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EnvironmentalRefugees:TheConstructionofaCrisisEnvironmentalRefugees:TheConstructionofaCrisisEnvironmentalRefugees:TheConstructionofaCrisisEnvironmentalRefugees:TheConstructionofaCrisis

JessicaLehmanJessicaLehmanJessicaLehmanJessicaLehman

PreparedfortheUHUPreparedfortheUHUPreparedfortheUHUPreparedfortheUHU----EHSSummerAcademy2009EHSSummerAcademy2009EHSSummerAcademy2009EHSSummerAcademy2009

AbstractAbstractAbstractAbstract

Theconceptofenvironmentalrefugeehasbeenonthetablefornearly25years.Yet,it

remainspoorlydefinedandwithoutanylegallybindingmechanismsofprotectionor

support.Recently,theissueofclimatechangemigrationhasbecomemoreprevalent,

introducingmorechallengesanddilemmasforunderstandingandcopingwithmigration

inducedbyenvironmentalchange.Thispaperexaminesthedebatessurroundingthe

definitionsandlegalcategoriesassociatedwithenvironment/migrationnexusandtheirlegalandepistemologicalimplications,andthenlooksatpotentialalternativesandways

forward.Finally,Iarguethatenvironmentallyinducedmigrationdeservesspecial

consideration,ifnotforthelegalimplicationsthenfortheunderlyingissuesthatdeserve

utmostattention.

IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction

ThetermenvironmentalrefugeewasfirstintroducedbytheWorldwatchInstitutes

LesterBrowninthe1970sbutcameintopopularusefollowingEssamEl-Hinnawis

1985treatiseonthetopicfortheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(Kibreab

1997).Recently,itsprofileinacademia,thepolicysphere,andthepubliceyehasbeen

rampedupasclimatechangeandrelateddisplacementbecomesanever-more-

pressingissue(cf.Bell2004).However,therearenolegallybindingmechanismsof

protectionorsupportforthoseaffectedandmuchdisagreementsurroundsthe

conceptualizationoftheissue.Inthispaper,Idescribetheissue,thenexamineitsplaceincurrentrefugeedefinitiondebates,afterwardssuggestingsomewaysforwardthat

takeintoaccounttheunderlyingissuesatstake.

Itiswidelyrecognizedthatenvironmentallyinducedmigrationoccursduetoslow

changesoftenrelatedatleastinparttoclimatechange,particularlysealevelriseand

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desertification,disasterssuchasearthquakesandfloods,industrialorother

contaminatingevents,somedevelopmentprojects,andasrelatedtoviolentconflict.Itis

alsorecognizedthatwhileenvironmentallyinducedmigrantscanbefoundtheworld

over,theyareparticularlyconcentratedintheglobalSouth,andespeciallyinthedryland

regionsofAfrica(pronetodesertification)andcountrieswheresealevelrisewouldbe

disastrous(smallislandnationsandBangladeshspecifically)(Renaudetal2007;

Salehyan2005;Cooper1998;Myers2005).Thesecommonrecognitionsareimportant

becausetheydealwiththerealitiesandcausesofthemigrationflowsthatarebeing

discussed.Moreover,theydemonstratethescaleoftheenvironmentallyinduced

migrationproblemanditscomplexities,astheyciteissuesthatoftendonotrespect

politicalboundaries,andarecausedbyarangeofhumanactivitiesthatoftenhavetheir

rootsinregionsdistantfromthesourcecountryofmigration.

Perhapsafirstclueastothecomplexitiesoftheissueofenvironmentallyinduced

migrationisthataformalandauthoritativedefinitionortermfortheenvironment-

migrationcomplexdoesnotexist.Whiletermssuchasenvironmentalrefugee,climate

changerefugee,environmentallyforcedmigrant,environmentallyinducedmigrant,and

morearebandiedabout,thereisnoauthoritativedefinitionofenvironmentalrefugee.

However,onethatiswidelyacceptedisputforthbyMyersandKent:Personswhono

longergainasecurelivelihoodintheirtraditionalhomelandsbecauseofwhatare

primarilyenvironmentalfactorsofunusualscope(1995,citedinHermsmeyer,2007:2;

foragoodreviewofdefinitions,seeRenaudetal2007).However,Castlesreflects

widespreadopinionwhenhestates,thetermenvironmentalrefugeeissimplistic,one-

sided,andmisleading.(2002:8).WhileIusethetermenvironmentallyinduced

migrantinthispaperinordertodistinguishbetweenaphenomenonandalegal

category,thedefinitionprovidedaboveisrelevant.

Aspeopletrytocategorizecausesofenvironmentallyinducedmigration,theyalso

attempttoestimatethenumberofmigrantswhoaredriventomovebyenvironmental

impacts.In2002,theUnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees(UNHCR)

releasedareportestimatingthatthereareatleast24millionmigrantswhohavefled

theirhomesforenvironmentalreasons(UNHCR2002).Otherreportsvarywidely,

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especiallyintermsoffuturepredictions.Naturally,itisdifficulttoarriveatanumerical

estimatewhenwhowillbeincludedisunclear.Yettheexistingelementsareworthyof

attentionfortworeasons.Themostglaringisthattheyclearlyconcedethattheissueof

environmentallyinducedmigrationissignificantandwillbecomeevenmoresointhe

future.Second,theirveryexistenceindicatesthatscholarsandpolicymakersalike

recognizethatthisisanimportantcategory.

ImplicationsofaRefugeeDefinitionImplicationsofaRefugeeDefinitionImplicationsofaRefugeeDefinitionImplicationsofaRefugeeDefinition

Ifenvironmentallyinducedmigrantsweretobecountedasrefugees,theywouldbe

entitledtointernationalprotectionundertheUNHCR.Thismeansthattheywouldbe

abletotakerefugeinacountrywheretheyarenotcitizens.Dependingonthenatureoftheirdisplacement,theymayalsobeeligibleforresettlementinathirdcountry,where

theywouldlikelyalsoreceivegovernmentalassistancethroughoutthesettlement

process.Inshort,itwouldputtheresponsibilityfortheaftermathoftheirdisplacement

ontheinternationalcommunityversusthemigrantsthemselvesorthecountryfrom

whichtheycome.Hence,insomesensestherefugeelabelisinfactaprivilege;as

Zetter(2007:183)statesinaneraofseeminglyclosedborders,thelabelrefugeehas

offeredgreaterpotentialtogainaccess;indeed,ithasbeenthemostclearlyestablished

meansofentry.

Besideslegalimplicationsofarefugeedefinition,therearealsoconsequencesforthe

waythatenvironmentaldegradationandrefugeesareunderstood,evenbythemselves.

Thewordrefugeeisnotaneutralterm.Itconfersasenseofresponsibilityonsome,

andtheimpressionofvictimhoodandhelplessnessonothers.Ashiftinthistopicfrom

migrantstorefugeescouldturnthefocusfromthepatternsandprocessesofmigration

totherightsandactivitiesofindividuals(Chimni2009).Whilethisshiftcouldbebeneficialformigrantsintheshortterm,itcouldleadtoproblemsifitleavestheroot

causesofsuchmigrationsunaddressed.Additionally,ifthedefinitionofrefugeeisthus

expanded,itwouldreflectanacknowledgementthatthehumanimpactsof

environmentaldegradationaretheresponsibilityoftheinternationalcommunityrather

thansimplythepeopletheydirectlyaffect.Forenvironmentallyinducedmigrants

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themselves,beingincludedinarefugeedefinitioncouldengendertheneedtoconform

toaproblematicandpoliticizedlabelinordertoclaimbasicrights(Zetter2007).Ifone

conformstoamoreoptimisticviewpointhowever,migrantagencycouldalsoincrease

astheyarelegitimizedunderinternationalunderstandingsofrightsandprivileges.

CurrentRefugeeDefinitions:DoEnvironmentallyInducedMigrantsHaveaPlace?CurrentRefugeeDefinitions:DoEnvironmentallyInducedMigrantsHaveaPlace?CurrentRefugeeDefinitions:DoEnvironmentallyInducedMigrantsHaveaPlace?CurrentRefugeeDefinitions:DoEnvironmentallyInducedMigrantsHaveaPlace?

ThecurrentrefugeedefinitionunderArticle1oftheUNHCRs1951RefugeeConvention

issomeonewho:

owingtowell-foundedfearofbeingpersecutedforreasonsofrace,religion,

nationality,membershipofaparticularsocialgrouporpoliticalopinion,isoutside

thecountryofhisnationalityandisunableor,owingtosuchfear,isunwillingtoavailhimselfoftheprotectionofthatcountry;orwho,nothavinganationalityand

beingoutsidethecountryofhisformerhabitualresidenceasaresultofsuch

events,isunableor,owingtosuchfear,isunwillingtoreturntoit.

Clearly,thereislittlefoundationfortheassertionthatenvironmentallyinducedmigrants

fitthisdefinition(Williams2008).Exceptinthemostextremecircumstances,

environmentaldegradationcannotbequalifiedaspersecution,andevenmore

infrequentlycanitbelabeledaspersecutionforthespecificreasonssetoutinthe

Convention(ibid.).Furthermore,thereisnoevidentreasonwhyenvironmentally

inducedmigrantscannotcallontheirowngovernmentstoprovidesupportandrecovery

assistance(Lopez2007).Yet,ithasalsobeenpointedoutthatthereisnothing

precludingpeoplefromseekingrefugeestatusiftheycanprovethattheyfitthe

definition,albeitforenvironmentalreasons(ibid.).However,trueproponentsofthe

rightsofenvironmentallyinducedmigrantswouldappreciatemoreexplicitprotections,

necessitatingtheexpansionoftherefugeedefinition.

Indeed,suchproponentsneednotlookfar.The1969OrganizationofAfricanUnity

(OAU)ConventionGoverningtheSpecificRefugeeProblemsinAfrica,andthe1984

CartagenaDeclaration,whichcoversCentralAmerica,Mexico,andPanama,also

includeintheirdefinitionsofrefugeesthosefleeingduetoeventscausingthedisruption

ofpublicorder(UNHCR1984).Large-scaleenvironmentaldegradationcanbe

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categorizedasdisturbingpublicorder.Thus,inthesedefinitions,peoplefleeingdueto

environmentalchangecanaccessrefugeeassistance.Yet,whilebothofthese

documentsfallundertheauspicesoftheUNHCR,theyonlyofferpartial(often

temporary)protection.Inaddition,neitherdocumentislegallybinding.Thus,neither

expandeddefinitionprovidescompleteprotectionforenvironmentallyinducedmigrants.

EEEExpandingtheRefugeeDefinition:IssuesandOpportunitiesxpandingtheRefugeeDefinition:IssuesandOpportunitiesxpandingtheRefugeeDefinition:IssuesandOpportunitiesxpandingtheRefugeeDefinition:IssuesandOpportunities

Argumentsagainstexpandingtherefugeedefinition,orexplainingthedifficultyindoing

so,generallyrestontwomainpoints:thedegreetowhichenvironmentallyinduced

migrationisinvoluntary,andtheenvironmentasthemaindriverofsuchmovement.

Someciteargumentsthataddingtheprefixenvironmentalisunnecessaryorevenmisleadingsinceenvironmentalissuesaregenerallytiedinwithpoliticalandeconomic

driversandthuscannotbeisolatedasthemainfactorindeterminingmovement

(Williams2008;Renaudetal2007).However,DunandGemenne(2008:10)notethat

indeterminingwhetherornotsomeoneisaConventionrefugeeitisnotnecessaryto

determinewhetherornotthereasonleadingtopersecution[]isthemainreasonfor

displacementbutwhetherornotithappened.Thiscouldbeextendedtothedefinition

ofenvironmentaldriversformigration.

Uncertaintysurroundingtowhatdegreeenvironmentallyinducedmigrationistruly

forcedalsocomplicatesadefinitionexpansion.Environmentalissuessuchasfloods

anddroughtsoftencolludewitheconomicandsocialmarginalizationtocausesometo

movebeforeothers,andeconomicmotivationsarenotconsideredgroundforrefugee

status.Othertypesofmovementalsoaddtotheconfusion.Forexample,somepeople,

knownasanticipatoryrefugees,recognizethatconditionswillforcethemtomoveinthe

nearfutureandundertakethismigrationasapreemptivemeasure(Bates2002).Indeed,itcanbearguedthatthelinebetweeninvoluntaryandvoluntarymigration,the

basicassumptionfortherefugeeconcept,isblurry(Hayden2006;Chimni2009).

Thenecessaryrootcausesforrefugeestatusarealsoupfordebate.Hayden(2006)

noticesthatvoluntarymigrationisalmostalwayspairedwitheconomicincentives,while

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involuntarymigrationishookedtopoliticalmotivations.Similarly,violentdisplacements

areassumedtobeinvoluntarywhilenonviolentonesareassumedtobemattersof

choice.Thiscouldbeduetothepost-warconditionsunderwhichthe1951Convention

wasproduced.Involuntarymigrationduetopoliticalviolencewaswrappedintothe

refugeedefinition,whichbecamethenormforconceptualizingforcedmigration,andthe

basisonwhichotherdefinitionsarecreatedorcompared.Yet,thereisnoinherent

reasonthatthelogicabovemustfollow.Itseemsappropriate,especiallyinthecaseof

environmentallyinducedmigration,toconsiderinstancesinwhichalternativesto

politicalviolencecauseunjustsuffering.

Politicalbarriersstandinthewayofrefugeerecognition.Itisrecognizedthatarefugee

definitionnecessarilyexpressestheprioritiesofnationstates,particularlyhegemonic,traditionallyrefugee-receivingcountries.Ifthehumanitarianandpoliticalgoalsofthese

statesarenotbeingservedbytherefugeedefinition,itmaybeunrealistictoexpectitto

changeinthisdirection(Chimni2009).Similarly,statesmaybeunwillingtodealwiththe

largeinfluxofrefugeesthatwouldresultshouldtherefugeedefinitionbeexpandedtofit

them(Cooper1998).Moreover,itmaybesimplyunrealistictoattempttoclaimrefugee

statusforalargegroupofmigrantswhenitisgettingmoreandmoredifficultfor

individualsineventhemostlegitimizedsituationstoattainrefugeerights(Zetter2007).

Indeed,organizationssuchastheUNHCRmaybereluctanttoopentherefugee

definitionforrenegotiationduetotheriskthatparticipatingnationswouldattemptto

narrowthedefinitionorfurthershirkexistingduties(Hiebert,personalcommunication).

Conclusion:Furtherdirectionsforaddressingtheenvironment/migrationnexusConclusion:Furtherdirectionsforaddressingtheenvironment/migrationnexusConclusion:Furtherdirectionsforaddressingtheenvironment/migrationnexusConclusion:Furtherdirectionsforaddressingtheenvironment/migrationnexus

Ascurrentlytheidentificationofatrueenvironmentalimperativeislackingandthis

shortfallstandsinthewayoflegitimaterecognitionforenvironmentallyinducedmigrants,itappearstomakesensetoisolatetheenvironmentalmotivatorsforhuman

migration.However,Iarguethatthisisimpracticalandevenundesirable.

Environmentalfactorsarealwaystiedtomattersofpoliticsandeconomics(Hayden

2006).Despitetheinabilitytoisolatethem,ithasbeenconfirmedbycountlessstudies

thatenvironmentaldegradationandhumanmigrationarelinked.Whatareusefulnow

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aremorestudiesthatlookatenvironmentalfactorsaselementswithinlargernetworks,

effectivelyexploringthelinkagesratherthantryingtomakeconceptualcuts.Thisdoes

notmeanthatstudiesspecifictoenvironmentaldegradationareunimportant,butrather

thatwhenenvironmentaldegradationisconsideredasadriverofhumanmigration,it

cannotbeisolatedfromothercausalfactors.Itmakesnosensetoattemptthis

academicallywhenitisnotreflectedtoanydegreeontheground.Thebestwayto

attemptsuchunderstandingsislikelythroughcasestudies;yet,thesecasestudiesmust

thenbescaledupascommonthreadsareidentifiedinordertoprovideasortof

overarchingframeworkfortheunderstandingoftheenvironmentasacrucialfactorin

thestudyofhumanmigration(cf.Henryetal2004;Castles2002).Theidentificationof

tippingpointsorthresholdsbeyondwhichunlivablesituationsarecreated,thattakeinto

accountdifferentfactorsandtheirinteractions,mayhelpbridgecontext-specificandqualitativeresearchandpolicydemands.

Themostimportantissueunderlyingthelegitimizationofenvironmentalrefugeesisthe

acceptanceofinternationalresponsibilityforlocalizedeffectsofenvironmentalchange.

Thisisparticularlyrelevantinthecaseofglobalclimatechange,andislikelya

significantreasonwhytheconceptofclimatechangerefugeeshasgottenthebulkof

attentionintheenvironmentalrefugeeliterature.Inpractice,theissueinfactgoes

beyondinternationalresponsibility,becauseitisestimatedthatmostenvironmental

refugeeswouldfleecountriesintheglobalSouthtotheNorth(Renaudetal2007).

Thus,byacceptingenvironmentalrefugees,inconceptandinpractice,policymakersin

theNorthacknowledgethattheeffectsofenvironmentalchangeareinequitably

distributedandthatcountriesintheNorthhaveasignificantresponsibilitytocitizensof

theSouth.However,thisisnotacomfortablerecognition,especiallytothedegreeto

whichitwouldmeantakingcompleteresponsibilityformultitudesofhumanlives.Itis

onethattheNorthcanbeexpectedtostrugglewithforsometime.

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