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Languages in the United States:

Diversity or Uniformity?

Student: Mariam Bedraoui

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Quick Facts about USA (2000 Census)

Population: approximately 310 M. The constitution designates no

official language Common language: English Dominant variety: General American Minor languages: Spanish, French,

German, Yiddish, Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, Native Indian Languages.

Speakers of English: 82. 1 percent Speakers of Spanish: 10. 7 percent Speakers of other Indo- European

languages: 3.8 percent Speakers of Asian languages: 2.7

percent

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Languages in the USA: The Overall Picture

English; 82.10%

Spanish; 10.70%

Indo-European languages; 3.80%

Asian Languages; 2.70%

Other languages ; 0.70%

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OutlineI. An Overview of the Linguistic Situation in the

USA1. American English2. Native American Languages3. Spanish4. French5. German

II. Monolingualism and Multilingualism in the USA1. The Underlying Ideology2. Types of Policies3. Examples of policies

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1- English Language: Early Times on American Soil

In 1787, the population in the first colonies was about 4 million.

90% came from the British Isles.

Early English settlers established the linguistic tradition that would assimilate nearly all the other immigrant groups.

Most subsequent settlers shifted to English language in two generations.

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Immigration waves

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American English

In a letter addressed to the Congress in 1780, John Adams says:

“English is destined to be in the next and succeeding centuries more generally the language of the world than Latin was or French is in the present age. The reason of this is so obvious, because the increasing population of America, and their universal connection and correspondence with all nations will [....] force their language into general use.”

“Its [English] highest perfection, with every branch of human knowledge, is perhaps reserved for this Land of light and freedom.”

Source: Cable, T., & Baugh, A. C. (1991). In A history of the English language.

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American English

National

consciousness

Linguistic

distinctiven

ess

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American English: Linguistic Distinctiveness

1- Vocabulary A number of words were imported from

American Native languages into English. Example: moose- raccoon- opossum-

porgy

New words about the landscape and produce were coined. Examples: notch- watershed- foothill-

clearing- eggplants- sweet potato.

The individual character of the political system required the introduction of new words. Example: Congressional- congressman-

presidential- statehouse. Some archaic uses of words were kept.

Example: mad- fall- sick- rare

Linguistic distinctiven

ess

PronunciationVocabulary

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American English: Linguistic Distinctiveness

2- Pronunciation

American English is old-fashioned

It has qualities that were characteristic of 17th and 18th century English

American English pronunciation is rhotic.

It retains the flat (a) as in flat, path, grass, dance, half

Americans speak more slowly and with less variety in the intonation.

Linguistic distinctiven

ess

PronunciationVocabulary

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American English: National ConsciousnessIn 1781, John Witherspoon writes in the Pennsylvania

Journal:

“Being entirely separated from Britain,

we shall find some centre or standard of our own, and not be

subject to the inhabitants of that

island, either in receiving new ways of speaking or rejecting

the old” Source: Cable, T., & Baugh, A. C. (1991). In A

history of the English language.

Prevalent political ideologies

o A distaste for anything that perpetuates the former dependence

o Independence necessitates separation at the linguistic level.

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American English: National Consciousness

A number of notable political and intellectual figures made strong claims about the need to promote American variety of English.

John Adams (1735- 1826)• He was insistent on setting up an academy to

protect, refine and develop a standard language capable to cope up with the national challenges

Noah Webster (1757- 1848)• In 1828, he published the first dictionary of American

English.• He stresses American usages and pronunciation.• He adopts a series of distinctive spellings• He makes illustrations using quotes from American

literature.

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American English Spelling: Noah Webster

Webster considers the alterations introduced to the American ways of spelling as an event “of vast political consequence. A national language is a band of national union. Every engine should be employed to render the people of this country national, to call their attachments home to their own country, and to inspire them with the pride of national character.” Source: Cable, T., & Baugh, A. C. (1991). In A history of the English language.

Change 1: c k

Change 2ou o

Change 3er re

Change 4que k

Change 5ce se

musik: music

physical

Logic

honour: honor

favor

color

theatre :theater

Center

meter

checque : check

Risk

Mask

defence: defense Pretense

recompense

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Dominance of English

According to 2000 census, the

total number of

monolingual

non- Engli

sh speakers

is less than

5 million.

A. Explicit Schemes 1. English is the language of

schooling2. It is the language of

courtrooms3. It is required for federal

grant application4. It is a specific requirement

for many jobs

B. Implicit Schemes• Integration programs for

immigrants• Assimilation schemes for

the indigenous population• Sporadic punitive schemes • Prominent Media sources

in English language

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2- Native American Languages

Before colonial settlement 250 American native

languages 9 language families A great diversity between

languages A 20 Million population

Now 8 American native languages Most of them are extinct Old speakers A 2 million population

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3- Spanish It is English’s rival language.

34 M. Hispanics in 2007.

81% in the Midwest.

Annexation of Louisiana in 1803 and Texas in 1823.

The influx of Spanish speaking immigrants after the second World War .

Most were Mexicans, and Cubans.

The most popular foreign language at secondary school.

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4- French

13 M. Americans claim French ancestry.

Only 1.3 M of them speak French at home.

French was historically located in Louisiana and Northern New England.

It is the most spoken language in four states: Louisiana, Maine, Vermont , New Hampshire.

Two French varieties: Louisiana Creole and French Cajun.

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4- German

According to 2005 American survey, 49 M

American claim that they had German

ancestry.

96% speak of them speak English at home.

Only 1.38 M. Americans speak

German. Before WWI, about 6 M. American

students were receiving their

schooling in German.

German is the most spoken language in two

states: North Dakota and South Dakota.

The Amish of Pennsylvania are the prominent German

groups. They still live in enclosed areas and in

isolation.

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Languages in the USA: Diversity or Uniformity?

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Monolingualism and Multilingualism in the United

States

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!- The Ideology of Monolingualism Joshua Fishman: “America, America: spendthrift and gravedigger

in the front of multilingualism”

It is evident that the process of language shift has been a dominant American experience since the early colonial times.

Two generations are enough to wipe out non- English language proficiency.

How have Americans become monolingual

English language speakers?

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The ideology of English Monolingualism The English dominant groups in the USA have, throughout the three

centuries, identified four major arguments to justify the ideology of English monolingualism.

Source: Heath, S. B., & Ferguson, C. A. (2004). In Language in the USA: Themes for the 21st century.

Argument 1:Immigration into

the USA= A privilege

Argument2:Economic

improvement= No linguistic minority

rights

Argument 3:Language

maintenance=Self- imposed

isolation

Argument 4Diversity= a threat

to national unity

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A Variety of Policies

The attrition of American Multilingualism has not preceded uniformly throughout the past two

centuries; it can not be represented by a single, monotonic downward

line. Instead, the recurring rise and fall of non- English languages in USA

reveal substantial variation over time in both degree and role.Source: Heath, S. B., & Ferguson, C. A. (2004).

In Language in the USA: Themes for the 21st century.

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2- Types of Language PoliciesKloss (1977) developed a useful schema to categorize various types of official language policies and laws.Promotion- oriented

policiesExpediency- oriented policiesTolerance- oriented policiesRestriction- oriented PoliciesRepression- oriented policies

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English- Only Movement The current English –only movement has been triggered by the

large immigration movement of Hispanic population after WWII.

The 1970’s was characterised by tolerance- based policies which culminated in the enactment of the federal act of bilingual education.

In 1981, Senator S. I. Hayakawa introduced a constitutional amendment into the Senate that would make English language the official language of the USA.

He succeeded to found a high- profile organisation, “US English” and raise huge funds to further its English- only agenda

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English- Only Movement Within the first four years

of the establishment of this organisation, 48 states contemplated constitutional amendment promoted by English-only movement.

23 states have adopted the amendment and declared English as an official language in their territories.

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English-Plus Movement A lot of criticism of English- only policies has come from

leaders of ethnic groups, minority- rights groups, immigrant groups and from educational and professional organisations.

Opponents of English- only movement formed “English-plus” movement and advanced an alternative constitutional amendment called the “Cultural Rights Amendment”.

It encouraged cultural diversity and education in English as well as education in secondary languages across the entire population, for natives and immigrants alike.

English- plus resolutions have been passed in the states of Oregon, Washington, New Mexico and Rhode Island.

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Conclusion

We have room for but one language in this country, that is the

English language, for we intend to see that the crucible turns our

people out as Americans, of American nationality, the single greatest empowering tool that immigrants

must have.Theodore Roosevelt

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References• Cable, T., & Baugh, A. C. (1991). In A history of the English language.

Prentice-Hall International editions. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall International.

• Gonzalez, R. D., & In Melis, I. (2000). Language ideologies: Critical perspectives on the official English movement. Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English.

• Heath, S. B., & Ferguson, C. A. (2004). In Language in the USA: Themes for the 21st century. New York: Cambridge University Press.

• Karavanta, M., Mitsikopoulou, B., & Dendrinos, B. (January 01, 2008). Introduction: Theorizing New English(es). European Journal of English Studies, 12, 1, 1-14.

• Kloss, H. (1977). In The American bilingual tradition. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House.

• http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_lang.html• http://www.antimoon.com/how/pronunc-american-british.htm• http://www.cogsci.indiana.edu/farg/rehling/nativeAm/ling.html• http://en.wikipedia.org• http://www.google.com/images