Lone Star The - Weebly...Lone StarThe State 1845–1876 CHAPTER XX Chapter TitleChapter Title “I...

316

Cowboy Dance by Jenne Magafan (1939) wascommissioned for the Anson, Texas, post office

to honor the day Texas was admitted to theUnion as the twenty-eighth state. Today this study

can be seen at the Smithsonian American ArtMuseum in Washington, D.C.

Why It MattersAs you study Unit 5, you will learn that the time from when Texas

became a state until it left the Union and was later readmitted was aneventful period. Long-standing problems, such as the public debt and

relations with Mexico, were settled. The tragedy of the Civil War andthe events of Reconstruction shaped Texas politics for many years.

Primary Sources LibrarySee pages 692–693 for primary source readings to accompany Unit 5.

TheLone StarState

1845–1876

CHAPTER XX Chapter TitleChapter Title

“I love Texas too wellto bring strife andbloodshed upon her.”

—Sam Houston, “Address to the People,” 1861

Cotton has been “king” throughout most of Texashistory. Before the Civil War it was the mainstay of theeconomy. To be profitable, cotton farming relied onthe labor of enslaved people who worked the fields oflarge plantations. Dependence on slavery helped per-suade Texas to join the Confederate cause and tosecede from the Union during the Civil War.

The defeat of the Confederacy put an end to slavery,but the cultivation of cotton continued. Many for-merly enslaved people stayed on as tenant farmers,renting plots of land from the former plantation own-ers or working for them as sharecroppers. In the late

1800s, the cotton belt spread westward as new tech-nologies emerged. Better, stronger plows made it eas-ier for farmers to break up the dry but fertile prairiesod, and new irrigation techniques allowed them tobring water to the thirsty plants. Improvements to thecotton gin increased the yield per acre, while thegrowing network of railroads provided ready access tofaraway markets for the crop.

The boll weevil, an insect that destroys cotton, devas-tated crops during the early 1900s. Many tenant farm-ers went broke, abandoning their small plots to workin towns or cities. Pesticides, improved methods of

&GEOGRAPHY HISTORY

318

KING COTTONKING COTTON

1880

Looking at the 1880 map, you can seethat cotton farming only took place inEast Texas during this time. Why doyou think this was so?

1910

By 1910, cotton farming had spreadinto central and West Texas. Wherewas production highest?

Cotton Production1880--1974

Bales of Cotton (Per County)

25,000 to morethan 100,000

1,000 to24,999

999 or less

1. Describe what life might have been like for acotton farmer in post–Civil War Texas.

2. Cotton is one of the most versatile materialsever developed, having many uses and applica-tions. Look around you and make a list of thingsthat are made of cotton.

L E A R N I N G f r o m G E O G R A P H Y

319

cultivation, and crop rotation finally brought theweevils under control. As you can see from the lasttwo maps, cotton farming continued to spread intonew areas right up through the 1970s. Today, Texascotton is sold throughout the United States and inother parts of the world.

Cotton remains important, but the addition of otherprofitable crops such as rice, citrus fruits, andpeanuts ensures that Texas and its farmers will neveragain be entirely dependent on one crop.

1949

1974

By 1949, cotton was grown almost allover the state. Why do you think thecenter of production shifted north and west?

Twenty-five years later, cotton wasstill concentrated in the same generalregions, but production had increased.What factors could account for this?

A sign advertises the cotton market in Taylor in 1903. Whencotton production suffered, theentire community felt the negativeeffects.

Why It MattersVery soon after Texas entered the Union, the United States and Mexico clashed

in all-out war. The major dispute between the two countries was the annexationof Texas by the United States. The main result of the war was the acquisition of

much of the American Southwest by the United States.

The Impact TodayPortions of Texas, Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Wyoming, and all of

California, Nevada, and Utah are part of the United States today as a result of theMexican–American War of 1846–1848.

320 CHAPTER 14 The Young State

1846★ Mexican and American troops clashed at

the Rio Grande

★ Fredericksburg founded by German immigrants

1847• Charlotte Brontëwrote Jane Eyre

1845★ José Antonio Navarro

served as a delegate to Convention of 1845

1846• Mexican–American War began

• United States divided Oregon Country with Great Britain

The YoungState

1845 1846 1847

321CHAPTER 14 The Young State

Guenther’s Mill by Hermann Lungkwitz (1885). The artist portrayedthe primarily rural nature of the new young state.

TEXASHISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the texans.glencoe.comWeb site and click onChapter 14—ChapterOverviews to previewchapter information.

1849• French physicist measured speed of light

1850★ Texas surrendered all claims to New

Mexico territory in Compromise of 1850

★ Texas constitution amended

1850• Tai Ping Rebellion began

in China

1848 1849 1850

1848• Mexican–American War ended with Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

• First women’s rights convention met in Seneca Falls, New York

12

12

Step 1 Fold a sheet of paper in half from side toside, leaving a inch tab along the side.

Step 2 Turn the paper and fold it into fourths.

Step 3 Unfold and cut up along the three foldlines.

Step 4 Label as shown.

Fold in half,then fold inhalf again.

Make fourtabs.

Summarizing Information Study FoldableMake this foldable to help you ask questions about and summarize Texas’s involvement in the Mexican–American War.

Reading and Writing As you read, ask yourself“who” was involved in the Mexican–American War; “what” happened before, during, and after the war; “when” important events took place; and “why” they happened. Write your thoughts and answers under each appropriate tab.

Leave inch tab

here.

Who? What? When? Why?

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/ushistory/tx2003/content.php4/668/1


Texas constitutionis amended

First U.S. Censuscount in Texas

A New StateGovernment

Guide to ReadingMain IdeaMany problems needed to be studiedand solved as Texas entered the eraof statehood.

Key Termslegislatureamendconvention

Reading StrategyMaking Comparisons As you readthis section, complete a chart like theone shown below to differentiateamong major political parties.

Read to Learn• about the new state constitution.• about the first elected Texas officials.• about the major political parties.

Section ThemeCivic Rights and ResponsibilitiesAs most Texans aligned themselveswith political parties that protectedtheir interests, free African Americansfought to protect their freedoms.

The first state government officials are elected

Preview of Events

A New ConstitutionThe delegates attending the convention in July of 1845 worked

hard at writing a new constitution. The new constitution was wellorganized and well written. Texans patterned their basic governing

On May 13, 1856, the residents of Indianola abandoned their activitiesand headed for the docks. A ship was unloading an extraordinary cargo—33 camels! At Camp Verde, near Kerrville, the U.S. Army was experimentingto see if the animals could be used in warfare or to haul supplies. EdwardFitzgerald Beale wrote in the Outwest newspaper: “The harder the test [thecamels] are put to, the more fully they seem to justify all that can be said ofthem. They pack water for days under a hot sun and never get a drop.”

✦1845 ✦1850

Party Main IdeasDemocrat

Whig

American

Arabian camel

document after the constitutions of other states. The Texas constitution was similar toLouisiana’s constitution.

The Constitution of 1845 provided for agovernor to be elected for a two-year term. Italso provided for a legislature made up of twohouses. The members of the House of Represen-tatives were elected for two years, and mem-bers of the Senate were elected for four years.The constitution also created a supreme courtand district and county courts. Originally, thegovernor appointed the judges of the statecourts. Then in 1850 the constitution wasamended, or changed, to provide for the elec-tion of all judges. This shifted some power frompolitical leaders to the voters. The new consti-tution protected the system of slavery andbarred women from voting.

Summarizing What terms of officewere designated by the Constitution of 1845?

Texas Legislators at WorkThe governor’s term was two years, and no

governor was allowed to serve more than twoterms in a row. Governors had to be citizens andresidents of Texas for at least three years beforetheir election and be at least thirty years of age.

J. Pinckney Henderson of San Augustine waselected as the first governor. He served only oneterm. His wife, Frances Cox Henderson, was oneof the first women to practice law in Texas. SamHouston and Thomas J. Rusk were the firstTexans elected to the U.S. Senate. DavidKaufman and Timothy Pillsbury were elected tothe U.S. House of Representatives.

Members of the early Texas legislature keptbusy trying to solve the problems of the youngstate. Landscape architect Frederick L. Olmsted,

Analyzing Many settlers came to Texas in coveredwagons. Addressing the needs of these new settlersbecame an important responsibility for the first electedofficials. What were some of the needs of the growingpopulation?

Governor of Texas

U.S. Senators

U.S. Representatives

J. Pinckney Henderson

Sam HoustonThomas J. Rusk

David KaufmanTimothy Pillsbury

First Government Officials


Frances Cox Hendersonwas a woman of many talents. She spoke 18 lan-guages, was skilled inmath, was a talentedmusician, and wrote andtranslated short stories.

She married JamesPinckney Henderson, andthey settled in the town of

San Augustine where heopened a law practice.When he was elected gov-ernor, she remained inSan Augustine. Shebecame active in helpingto found churches inmany East Texas cities,often contributing herown money for this

purpose. She was also asupporter of womansuffrage.

Frances kept learningher whole life. While inher 50s, she wrote a bookabout an African Americanwoman and life on a plan-tation—Priscilla Baker:Freed Woman.

Frances Cox Henderson 1820–1897

who visited the state in the 1850s, admired howwell the legislators went about their work. Hedescribed his impressions in A Journey ThroughTexas, published in 1857:

“We visited, several times, the TexasLegislature in session, and have seldom beenmore impressed with respect for the working ofDemocratic institutions.

I have seen several similar bodies . . . theFederal Congress; and the Parliament of GreatBritain, in both its branches, on occasions ofgreat moment [importance]; but none of themcommanded my involuntary respect for theirsimple manly dignity and trustworthiness for theduties that engaged them, more than theGeneral Assembly of Texas. There was honesteloquency [fine speaking] displayed at everyopportunity for its use, and business was carriedon with great rapidity.”

Political PartiesFor the most part, Texas politics revolved

around strong leaders like Sam Houston. By the1850s, however, political parties became organ-ized. Most of the leaders of early Texas joined the

Democratic Party. The Democratic Party wasvery strong in the South, and Democrats hadfavored Texas annexation.

The Democratic Party generally representedfarmers and laborers. The Whig Party—the othermajor party in the United States in the 1830s to the1850s—represented mostly business and commer-cial interests. The Whig Party lacked support inTexas. Voters had not liked the party’s oppositionto annexation. Also, many Whigs opposedexpanding slavery to the nation’s new territories.

In 1854 and 1855, some Texans joined theAmerican, or Know-Nothing, Party. Its mem-bers tried to keep new immigrants from votingor holding public office. They were called Know-Nothings because, when asked about theirorganization or activities, they replied, “I knownothing.” The American Party remained a forcein Texas politics for only a few years, but it hadan influence on the Texas Democratic Party. Infact, Texas Democrats patterned their own partyorganization after that of the American Party.They also adopted a practice that the AmericanParty in Texas had used—nominating candidatesat political meetings called conventions.

None of the major political parties during thisperiod represented African Americans. FreeAfrican Americans were not eligible to vote or joinpolitical parties. They engaged in political activityby filing petitions with the legislature to remain as

free people in the state. Others went to court toprotect their freedom. In 1850, Mary Madison, aGalveston nurse, filed her petition to stay in Texas.It was one of the few granted by the legislature.Another African American woman, known asEmeline FWC (Free Woman of Color), hired attor-neys and went to court in Harris County. Sheclaimed she had been sold as a slave in a case ofmistaken identity. She and her children were freedby the jury, which awarded her $1 in damages.

Federal Aid for ReservationsThe federal government stationed troops in

western Texas to prevent clashes between set-tlers and Native Americans. By 1851, however,the line of settlements had moved beyond theline of newly built forts. The federal governmentbuilt a new string of seven forts about 100 milesto the west.

As settlers pushed westward, clashes betweenthe newcomers and Native Americans increased.The United States government made plans torelocate Native Americans to reservations. TheWacos and Tonkawas were moved to a reserva-tion near present-day Graham. Another reserva-tion, located on the Clear Fork of the Brazos, wasestablished for the nomadic Comanches.

The Texas reservation system never was asuccess. The Native Americans were not givenenough land. Others simply refused to adopt therestricted way of life.

Many settlers in Texas opposed the reservationsystem. They believed that raids in northern andcentral Texas were made by Native Americansfrom the reservations. To try to stop the conflict,the government decided in 1859 to move NativeAmericans into the Indian Territory, north of theRed River. The Comanches and Kiowas contin-ued to attack the settlements.

Explaining Why did the U.S.government place Native Americans on reservations?


Checking for Understanding1. Using Key Terms Write one sen-

tence that includes the words legis-lature and amend.

2. Reviewing Facts Why did fewTexans support the Whig Party?

Reviewing Themes3. Civic Rights and Responsibilities

How did free African Americansengage in political activity if notthrough political parties?

Organizing to Learn4. Categorizing Draw a cluster like

the one below illustrating the mainprovisions of the Texas constitution.

Critical Thinking5. Analyzing What were some of

the reasons why the U.S. govern-ment’s reservation system wasnot successful?

Drawing Conclusions Why would theAmerican, or Know-Nothing, Party try tokeep new immigrants from voting orholding public office?

Early Governors of Texas

James P. Henderson

George T. Wood

Peter H. Bell

James W. Henderson

Elisha M. Pease

Hardin R. Runnels

Sam Houston

1846–1847

1847–1849

1849–1853

Nov.–Dec. 1853

1853–1857

1857–1859

1859–1861

Term of OfficeGovernor

Identifying Most of the early governors of Texas haddistinguished backgrounds in the military or politics. Whatdo you think would be an important leadership quality foran early governor of Texas?

TexasConstitution


American troops capture Mexico City

Peace treaty is signed atGuadalupe Hidalgo

War WithMexico

Guide to ReadingMain IdeaConflict between the United Statesand Mexico led to war.

Key Termscedeabolitionist

Reading StrategyIdentifying Key Elements Completea chart like the one below. Identifyhow the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgomet the concerns of the United States.

Read to Learn• about the war with Mexico.• about Texas’s role in the war.• where the new Texas boundaries

were after the war.

Section Theme Global Connections Mexicoabandoned all claims to Texas, confirming Texas’s annexation to the United States.

The U.S. Congressdeclares war on Mexico

Preview of Events

Causes of the WarThe government of Mexico never recognized the Republic of Texas and

considered the annexation of Texas by the United States an insult toMexico. Even those Mexicans who had accepted Texas independence

The U.S. army’s experiments with camels showed that the animals couldhaul much heavier loads than could horses or mules. Camels could also travel much greater distances without food or water. As E.F. Beale wrote inOutwest, “They pack heavy bundles of corn and oats for months and neverget a grain, and on the bitter greasewood and other worthless shrubs, notonly subsist, but keep fat.” The Camp Verde soldiers in charge of transport did not like the camels, though, because they scared the horses and mules.

✦1846 ✦1847 ✦1848

Concern Treaty ResolutionTexas boundary

Pacific port

Damages fromMexican wars

Pack mule

could not accept the Rio Grande as the bound-ary between Texas and Mexico. Mexico insistedthat the Nueces River separated the two coun-tries. It did not appear that this issue could besettled through talking.

Another problem was the commerce created by continued American westward expansion.American merchants in Texas had expanded tradeinto Mexico. By the 1840s, they were engaged inbrisk business both in Santa Fe and BrazosSantiago. American merchants also were tradingwith China and other countries in the Pacific andEast Asia. To help this trade expand further, theUnited States wanted to acquire the Pacific port ofSan Francisco, then in Mexican California.President James K. Polk was determined toaccomplish this goal.

Yet another argument was that Mexico’s armyhad destroyed much American property duringthe Texas Revolution. Earlier, the United Stateshad demanded that the Mexican governmentpay the victims of this damage. Now, the U.S.was prepared to pay all of the debts owed to itscitizens and give $30 million to Mexico. Inreturn, Mexico would accept the Rio Grande asthe Mexico–Texas boundary and cede, or giveup, California and the western half of NewMexico to the United States. President Polk sentJohn Slidell to Mexico to negotiate. Slidell wasto try to settle the damage claims of U.S. citizens.In addition, he was to try to negotiate the

boundary dispute and offer to buy California.Slidell arrived in December of 1845, but neitherthe old nor the new president of Mexico wantedto make concessions to the United States. Theywere afraid that if they were to do so, their ene-mies would denounce them as weaklings. Norepresentative of the Mexican government


General Zachary Taylor commanded U.S. troops during the Mexican–American War. He was a soldier for 40 years before he became president of the United States. Which Texas politicians fought in theMexican–American War?

History

• Disputes over the United States’annexation of Texas

• Boundary disputes between U.S.and Mexico

• Mexico’s refusal to negotiate withthe U.S.

• Santa Anna flees to Jamaica.

• Mexico cedes almost 50 percent of its land to the U.S. in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

President Polk wanted to gain the port of San Francisco either throughnegotiations or by war to assist American trade in the Pacific and East Asia.

Analyzing Information What prompted the U.S. to declare war on Mexico?

Causes and Effects of the Mexican–American War

would speak to Slidell. As a result, diplomaticrelations completely broke down. In March1846, President Polk ordered General ZacharyTaylor to move his troops across the NuecesRiver to the Rio Grande.

War DeclaredIn late April and

early May 1846, Ameri-can and Mexican sol-diers clashed just northof the Rio Grande.When President Polklearned of the fightingbetween Americans andMexicans, he declaredthat “Mexico . . . shedAmerican blood upon

American soil.” Because this spot was in the dis-puted land, Mexican president Mariano Paredescould have claimed that Mexican blood had beenshed on Mexican soil. However, on May 13, theU.S. Congress declared war. Some members ofCongress questioned the American motives.Abolitionists, the people who worked to endslavery, considered it a scheme to steal “biggerpens to cram in slaves.”

More than 5,000 Texans quickly answered thecall to arms. Texans who served as officers in theUnited States Army included Edward Burleson,

2000 kmAlbers Conic Equal-Area projection

2000 mi.

N

S

EW

20°N

25°N

30°N

35°N

40°N

120°W 115°W 110°W 105°W 100°W 95°W 90°W

Gulfof

Mexico

PACIFICOCEAN

Red R.

Arkansas R.

Mississippi R.

RioG

rande

Missouri

R.

RioB

ravo Nueces R.

M E X I C OU N I T E D S T A T E S

TEXAS

San Francisco

Sacramento

Mazatl´an

Monterey

Los Angeles

San PascualSan Diego

Santa Fe

Bent's Fort

FortLeavenworth

El PasoEl Brazito

Do˜na Ana

Sacramento

Chihuahua

Buena Vista

San Luis PotosíTampico

Veracruz

CerroGordoMexico City

Parras

Saltillo

Monterrey

SanAntonio

NewOrleans

Corpus Christi

Palo Alto

Matamoros

Monclova

The dispute over who ownedthe land between the NuecesRiver and the Rio Grande wasa major reason for the war.

The battle near Palo Alto was fought on May 8, 1846. This was 5 days before the official declaration of war by the U.S. Congress.

It was not until five months afterMexico City was captured that Mexico agreed to the peace treatyending the war.

The transfer of Californiaand New Mexico to the United States was of majorimportance to the nation's future.

United States

Claimed by Mexico

Mexico

American troops

Mexican troops

Present-day Texas

Battle

American forces traveled overland through Texas andalso by sea to invade Mexico.Drawing Conclusions Why would American troopswant to attack Mexico City in particular?


TEXASHISTORY

Student WebActivity Visit thetexans.glencoe.com Website and click on Chapter 14—StudentWeb Activity to learnmore about theMexican–American War.

Battles of Mexican–American War

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe31.php?&st=668&pt=2&bk=20

Albert Sidney Johnston, and MirabeauB. Lamar—former president of therepublic. J. Pinckney Henderson took aleave of absence from his duties as gov-ernor to take command of Texas troops.Several companies of Texas Rangersserved as scouts for the American armyas it marched into Mexico. Tragically,because of their anti-Mexican feelings,some of the Texans took out their angeragainst Mexican civilians.

Identifying What werethree points of disagreement between Mexicoand the United States?

United States VictoryThe United States forces were better

equipped and better led than were theiropponents. After General ZacharyTaylor’s army occupied northernMexico, it moved south. In late Sep-tember his forces captured Monterrey.In February 1847 Taylor defeated alarge Mexican army under the com-mand of Santa Anna at Buena Vista.Troops led by General Winfield Scottlanded at Vera Cruz and capturedMexico City in September 1847. OtherAmerican forces moved from FortLeavenworth, Kansas—by way ofSanta Fe—to occupy California.

Women also took an active part inthe war. For example, Sarah Borginnistraveled with General Taylor’s army—cooking, washing, loading cartridges,and dressing wounds. Teresa Vielé, thewife of an army officer, recalled thatMexican women nursed the Americanarmy’s sick and wounded.

On February 2, 1848, representativesof both governments signed a peacetreaty at Guadalupe Hidalgo (gwad•ah•

LOO•pay ee•DAHL•goh), a small townlocated near Mexico City. Mexico aban-doned all claims to Texas and acceptedthe Rio Grande as the boundary. Mexico

U.S. Mobilization Wasan Outright Attack

In the eyes of the [Mexican] government, the mobilization ofthe U.S. army was an outrightattack on Mexico's territorialintegrity and clearly demonstrated thatthe United States had no intention of subjecting itself to the terms of the1828 border treaty. As a consequence,the Mexican government [acted to] protect the border, meaning the territory located between the RíoGrande and the Nueces River.—Jesus Velasco-Márquez,

historian

You Can’t Stop Progress

People in the United States had a reputation that

they were in awe of nothing and nothing could

stand in their way. The word was boundlessness—

there were no bounds, no limits, to what an

individual, society, and the nation itself could

achieve . . . The United States was often times

referred to as a “go-ahead nation,” a “go-ahead peo-

ple” with the locomotive almost as a symbol . . . The

Mexican–American War was an example of this

boundlessness and reform spirit—a quest for a better

place for the nation, a test of the model republic and

the ability of a democracy to respond to a crisis . . .

—Robert W. Johanssen, historian

The Mexican–American War(1846–1848)

Views about the Mexican–American War, more than many otherevents, were challenged by historians as time passed. Read thetwo views below and then answer the questions.

Learning From History

1. According to Velasco-Márquez,why did the Mexican govern-ment go to war?

2. What is meant by “go-aheadnation”?

also surrendered to the United States all terri-tory between western Texas and the PacificOcean. This vast area of transferred land, knownhistorically as the Mexican Cession, included allof California, Nevada, and Utah, and parts ofArizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Wyoming.In return for this land, the United States paidMexico $15 million and agreed to pay claims of American citizens against Mexico up to $3.25 million. Mexicans living in the lost terri-tory were guaranteed all rights of United Statescitizenship, including political rights and the rightto keep their lands. They had a year to decide ifthey wished to become American citizens.

The New Mexico Boundary DisputeThe Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the

dispute between the United States and Mexicoconcerning Texas. However, the question ofwhether Santa Fe would become part of Texasbecame a political issue in the United States.

During its period as a republic, Texas claimedthe Rio Grande as its southern and westernboundaries. Such a claim gave Texas control ofabout one-half of New Mexico, including SantaFe. Many of the people of Santa Fe did not wantto be part of Texas. They preferred to become aseparate territory or state. Also, many people inthe northern United States feared that the

Texans would introduce slavery into this area.They argued that Texas should give up the dis-puted territory. Members of Congress, led byHenry Clay, worked out a solution. In the PearceAct, a part of the Compromise of 1850, Texasagreed to surrender its claims to a portion of thedisputed area. The United States agreed to giveTexas $10 million. At long last, Texas could payits debt and get its finances in order.

Examining What areas did theUnited States secure after the peace treaty?


Checking for Understanding1. Using Key Terms Write two

sentences in your own words todemonstrate your understanding of the key terms abolitionist and cede.

2. Reviewing Facts How wereTexas’s borders changed after the war?

Reviewing Themes3. Global Connections Texas joined

the Union in 1845. How did theUnited States’ war with Mexico vali-date this union?

Organizing to Learn4. Identifying Points of View

Complete a chart like the onebelow and describe the view ofeach person or group toward theMexican–American War.

Critical Thinking5. Resolving Conflicts What are

some of the steps the United Statestried to take to resolve many of itsconflicts with the government ofMexico? Do you think the U.S. gov-ernment should have tried harderto resolve the conflict peacefully?

Drawing Conclusions How didPresident Polk justify declaring war onMexico on May 13, 1846?

Individual/ View on WarGroupPolk

Abolitionists

5000 Texans

Some membersof Congress

President Polk asked Congress for a declara-tion of war against Mexico, saying, “Mexico . . . shed American blood upon Americansoil.” Serving in Congress at the time was amember from Illinois named AbrahamLincoln. Lincoln was not in favor of war withMexico, and he introduced his famous “SpotResolutions” to oppose Polk. The “SpotResolutions” asked Polk to point out the “spoton the map” where American blood had been shed. Lincoln was less sure it was American soil.

Why Learn This Skill?“Elementary, my dear Watson!” Fictional detective

Sherlock Holmes often said this to his assistant afterhe examined all the available facts and solved the case.

Drawing conclusions can help you to form ideasthat are not stated directly by using the available factsand your own knowledge and experience to form ajudgment or opinion about the material.

Learning the SkillSome steps in learning to draw conclusions are:

• Review the facts that are stated directly.• Develop some conclusions about these facts,

using what you already know.• Look for information to check the accuracy of

your conclusions.

Practicing the SkillRead the excerpt below about the Mexican–

American War and then answer the questions.

There is no evidence that [President] Polkwanted a war with Mexico for its own sake. Hedid want Texas and California and was willing tofight, if necessary, to get them . . . [T]he RioGrande . . . gave the United States a clearlydefined southern boundary, which the Nuecescould not do. The expansion to the western ocean. . . left the United States as the dominant powerupon the North American continent.

Polk honestly tried to buy the Mexican claimsto Texas and California. But a power struggle was. . . inevitable . . . The Mexicans were not just stubborn; they were [unmovable] . . . Mexicoalso began preparations for a larger war . . .

The South and Southwest, as always, were ready

for war . . . But the rest of the nation was not,and a majority in Congress stood opposed to awar with Mexico, over Texas or anything else.

1What steps did President Polk take to avoid warwith Mexico?

2What does the author say about Mexico’s role?

3What conclusion can you draw about why Polkwent to war with Mexico?

4How could you check the accuracy of your conclusions?

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

Drawing Conclusions

Drawing Conclusions Re-read A Texas Story onpage 326. What conclusion can you reach as to whichanimal the army should have used to haul supplies?

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,Level 1, provides instruction and practice in keysocial studies skills.

331

Mexican–American War battle scene


The population in Texas is three timeslarger than in 1850

ImmigrantsCome to Texas

Guide to Reading

Texas Native Americans aremoved into Indian Territory

Texas Population BoomsThe population of Texas grew rapidly during the early years of statehood.

The United States Census Bureau of 1850 counted 212,592 Texans. This wasalmost a 50 percent increase over the state census (a count of the population)

When the U.S. Army bought camels to test in the desert, they also broughtthree Arab and two Turkish men to care for them. One Arab was namedHadji Ali. When experiments showed that the animals could adapt to Texas’sclimate, plans were made to develop a route to California. Hadji Ali wasappointed to lead the caravan. The Civil War disrupted plans and the camelswere sold or turned loose. Hadji Ali stayed in the U.S. After his death, atombstone with a camel on it was erected in Arizona in his honor.

✦1859 ✦1860

PopulationExplosion

PositiveResults

NegativeResults

Tombstone of Hadji Ali

Main IdeaAs a young state, Texas continued toattract immigrants of many nationaland cultural origins.

Key Termscensusteamsterdescendant

Reading StrategyEvaluating Results Complete a web like the one shown here. Identifypositive and negative results of thepopulation explosion of the 1850s.

Read to Learn• about immigrants in Texas.• about increased migration to Texas.• about policies toward Native

Americans.

Section ThemeCulture and Traditions As Europeanscame to Texas, Mexican Americansand Native Americans experiencedtension from Anglos.

Preview of Events

figure in 1847. In the next 10years, the population nearlytripled to 604,215.

Annexation, the lure ofinexpensive land, and legal-ized slavery attracted thou-sands to Texas during the1840s and 1850s. Under theHomestead Act, settlers ob-tained land merely by livingon it and improving it.Additional land could be pur-chased at low cost.

Most of the new arrivalscame from the southernUnited States. In 1860 morethan 42,000 residents wereTennessee natives. Travelersvisiting southern states in thepre-Civil War years reportedseeing abandoned cabinsmarked with the initials“GTT”—Gone To Texas.

The large increase in population created a needfor new counties to be formed to take care ofadministrative and governmental concerns, suchas collecting taxes and arranging for elections.When Texas entered the Union in 1845, there were36 counties (see maps on page 304). By 1860, thatnumber had grown to 122. One of the first actionsof the first session of the state legislature was cre-ating 26 new counties. Some of them, such asDallas, Tyler, Upshur, and Polk, were named forUnited States government officials. Competitionamong towns to become county seats was oftenfierce. Those towns that won that competitioncould expect to enjoy increased employmentopportunities, as well as great prestige.

Mexican TexansIn addition to the thousands crossing the Red

and Sabine Rivers from other parts of the UnitedStates, Mexicans moved north into Texas. TheUnited States Census of 1860 lists 12,443 peopleof Mexican descent living in Texas. This figuremight be low, however. One study indicates that 25,000 Mexican Americans resided in Texas atthe time.

Most Mexican Americans lived in one ofthree areas of Texas: in the wedge-shapedregion between the Nueces River and RioGrande, in the San Antonio–Goliad area, andalong the Rio Grande from Del Rio to El Paso.After the Mexican–American War, South Texastowns like Laredo, Corpus Christi, Eagle Pass,Brownsville, Edinburg, and Rio Grande Citygrew rapidly. While most of the people living inSouth Texas were Tejanos, most of the politicalleaders were Anglos.

Farming and ranching provided the mainoccupations for Mexican Americans. Someowned ranches, but most worked as cowhands,sheepherders, and ranch laborers. MexicanAmericans living in the towns were businessowners, teamsters (animal drivers), domestic ser-vants, day laborers, and craftworkers. After theCivil War, José Policarpo Rodríguez became asurveyor, army and Texas Ranger guide, and aminister. Luis Sánchez served Texas as an inter-preter during the republic and statehood periods.

Summarizing What were some ofthe most common occupations of Mexican Americans?


So many people were “going to Texas”that the term “GTT” became a familiarsight. A figure representing the bankingand manufacturing interests is lookingwith dismay at a sign that reads “GTT.”Why do you think the artist included a broom and bucket outside the empty dwelling?

Analyzing Political Cartoons

A BEast Coast banker “Gone to Texas”

A

B


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EW

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2000 mi.


105°W 100°W 95°W 90°W

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35°N

Gulf ofMexico

Atlanta

Dallas Jefferson

Waco TennesseeColony

Nacogdoches

Fredericksburg

Comfort

Castroville

San Antonio

NewBraunfels

Austin

Cranfills Gap

Industry

Panna Maria

San Patricio

Refugio

Yorktown

El Paso

Laredo

Brownsville

CorpusChristi

Copano

Indianola

Port Lavaca

Galveston

Houston

SanFelipePraha

BrownsboroNorse Four Mile

M E X I C O

TEXAS

MISS.

LA.

ALA.

TENN.UNORG. TERR.

N. MEX. TERR.

ARK.

As immigrants and other new-comers arrived in Texas, theytended to locate near similargroups and build settlements.Identifying Name a town associ-ated with each area where agroup settled.

Anglo American

African American

Czech

French

German

Irish

Mexican

Polish

Norwegian

IMMIGRATION INTO TEXAS, 1865

Not settled by Europeans

Settlers Move to Texas

Gulf of Mexico

ATLANTIC OCEAN

TEXAS

UNORGANIZED TERRITORY ARK.

MO.

LA.MISS.

ALA.GA.

FLA.

S.C.TENN.

KY.

VA.

N.C.

Origin of United States Migrants to Texas

Politics and BiasSome Mexican Americans were active in politi-

cal life. José Antonio Navarro and Santos Bena-vides (SAHN•tohs beh•nah•VEE•days) madeworthwhile contributions to Texas history.Navarro, a native of San Antonio, signed theTexas Declaration of Independence and was amember of the congress during the republic, a del-egate to the Constitutional Convention of 1845,and a state senator. Navarro County, created inApril 1846, was named for him. Santos Benavideswas a prosperous merchant who became mayorof Laredo and later chief justice of Webb County.He also served three times in the Texas legislature.

Despite the contributions of Navarro, Bena-vides, and others, too many Mexican Americansfaced hostility and prejudice. Juan Cortina cameto be seen as a protector of the rights ofMexicans and Tejanos, and he was a hero tomany families along the border. Government

authorities in both Texas and Mexico during thelate 1850s generally looked upon him as an out-law, however. Although he was accused of manycrimes, the extent of his activities is uncertain.The Texas Rangers were never able to captureJuan Cortina. Eventually, the Mexican army cap-tured him and removed him from the valley.

The Texas Rangers’ constant patrolling of thecountryside north of the Rio Grande and theMexican army’s patrolling south of it helpedreduce lawlessness. This peace did not comeeasily, however, and many Mexican Americanswould remember these years with bitterness.

In part, the negative feelings against MexicanAmericans were a result of the battles fought atthe Alamo and Goliad and the entire Texas strug-gle for independence. That Tejanos held landswanted by Anglos was another reason for the bit-terness toward them. Despite the prejudice anddiscrimination, Mexican Texans retained theircultural heritage—their religion, language, and

traditions. As time passed, an important Mexicanculture mixed with Anglo American culture andtradition. Today, most Mexican Americans arebicultural and many are bilingual.

Examining Why were some Anglosbiased against Mexican Americans?

German TexansThousands of people immigrated to Texas from

Europe. In 1860 the foreign-born citizens of Texasnumbered 43,422 and represented almost everycountry of western Europe. The German migra-tion that began during the period of the republiccontinued. New Braunfels, Fredericksburg, andother German communities in central and SouthTexas expanded further. Some Germans settled inthe larger cities of the state. By 1860 one-fifth ofthe residents of Houston, Galveston, and SanAntonio were Germans, and more than 20,000Germans were living in Texas.

Many people migrated to Texas to escape thehardships in Germany. The potato famine thatstruck Ireland in the mid-1840s also hit Germanyand northwestern Europe. Political and economicdifficulties led more and more Germans to seek afresh start in America.

Germans contributed to the social and intellec-tual life of the young state. Dr. Ferdinand Herffbecame one of the most famous surgeons in Texas

and received national recognition for his servicesto the medical profession. Dr. Ferdinand JacobLindheimer, the editor of a German newspaperpublished in New Braunfels, gained a nationalreputation as a scientist.

Other European ArrivalsImmigrants from other European countries

came to Texas during its early years of state-hood. Natives of Ireland, England, and Francesettled in major Texas cities and became mer-chants, artisans, and laborers. In 1855 a group ofabout 200 French immigrants founded thecolony of La Réunion (la ray•oo•NYAW) nearDallas. Although the colony failed, most of thesettlers remained in Texas.

Several hundred Polish families migrated toTexas during the 1850s. Polish settlers started thetown of Panna Maria (Virgin Mary) in KarnesCounty. Father Leopold Moczygemba (LEE•oh•

pohld moh•chee•GEHM•bah), a young priestwho lived in Castroville and New Braunfels,influenced many Poles to settle in Texas.

Many Czechs came to Texas to escape thefighting in Europe during the late 1840s.Anthony Michael Dignowity, who visited Texasin 1836, is believed to have been the first Czech inthe state. Dignowity originally came to SanAntonio with a group of volunteers to fight in theMexican–American War. Afterwards, he settled


South Side Main Plaza, SanAntonio Texas by William G.Samuel, 1849San Antonio provided manyservices for settlers movingfarther west. In 1860 it was thelargest city in Texas and hadmany German inhabitants. Whatother cities attracted largeimmigrant populations?

San Antonio★San Antonio★

History Through Art

in San Antonio in 1846 and practiced medicine.His wife, Amanda McCann Dignowity, had stud-ied to be a doctor. Her knowledge of medicineenabled her to work with her husband conduct-ing research.

Ernst Bergmann led some Czechs who settled at Cat Spring. Josef Lesikar guided others to a settlement near New Ulm. NewBremen, Fayetteville, Hostyn, Dubina, andPraha were early communities with sizableCzech populations.

Several hundred Norwegians migrated toTexas during the early years of statehood. JohanReinert Reiersen, a Norwegian traveler who vis-ited Texas, was very impressed by its economicand social conditions. In 1845 he and his fatherreturned to establish a Norwegian settlement inHenderson County. This settlement, first calledNormandy, later became Brownsboro. A secondNorwegian settlement was made on the Kaufmanand Van Zandt County line in the late 1840s. By

1860 more than 300 Norwegians lived in Texas.Elise Waerenskjold (a•LEES VAY•ren•shold)was a pioneer writer and community leader fromNorway. She became known as the “walkingnewspaper.”

In 1850 Lewis Levy, a Houston Jew, wrote aletter to the Asmonean, a New York news-paper, urging persecuted European Jews to moveto Texas.

“Thousands of acres of land can be bought,within the settled portions of the State, for thesmall sum of 25 cents to $1 per acre . . . wherea man can make his living to his liking, and [be]more independent than the Autocrat of Russia,or the Emperor of Austria.”

Jewish immigrants were active in Texas sincethe early days of colonization. Albert Moses Levywas the surgeon general of the volunteer army

N

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2000 mi.


105°W 100°W 95°W

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M E X I C O

Sherman (1846)

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El Paso

Dallas (1842)

Farmersville (1849)

Waxahachie (1847)

NEW MEXICO TERRITORY

UNORGANIZED TERRITORY

ARK.

TENN.

MISS. ALA.

LA.

TEXASThe state constitution of 1869created a special Texas Bureau ofImmigration to encourage immi-gration into Texas. Explaining Refer to the mapand explain why Texas wouldwant to encourage immigrationand where state officials mostlikely hoped settlementwould occur.

(1846)Date of Settlement

Limit of Settlement, 1849

Limit of Settlement, 1860

County Border c. 1860


Westward Migration, 1849–1860

and a defender of San Antonio. Henri Castrohelped bring many French families to Texas.Adolphus Sterne was a prominent Nacogdochesmerchant and political leader. Jacob de Cordova,a publisher and writer, was a founder of Waco.

The new arrivals to Texas brought their music,arts, languages, literature, and traditions. Theyalso brought their intellectual pursuits, industrialcrafts, and agricultural skills. All of these ele-ments contributed to the development of adiverse Texas culture—one that is a unique prod-uct of people from many lands.

The Alabama–CoushattasOnly a few Native Americans continued to live

peaceably in Texas. Before the revolution, theAlabama–Coushattas had settled along the lowerTrinity River in East Texas. In 1854 the Texas leg-islature purchased 1,280 acres (518 hectares) ofland in Polk County for the Alabama tribe, butno land was ever set aside for the Coushattas.Some Coushattas, through marriage or by specialpermission from the Alabama people, came to live on the reservation where they continued to hunt and trade. By 1855 more than 300Alabama–Coushattas lived on the reservation.

The Tiguas and the KickapoosTexas has recognized two other Native

American groups: the Tiguas and the Kickapoos.The Tiguas have lived near El Paso for more than300 years. They are believed to be descendants, or

offspring, of the Pueblos of New Mexico. TheKickapoos originally lived in Illinois but migratedto East Texas and other areas of the SouthwestUnited States in the 1820s. They were eventuallyforced to leave East Texas. Some went toOklahoma, while others moved to northernMexico. The Kickapoos were recognized as a sov-ereign nation in 1989 and are now officiallyknown as the Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas.The Kickapoos have two settlements, one inNacimiento, Mexico, and the other on 125 acres(51 hectares) of land near Eagle Pass, Texas.

Identifying: List five groups ofimmigrants who settled Texas in the 1840s and 1850s.


Checking for Understanding1. Using Key Terms Define

teamster, census, and descendant.2. Reviewing Facts Identify three

factors that attracted new settlers to Texas.

Reviewing Themes3. Culture and Traditions Which

Native Americans are considereddescendants of Pueblos?

Organizing to Learn4. Categorizing Population Data

Fill in the population figures foreach census listed. How manymore people lived in Texas in 1860 than in 1850?

Critical Thinking5. Explaining Why did Mexican

Americans face hostility andprejudice during the early years of Texas’s statehood?

Making Comparisons In what wayswere many of the immigrants to thenew state similar?

Kickapoo warrior

Census Population1850

1860

Reviewing Key TermsNumber your paper 1 to 8. Next to each number, write the letterof the group of words that correctly defines each key term.

1. legislature 5. abolitionist2. amend 6. teamster3. convention 7. census4. cede 8. descendant

a. an organized body of people having the power tomake laws

b. a complete count of the population by thegovernment

c. to change or to add to a documentd. a person who works to end slaverye. a meeting of delegates of a political party f. proceeding from an ancestorg. a person who drives or directs a team of animalsh. to give up, especially by treaty

Reviewing Key Facts9. List some problems faced by the new state of Texas.

10. Describe the Constitution of 1845.11. Describe the boundary dispute between the United

States and Mexico.12. List two reasons why American forces overwhelmed

their Mexican opponents.13. What treaty ended the war between the United States

and Mexico?14. List two reasons for the rapid increase in population in

Texas by 1860.15. What Native American tribes have been recognized by

the State of Texas?

Critical Thinking16. Making Generalizations Why did the Whig Party

have little or no support in Texas before the Civil War?17. Determining Cause and Effect What was the effect of

the Homestead Act on the settlement of Texas?18. Identifying Motives What were some reasons

that Europeans came to Texas during its early years of statehood?

19. Analyzing Immigration Issues What were some waysthat immigrants influenced Texas?

The Young State


Texas drafts a newconstitution.

The Mexican– American Warbegins.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ends the Mexican– American war.

Mexico accepts the Rio Grande as Texas’s southern boundry.

Mexico cedes the New Mexico and California territories to the United States.

Texas has resources to pay off debt because ofthe Compromise of 1850.

Texas’s population explodes as manyimmigrants arrive.

Clashes between settlers and Native Americans become more frequent as settlers push westward.

The U.S. government places many Native Americans onto reservations.

The Young State

1845•

1848

1846

1846–1860

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★

Geography and History Activity 20. Population Forecast Draw a graph like the one shown.

Project Texas’s population growth for the years 2005 and2010 based on the trends you observed on the chart forthe years 1990 to 2000.

Cooperative Learning Activity21. Role Playing Working in groups of four, formulate one

question you would ask of (1) a Democratic Party repre-sentative, (2) a Kickapoo chief, (3) Juan Cortina, and(4) Mexican president Mariano Paredes. Have each studentrepresent one of the above individuals and try to answerthe question. Then discuss questions and answers to gain agreater understanding of these individuals’ perspectives.

Practicing Skills22. Drawing Conclusions Read the following excerpt from a

speech by Sam Houston during the Mexican–AmericanWar. Then answer the question that follows.

“[T]here is an instinct in the American people which impels them onward, which will lead them to pervade [dominate] this continent, to develop itsresources, to civilize its people and receive [its] richbounties . . . The Americans regard this continent astheir birth-right.”

What reason does Houston give for Anglo Americans tokeep moving westward?

Portfolio/TAKS Writing Activity23. Writing Critically Read the following description of a

Texas Ranger by former Ranger captain Bob Crowder:“A Ranger is an officer who is able to handle any given situation without definite instructions from his commanding officer or higher authority.”

Write a paragraph explaining why you think leadershipqualities were especially necessary for early Rangers sta-tioned in central or West Texas to protect settlements.

Government and History Activity24. Foreign Relations Research the current relationship

between the U.S. and Mexico. In a brief essay, discussone aspect of how relations have improved.

Use the graph to answer the following question.

About how many more enslaved African Americans livedin Texas in 1860 than in 1850?F 150,000 H 125,000 G 200,000 J 250,000

Test-Taking Tip:

When a question involves reading a graph, do not skip over the title and labels. Instead, read

them carefully. They contain important information,such as the purpose of the graph and the units

of measurement used in the graph.


Self-Check QuizVisit the texans.glencoe.com Web site and click on Chapter 14—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the chapter test.

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