Longitudinal Study of Mobile Technology Adoption

8/6/2019 Longitudinal Study of Mobile Technology Adoption

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Longitudinal Study of Mobile Technology Adoption: Evolution at Work

Elaine Lawence1

Michael Er2

1Department of Computer Systems, Faculty of Information Technology

2School of the Built Environment, Faculty of Design Architecture and Building

University of Technology Sydney

Abstract

Workplaces are changing as new technologies are

introduced in an effort to improve efficiency and

increase business turnover. Although there has been anexplosion of mobile technologies and devices in recent

time, very few in situ studies of the adoption of thesetechnologies have been undertaken. This paper reportson the results of a longitudinal case study of a business

over a six year period as a knowledge worker shifted

from Australia to the USA and then to England. It

outlines how the company moved from paper based

systems to an online system and finally to a mobile

commerce system. The authors have used Mobile

Informatics to analyze the use of mobile devices in

particular settings and low end disruption theory to

assist in the interpretation of the data.

Key-words mobile, informatics, paper based,

disruption

1. Introduction:

Mobile Commerce promises to deliver services directly

into the consumers hands anytime, anywhere usingwireless technologies. Applying mobile access to

computing creates both tremendous commercialopportunities and complexity, which will make

computing globally pervasive and ubiquitous. This

paper describes the results of a longitudinal study of

the development of the use of mobile devices in a

multinational enterprise from an almost completely

paper based operation to a mobile and digital system.

The subject studied has worked for the same company

in three continents over a period of six years. Using

Mobile Informatics [1] (the analysis of the use of

mobile devices in a particular setting) the authors have

observed the working environment of the subject in thethree countries and present here the results of thisongoing study. It provides a rich description of thecomplexity of the personal, social and organisational

issues related to this knowledge workers experience of

the mobilization of information technology [1]. This

paper includes the outcomes of personal and telephone

interviews as well as email and AIM and Skype

conference calls and online chats undertaken over thepast six years.

The methodology is outlined in part two. Part three

presents a background of the company identified asFixing and Assembly Accessories (FAA) in this paper

for reasons of confidentiality and provides

demographic information and product descriptions to

contextualise the implementations. Part four analyses

the implementation of the enterprise solutions in

Australia, the USA and the UK. In part five the authors

discuss the findings and part six contains the

conclusion and points the way to further research. Low

end disruption theory [2] is employed to assistinterpretation of data in the discussion section.

2. Methodology

Gaining insights into the operations of the salesconsultant requires a qualitative research approach.

Myers [3] points out that Qualitative research methods

are designed to help researchers understand people

and the social and cultural contexts within which they

live. The work being performed by the subject cannot

be reproduced with any real accuracy within the

confines of a laboratory.Well acknowledged theories dealing with technology

adoption (such as Diffusion of Innovation) have similar

notions regarding the adoption process. Part of the

adoption of technology process requires users to trialthe innovation. After trialing the tool and deciding to

adopt it, a new system of operation will emerge in

which the technology is incorporated and customized

by the user into their work. In order to make these

observations a longitudinal study was employed. This

study observed a sales consultants work practices over

a period of time during which various improvements to

an originally paper based system was graduallyupgraded to one which is digital and mobile. We note

that the evolution of the office is a result of the work

Proceedings of the First International Conference on the Digital Society (ICDS'07) 2007


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practices that humans have developed over time. [4]

The case study presented in Section 4 is followed by

the authors interpretations of the data collected from

observation as well as interviews.

3. Background

This global enterprise whose core business is the sale

of fixing and assembly materials comprises three

hundred companies in 80 countries: Some of the

typical divisions include

An Automotive Division which sells todealerships, independent auto repair workshops,

motorcycle repair shops, smash repair shops, auto

electricians, and any specialized workshop dealing

in the automotive after market.

A cargo division which sells to commercialvehicle workshops, bus companies, agricultural

and forestry operations, earth moving businesses

and any specialist company dealing with any kindof transport.

A Metal Division which supplies companiesinvolved in Engineering Maintenance, Electrical,

Metal Fabrication, and the Marine Industry

Table 1 provides some company information for the three

countries as well as some global statistics.

Table 1: Company Statistics by Country and Globally

Australia USA UK Globally

No. ofsalesmen

200 450 300 26000

Number of

customers

30000 40000 Not reported 2.65 million

Number of

products

8000 Not reported 6500 lines 100,000

Divisions AutomotiveCargo

Transport

Metal

Automotive, Commercialvehicles, Metal,

Agricultural, Marine

AutomotiveCargo

Automotive, Woodworking,Metalworking, Construction,

Industry

Coverage All states Not all states All areas 300 companies

In 80 countries

4. Case study findingsThe longitudinal study included in-depth, onsite

observation and interviews over a six year period

covering the career of one person who has worked as asales consultant and district trainer for the company

firstly in Australia, then in the USA and now inEngland. Yin [5] believes that a major strength of case

study data collection is the opportunity to use a variety

of evidentiary sources. Direct observation and field

visits provided the opportunity to examine the work

practices in real time[6]. The following section outlines

the company operations firstly in Australia, then in

Louisiana, USA and lastly in London, England.

4.1 The Australia SystemFrom 2000 to 2003 the regular observations and

interviews took place in Sydney, Australia where the

subject began as a Trainee salesman looking after an

area in the suburbs of Sydney with a customer base of140. Over the next three years the subject became a

fully trained sales consultant and increased his client

base to 200. Salesmen have been identified as

Knowledge workers according to [7] as they are

professionals who cannot be easily replaced and whosecontribution is critical for the enterprises success. In

the case of FAA, all selling is carried out by sales

consultants who are given a geographical region to

service and also are charged with expanding the

number of clients in that area. Generally a salesperson

will visit between 8 to 10 clients per day. It is

significant that these knowledge workers

1. must be willing to be deployed on a variable basis as their area may change with

circumstances;2. have a capacity of self management as they

work most of the time alone3. have little time for micromanagement [7]Figure 1 illustrates categories of knowledge workers.



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Figure 1. Categories of knowledge workers [7]

The Consultants main office was his company car and

the selling system was an almost totally paper based

system where the subject was given a paper cataloguewhich he would use to show products to the existing

and potential clients. New product pages would be

mailed or faxed to him for inclusion in the catalogue.

His information system consisted of a set of paper

based client cards stored in an expanding alphabetical

box file.The sales consultant would record the items that a

customer bought on an order page from a sales

ordering booklet. The consultant would then update thecustomer card by hand adding any new products

which had been ordered, what moneys were owed by

the client or any special needs of the client The

electronic part of the system required the sales

consultant to fax the order to head office in another

state promptly each night once he returned from his

client visits as it was the aim of the company to ship

out the products the next day. The company suppliedthe fax machine and the mobile phone which he used to

make his appointments. (See Table 2 in Section 4.6 for

details on the mobile office and devices) )

4.2 Issues with the Australian system.The promise of a paperless office has been with us for

decades yet despite this many companies still are

reliant on paper based systems. Manual paper based

processes are inefficient for on-demand services [8]

The consultant reported the following issues with the paper based systems. If the customer card was not

updated immediately after the sale, there was alwaysthe danger that incomplete customer cards were being

stored in his expanding file. For example, a client

might buy a storage rack for spare parts and it would be

the aim of the salesman to ensure that each month the

parts would be replenished automatically. If the

salesman forgot to record that fact on the customer card

he would probably also forget to set-up the re-order

mechanism. This confirms the statement by [8] that

processes relying on paper are expensive, error prone

and inefficient It was very easy to misfile the cards in

the expanding alphabetical filing box. The sales

consultant would waste time redoing the card and laterlocate the original in another filing pocket thereby

wasting a lot of time. There was no backup of the

customer card if the salesman lost it, the client

history was lost so the consultant would then have to

get in touch with head office for records to redo the

customer card. The consultant did not have particularlylegible handwriting so confusion often occurred when

looking back over the client card.

One advantage that the sales consultant had in the

Sydney operation was that he could decide on what

discounts to give to loyal customers without reference

to the head office. He received a standard salary andthen once he surpassed his monthly sales target he

received a sales bonus. He would therefore know what

discounts would be appealing to the client whilstensuring that he did not cut his bonus out of contention.

4.3 The Computer TransformationSix months before the sales consultant left for the

United States, all the Australian salesmen were issued

with a Hewlett Packard laptop and dialup Internet

connectivity. Fortunately the consultant was computer

and internet literate. FAA had developed their own,new software ordering system for these laptops. Our

sales consultant was originally excited about this

prospect until he was told that the consultants were to

keep their laptops at home. The company was afraid

that the laptops would be stolen from the cars or wouldbe damaged in the car repair shops and garages. Thus

orders were still written up by hand and had to be sent

via fax. However the laptop meant that the salesconsultant no longer needed to update the customer

card. He could print out the clients order history

before he visited the clients. The laptop also meant that

email became increasingly important as a means ofcommunication among the sales consultant, his

immediate supervisor and the head office.

4.4 USAIn July 2003, the consultant took up a position with

FAA in Louisiana as a Sales Consultant and DistrictTrainer. As described in [7] Knowledge workers resemble nomadic tribes. They

move across projects, teams and companies to where

new challenges and opportunities may be found, and

where their shifting preferences and life styleexpectations can be accommodated.

Our onsite observations took place in September 2003

and January 2004. Follow up phone interviews and



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emails continued until he left the USA company in

May 2006 to work with the company in London, UK.

The sales area was huge (about 150 miles square)

extending from Franklyn in the south, to New Roads in

the north, La Place in the east and Sorrento in the west.The number of his client base increased from 150 to210 over the 3 year period. Orders were shipped from

the head offices in Texas or Florida.

4.4 The US System and issuesAs in Sydney, the car served as the office for the

Consultant however he had to purchase his own mobile

phone and computer in order to do the work. The

company paid part of the telecommunications bills

each month. The consultant was given a company

email address and made use of email extensively for

communication with his immediate superior in Miami

and with the head office in Orlando. He complainedabout the constant stream of emails in the USA from

the Head Offices, the regional managers, the district

managers and the internal staff. He noted that he couldnot afford to ignore his email which would build up

quickly to an unmanageable state. He complained that

if he did not reply immediately one of his immediate

superiors would re-forward the email, further clogging

his inbox. These reactions confirm a 2005 study [9]

carried out by psychologists at Kings College London

which found that workers cannot think as well when

they are worrying about emails and voicemails Thesales consultant often felt chained to his desktop

computer as he always had to go home and do his

ordering before he could go out at night. He reported

that he wished he had bought a laptop as that way he

could have done his orders immediately. He stated herejected the laptop as a result of his experience in

Sydney where he was told he could not carry the laptop

to sales sites.

Again the paper catalogue was used as was the system

of having a customer card. One major issue here was

the lack of client history which would be sent by fax or

mail to the consultant. This would then be stapled tothe client card making the card system bulky and

awkward. Each year some of the buying history of the

client was wiped off the system for example if a

customer did not buy a particular item for 12 months

this item was dropped off. The consultant was

mystified by this but nobody could explain why hisrolling 12 month business rule was in place. He stated

that the paper trail was unbelievable he felt he was

being overwhelmed by faxes and paper records via US

post. The client orders were entered by hand on the

order books and had to be keyed in at night on thecomputer system for submission. This web system is

essentially an online shop but is only accessible by

salesmen as can be seen from the notice that appears if

a client accesses the online shop. Identification of the

company has been removed for confidentiality

purposes.

This site is only available for our sales force. Ifyou are a customer and are interested in our

products please contact our customer service

under (1-800-999-9999).

Each night on returning from visiting clients, the

consultant logged into the web based system and keyed

in the product number sometimes this could amount

to up to 50 line items so it took a lot of time. The

consultant reported a great deal of frustration with this

system as his keyboard skills were not particularlygood so the electronic system did not speed up orders

at all. He felt that the paper based system in Sydneywas superior as he did not have to do double entrythere he could simply fax in the handwritten orders It

should be noted that had he bought a laptop he would

have been able to key in his orders as they were made.The consultant did use the fax if the web site was

down. He also received new account forms, credit

notes and new product information by fax and via the

mail.

In the US, the consultant covered up to 300 miles each

day so an important part of his electronic equipment in

his mobile office (car) was a radar detector. Hereported this electronic device is legal in the United

States and he found it a vital piece of his mobile

electronic equipment. Software called MapPoint wasused extensively by the consultant to map out his daily

visits to clients spread across the huge sales area. The

consultant found this a great benefit to his efficiency

and a big improvement on his experiences in Sydney

where he had to map out his visits manually (although

it must be noted again that the area in Sydney was not

large). Another issue that the consultant found

constraining in the US was the fact that he was not able

to give discounts as was the case in Sydney.

4. 5 The England System and issuesIn the first week of May, 2006 the consultant moved tothe London company and started work immediately as

a Sales Consultant in West and South London Districts.

It is here that he has found that as stated by [8]

innovative software tools and internet based products

have made it possible for knowledge nomadic workersto work at any time, from any locationTo this mix he

would add effective mobile telecommunications. An

in-depth, on-site interview took place in London in lateJune, 2006 followed up by emails and Skype and

phone interviews. He was provided with a car, a

mobile phone and he bought a GPS Navigation device

called TomTom. He was able to pick up his car and

mobile devices on a Friday and commenced work



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immediately on the following Monday. He reported

that he was greatly impressed with TomTom which

enabled him to navigate around London with no

problems on the first day. Figure 1 shows a TomTom

Figure 1: TomTom GPS navigation System [10]

The TomTom Navigation system uses Digital maps

and GPS to enable users to find their way around a

city, town or entire continent. The TomTom ismounted on the dashboard of the car and the consultantcan either key in the address or post code of his

destination and the route is worked out and displayed

for him. The TomTom can issue spoken instructions as

well as display the actual road map [10]. This mobile

device has proven to be a tremendous boon to the

salesman allowing him to move quickly around the

large metropolis of London easily despite the fact thathe is a newcomer.

4.6 London OperationsThe first thing the consultant noticed that was different

from the US and the Australian experience was the

complete reliance on Mobile Devices for his mobile

office. These new devices enable actors to evolve new

routines and behaviour with the technology [1]. Table

Two illustrates these differences.

The second improvement noted by the consultant

was the Hewlett Packard Jornada which was supplied

by the company see Figure 2. This handheld device iscarried by the consultant into the clients business

along with the paper based catalogue which has been

Table 2: Electronic/Mobile Equipment and software provided/used

Australia United States England Comments

Company Car -

fuel card

Company Car

reimbursed for gas

monthly

Company Car fuel card Used as office also work at home

when necessary

Company

Mobile phone

(All the bill)

Own Mobile Phone

(part payment)

Company Mobile Phone

(all the bill)

Company pays all or part of mobile

bills

Own Desktopcomputer

Laptop supplied

in 2003

Own DesktopComputer

Company Mobile HPJornada link to mobile

phone via infra red

Jornada PC proves to be the most userfriendly and efficient - provides total

mobility for the knowledge worker

Internal Modem

companyprovided

Own Cable Modem Own Wireless Router For working at home

Facsimile Facsimile Own home Facsimile Company provided

Radar detector(legal)

Radar detector (legal) Not provided by company

TomTom GPS navigation

System

Not provided by company

MapPoint AutoRoute Supplied by company

a common feature throughout his history with the

company. The consultant is able to key in the orders

immediately as they are made. The software contains

all the client history so the need for the customer card

is eliminated. At each client site the consultant can

connect the device wirelessly to his mobile phone and

send the data immediately to the head office for

picking and fulfilling. If the order is received prior to

14.30 the products are shipped for next day delivery.The consultant has found this to be the most useful

feature of working in London compared with his

Sydney and Louisiana experiences. As well each

morning he is able to download new information

about his clients and products from head office

update his invoices, and examine his clients history .

examine the credit history which is updated every



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night. The history is not deleted after each year as was

the case in the US where a rolling 12 month history

system was in place.

One issue that has not pleased the consultant in

London is the handling of discounts for clients. If hewishes to give a discount he must text his immediatesuperior in Kent with the client identification, the

product number and the amount of discount he wishesto offer his client. He must await a return text message

on his mobile phone for authorization. This generally

works well but on some occasions he has found that

his boss is in a meeting and is not able to text back

immediately. This can hold up a sale and, in fact, can

mean on occasions that orders are not sent in before

the 14.30 deadline for next day delivery. As the

consultant was able to make his own decisions on

discounts in Sydney from 2000 to 2003 he finds this

system time consuming and annoying.

Figure 2: Handheld HP Jornada [11]

5. Discussion and Interpretation

The original paper based system caused several

problems. The redundancy of data, double handling

and reliance on individual efficiency and control of

paper files created issues not only for the sales

consultant but for staff in head office. Several cases inwhich a technology solution to issues associated with

paper based systems (such as the ones described in theoriginal system) are described in [12]. In many of

these situations described, a problem was identified

and a technology introduced as a solution howeverthe

introduction of the new system did not achieve the

beneficial effects expected. [12]. The English systemreported in our case study had the opposite result with

the elimination of the inefficient paper based system

by a mobile system. Why then was there such a

difference in outcome?

The explanation in success can be illustrated throughcontextualizing low end disruption theory which is

used mainly to explain innovation in competition

between companies. An incumbent company willvigorously defend its market share against a new

(introduced) competitor, with the incumbent more

often than not, winning. It was found however, that

when the competition did not pose a direct

(identifiable) threat to high end products, the

introduced company was able to slowly infiltrate the

market and eventually, bit by bit, displace theincumbent. Contemplating the above analogy, we

consider the original paper based system and the

online system in Australia and the United States. If we

relate the paper system to the incumbent and theonline system as the introduced, we are able to map an

explanation for success.

Initially the paper based system relied on the cards for

recording order details. To address this, the new

system introduced laptops which, although remaining

in the house of the sales consultant, provided a record

of the client history. It meant that he had reliable

access to the clients sales history, downloading it to paper prior to visits. In the United States operation,

the online system evolved to include an email system,

addressing issues associated with communications between the head office and the sales consultant.However it is interesting to note that the email system

became a source of irritation to the consultant in the

United States operation as discussed in Section 4.4.

The misinterpretations associated with hand writing

were addressed with the next system evolution. An

online web system allowed the sales consultant todirectly enter orders at the end of each day. Again the

consultant had some issues with this system as it still

required quite a bit of typing Finally the system

incorporated a mobile device, the HP Jornada,

allowing for sales consultants to place orders andaccess client information online on demand while onthe road. Here the system requires a minimum of

keying in as the entire product line can be accessed

via a click of a button. We note the satisfaction with

this system from the user, the sales consultant. It is

worthwhile noting that each country implemented its

own client order system. Another aspect of theEnglish mobile system is the lack of email

communication which the consultant states that he has

not missed. In this system text messaging (SMS) is

the communication of choice and the sales person has

not been issued with a company email address as had

been the case in the United States. From ourperspective, the consultant in London has now entereda totally mobile workspace his mobile office is his

car and he has a suite of mobile devices in his office

on which he relies. These are his mobile phone for

voice, data transfer, texting (SMS) and as a modem;his mobile PC (Jornada) for ordering products and

updating his client details; his TomTom navigation

device for moving easily around London and his legal

radar detector.



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6. Conclusion

The nomadic, sales knowledge workers who live in a

data-centric world, need constant contact andcommunication [13]. The longitudinal case study of

one knowledge workers experience with a

multinational company in three countries has provideda snapshot of successful technology changes in the

workplace over a period of six years. The path from a

paper based system to a mobile one has caused a

number of issues for the consultant but as a mobile,

nomadic knowledge worker, he now reports

satisfaction with the mobile system he is using. Theuse of mobile analytics and low end disruption theory

have assisted the researchers in running and

interpreting this longitudinal case study. Future work

will concentrate on the introduction of new mobiledevices into the mobile enterprise and ways to ensure

that security and privacy issues are addressed.

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Proceedings of the First International Conference on the Digital Society (ICDS'07)

Longitudinal Study of Mobile Technology Adoption

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