STRATEGIES AND PRIORITIES FOR LOWLAND OILCROPS RESEARCH

BACKGROUNDResource Base

Two major oil crops viz. sesame Sesamum indicum L. and groundnut Arachis hypogaea L. grow well in warm climate (20 to 30 oc) at an altitude below 1600 m.a.s.l. For optimum yield, a well distributed precipitation of 400 to 1000 mm for groundnut and 300 to 750 mm for sesame are needed during the growing period of the crops. Similarly, well-drained and light-textured soils with pH values of 5.5 to 8.0 are considered ideal for these crops.

Ethiopia is known to be the center of origin and diversity for cultivated sesame. This potential is highly valuable for the success of research works in acquiring necessary genes from the available gene pools. It is widely grown in Amhara (Gonder & Wello), Tigray (Setithumera), Benshangule (Pawi and Beles), Oromya (Wellega & Harar) and Gambella regions. Recently with the formation of the private economic sector, large hectare of the Gibe valley, Jinka plain, lower and middle Awash valley and lowlands of northern Omo have been covered with sesame.

Groundnut is the second important lowland oilseed of warm climate, which is relatively new to Ethiopia. It was first introduced to Eritrea and then to Hararghe in early 1920s by the Italian explorers (Yebio, 1984). These days, however, groundnut is well distributed in the warm lowlands of the country. More specifically, eastern Hararghe produces substantial amounts while some other lowland areas, of Gamo Gofa, Ilubabor, Gojam, Shoa, Wello and Wellega are also of immense potential (Seegler, 1983, Adugna 1991) (Table 2).

These crops are known for their high nutritive values, oil or fat, protein, carbohydrate and rich source of calorie. All these factors clearly indicate the importance of both sesame and groundnut and enhance the contribution of lowland oilseeds towards the dietary needs of our nation where hanger and malnutrition are the daily experiences. Moreover, high quality edible oil can be extracted from both crops, while the remaining cakes serve as valuable source of crude protein for cattle feed.

Importance of the commodity

In Ethiopia, sesame and groundnut are mainly grown for food, oil production and for export. Roasted seeds of groundnut are consumed as snack while crashed seeds are added into different dishes; it is also

used in the preparation of peanut butter, candies and other confectionery products.

In the oil pressing mills, at several areas in the country groundnut and sesame are used as row material for domestic industry, and they serve as income generation for the employees. The pressed oil is an excellent cooking medium; hence it has high demand in local market. A production of about half a million litters of groundnut oil and a million Kilogram of meal was reported in 1994 by the Hamaressa oil factory.

Oil crops in general are the third major crops after cereals and pulses in Ethiopia both in area and production of which sesame and groundnut are of great share. The land allotted to sesame production increased from 9,000 hectares in 1995/96 to 24,000 hectares in 1997/98 (Table 1).

Table 1. Area, Yield, and production of groundnut and sesame in Ethiopia (1979-1997)Years Total area(000 ha) Yield (kg/ha) Production (000 Mt)Year/ Crop S G S G S G 1979 64 35 582 560 37 20 1980 64 47 582 590 37 28 1985 63 32 582 875 37 28 1986 63 33 587 892 37 29 1987 63 40 587 1250 37 50 1988 63 40 587 1250 37 50 1994 61 43 508 1258 31 54 1995 9 13 504 504 56 56 1996 19 17 393 719 8 12 1997 24 11 416 706 11 7 Note: S= Sesame; G= Groundnut

Agro-ecological Distribution

Sesame and groundnut widely grow in hot to warm semi-arid lowlands (SA1) hot to warm humid lowlands (H,), hot to warm moist lowlands (M1) and hot to warm sub-humid lowlands (SH1). These crops can also grow in the arid hot to warm lowland plain (A1) only under irrigation.

Table 2. Suitable ecological factors for the production of lowland oil crops in Ethiopia.

Crop Sites Temperature(0c) Rainfall Soil type AltitudeProduction potential

Max Min (mm) (m)Sesame Humera 444 Major

Pawe 32.0 16.0 1387 1200Abobo 34.3 20.1 915 450

Dedessa 25 3.0 clay 1480 ModerateHarar 29.0 15.0 686 Sandy clay 1620Kobo 463 Sandy loam 1450

Dubti 37.0 21.0 80 clay 380 HighWerer 35.0 21.0 311 Silty clay 750

Groundnut Babile 29.0 15.0 686 Sandy clay 1650 MajorBisidimo 22.0 409 Sandy clay 1450Gursum 22.0 14.0 779 Sandy clay

loam1800

Pawe ModerateGoffaKucha 1200Abobo 34.0 20.0 960 Clay loam 520

Miesso 700 1600 MarginalKoboNorth ShoaLower Awash HighMiddle Awash

Marketing and economic Value

The crops provide a cash revenue to the small farmers and their family on local market (a kilo of sesame seeds or groundnut kernels fetches 2-4 and 4 Ethiopian Birr respectively) and to the country on national bases. In this regard, the Ethiopian oilseeds and pulses exporting corporation (EOPEC) has reported a cash income of about 8,300,000 $ US in 1970 by exporting sesame seeds. In 1986/87 season sesame accounted for almost 70 % the total export value of all oilseeds. Sesame was the third export commodity to Ethiopia in 1999. In the year 1998 and 1999 64,465.7 and 41,629.9 tons of sesame seeds were exported respectively. In monetary value the above quantity fetched a total of over 306 million and 41 million Ethiopian Birr in respective years.

Groundnut is also of considerable importance and a revenue of 4.5 million Birr was obtained by its export in the year 1981 (EOPEC, 1990). On the other hand, the average annual earning from groundnut alone during the past fifteen years was about fifteen million Birr.

In general the contribution of both crops to both the local and national economy is great mainly for their high dietary value much more relevant to the small farmers and for their economic values as food and cash crops.

Need for research strategy

Both sesame and groundnut respond poorly to applied nutrients. On the other hand the major groundnut producing areas come under marginal rainfall areas which are frequently suffering from seasonal drought. On top of these the already generated technologies (varieties) have not been successfully popularized. As a result the national average productivity did not exceed 12 and 5 quintals/ha for groundnut and sesame respectively, which is quite very low as compared to the results obtained under research condition (Table 2).

Research objectives are therefore, to address the production problems of both crops. For this, well organized, continuos and systematic research approach should be devised. Accordingly, research areas and strategic plan for the lowland oil crops is described in this document.

The major bottleneck that hinders the productivity of sesame is the low yielding nature of the crop and seed shattering problems which need full flagged research efforts. Collaborative research efforts with ICRISAT are very essential and of great advantage to Ethiopian groundnut research program as it is world’s largest repository as far as groundnut is concerned.

Current Research StatusPast and present organizational structure

The evaluation of exotic materials together with some local cultivars started in mid 1960’s continued till 1971 and ultimately national variety trials were initiated at Werer, Gambella, Tendaho, Setithumera, Didessa and Gode. In 1980s, the program was organized on the basis of multi-disciplinary team approach and was promoted to a commodity level and named National Lowland Oil Crops Research Program. Improvement, Agronomy and crop protection (Entomology and Pathology) are member disciplines and the core team is located at Werer, the national coordinating center to-date.

Research achievements

Crop Improvement Prior to 1980s trials on the two crops were limited to the selection of more adaptable varieties along with some cultural practices. However, after 1980s, when it received support from International Development Research Center (IDRC) some progress were made in the areas of manpower, training, equipment and supplies. As the result, the research works extended to cover the major agro-ecologies where the crops are largely grown. So far six groundnut and nine sesame high yielding varieties were released for production (Table 3).

Table 3. Mean yield and other agronomic attributes of the released groundnut and sesame varieties in Ethiopia.

Crop VarietyYear of release Yield (q/ha)

Oil content

(%)Maturity period

Irrigated RainfedGroundnut Shulamith 1976 50-65 20-35 44-49 130-165

NC-4X 1986 50-70 20-40 42-49 130-160NC-343 1986 40-60 25-30 45-50 140-160Roba 1988 50-70 30-50 44-50 130-160Sedi 1993 32-47 11-25 45-52 100-110

Sesame Kelafo-74 1976 10-16 4-7 43-48 112-115T-85 1976 10-20 5-7 45-48 100-115E 1978 12-18 4-9 42-46 100-120S 1978 12-16 4-10 44-47 90-115Mehado-80 1989 15-22 5-8 44-47 90-110Abasena 1990 12-19 6-12 43-47 90-115Argene 1993 15-18 - 43-46 95-105Adi 1993 16-22 - 48-50 85-95Serkamo 1993 15-18 - 44-48 95-105

Four of the released groundnut varieties are late maturing Virginia types that require 130-160 days to attain their physiological maturity. But the variety Sedi, which was released in 1993, is early maturing and it is particularly important for short-season areas and for double

cropping purposes under irrigation. It also possesses desirable qualities such as higher oil content (52%), sweet taste and better blanching property.

Agronomy /PhysiologyMarch to September sowing dates for groundnut have shown better yield over most of the growing regions. But May to June is the most suitable sowing time for rain-fed areas to cope-up with the rainy season. Mid April to mid June during the main season and November to December during the off-season is optimum sowing time for sesame in the middle Awash. This could be extrapolated to the lower Awash as well. October to December sowing for Gode, June for Didessa and mid July for Bisidimo were recommended.

Spacing of 60-80 cm. between rows and 10 cm. between plants gave better yields in groundnuts; making a density of about 150,000 plants per hectare. The seed rate varies from 60-110 kg/ha depending on the seed size. A seed rate of 5-10 kg/ha for sesame and plant population of about 250,000/ha with spacing of 40 cm. between rows and 10 cm. between plants were recommended.

Irrigation water of about 12 cm. at two to three weeks’ intervals, depending on weather conditions was found to be optimum. Two to three hand weeding starting from 30 to 35 days after planting gave better groundnut yields and were recommended for small farmers while herbicide like Metholaclor 960 EC 2.5 l/ha was recommended for affordable farms. Early hand weeding, 4-5 weeks after emergence gave the best yield and among herbicide Alachlor 4-5 l/ha and Metolachlor 2.5 l/ha gave good control of weeds for a prolonged time of application in sesame under Middle Awash and Setit humera conditions.

Studies on fertilizers and planting methods did not show any significant yield responses. Similarly, the effects of ridging (eartehning up) did not show significant yield returns in groundnut.

Crop protectionInsect pest surveys have demonstrated that termites, aphids, African Boll Worms (ABW) and Blister beetles are the major pests of groundnut while web worm was found to be the most destructive insect pest of sesame in Ethiopia. To control the termites treating a quintal of shelled groundnut seeds with Aldrin or treating the soil with Aldrin at the rate of 500 gram per square meter are the measures while Octalic, Thiodin and Malathion are important to control aphids, ABW, web-worm and beetles. Aluminum phosphide, Baythion and Fenitherithion were recommended for the control of insect pests (i.e. weevils and webworms) on stored sesame seeds. Likewise, Fenitherithion 3 %D and Permethrion 5 % D was also recommended for the control of weevils on stored groundnut seeds.

Pathological survey have revealed that early and late leaf spots, rust, wilts and pod rots were the major diseases of groundnut while bacterial blight and phyllody were the major diseases of sesame. At Didessa, Benlate fungicide was recommended to control the leaf

spots in groundnut that caused a yield loss of 65 % on experimental plots. Some sesame varieties were identified to be tolerant to bacterial blight namely E, S and Abasena. Four doses of Streptomycin (250, 500, 750 and 1000 PPM) were found to control the seed- borne bacterial blight. Soaking the seed for 30 min. with this levels has controlled the disease adequately but with no significant difference among the levels.

Human resourcesTrained manpower is indispensable for research, but this important part of the research is poorly developed for both crops. The commodity at its main center has only two junior researchers who are with their first degree and limited years of experience (Table 4).

Table 4. Current manpower status of lowland oil crops research at Werer Qualification Breeding Agronomy Entomology Pathology TotalPhD - - - - -MSc. - - 1* 1* 2*BSc. 1 1 - - 2 Dip. 2 1 - - 3Total 3 2 1* 1* 7 = Only 20 % of their time

FacilitiesFacilities, which aim at promoting the improvement of the basic and applied research, are of high priorities. But the existing situation is very similar with that of manpower. The program at its coordinating center has one outdated computer and some laboratory equipment. The situation is quite worse at the cooperating research centers. Nevertheless, there are a lot to be done to improve both the facility and the manpower status of this commodity.

Budget (past and present)The budget for the National Lowland Oil crops research since 1990 (EC) is indicated in Table 5.

Table 5. Budget allocated for National Lowland Oil Crops research program (1990-1992) EC.

Year Amount Released Amount Used1990 1,185,1001991 954,2001992 391,200

Research planning and implementationThe whole target groups (farmers, clients, exporters etc.) need to participate in the research reviews to give their views about the newly proposed research activities. Researchable problems are to be identified on the presence of both researchers and target groups. Proposals are prepared by the concerned researchers and reviewed sequentially at division, center zonal, regional commodity and

national levels.

Monitoring and EvaluationResearch activities are evaluated on quarterly bases four times annually. Progress reports, annual reports and presentations in society meetings are also of the forums for research out put evaluation. Changes or modifications could be made as necessary after evaluation in respective review meetings.

GAPS AND CONSTRAINT ANALYSISResearch Gaps

Periodic visits and surveys done to major sesame and groundnut growing areas have revealed the following research constraints:

Crop Improvement Lack of improved varieties for specific environments and

inadequate number of improved varieties Inadequate on-farm experimentation and low participation of

farmers in selection of cultivars adaptable to their circumstances

Lack of basic genetic knowledge on some important traits Shortage of high quality basic seed of the released varieties All sesame cultivars under production are dehiscent types Breeding programs to generate varieties with specific merit

(resistance to drought, diseases insect pests and others) have not yet started

Agronomy/ Physiology Lack of suitable cropping systems for most sesame and

groundnut growing areas Inadequate information on weeds and their control measures Lack of knowledge on stress physiology Methods of fertilizer application, time, rate and types of

fertilizers to be used are not studied for many groundnut and sesame producition areas.

Economic threshold levels for major weeds are not fully developed

Determination of weeds did not cover most sesame and groundnut production areas

Crop Protection Inadequate information on the occurrence, distribution and status

of sesame and groundnut diseases in various AEZs Inadequate information on pre and post harvest losses due to

insect pests

Lack of integrated practical and durable control measures for the major diseases

Inadequate research staff, laboratory, facilities to work on different aspects of the major diseases

Inadequate information on pre and post harvest losses due to major diseases

Agricultural Economics Lack of well documented agro-ecology based information on

sesame and groundnut production Farmers’ adoption rate of these crops are not studied Agricultural markets of theses crops are not studied Inadequate/ very little deterministic on-farm trials

Research Extension Service Lack of extension research staff Lack of extension bulletins in local languages Inadequate training of subject matter specialists Lack of participatory secondary seed multiplication

Lack of harvesting technologies Lack of groundnut lifter for small scale farmers Lack of groundnut-sheller for both large and small scale

farmers are the major constraints which deserve research input. Thus large-scale farming is highly discouraged to produce groundnut because it is labor intensive and costly.

Resource constraints

Human ResourceAs it is indicated in this document, the lowland oil crops research program has got the only 2 junior researchers (full time) and 2 Msc holders (Sharing only 20 % of their time to the two crops).

Facility This program has poor storage system, very poor laboratory and

office equipment. Due to lack of appropriate research facilities and shortage of

trained manpower the activities underway are limited.

THEMATIC AREAS AND PRIORITYPriority setting was done by the researchers of oil crops in the workshop held at Melkassa Research Center, on 25-27 April 1999 and it was refined on the other workshop held at EARO's Head Quarters, 20-24 September 1999. Consensus was reached to use the scoring method of priority setting based on the relative value of the crops to both local and national economies in that sesame has ranked first

followed by groundnut. Pair-wise ranking was employed to rank the production constraints. Based on these, the priorities of the disciplines were set as shown in Tables 6 and 7.

High priority thematic areas

Shattering, bacterial blight low yield and lack of popularization activities in sesame and termite attack, leaf spot diseases, aflatoxin contamination, lack of widely adaptable and drought tolerant varieties in groundnut were identified as high priority areas of research.

Medium priority thematic areas

Control measure studies for various insect pests and diseases of both sesame and groundnut such as seed bugs, galmidge, phyllody, groundnut rust, aphids, blister beetle and development of proper weed management practices were identified as medium priority areas.

Low priority thematic areas Studies on boll-worm, jassids, thrips, viruses and fertilizer responses were categorized as low priority research theme.

Table 6. National research priority for lowland oil crops in Ethiopia.

No CRITERIA Sesame Groundnut No CRITERIA Sesame Groundnut 1 Food security

Value of prod.Value of foodDemand

11.0 6.4 6.0

6.6 6.4 3.6

5 IncomeEmploymentIncome from the produces

5.0 4.0

3.0 2.4

2 Import Sub. 11.2 8.4 6 ConservationSoil fertilityReduce erosionEcosystem

1.2 1.2 1.2

3.0 2.4 1.6

3 Raw materials 8.4 11.2 7 Potential impact on researchProbability of successResearchabilityResearch opportunity

2.4 1.6 1.6

1.8 1.2 1.24 Export

Current valueFuture market Potential

11 8.4

6.6 4.8

8 Adaptability 3.2 2.4

Total 83.4 66.3 Rank 1 2

Table 7. Relative priority levels (high, medium and low) of production constraints for lowland oil crops in Ethiopia.

Crop Level of prioritiesHigh Medium Low

Sesame Shattering, bacterial blight, poor extension services and low yield

Sesame galmidge, web worm, drought phylody and weeds

African ball worm and poor fertilizer response

Groundnut Termite, leaf spot Drought, rust aphids, blister beetle ball worm and weeds

Rosset virus, jussid and thrips

Table 8. Prioritized discipline for lowland oilseeds

Discipline Sesame GroundnutBreeding / Genetics + + + + + +Agronomy + + + +Entomology + + + + +Pathology + + + + + +Physiology + + +Seed technology + +Food science + + +Socio - economics + + + +Bio - technology + + + +Research ext. + + + + +Engineering + + + +Note: + + + = High priority; + + = Medium priority; + = Low priority

GENERAL GOALS/ AIMSThe lowland oil crops research program principally looks for the improvement of the productivity of the two crops (i.e. yield per unit area) thereby meat the extensive oil seed demands for export and consumption in the country.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES Enrich germplasm resource for both crops Development of varieties with high yield, disease and insect pests

resistance and wide adaptability Development of proper crop and weed management practices Study control measures of major pests Develop integrated disease or insect management methods

(IDM/IPM) Develop non shattering varieties of sesame Conduct loss assessment studies Increase oil yield Improve farm implements for groundnut harvest Develop varieties for moisture stress areas

Develop effective technology dissemination mechanism Strengthen research facilities and improve manpower status

RESEARCH STRATEGYShort term strategy (1-5 years)

Breeding and Genetics Broadening the genetic basis of the two crops through continued

collection, Introduction, hybridization and mutation techniques Development of high yielding ,non/partially shattering and disease

and insect pests resistant varieties To maintain the purity of released varieties, multiply and supply to

target groups

Agronomy and crop physiology Determine optimum crop density and planting time for different

AEZs to reduce disease intensities/incidences Inter-cropping and weed control studies To initiate integrated weed management studies To study the rotation and tillage practices

Crop protection Yield loss assessment for major diseases in both crops Collection and introduction of germplasm for successive screening

trials Identification of resistance sources for hybridization purposes (to

incorporate relevant genes to the existing high yielders but susceptible to major diseases)

Research and extension To demonstrate and disseminate the already developed varieties

and other production techniques To encourage participatory research and extension activities and

prepare publications to be used by different clients

Medium - term strategy (5-10 years )

Breeding and Genetics To continue with the hybridization and selection breeding for

desirable traits Development of drought tolerant varieties To study the level of Aflatoxin in various groundnut varieties and

develop resistant varieties against fungal infection To continue maintaining ,multiply and supply the released

varieties to the target groups

Agronomy/Physiology To establish effective cropping systems where oilseeds can be

intensively cultivated along with cereals ,pulses and vegetables To carry out basic physiological studies on indigenous crop like

Sesame To assess critical period of crop requirement for a particular

nutrient and to assess a system to utilize the by-products as a source of organic fertilizers

Crop Protection To study the biology and host ranges of the major diseases and

insect pests and to develop basic techniques for their manipulation

To determine the economic importance of major diseases and insect pests and to device their control methods

Research and Extension To verify and popularize the evolving production technologies To keep on fostering the participatory research and extension

services throughout the research and development system

Long term strategy (>10 years)

Breeding and Genetics To continue the above activities based on the dynamics of

circumstances To initiate and implement basic studies on genetics of sesame

mainly with its shattering and non-responsiveness to fertilizers applied

To apply molecular biology (bio-technology ) for fast and effective breeding results

Agronomy /Physiology To study mineral nutrition of both macro and micro elements,

plant water and sink-source relations that would increase the efficiency of the crop and hence increase yield

To investigate means of controlling lodging ,shattering and synchronize flowering and ripening

To establish cropping system and technique that will permit intensification and diversification of production

Crop Protection To continue studying the biology and host ranges of uncovered

diseases and insect pests and to develop basic techniques for their manipulation

To study biological pest control methods

EXPECTED OUTPUT/OUTCOME In general, the expected output shall be agronomically and nutritionally superior varieties; improved crop production and protection techniques; basic knowledge that assists in the improvement efforts; more efficient research - extension linkages and better equipped research facilities.

The possible impact will be an increased productivity of oilseeds in terms of yields per unit area, per capita edible oil and supply of adequate raw materials to the agro-industries. Consequently, increased income for farmers and workers, better revenues of foreign currency from exports and improved standard of life for the nation will be the final expected output.

BENEFICIARIESThe end users of the improved varieties and their production techniques will be the farmers and their families (small to large) traders, oil millers (processors) and the consumers of oils and their cakes. The incomes of oilseeds growers and that of workers in the agro-industries are expected to increase finally with much contribution to the national economy.

FUTURE APPRAISAL OF THE RESEARCH STRATEGY/MONITORING AND EVALUATION

The content of the first draft (strategy document) set by the team has under gone different evaluation processes; it was first evaluated at the center level by the concerned researchers and then at the regional meeting with different experts. After incorporating relevant views and suggestions of all levels this strategy document was developed to its present form.

Periodical assessments of the research strategy are required to evaluate its progress, relevance, performance, efficiency and impact in accordance with its objectives and work plans. The appraisals are done to make adjustments and to measure the effects and impacts. The ultimate contributions of improved production technologies of oilseeds could be measured by:

high adoption rates; increased national productivity (yield per ha); adequate production of oilseeds for oil millers, exporters, and

other oilseeds based industries and ample feeds (cakes) for livestock producers.

The assessment (M&E) can be done at:1. At program level by the program leader, team members and the

users;2. A t center level by the center manager, senior researchers and

the planning unit;3. At EARO level by crop research director, planning department

and other relevant bodies. These M&E activities can be done through periodical reports, field visits, annual research reviews and the like.

Further improvements will be made in the future as found necessary.