints and scheduling, it would be beneficial to include a muscular strength/

endurance and body composition measure as well. Future studies should consider ways to

control outside influences that could affect the students desire to put forth appropriate

effort and therefore provide a more accurate performance score.

In consideration of the nutrition survey, using a shorter test may contribute to higher

scores. This test’s length appeared to decrease the participant’s motivation to effectively


display their subject knowledge.

The selection of activities offered in physical education classes may possibly affect the

scores received on the PACES physical activity enjoyment survey. At the survey site, the

unit offerings during physical education class are traditional sports units. Due to the size of

the school, there is only one physical education class taught during each time block which

does not allow the students to pick an activity that interests them more than another.

Johnson (2003) states that when students are continuously bombarded with traditional,

competitive activities that do not interest them, they are more likely to stop participating

in these activities. Xiang et al. (2011) found both theoretical and empirical work have

indicated that choices provided by teachers, when meaningful and relevant to students,

are beneficial to their motivation, engagement, and learning. Final results indicate the lack

of required physical education (and unit offerings within) in Alabama schools could be a

factor in student’s inability to reach a healthy fitness level.


REFERENCES

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012). Childhood obesity facts. Retrieved from

http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/obesity/facts.htm

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). State Indicator Report on Fruits and

Vegetables. Retrieved from http://www.fruitsandveggiesmatter.gov/health_professionals/

statereport.html

Chase, M., Vealey, R., Galli, N., Evers, J., & al, e. (2007). What’s in it for me? An intervention

to increase physical activity among adolescents in physical education. Journal of

Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 78(1), 34-39.

Hotakainen, R. (2012, January 4). Worries mount over lack of physical education in schools.

Retrieved from http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/01/04/134803/worries-mount-

over-lack-of-physical.html

Human Kinetics. (2012). Fitnessgram: Program overview. Retrieved from

http://www.fitnessgram.net/overview/

Johnson, I. L. (2003). Using motivational strategies to promote female-friendly physical

education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 74(6), 19-19

Mercer, L., M. (2009). Importance of nutrition and fitness. Retrieved from http://www.livestrong.


com/article/67303-importance-nutrition-fitness/

Motl, R. W., Dishman, R. K., Saunders, R., Dowda, M., Felton, G., Pate, R. R. (2001).

Measuring enjoyment of physical activity in adolescent girls. American Journal of

Preventive Medicine, 21(2), 110-117.

Moore, J. B., Yin, Z., Hanes, J., Duda, J., Gutin, B., & Barbeau, P. (2009). Measuring enjoyment

of physical activity in children: Validation of the physical activity enjoyment scale.

Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21116-129.

National Association for Sport and Physical Education and the American Heart Association.

State profiles: Alabama. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.aahperd.org/naspe/

publications/upload/Alabama-profile.pdf

Parmenter, K., & Wardle, J. (1999). Development of a general nutrition knowledge questionnaire

for adults. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 53, 298-308.

Pate, R. R., Ward, D. S., O’Neill, J.,R., & Dowda, M. (2007). Enrollment in physical education

associated with overall physical activity in adolescent girls. Research Quarterly for

Exercise and Sport, 78(4), 265-70.

Xiang, P., Gao, Z., & McBride, R. E. (2011). Student teachers use of instructional choice in

physical education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 82(3), 482-490.

14ESTABLISHING A POSITIVE MOTIVATIONAL CLIMATE IN YOUTH SPORTS

Andria Padilla,Graduate Student,Department of Health, Nutrition and Exercise SciencesNorth Dakota State UniversityFargo, ND

Brad Strand, Ph.D.ProfessorDepartment of Health, Nutrition & Exercise SciencesNorth Dakota State UniversityFargo, ND

E S TA B L I S H I N G A

P O S I T I V E M O T I VAT I O N A L

C L I M AT E I N YO U T H S P O R T S


Participation in youth sport programs is an

exciting time for millions of young athletes.

It is well know that most children enter sport

program to have fun and that unfortunately,

many children drop out of sport program

because they are no longer having fun. Since

sport participation can add so much to one’s

life, it is imperative that the rewards of sport

participation are fully realized in the lives of

young sport participants. One could argue

that the most important figure in ensuring

that sport participants get all they can from

sport is the coach. The coach sets the team

climate and fosters a team culture. This

article presents suggestions for how coaches

can establish a positive motivational climate

within a youth sport teams.


INTRODUCTION

Youth sport programs present unique challenges for coaches since working with children

to develop new skills can be a delicate and altogether difficult process. A way to foster

positive and constructive athletic experiences for young athletes is to implement a

motivational climate where athletes feel supported and encouraged throughout the skill

acquisition process. This document serves to present traits of motivational climates in

youth sport programs that stimulate positive coaching practices. For this paper, youth

sport participants range in age from 6-18 years.

This paper will discuss several important aspects of creating a positive motivational

climate in youth sport programs including: goal setting, goal orientation, promoting

fun, psychological considerations (performance anxiety and fear of failure), equipment

scaling, athlete empowerment and mental toughness. The topics that will be discussed are

intended to generate ideas for coaches who are interested in establishing a motivational

climate in their youth sport programs and improving relationships with their athletes.

GOAL SETTING AND GOAL ORIENTATION

Goal setting is an important aspect of coaching at any level, particularly at the youth level

when trying to construct an encouraging motivational climate. Stratton (2005) explained

that setting goals serves at least three purposes: 1) to enhance motivation, preferably

internal motivation, 2) to encourage athletes (and coaches) to develop new skills and

strategies to improve performance, and 3) to help focus attention on the task one hopes


to accomplish. Setting goals should be an important area for coaches to consider; however,

athletes’ are not always alike and, therefore, goal orientation will be dependent on what

each athlete wants to accomplish.

There are several types of goals that an athlete may want to accomplish. Goals can be

long-term or short-term in nature. Long-term goals relate to those goals that are not

immediate such as winning a championship at the end of the season or qualifying for an

Olympic event. Conversely, short-term goals can be seen as ‘stepping stones’ on a path

towards long-term goals (Stratton, 2005). Goals can be classified as mastery or competitive

goals depending on the nature of the goal. According to Stratton (2005), mastery goals,

also known as task-oriented goals, are created because athletes are focused on learning

to perform skills to the best of their abilities. Stratton continued that mastery goals are

beneficial for athlete development and accountability; with an advantage that athletes are

responsible for their own success or failure in achieving their goals. Rather than focusing

on the results of winning or beating opponents, mastery goals aim for skill development

and acquiring expertise.

Competitive goals, also known as ego-oriented goals, are generally focused on winning

and being better than the competition. These types of goals involve comparing

performances with competitors, and success is gauged by winning, regardless of the

quality of the performance. An issue with competitive goals is that athletes have no

control over the success or failure of the competition; therefore, goals can be achieved

without performing well, just as it is possible to perform well and not win (Stratton, 2005).


This could be a troublesome practice for coaches considering that young athletes

with ego-oriented goals may be motivationally fragile when they doubt their own sport

skill competence (Spray, Wang, Biddle, & Chatzisarantis, 2006). If athletes are only

concerned with winning, they may lack motivation when they perceive their chances

of winning to be low.

However, in a mastery climate, “athletes are reinforced for selecting challenging tasks,

giving maximum effort, persisting in the face of setbacks, encouraging and supporting

teammates, and demonstrating personal improvement” (Smith, Smoll, & Cumming,

2007, p. 41). Therefore, mastery (task-oriented) goals can be a more effective practice

for coaches in the long run since youths will be invested in self-improvement, reinforced

for taking risks and demonstrating growth, and will be more motivated to learn and

develop new skills.

In addition to goal setting and task orientation, coaches can facilitate a motivational

climate by the way they manage student involvement in the learning process. Spray et al.

(2006) explained that compared to teachers with controlling styles, autonomy-supportive

teachers enhance students’ intrinsic motivation, curiosity, and challenge-seeking behavior.

This means that students will take on a more active role in learning when they were

granted the opportunity to explore the learning process more freely.


PROMOTING FUN

Another aspect of creating a positive motivational climate for youth in sport programs is

the concept of promoting fun. Bengoechea, Strean, and Williams (2004) found that some

youth coaches view fun and skill development as opposing forces and there is difficulty in

effectively combining these forces to keep children engaged in the learning process. This

becomes a challenge for coaches as they try to keep children entertained while providing

them with essential skill information (Bengoechea et al., 2004). Success is achieved when

coaches find ways to incorporate fun into the learning process rather than compromising

one for the other.

It is well known that a lack of fun is a major reason for dropping out of sports (Cope, Bailey

& Pearce, 2013). Many athletes find fun through social interaction with their teammates.

Regimented practices and games reduce opportunities for socialize, spontaneous fun, and

frivolous activities (Martens, 2012). To ensure that fun occurs in practice one must create

an atmosphere where athletes are not always competing against one another but rather

are playing with one another.

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

In addition to fostering a fun learning environment for children, coaches must not neglect

the importance of creating a safe psychological environment for their young athletes.

For many children, initial athletic experiences often involve being coached by volunteers.

Smith and Smoll (1997) noted that although many volunteer coaches are competent in


the technical aspects of the sport, they often lack any formal training in creating a healthy

psychological environment for youngsters. Acquiring new skills means that children

have to put themselves out there, which often involves feeling uncomfortable at some

point during the process. Therefore, coaches should not overlook the importance of

establishing supportive environments, especially in youth sport programs.

Smith and Smoll (1997) implemented a coach effectiveness training program as a way

to help coaches develop positive coaching habits and to provide positive athletic

experiences for children. Smith and Smoll stressed that the primary focus of coaches

should be on creating a fun and supportive learning environment where children can

increase self-esteem and reduce their fear of failure. Perhaps the most important

thing learned from this training was that athletes with low self-esteem were especially

responsive to positive feedback (Smith & Smoll, 1997). Therefore, coaches should make an

effort to increase the level of positive reinforcement when working with children with low

self-esteem since they are especially receptive to positive feedback.

In another study, Smith et al. (2007) elaborated on the some of the principles of the

coaching effectiveness training program in terms of the role coaches have on reducing the

levels of sport performance anxiety in their athletes. Smith et al. explained that a mastery

task involving motivational climate has been related to lower levels in performance

anxiety in athletes. Additionally, Smith et al. found that a mastery climate counteracts

anxiety by reducing social comparison pressures, by focusing on controllable effort rather

than incompletely controllable outcome, and by creating a mutually supportive team


environment. Therefore, coaches can promote mastery climate to help their athletes

manage performance anxiety by focusing on what can be controlled.

TRAIT ANXIETY

Sport performance trait anxiety was described as a “predisposition to appraise sport

situations in which athletic performance can be evaluated as threatening and to respond

with state anxiety reactions of varying intensity” (Smith et al., 2007, p. 40). Sport anxiety

can have negative effects on performance and levels of enjoyment and has been linked

to young athletes’ avoidance of organized sport experiences, to athletic burnout, and

to sport attrition (Smith et al., 2007). The process of acquiring new skills can be far from

enjoyable at times, however, coaches can influence the way athletes attach meaning to

those situations by helping the athletes understand the importance of what the coaches

are doing within the bigger picture of their development as athletes (Bengoechea et al.,

2004). It is easy for athletes to get caught up in the stress of not being able to acquire skills

easily and this can have a detrimental effect on their mental capacities and restrict further

development. Coaching behaviors have the ability to influence athletes’ attitudes toward

skill acquisition and help ease the development process.

FEAR OF FAILURE

Conroy and Coatsworth (2007) discussed fear of failure in youth sport and the influence

coaches’ perceptions have on their athletes. The concept of fear of failure in young

athletes has been associated with decreased engagement, increased behavioral

22

difficulties, and reduced academic and peer competence (Conroy & Coatsworth, 2007).

In cases where athletes perceived their coaches blaming them for negative outcomes,

this perception led to an increase in their levels of self-criticism. This finding showed

that these young athletes would internalize their coach’s negative perceptions and treat

themselves negatively as a result (Conroy & Coatsworth, 2007). Conversely, fear of failure

was decreased when youths perceived themselves as being understood and appreciated

by their coaches (Conroy & Coatsworth, 2007). Therefore, coaches should pay special

attention to the way they talk to their athletes and how they may be perceived when they

present criticism.

EQUIPMENT SCALING

A means for diminishing the fear of failure is to incorporate confidence-building activities

into the process of skill acquisition. Learning a new skill can be a stressful and frustrating

process for athletes at every level, especially for youth athletes. A common practice for

skill acquisition is to modify equipment and environmental constraints. Modifications

usually occur for two reasons, first to enhance the skill acquisition of the learner; and

second, to increase the fun/motivation of the learner and in turn maximize the chance of

continued participation in the sport (Farrow & Reid, 2010).

Farrow and Reid (2010) tested the effects of equipment scaling in the skill acquisition

of beginning tennis players. They found that children evaluated the modified ball/scaled

court condition as a ‘significantly more engaging experience’ than the standard

ESTABLISHING A POSITIVE MOTIVATIONAL CLIMATE IN YOUTH SPORTS


ball/standard court condition. They also found that scaled/modified practices created

ideal conditions for maximizing learning and increasing motivation in athletes

(Farrow & Reid, 2010).

The significant feature of task and equipment scaling is that the task affords learners

significant opportunities to establish a basic pattern of coordination before being

exposed to more difficult practice conditions (Farrow & Reid, 2010, p. 731). Similar to

the concept of a closed practice setting, the focus is on coordinating movements before

applying outside factors. As the child develops skills, coaches can incorporate more

adaptive practice techniques.

ATHLETIC EMPOWERMENT

Coaches looking to create a motivational climate for athletes should empower their

athletes to take on more responsibility in developing and improving their own skills. Light

(2004) presented the Game Sense approach which essentially empowers athletes to take

responsibility in the learning and decision-making process by facilitating an environment

that stimulates learning and shapes players’ understanding and development by employing

questions to stimulate thinking rather than directly telling players what to do. In this

approach, there is an investment in player development and sport experience, and less on

technical development aspects of the sport. Similar to Game Sense are Teaching Games

for Understanding and the Tactical Games Model.

These approaches aim to have players develop a better understanding of the game rather


than focusing solely on technique. For example, rather than simply telling athletes what

to do, a coach puts them into a situation with very few rules or directions and instructs

the athletes to play. As play ensues questions arise. As questions arise the coach stops

the action and answers the questions. This perspective can be an effective way for some

coaches to enhance the overall athletic experience of their students by encouraging a

shared responsibility in the learning process.

MENTAL TOUGHNESS

In addition to empowering athletes to accept responsibility in their learning process,

coaches should practice methods for developing mental toughness with their athletes.

As previously discussed, athletes are more resilient to minor setbacks when they are task-

oriented rather than ego-oriented. Another way to increase resilience is to help children

develop mental toughness.

Gordon (2007) stated that mental toughness is acknowledged as being one of the most

important attributes in achieving performance excellence. Mental toughness allows

athletes to manage their thoughts and emotions in an athletic setting. Attributes of

mental toughness include self-belief, concentration and focus, motivation, thriving on

competition, resilience, handling pressure, positive attitude, quality preparation, goal

setting, determination and perseverance, and commitment (Gordon, 2007). Each of

the qualities previously listed would be considered positive attributes for an athlete

to possess, and these can be achieved by developing a motivational climate in practices.


For example, some basketball coaches help their athletes develop mental toughness,

concentration, and focus by having teammates make noise while a fellow teammate is

shooting free throws.

IMPLICATIONS FOR COACHES

This paper has several implications for youth coaches interested in developing a positive

motivational climate for their athletes. Children can be especially vulnerable to the

ups and downs of skill development and athletic competition. Therefore, coaches have

a responsibility to their athletes to create a meaningful athletic experience. This is

particularly important since the first few years of athletic experiences can shape the way

children perceive sport as well as their own athletic abilities.

Gordon (2007) outlined six elements of an integrative motivation program: 1) establish

performance goals, 2) remove obstacles, 3) recognize and correct appropriately, 4)

individualize the recognition, 5) reward equitably, and 6) provide effective feedback. In

terms of establishing goals, coaches should help athletes create realistic and achievable

goals. Removing obstacles involves the establishment of a supportive, focused, and fun

working environment (Gordon, 2007). Recognizing and correcting appropriately means

staying consistent with team objectives when supplying feedback. When coaches

individualize recognition, they acknowledge effort and reinforce good work. Rewarding

equitably is treating everyone fairly. Finally, coaches should provide effective feedback

that allows children to understand errors and help them make adjustments to their

performance (Gordon, 2007).

26

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In conclusion, the information provided in this paper serves to promote positive

coaching practices in youth sport programs. This paper discussed several important

aspects of establishing a positive motivational climate including goal setting, goal

orientation, promoting fun, psychological considerations (performance anxiety and fear

of failure), equipment scaling, athlete empowerment, and mental toughness.

These authors recommend that coaches take a proactive approach to improve the

quality of their athletes’ sport experiences, which can be achieved in a number of ways.

Coaches set the environment in which their athletes acquire skills and improve their

abilities. Motivation has a major influence on the way athletes go about achieving goals

and enhancing their abilities. As such, coaches should not overlook the benefits of getting

to know their athletes on an individual basis. This involves knowing the motivations of

each athlete and having an understanding of which methods will be the most effective in

bringing out the best in their athletes.

Another recommendation is for coaches to effectively implement fun into skill

acquisition. Rather than viewing fun and skill development as opposites, coaches

can develop ways to fuse these two concepts together into a practice plan that

engages children while providing effective instruction. Coaches can create an effective

and fun learning environment with a little creativity and investment in improving the

experiences of each athlete.


27

REFERENCES

Bengoechea, E. G., Strean, W. B., & Williams, D. J. (2004). Understanding and

promoting fun in youth sport: Coaches’ perspectives. Physical Education and Sport

Pedagogy, 9, 197-214.

Conroy, E., & Coatsworth, J. D. (2007). Coaching behaviors associated with changes in

fear of failure: Changes in self-talk and need satisfaction as potential mechanisms.

Journal of Personality, 75, 383-415.

Cope, E. J., Bailey, R., & Pearce, G. (2013). Why do children take in, and remain involved

in sport? A literature review and discussion of implications for sport coaches.

International Journal of Coaching Science, 7, 55-74.

Farrow, D., & Reid, M. (2010). The effect of equipment scaling on the skill acquisition of

beginning tennis players. Journal of Sport Sciences, 28, 723-732.

Gordon, S. (2007). Sport and business coaching: Prescriptive of a sport psychologist.

Australian Psychologist, 42, 271-282.

Light, R. (2004). Implementing a game sense approach in youth sport coaching: Challenges,

change and resistance. Waikato Journal of Education, 10, 169-180.

Martens, R. (2012). Successful coaching. Champaign, Il: Human Kinetics.


28

Smith R. E., & Smoll, F. L. (1997). Coaching the coaches: Youth sports as a scientific and

applied behavioral setting. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6, 16-21.

Smith R. E., & Smoll, F. L., & Cumming, S. P. (2007). Effects of a motivational climate

intervention for coaches on young athletes’ sport performance anxiety. Journal of

Sport & Exercise Psychology, 29, 39-59.

Spray, D. C. M., Wang, C. K. J., Biddle, S. J. H., & Chatzisarantis, N. L. D. (2006).

Understanding motivation in sport: An experimental test of achievement goal and

self determination theories. European Journal of Sport Science, 6, 43-51.

Stratton, R. K. (2005). Motivation: Goals and goal setting. A Journal for Physical and Sport

Educators, 18, 31-32.


29

Marie Arick, M.S.Texas State Department of Health, Austin, TX

Barry P. Hunt, Ed D (corresponding author)Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS

Ronald Williams, Ph DTexas State University, San Marcos, TX

Qshequilla Mitchell, Ph DUniversity of Alabama-BirminghamBirmingham, AL

S M O K E L E S S T O B AC C O

A N D YO U T H : A N U N D E R S E R V E D

P U B L I C H E A LT H C O N C E R N

30SMOKELESS TOBACCO AND YOUTH: AN UNDERSERVED PUBLIC HEALTH CONCERN

Tobacco use is a leading cause of disease

and premature mortality in the United

States(CDC, 2011). The number of smokeless

tobacco users in the United States has rapidly

increased(Severson, Gordon, Danaher and

Akers, 2008). The Youth Risk behavior Survey

(YRBS) (CDC, 2011) shows that approximately

12.8% of high school students report using

smokeless tobacco. Comprehensive efforts

to reducing initiation of smokeless tobacco

use among youth require collaborative efforts

from schools, communities, medical and

dental professionals and at the state policy

level. A review of the issue and efforts made

towards prevention by the State of Mississippi

are presented for consideration and as a

framework for further examination of the issue.


INTRODUCTION

Tobacco use is the leading preventable cause of disease and premature death in the

United States (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2011). Smokeless

tobacco cessation programs and health education regarding smokeless tobacco (ST)

is an often overlooked public health issue. Although cigarettes are the most common

tobacco product used by most Americans, the number of ST users in the United States

has rapidly increased (Severson et al, 2008). Smokeless tobacco, often referred to as

spit tobacco (ST), chewing tobacco, chew, dip, or snuff, comes in many forms around the

world (Mayo Clinic, 2011). In the United States, the predominant types of ST are chewing

tobacco and snuff (Ebbert, Erwin, & Stead, 2011). Smokeless tobacco is consumed without

any burning of the product, and can be used orally or nasally (Kuper, Adami, & Bofetta,

2002). Chewing tobacco is held in the cheek between the gum and teeth area and once

chewed nicotine is released (Piano, Benowitz, Fitzgerald, & Corbridge, 2010). Smokeless

tobacco is highly addictive and is related to many types of cancers (CDC 2012; Campaign

for Tobacco Free Kids, n.d.). Mistakenly, many smokers view smokeless tobacco as a

safer alternative to smoking cigarettes in spite of tremendous evidence demonstrating

the relationship between ST use and the increased risk for oral cancer, cardiovascular

disease, hypertension and stroke (Kuper et al, 2002; CDC, 2012; United States Department

of Health and Human Services (n.d.). Opportunities for access to smokeless tobacco

cessation in the United States are very limited and there is a lack of knowledge and

awareness related to its deleterious effects. This public health challenge is exacerbated


by decreased funding for tobacco prevention programs and a traditional view that solely

emphasizes the dangers of cigarette smoking.

ILL EFFECTS, ST USE, AND CONTRIBUTING FACTORS

Smokeless tobacco contains 28 carcinogens and ST products contain a wide variety of

additives to enhance flavor or increase the pH thus increasing the amount of nicotine

(Piano et al, 2010; CDC, 2012; USDHHS, n.d). The ill effects of smokeless tobacco products

(Table 1) include leukoplakia, tooth decay, gum disease, reproductive health issues, oral

cancers, esophageal cancers, and pancreatic cancer (Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids,

n. d; CDC, 2012; USDHHS, n. d. ; Mayo Clinic, 2011; Oral Cancer Foundation, n.d.). The

link between the use of smokeless tobacco products and poor health outcomes seems

to be overshadowed by the harmful effects of smoking cigarettes; warranting a need for

increased efforts to raise awareness for ST education and cessation programs.


ST use has increased among American youth (CDC, 2012). In 2011, there was a 30.6%

increase in ST use among high school seniors from 2006 (National Institute on Drug Abuse,

2010). From 2002-2009 there has been an increase in ST use among males (National

Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2008). Athletes are also heavy users of ST. According to

the National Collegiate Athletic Association approximately 20- 40 % athletes participating

in baseball, football, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, soccer and water polo and wrestling

reported ST use (Ganskey , Ellison, Kavanaugh, Hilton, & Walsh, 2002). The 2011 Youth

Risk Behavior Survey reported 12.8% of male high school students used smokeless

tobacco. Females also report ST use but at a lower rate than males (USDHHS, n. d.).

According to the Centers for Disease Control there are many contributing factors that

contribute to youth ST use, including but not limited to, low SES, inadequate refusal skills,

lack of parental support, availability of tobacco products, low academic achievement, poor

self-esteem, and targeted advertising (CDC, 2013).

CESSATION PROGRAMS AND FUNDING CUTS

Traditionally, tobacco cessation programs have primarily focused on smoking cessation

in part because of the wide-spread knowledge of the correlation between smoking and

poor health outcomes and the health impact of the second hand smoke. The inclusion of

smokeless tobacco in the education platform has not been a priority and this is evident

with the rise in youth tobacco usage. February is designated smokeless tobacco month

and is a time when ST use is addressed (American Cancer Society, 2012). This should be

expanded to add a more thorough education to youth regarding smokeless tobacco and


its’ negative health impacts. Tobacco education programs should provide a more balanced

presentation addressing both forms of tobacco use. These programs come with a price and

funding is always a challenge.

In the state of Mississippi for example, a 20 million dollar fund diversion from the Health

Care Trust Fund was granted by the courts in 2006 at the request of former Governor

Haley Barbour. The award was upheld in 2007 by the Mississippi Supreme Court, leading

to a drastic reduction in available funds for tobacco prevention programs in the state of

Mississippi (Table 2) with the total equaling just over 25% of the 32.9 million recommended

by the CDC for adequate tobacco prevention programs (Campaign for Tobacco Free

Kids, 2008). The American Lung Association (2012) State of Tobacco Control Report

Card gave Mississippi a grade of “F” in many categories including tobacco prevention

and control spending and cessation coverage (American Lung Association, 2012). While

program expansion is needed, significant shortfalls in funding to provide effective

tobacco education and prevention programs to combat both types tobacco use has led to

decreased programmatic efforts.


PROGRESS AND SETBACKS

Areas of improvement have begun with the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco

Control Act of 2009 providing increased sales restrictions, sponsorships, and advertising

restrictions aimed to reduce the luring of youth (Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids, n.

d). Additionally, the Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids in conjunction with Major League

Baseball (MLB) have resulted in a ban on smokeless tobacco use for MLB representatives

or team members beginning with the 2012 season. This is meant to emphasize the

influence of MLB representatives among youth (Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids, n. d).

This is an excellent start, but many children and adolescents view their coaches or peers

as role models. Furthermore, all U. S. schools are purportedly tobacco free, yet often ST

use is overlooked on school campuses. A stronger stance should be taken as well as an

increased awareness of the negative health effects of smokeless tobacco.

Potential collaborations with the dental profession

The medical and dental professions have long realized the negative consequences

of smokeless tobacco use. The need for equal billing between smoke and smokeless

tobacco as well as an increase in data collection of usage rates is critical for highlighting

the importance of illness and disease related to ST use. More emphasis should also be

placed on the health care field to provide complete medical coding regarding tobacco use

and reporting intervention referrals. This can assist with documentation of usage rates,

the ability to track associated health disparities, resource allocation and the planning

of effective education and intervention activities. Dental professionals are in a unique


position to make an impact on both smoke and smokeless tobacco cessation but often

remain uninvolved for several reasons.

Existing dental codes regarding tobacco use and counseling are rarely utilized due to

a lack of reimbursement (Mughal (2011); Wellcare, 2013; The State of Michigan, 2009;

Billing Codes Guide, 2010). There is also a lack of proper intervention training for dental

professionals. Fewer than one-third of US dentists and dental hygienists are aware

of evidence-based US Public Health Service Clinical Practice Guidelines for tobacco

intervention(Tomar, 2012).

Many dental professionals have never participated in cessation training, or assisted

patients in attempting to quit smoking (Tomar, 2012). Increasing patient tobacco cessation

counseling will require acknowledgement by insurance providers of the value and benefits

of the service. This recognition could then spur a more proactive approach by the dental

professionals to emphasize the negative impact of ST use education process as well as

routine dental care in current practices establishing a standard of practice and a more


comprehensive plan of care for their patients (Mughal, 2011). Dental professionals have

an opportunity to interact with youth and are in a position to provide early intervention.

Additional data collection from dental documentation submitted to insurance companies

or entered into other databases could assist with data collection.

ADVOCACY ROLE FOR HEALTH EDUCATORS

The implications for health educators to advocate for changes in regards to smokeless

tobacco are numerous. Advocating for adherence to tobacco free status on all school

campuses and city venues included sends a powerful and much needed message to youth

that can help to alter the current social norms related to ST use. Collaborating with the

American Dental Association to work toward increased recognition of the benefits of

policy changes with standards of care and insurance acknowledgement will provide more

visibility to the negative consequences of ST use. Advocating for equal funding from state

and federal government for smoke and smokeless tobacco can increase awareness and

help to reduce misinformation while decreasing usage.

CONCLUSION

It is evident that there are many areas in which educational efforts fall short in the fight

against smokeless tobacco use in the United States. Smokeless tobacco education and

awareness programs are under emphasized yet the ill effects of ST use cannot be ignored.

The data demonstrate the increase in usage, especially by youth. Increased awareness in

the form of public service announcements, more intense education for students, athletes,


and coaches is critical to empower this population to make positive health changes.

More involvement from the dental profession and the acknowledgement by insurance

carriers of the long-term benefits for a consistent reimbursement should be established.

Barriers such as decreased funding, lack of consistent messages being conveyed to youth

audiences, and a lack of complete tobacco-free policy enforcement in the schools delays

progress. Implications for future work call for more aggressive awareness and education

campaigns, policy changes by insurance companies for the recognition of services

provided by dental professionals, and a stricter adherence to tobacco-free designations.

This, in turn, can aid in more comprehensive data collection by health care providers, an

accurate and comprehensive education for our youth, and consistent messages being

sent to the youth. Role modeling with the adherence to tobacco free-status in designated

areas provides further reinforcement and a change in social norms. This is a critical time

to take advantage of the progress that has been made with tobacco-free legislation to

protect our youth. The adoption of the tobacco policy by Major League Baseball is a great

step in the right direction. Pressing forward now with more awareness campaigns and

education in our schools is essential for aiding this underserved public health issue and

achieving sustainable social and environmental changes. The Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention (2007) outlines a variety of model programs and policies that can provide

guidance to states interested in smokeless tobacco prevention programs for youth.


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