LECTURE 11. Strengthening mechanismsaml883.wdfiles.com/local--files/notes/Lecture11.pdfStrengthening...

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 AML 883 Properties and selection of engineering materials LECTURE 11. Strengthening mechanisms M P Gururajan Email: [email protected] Room No. MS 207/A-3 Phone: 1340

Transcript of LECTURE 11. Strengthening mechanismsaml883.wdfiles.com/local--files/notes/Lecture11.pdfStrengthening...

Page 1: LECTURE 11. Strengthening mechanismsaml883.wdfiles.com/local--files/notes/Lecture11.pdfStrengthening mechanisms Lattice resistance – intrinsic property – much like modulus and

   

AML 883 Properties and selection of engineering materials

LECTURE 11. Strengthening mechanisms

M P GururajanEmail: [email protected]

Room No. MS 207/A­3 Phone: 1340

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Lattice resistance

● Why pure metals are soft and ceramics are hard?

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Lattice resistance

● Why pure metals are soft and ceramics are hard?

● Bonding – non­localised (allow free flow of dislocations) and localised (lock dislocations in place)

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Lattice resistance

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Lattice resistance

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Lattice resistance

● Consider a dislocation moving in a slip plane● Let the line be of width “w” and traverse a 

distance “L” under the influence of the applied shear stress “    ” to shift the upper crystal with respect to the lower crystal by “b”

● Then, shear force F = Lw● Work done, W = Lwb● Since this work is done against the lattice 

resistance per unit length, “f”, it equals fLw.

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Lattice resistance

● Equating the work done by the shear force and the work done by the lattice resitance, we obtain     b = f

● This result holds for screw and mixed dislocations too!

● Provided shear stress exceeds f/b, the dislocations in the lattice will move

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Strengthening mechanisms

● Lattice resistance – intrinsic property – much like modulus and can hardly be manipulated

● However, we can make the dislocation do more work while slipping by putting impediments on its way

● Different types of impediments lead to different strengthening mechanisms

● How to calculate the contribution of impediments?

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Strengthening mechanisms

● Spacing between obstacles – say at a distance L

● Number of obstacles that perunit length of dislocation faces: 1/L

● Each obstacle exerts a pinning force – say p● Contribution of obstacles to resistance is thus 

p/L● Addition to shear stress: p/(bL)

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Pinning force

● Pinning – an elastic effect● “p” ­­ goes as● Thus, the shear stress needed to push a 

dislocation through obstacles is●     ­­ Dimensionless constant that characterises 

the obstacle strength

Gb2

=Gb /L

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Solid solution strengthening

● Random substitutional solid solution: say zinc in copper to produce brass

● Cast copper – Yield strength of 62 M Pa (E=115 G Pa)

● High tensile bronze – Yield strength 193 M Pa (E = 105 G Pa)

● Zinc – bigger than copper● Consider concentration of the solute, c

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Solid solution strengthening

Image courtesy: wiki

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Solid solution strengthening

● Consider concentration of the solute, c● If “a” is the size of the zinc atoms,● Or,● Thus, solid solution hardening goes as the 

square root of concentration (with the non­dimensional constant    representing the distortion in the crystal due to the solutes)  

c=a2/L2

L=a c−1/2

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Precipitate (dispersion) strengthening

Steel University.Org Homepage – Dislocation bowing at precipitates

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Precipitate strengtheningCritical configuration – tightest  curvature

L

Slipped region – to the left of the dislocations

T

T

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Precipitate strengthening

● Critical configuration – radius of the bowed dislocation is half the inter­particle spacing

● On one segment of length L, a force of is acting which is balanced by twice the line tension 

● Precipitation hardened aluminium alloys – 15 times stronger than pure aluminium

b L

2T=G b2=Gb /L

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Precipitate strengthening

Image courtesy: wiki

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Work hardening

Steel University.Org Homepage – Forest of dislocations

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Work hardening

Steel University.Org Homepage – Dislocation bowing at precipitates

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Work hardening

● Dislocation faces a forest of dislocations● Average spacing between dislocations is the 

inverse square root of the dislocation density● Moving dislocation cutting through a forest of 

dislocations produces jogs● Jogs exert a pinning force of● Thus, work hardening goes as 

Gb2/2

1/2Gbd0.5

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Grain­size hardening

Image courtesy: wiki

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Grain­size hardening

●          ­­ Petch constant● Hall­Petch relationship

gb

=kp/ D

kp

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Additivity of strengthening mechanisms

● To first approximation, the strengthening mechanisms are additive;

● Polycrystalline materials in tension – use the strengthening mechanisms, calculate the shear stresses, and use Taylor factor

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Strength versus ductility

Elongation (%)

1 10 100

Yie

ld s

treng

th in

 tens

ion 

(MP

a)

20

200

2000

Precipitation hardening

Copper­Beryllium alloys

Solution hardening

Pure, soft copper

Brass, soft

Work hardened copper

Work hardened brassWork hardening

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Strength versus ductility

● Increasing strengths leads to decreasing ductility

● Are there ways of having both – ductility and strength?

● Yes! We'll discuss two methods – cryo­rolling and ECAP later while discussing the processes

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Plastic flow in polymers

Non­aligned moleculesDrawing aligns molecules

Drawing

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Drawing

● Low temperatures – polymers are brittle● Above 0.75 Tg, when pulled in tension, 

polymers are cold drawn● Drawn polymer – stiffer by a factor of about 8● Limited geometry● Polymers with higher Tg, at room temperature, 

craze

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Plastic flow in polymers

Crazing – crack + drawing

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Crazing

● Crazes scatter light● Hence, when present, they cause whitening● Continuous loading – leads to crazes becoming 

cracks and fracture of sample

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Plastic flow in polymers

Shear­banding

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Shear banding

● Large plastic strain in compression

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Strengthening polymers

● Non­crystalline solids – Dislocation is not a useful concept

● Think of some unit step of the flow process­­ the relative slippage of two segments of a polymer chain­­ shear of a small molecular cluster in a glass

● Lattice resistance – of the same origin; breaking strong bonds are difficult: ceramics are strong; breaking weak bonds are easy: polymers are weak

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Strengthening polymers

● Belnding – mixture of two polymers● Drawing – deliberate use of molecular 

alignment during stretching to strengthen a polymer

● Cross­linking – creation of strong covalent bonds between long chain molecules

● Reinforcement – particles, fibres or fabrics

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Stiffness, hardness, and strength; what next?

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Stiffness, hardness, and strength; what next? Toughness!

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Toughness

Image courtesy: Christopher Thomas – via the wiki site

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Broken glass – closer look

Image courtesy: Christopher Thomas – via the wiki site

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Ductile fracture

Image courtesy: wiki

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Brittle and fatigue fracture

Image courtesy: wiki

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Ductile fracture

Image courtesy: wiki

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Fatigue on fanblades