Low Carbon Cities Principles and Practices for China’s Next Generation of Growth

1

Currently the trends throughout China show a drama cally increasing dependence on auto use. This is more than the manifesta on of a simple market preference; it is the result of land-use pa erns and street network design that makes alterna ves to the car less and less desirable. As walking and biking become more dangerous and inconvenient, and as transit becomes less accessible, city districts naturally become more auto-oriented. But at the densi es of Chinese ci es, such dependence quickly becomes unsustainable; conges on, air quality impacts, infrastructure and costs rise drama cally.

Transporta on now represents 85% and 42% of China’s petroleum and diesel consump on respec vely, and is its fastest growing sector. As the country’s urban pa erns reinforce auto use through more freeways, large arterials and superblocks, walking, biking and transit are declining. In Beijing since 1986 auto use has increased six fold while bike use has been cut almost in half, from nearly 60% of all trips to just 16.7% in 2010. The conges on, air quality, and greenhouse gas impacts of such a shi are massive. Studies in Jinan show that there is a fi vefold increase in household vehicle kilometers traveled (VKT) between a mixed-use tradi onal street grid neighborhood and a newer single-use superblock confi gura on.

The current pa ern of development in China is the ‘Superblock Model’. Based on a network of wide arterial streets, it features large development blocks, o en 500 m by 500 m in size. The Superblock Model a empts to move cars effi ciently with ever-wider streets, o en at the expense of pedestrian safety and bike movement. To compound the impacts of wider streets, building setbacks further separate uses and distance pedestrians. This combina on of factors hinders pedestrian convenience and bike safety which in turn aff ects retail ac vity and transit usage. The main design criteria for ac ve, vibrant urban communi es is to design around the pedestrian, bike and transit, not the car - in other words, design using narrower streets and smaller blocks, with ac ve, useful and interes ng edges.

This pamphlet lays out some simple design tools and prac ces to make China’s development pa erns more sustainable, resilient, and energy effi cient by designing for transit, biking and pedestrian mobility.

Low Carbon City

2

The principles introduced here represent what some of the world’s leading experts believe to be best prac ces in urban design. Ci es are gradually adop ng these measures, but those that have embraced them are the most livable and economically secure ci es in the world. These principles support each other. Blocks with mixed uses encourage walking, and walkable ci es create customers for local businesses. Smaller block sizes encourage bike and pedestrian use, which cuts down on traffi c, allowing public transit and automobile traffi c to run be er—and so on. Enac ng all eight principles is the key to a sustainable, livable city.

While these principles are a synthesis of interna onal best prac ces, China’s challenges and opportuni es are unique. Many of these recommenda ons are not consistent with current planning rules and regula ons. It is me to apply cu ng-edge scien fi c thought about what makes ci es successful and to reexamine our ci es in light of this most recent understanding. China has the resources and vision to leapfrog over the rest of the world and create the best ci es of the future. Now is the me to seize this opportunity and lay the founda on for a healthy future.

DesignThe eight design principles are:

1 Develop neighborhoods that promote walking

2 Priori ze bicycle networks

3 Create dense networks of streets and paths

4 Support high-quality transit

5 Zone for mixed-use neighborhoods

6 Match density to transit capacity

7 Create compact regions with short commutes

8 Increase mobility by regula ng parking and road use

3

DEVELOP NEIGHBORHOODS THAT PROMOTE WALKINGWalkable streets and neighborhoods are the founda on of every great city. Walking reduces auto-dependence, supports public transit, improves health, and promotes community. Simple measures - such as limi ng road width, block lengths and setbacks between buildings and sidewalks - encourage walking. Sidewalks that feature ameni es like shade, benches, and street ligh ng also encourage foot traffi c. Designing streets that are safe to cross and providing comfortable, interes ng places to walk should be the fi rst priori es for establishing livable, low-carbon ci es.

A] Shorten street crossings and emphasize pedestrian safety and convenience

• Limit street widths to 45 meters for through traffi c (50 meters with BRT) and 25 meters for local access.

• Create direct routes and permeable blocks by limi ng average block length to 150 meters in new development and crea ng public paths through exis ng superblocks.

• Provide safe, well-defi ned and uninterrupted pedestrian zones at least 3 meters wide on each side of every major street.

B] Encourage ground-level ac vity and direct pedestrian access along every street

• To encourage sidewalk ac vity, visibility and safety, buildings with public uses and shops should front the sidewalk and residen al developments should have mul ple access points.

• Perimeter security walls should be set back from the street fron ng buildings or be replaced by see-through fences.

• The distance between buildings and the sidewalk should be limited to the following averages: retail: 1 meter; offi ces and businesses: 3 meters; homes and apartments: 5 meters.

1Ground-fl oor retail encourages walking

Pedestrian-friendly streets in New York city

Pedestrian ac vity, as shown here in Chongqing, China, creates community and supports business

Design features in Hong Kong slow traffi c and keep pedestrians safe

4

PRIORITIZE BICYCLE NETWORKSIn the 1980s, millions of Chinese people depended on bicycling as their primary mode of transporta on. Bicycling is no longer safe or convenient in many Chinese ci es. In recent years, ci es across the globe have been working to reintroduce bicycles as an integral part of city life because they are a simple, inexpensive, and low-carbon way for city residents to travel between des na ons, including transit sta ons. To ease conges on, Chinese ci es must once again encourage cyclists by providing safe condi ons, including bike lanes and secure bicycle parking.

A] Design streets that emphasize bike safety and convenience

• Create dedicated and protected bike lanes, at least 3 meters wide in each direc on, on all streets except low-speed local streets.

• Provide secure bike parking in buildings, on streets and at transit sta ons.

B] Create auto-free streets and greenways to encourage non-motorized travel

• Establish car-free corridors across the city grid, no more than 800 meters apart.

• When combined with transit and pedestrian-only streets, bike lanes should be protected.

2Bike lanes should be protected from car traffi c

Where possible, bike parking should be included at transit sta ons

The Hongshou bike-sharing system is the largest in the world

5

CREATE DENSE NETWORKS OF STREETS AND PATHSIt is a common misconcep on that wide streets are more effi cient and improve traffi c fl ow. In fact, gated superblocks divided by wide roads actually contribute to China’s traffi c conges on. Case studies show that a denser network of narrower streets be er op mizes traffi c fl ow while crea ng more direct routes and improving safety for pedestrians. Road design should maximize human mobility rather than vehicle throughput. Narrow streets that allow one-way motor traffi c as well as bicycles and pedestrians will signifi cantly reduce conges on and fuel use in Chinese ci es by minimizing signal delays.

A] Create dense street networks that enhance walking, bicycling and vehicle traffi c fl ow

• Plan for a minimum of 50 intersec ons per square kilometer.

• Limit traffi c speeds on local streets to 40 kilometers per hour.

• Design local streets with traffi c-calming features to help enforce speed limits.

B] Disperse high traffi c volumes over narrow, parallel routes rather than concentra ng on major arterials

• Create a grid of varied street types to provide mul ple parallel routes for all types of traffi c.

• Incorporate through-roads that connect adjacent neighborhoods at least every 300 meters.

• Replace major arterials wider than 45 meters with effi cient one-way couplets (two narrower one-way thoroughfares).

3

Comparison of a typical Superblock grid with arterial streets with the recommended Urban Network grid of smaller blocks and a dense network of narrower streets

DISCOURAGED: Arterial-dominant Superblock network- Priori zes cars over people- Discourages pedestrian ac vity

RECOMMENDED:Urban Network of smaller blocks - Priori zes people over cars- Supports pedestrian and economic ac vity

6

SUPPORT HIGH QUALITY TRANSITHong Kong, New York City, Singapore and other affl uent ci es have the densest public transit networks in the world. While metro can be an integral part of a transit network, a growing number of ci es are turning to bus rapid transit for its low cost, quick implementa on, and fl exible routes. Each Chinese city will need to determine the appropriate mix of transit solu ons for its condi ons, but ci es can guarantee the overall success of their transit by providing frequent, fast and direct service in easily accessible loca ons.

A] Ensure frequent and direct transit service

• Establish a grid of high-capacity, high-speed transit corridors approximately every 1000 meters with dedicated transit lanes.

• Provide an integrated mul -modal system and ensure seamless transfers to all available transit op ons. Minimize the number of transfers needed for most passengers.

B] Locate transit sta ons within walking distance of homes, jobs and services

• All major housing and job centers should be within 400 meters of a local transit sta on and 1000 meters of regional transit service.

• Increase density and ground fl oor services adjacent to major sta ons.

4Modern BRT systems, like this one in Jinan, China, feature all the conveniences of metro systems.

Guangzhou before BRT (above) and a er the BRT system opened in February 2010 (below) The Guangzhou BRT system moves 27,000 passengers per hour per direc on during peak commute hours and integrates with bike lanes, bike sharing sta ons, metro lines and other feeder bus systems

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Tradi onal Chinese neighborhoods had lively streets where children played sports and the elderly played mah-jongg. These neighborhoods had problems too, but it was the lively mix of shops and services near homes and jobs that gave these areas their charm and iden ty. By trading tradi onal housing for modern apartments, the Chinese people are losing their communi es’ unique sense of place and the effi ciency of compact neighborhoods. China’s ci es of tomorrow need to combine the benefi ts of modern housing with the best quali es of tradi onal urban neighborhoods.

A] Encourage an optimal balance of housing and services through zoning codes

• Housing options should accommodate a mix of income levels and age groups.

• Shops and local services should line the ground floor of most streets fronts within easy walking distance of housing and jobs.

• Mix housing, shops and services within commercial districts to create 24-hour communities.

B] Provide a variety of accessible parks, civic clusters and open space

• Neighborhood parks should be located within 400 meters of housing; large regional parks within 1 kilometer.

• Clusters of schools and civic destinations should form neighborhood centers within 400 meters of residential buildings. This includes age-specific services, such as day care.

• Unique natural environments and local cultural and historical assets should be preserved and creatively reused.

ZONE FOR MIXED-USE NEIGHBORHOODS

5Every city should feature many parks

Jing’an Metro Sta on (above and below) is a good example of transit-oriented mixed-use development

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MATCH DENSITY TO TRANSIT CAPACITYHigh density is crucial to low-carbon ci es, but density alone is not enough. In order to avoid conges on, housing must be located close to public transit and jobs. Density also needs to be related to the capacity of all modes of transporta on. If roads are designed as suggested in this guide - with bike and pedestrian-friendly corridors, transit priority lanes on major arterials, and one-way arterial couplets - ac vi es can be concentrated to make walking, cycling, and mass transit more convenient than driving. This will shorten trip distances, save travel me, and preserve millions of square kilometers of arable land.

A] Match density to the maximum peak-hour capacity of a transit system

• Both residen al and commercial density should be designed to match the area’s peak-hour transit, walk and bike capacity.

• Major job centers should only be located where high-volume transit services are available.

B] In key employment areas, zone for mixed-use districts that combine every day uses

• A mix of recrea on, services, and retail should be located in employment areas to provide for daily worker needs on foot.

• Use TOD Center standards for minimum employment and popula on densi es at sta ons to reinforce demand for services, transit and mixed-use environments.

6In Guangzhou, density is focused around the BRT corridor. The system’s capacity matches commute-hour transit demand

In Curi ba, Brazil, high-rise development is focused within 200 m of transit

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BRT

Metro line (various colors)

High speed rail

R il

Kunming Regional Growth

Lake DianLLakakeke e DDiaiann

20 kmkm

10 kmkm

5 kmmkmkm

BRT

Metro line (various colors)

High speed rail

Railway

CREATE COMPACT REGIONS WITH SHORT COMMUTESCommunity loca on has a long-term impact on sustainability. New city centers placed far from exis ng ci es are inconvenient and rarely thrive. City planners can avoid this by loca ng compact new sub-centers within or adjacent to exis ng ci es. In addi on to protec ng arable land, this strategy signifi cantly decreases the cost of providing transit, u li es, and other services to these new loca ons, while reducing most residents’ daily commute. Decentralizing employment in loca ons that encourage reverse commutes will reduce peak-hour conges on on roads and transit systems.

A] Reduce sprawl by focusing development in areas close to or within exis ng ci es

• Regional development should seek a compact footprint through preserva on, reuse and infi ll of exis ng areas, balanced with dense areas of new growth.

• New development should avoid agricultural lands and other environmental assets.

B] Create a jobs/ housing balance within a short commute distance

• Create mul ple high capacity transit connec ons to all new development areas.

• Locate job centers to limit commutes to approximately 5 kilometers or 15 minutes on transit.

• Create smaller decentralized job centers that encourage reverse commutes.

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Regional planning in Kunming, China aimed at reducing sprawl and crea ng a jobs-housing balance

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Road Pricing reduces conges on and raises money for local government. Some facts from Singapore and London:

80,000kilograms of CO2 emissions reduced

in Singapore’s traffi c conges on zone

37percent more Londoners riding buses during toll mes than before conges on pricing

50percent decline in bus delays in London

65Annual opera on cost for Singapore’s traffi c conges on program

million yuan

330Annual revenue raised by Singapore’s traffi c conges on program

million yuan

85percent of people commu ng to London during toll mes now taking transit

20percent increase in Singapore publictransit use since Singapore started conges on pricing

30percent decrease inconges on since London started conges on pricing

Avoiding gridlock requires limi ng the use of vehicles to levels that the road network can support. Peak commute-hour car trips are o en unnecessary and should be discouraged. There are many ways to discourage driving. London, Hamburg and Zurich, for example, restrict parking in popular des na ons served by public transit. Singapore and Stockholm have implemented road-use charges. Chinese ci es should consider these strategies – which complement the above principles – to help relieve their conges on problems.

A] Limit parking in key employment districts to discourage driving during peak traffi c periods

• Limit parking ra os in employment areas to 0.2 stalls per worker.

• Eliminate long-term street parking to ease conges on and reduce street width.

• Remove all parking-space minimums for residen al buildings and establish city-wide parking-space maximums consistent with targets for private car use.

B] Adjust car fees by me of day and des na on

• Ins tute a conges on-management system that limits auto use in key urban and employment districts at peak traffi c hours.

• Charge tolls for use of overloaded roads and bridges and use the fees to support transit.

• Vary parking charges by me of day and loca on to ensure high turnover.

INCREASE MOBILITY BY REGULATING PARKING AND ROAD USE

8Ci es may choose to charge tolls for use of overloaded streets. Singapore’s Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system has cut conges on and raised money for public transit and other uses

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Designing Low Overall Chinese Ci es must rezone key areas into mixed-use, walkable and transit oriented districts (TODs). This simple act would create a new DNA for city development: one that would limit the growth in auto mode split and kilometers driven per capita naturally by providing alternates that are safe, convenient, and cost eff ec ve. Planning for TODs involves a linked set of strategies. First is crea ng land-use pa erns that shorten trip lengths while crea ng the kinds of environments that foster linking mul ple des na ons into one trip – eff ec vely crea ng mixed-use and walkable districts. This then results in increasing pedestrian convenience, which then makes transit trips more a rac ve, accessible and mely. Second is to cluster major commercial districts around high capacity transit service and decentralize these employment nodes throughout the city. This disperses trips on the transit network in mul ple direc ons making it more effi cent and less congested.

To accomplish these simple strategies, changes should be made in China’s Master Plan and the Regulatory Plan process. At the City Master Plan level key areas should be iden fi ed that, because of a high level of transit capacity and appropriate land uses, are redesigned into Transit Oriented Districts (TODs). Such areas logically must provide environments designed for easy pedestrian

movement. Areas without major transit investment that are dedicated to low intensity, single uses such as manufacturing, warehousing, light industrial or ins tu onal uses should not be designated as TODs. These TODs are then zoned with three mixed-use types of Centers keyed to the specifi c level of transit service. The higher the transit capacity, the denser and more commercial the land-use of the TOD Center. For example an area with two metro lines crossing would have the highest urban designa on with a focus on offi ce jobs, intensive housing and regional-serving retail. In contrast, an area served by a single BRT line would primarily be residen al with local serving commercial uses mixed in.

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Carbon CitiesThe new planning methodology involves the following steps:

A Iden fy poten al Transit Oriented Districts (‘TODs’) within the City’s Master Plan based on levels of transit investment and type of land use

B Within each of these TODs, zone for three types of mixed-use Centers keyed to their adjacent transit capaci es

C Within the Regulatory Plan, modify the circula on system for the TODs into an ‘Urban Network’ confi gura on to be more pedestrian, bike and transit friendly

D Finally, employ new mixed-use ‘Small Block’ zoning with specifi c land-use and urban design standards to create more walkable urban environments

Commercial Center

TownCenter

Urban Center

IndustrialIns tu onal

Metro

Metro

Bus Rapid Transit

Industrial

Expressways

Centers

City Transit Map

Transit Oriented Districts

City Circula on Plan

City Master Plan

Transit Oriented Districts

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DianchiLake

Ins tu onal

TOD

TODTOD

TODIndustrial

Exis ng Development

OpenSpace Dianchi Lake

Town Centers

Urban Centers

Commercial Center

Bus Rapid Transit

Metro

600 m radius

400 m radius

Dianchi Lake

400 m radius

DESIGNING TRANSIT ORIENTED DISTRICTSIndividual Regulatory Plans would then redesign each TOD with a street network designed to accommodate more pedestrian, bike and transit ac vity. This modifi ed street system is called the ‘Urban Network’ and involves a denser grid of narrower streets resul ng in smaller city blocks – places that are inherently easier to walk and bike through. Finally, the TOD urban design standards are modifi ed to

create more integrated and mixed-use areas. This is accomplished by a zoning system using a menu of mixed-use ‘Small Blocks’ rather than the typical single-use zones. Each small block type has a range of uses and intensi es and has a set of urban design controls to ensure that streets are ac vated and well defi ned as useable public space.

Exis ng New Town Master Plan for Chenggong New Town with superblocks and isolated land uses

The Master Plan is then zoned into Transit Oriented Districts as defi ned by appropriate land use and transit services

Within each TOD Commercial, Urban, and Town Centers are located

1414

TRANSFORMATION OF A SUPERBLOCK PLAN

Loca ng Transit Oriented Districts

Concentra ng density at Transit Sta ons

Developing a new Circula on System

Zoning for mixed-use with ‘Small Blocks’

D

C

B

A

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ALOCATING TRANSIT ORIENTED DISTRICTSIden fying and redesigning key areas within an exis ng Master Plan framework is straigh orward. The process begins with two steps; fi rst designa ng and mapping poten al TOD Districts and second zoning these areas with one of three mixed-use TOD types that are ed to its level of regional transit service.

The following are the criteria for iden fying TODs:

TOD Land-use Criteria: Generally mid to high density residen al, commercial, offi ce, services and retail. Low intensity uses such as manufacturing, light industrial, warehousing and a range of large ins tu onal uses are not appropriate for TOD.

TOD Transit Criteria: Minimum of Bus Rapid Transit level trunk-line service and/or at least one metro sta on. It is typical that a TOD will have a regional transit line and several feeder transit systems.

TOD Distance Criteria: Land within 800 meters of a major transit stop or sta on. Areas further than 800 meters may be included in order to consolidate consistent land uses not isolated by major roads or open space areas.

TOD Required Density: Minimum of 300 people and jobs combined per gross hectare. The mix will vary dependent on the level of transit service.

TOD Required Circula on System: Defi ned as an ‘Urban Network’ or equivalent, a circula on network that distributes traffi c over parallel routes, creates small human-scaled blocks; and provides generous pedestrian spaces and secure bike lanes.

TOD Boundary Criteria: Having met the other criteria, the extent of a new TOD will extend to the following boundaries: any open space or natural feature that creates a signifi cant edge; a change in land-use to a non-pedestrian orientated use; and an expressway or major arterial throughway.

1616

(A)

Open Space

TOD 1TOD 1

TOD 2TOD 2

TOD 3TOD 3

Exis ng

Industrial

Industrial

Ins tu onal

(B)

Exis ng city Master Plan (A) transformed into TODs (B) on the basis of transit service and capacity. Areas of low intensity uses or exis ng development are not designated TODs

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Bus Rapid Transit

Metro

TownCenter

UrbanCenter

CommercialCenter

BCONCENTRATING DENSITY AT TRANSIT STATIONSWithin these new TODs the loca on and type of regional transit facili es becomes key to the next level of zoning. The concept is that areas closest to major transit sta ons should increase in density and, in the case of mul ple regional lines converging, should be planned as sub-regional employment hubs. Areas within 400 - 600 meters of a signifi cant sta on should be zoned in rela on to the capacity of the transit system; the higher the capacity the higher the density and mix of services.

Within the TOD and directly adjacent to sta on areas, there are three types of Centers varying in density and mix. These are Commercial Centers, Urban Centers and Town Centers, each with a diff erent density and mix of housing and commercial uses.

Commercial Centers create a mixed-use, high density environment, and are primarily oriented as a regional job center. They are associated with the intersec on of two regional transit lines or more.

Urban Centers develop a more balanced mix of both commercial and residen al uses at a high density. They are located within walking distance of a regional sta on that serves as a transfer point for several feeder transit lines.

Town Centers are primarily medium density housing areas but will include a complete range of services. They are located at a single regional transit sta on.

Centers allocated on the basis of transit service and capacity

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COMMERCIAL CENTERDefinition:

The highest-density commercial area with mixed-use that acts as regional employment, retail and civic/ cultural hub; with a variety of high-density housing

Location Criteria: Located within 600 meters of the intersection of at least two metro transit stops or a major BRT hub

Minimum Density/Use Criteria: Employment density (Jobs/Ha gross) = 500Population density (Pop/Ha gross) = 200

Minimum Land Allocation (Percentage):Parks: 10%Civic: 5%

URBAN CENTERDefinition:

A high-density mixed-use district that acts as sub-regional employment, retail and civic/ cultural center; with a variety of high and mid-density housing

Location Criteria: Located within 400 meters of a regional transit station that is a hub for several local transit lines

Minimum Density/Use Criteria: Employment density (Jobs/Ha gross) =300Population density (Pop/Ha gross) = 200

Minimum Land Allocation (Percentage):Parks: 10%Civic: 5%

TOWN CENTERDefinition:

A high density housing area with retail, civic and open space amenities; with a mix of high and mid-rise buildings

Location Criteria: Served by a single regional transit station

Minimum Density/Use Criteria: Employment density (Jobs/Ha gross) =50Population density (Pop/Ha gross) = 300

Minimum Land Allocation (Percentage):Parks: 10%Civic: 5%

Typical massing - Commercial Center

Typical massing - Urban Center

Typical massing - Town Center

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A

CD

B712 m

693 m

A

CD

B400 m

382 m

CDEVELOPING A NEW CIRCULATION SYSTEMWithin each TOD a new circula on strategy that compliments mixed-use development is essen al. Such a street network will balance the needs of pedestrians, bikes, transit, cars and trucks in a system of mul -modal rights of way. Key to the system is a grid that increases the number of through-roads and thereby disperses traffi c. The circula on system must encourage and support alternate modes to the auto by making transit ubiquitous, walking and biking safe and convenient, and bringing des na ons closer to home and transit sta ons.

The alternate fi ne-grained circula on system is called the ‘Urban Network’ and the current arterial system the ‘Superblock system’. The Urban Network is appropriate for mixed-use and dense residen al and commercial districts, called TODs, while the Superblock system is appropriate for large areas of manufacturing, industrial, warehousing or ins tu onal use.

The Urban Network is built out of a range of street types and produces a rela vely small block pa ern. Major through-traffi c is handled with mul ple minor arterials or by pairs of one-way streets. These through roadways would also provide space for transit systems from local buses to BRT lines. Auto-free streets that accommodate bikeways,

pedestrian shopping areas, and dedicated transit lanes complement the through-streets. Finally a network of local streets providing local access to parcels with bike lanes and generous sidewalks completes the network. The diagram on the facing page illustrates the step-by-step process.

Superblock Grid Urban Network Grid

Comparison of pedestrian travel distance in a Superblock grid (500 m) and an Urban Network grid at the same scale - lack of street permeability, fewer pedestrian crossings and wider intersec on crossing distances in a Superblock result in the pedestrian having to walk almost twice the distance to get from one point to another as compared to an Urban Network grid

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Local Streets

Auto-Free Streets

One-Way Couplets

Superblock Grid

Urban Network Grid

Exis ng Arterials

TRANSFORMATION OF AN ARTERIAL GRID INTO AN ‘URBAN NETWORK’

Comparison of building massing in a Superblock and an Urban Network grid: The Urban Network accommodates a larger number of dwelling units and more varied urban form using smaller blocks

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CThe advantages of the Urban Network are:

1. The network disperses traffi c over mul ple routes reducing loads and pedestrian crossing dimension on most streets

2. It allows short trips more direct routes on local roads with mid-block le turns into parcels

3. In case of blockage or emergency, traffi c can be easily diverted to alternate routes

4. With more frequent intersec ons and shorter street crossings pedestrians have shorter, safer routes

5. Smaller street sec ons make transit systems more accessible to pedestrians

6. Smaller blocks provide for more adaptable urban forms, higher fl exibility of use, and opportuni es for smaller developers

7. Emergency vehicles have mul ple means of access to any des na on

8. One way couplets eliminate le turn phases allowing signal synchroniza on and op mal traffi c platooning resul ng in be er traffi c fl ow on major routes.

In comparison, the Superblock system has been demonstrated incapable of handling the volumes of traffi c China’s high-density ci es generate. Even with 8 and 10 lane arterials conges on o en results from delays at slow, complicated intersec ons and, given a lack of alterna ve routes, massive delays from accidents. In fact, the system generates its own debilita ng feedback loop; the large street sec ons discourage pedestrian, biking and transit mobility, which leads to more vehicle traffi c and therefore wider streets. This then creates an environment even more inhospitable to alternate travel modes.

The block plans on the next page demonstrate the use of an ‘Urban Network’ with small blocks in famous ci es throughout the world in comparison to Beijing’s superblock confi gura on.

DEVELOPING A NEW CIRCULATION SYSTEM

2222

Beijing

Vancouver

Philadelphia Portland Barcelona

Shanghai Tokyo

New York San Francisco

0 1000 m

500Figure-ground studies demonstra ng the use of an ‘Urban Network’ in famous ci es throughout the world

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D‘Small blocks’ zoning provides a fundamentally diff erent approach to development in China. Rather than superblocks with largely iden cal buildings and uses, it provides for smaller blocks that can be developed with a variety of building types and uses. Some of the signifi cant design goals are:

1. Mix uses and add street-side retail where possible

This can reinforce the pedestrian realm with easily accessible convenience ac vi es and local shops. Lining the street with ac ve uses and mul ple entries adds life and safety to the sidewalk.

2. Mix building scales, confi gura ons, and heights within each block

Rather than repea ng one or two iden cal building forms over a superblock, a variety of building forms and heights adds to the iden ty of each place and provides more residen al choices within one community.

3. Respect southern orienta on and solar access

Even on small blocks the vast majority of units can and should face south and building height can be adjusted to accommodate appropriate shadow setbacks.

4. Develop private courtyard confi gura ons

By closing all sides of the blocks with retail and/or low-rise residen al buildings, a semi private courtyard develops a dis nct and useful iden ty. Transparent but secure fences can complete the block’s perimeter.

ZONING FOR MIXED-USE WITH ‘SMALL BLOCKS’

Superblock Grid Urban Network Grid

Comparison of land use zoning in a Superblock grid and an Urban Network with ‘Small Blocks’

2424

Applica on of development standards to residen al and commercial small blocks, of both typical and irregular confi gura ons

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Exis ng Superblock Grid

New ‘Urban Network’ Grid

Chenggong is a new town of 1.5 million planned for Kunming’s next genera on of growth. It is currently the administra ve center for the greater Kunming region and includes Yunnan University, a major new center for educa on and research, and a high speed rail sta on. While its original plan embraced many best prac ces for ecological design, its urban form followed typical superblock pa erns with large single-use areas. Its central district, projected to house 230,000 residents and approximately 200,000 jobs, has been redesigned according to the eight principles for Low Carbon Ci es. The design followed the four step process outlined in this document.

APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES IN CHENGGONG, A LOW-CARBON NEW TOWN

Comparison of land use plans for Chenggong: original Superblock grid (above) and redesigned Urban Network grid (below)

2626

Mixed use and small blocks

Small blocks and mixed use replace typical Superblocks to create a more walkable community. The greater street density improves pedestrian access and disperses traffi c

Auto-free streets

A network of car-free streets, some with bus access, others for bikes and pedestrians, are spaced no more than 800 meters apart throughout the town

Paired one-way streets and narrow arterials

Through-traffi c is carried on streets no wider than 45 meters. Higher-volume traffi c is diverted onto pairs of one-way streets, no more than 30 meters wide in each direc on to allow easy pedestrian crossing

Walkable neighborhoods

Each neighborhood has a walking radius of approximately 500 meters, centered on local parks, schools, and other civic uses

Accessible parks

Linear greenways, neighborhood parks and larger community parks are located throughout the plan and are easily reached by car-free streets and quiet local roads

Transit-oriented development

Areas with high levels of transit service, such as the crossing of two metro or BRT lines, have higher density, more commercial development, and a greater mix of uses

The plan for Chenggong: The principles have been combined to create a mixed-use, walkable and livable town

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In sum, zoning for Transit Oriented Districts and mixed-use developments will create posi ve environments for pedestrians, bikes and transit and help solve many of China’s most intractable urban growth challenges. Mobility can be improved through a coordinated approach of new land-use policies and new circula on systems. This then can help reduce carbon emissions, foreign oil imports while it improves air quality. Most important, it can produce the kind of healthy, vital city districts that a ract and support economic growth and cultural depth.

A Master Plan that employs TODs off ers several advantages for a growing metropolis. Foremost it creates a logical and balanced distribu on of jobs that are appropriately decentralized along transit corridors. This then avoids the conges on of the one-direc onal commu ng pa erns associated with major CBDs. Jobs and housing are more balanced in each TOD allowing more walking and biking to work. In addi on, commuter transit trips become shorter and mul -direc onal when jobs are decentralized. Peak hour transit trips are therefore more effi ciently distributed. Vehicle conges on is also mi gated as trips are shorter, bi-direc onal, and vastly reduced in the peak hour as the alternates of walking, biking and transit become more convenient and mely.

TODs also create vital urban environments that o en leverage social capital. Ci es o en create economic ac vity through proximity and the social networks that evolve in mixed-use areas. There is much research and evidence of the posi ve economic impacts of commercial clusters and mixed-use urban environments. Finally walkable residen al TOD areas are more livable and less costly for average households. Time and expense lost to auto use is mi gated and the social benefi ts of lively streets and strong local communi es are well documented throughout the world.

ADVANTAGES OF TRANSIT ORIENTED DISTRICTS

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