Learning Technologist Network - Overview and January 2015 Meeting
learning january 2015.pdf
Transcript of learning january 2015.pdf
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LEARNING
How do we come to know things?
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Learning is inferred from behavior,
but isnt the same as behavior
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factors
Sensation
Perception
Emotions
Motivation
Thinking
Relationships
etc
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Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior or behavior potential (i.e., knowledge, capability, or attitude) that is acquired through experience or practice and cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation.
Behavioral definition would focus exclusively on measurable behavior
Behaviorists recognize that learning is an internal event. However, it is not recognized as learning until it is displayed by overt behavior.
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Behavioral Learning Theory
The behavioral learning theory is represented
as an S-R paradigm. The organism is treated
as a black box. We only know what is going on inside the box by the organisms overt behavior.
Stimulus
(S)
Organism
(O)
Response
(R)
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Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning
A learning process through which one stimulus comes
to predict the occurrence of another stimulus and
elicits a response similar to or related to the response
evoked by that stimulus
Stimulus
Any event or object in the environment to which an
organism responds; plural is stimuli
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Pavlov was studying the digestive system of dogs and became intrigued with his observation
that dogs deprived of food began to salivate
when one of his assistants walked into the room.
He began to investigate this phenomena and established the laws of classical conditioning.
Skinner renamed this type of learning "respondent conditioning since in this type of learning, one is responding to an environmental
antecedent.
Classical Conditioning
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General model: Stimulus (S) elicits >Response (R)
Classical conditioning starts with a reflex (R): an innate, involuntary behavior.
This involuntary behavior is elicited or caused by an antecedent environmental event.
Example: air is blown into your eye, you blink. You have no voluntary or conscious control over
whether the blink occurs or not.
Classical Conditioning
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The specific model for classical conditioning is:
A stimulus will naturally (without learning) elicit or bring about a reflexive response
Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits > Unconditioned Response (UR)
Classical Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
Eyeblink
response
Puff of air in eye
Contraction of
pupil
Light in eye
Startle Loud noise
Salivation Food
Unconditioned
Response (UR)
Unconditioned
Stimulus (US)
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Neutral Stimulus (NS) --- does not elicit the response of interest
This stimulus (sometimes called an orienting stimulus as it elicits an orienting response) is a
neutral stimulus since it does not elicit the
Unconditioned (or reflexive) Response.
Classical Conditioning
The specific model for classical conditioning is:
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The Neutral/Orienting Stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the
Unconditioned/Natural Stimulus (US).
Classical Conditioning
The specific model for classical conditioning is:
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The Neutral Stimulus (NS) is transformed into a Conditioned Stimulus (CS).
That is, when the CS is presented by itself, it elicits or causes the CR (which is the same
involuntary response as the UR.
The name changes because it is elicited by a different stimulus.
This is written CS elicits > CR.
Classical Conditioning
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Conditioned Response (CR): the response produced by the CS.
Classical Conditioning:
Definitions
Unconditioned(al) Stimulus (US): a stimulus that has the ability to produce a specified response before conditioning begins.
Unconditioned(al) Response (UR): the response produced by the US.
(SALIVATION PRODUCED BY THE FOOD)
Conditioned(al) Stimulus (CS): an initially neutral stimulus that comes to produce a new response because it is associated with the US.
(SALIVATION PRODUCED BY THE BELL)
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Classical Conditioning
John Watson and emotional conditioning
Little Albert (a healthy and emotionally stable 11-month-old infant)
showed no fear except of the loud noise Watson made by striking
a hammer against a steel bar near Alberts head
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Example:
Child is harassed at school
Child feels bad when harassed
Child associates being harassed and school
Child begins to feel bad when she thinks of school
Classical Conditioning
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In order to extinguish the associated of feeling
bad and thinking of school, the connection
between school and being harassed must be
broken.
Classical Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
John Watson and emotional conditioning Watson also had ideas for removing fears and laid
the groundwork for some behavior therapies used today
Peter (3-year-old who was afraid of rabbits) was put in a high chair and given candy while a rabbit was in a cage at a safe distance from him
The rabbit was moved closer with each session
Some of Peters friends were brought in to play with the rabbit to show Peter first-hand that the rabbit was safe
By the end of the sessions Peter lost his fear of rabbits
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Classical Conditioning
Biological predispositions
Research has shown that humans are more easily
conditioned to fear stimuli, such as snakes, that can
have very real negative effects on their well-being
Martin Seligman
Said that the most common fears are related to the survival of the human species through the long course of evolution
Suggested that humans and other animals are prepared to
associate only certain stimuli with particular consequences
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Classical Conditioning
Biological predispositions
Gustavson and others
Used taste aversion conditioning to stop wild coyotes from
attacking sheep in the western United States
Set out lamb flesh laced with lithium chloride, a poison that
made the coyotes extremely ill but was not fatal
After only one or two experiences, the coyotes would get sick
even at the sight of a lamb
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Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning in everyday life
Research suggests that the inability to acquire
classically conditioned responses may be the first sign
of Alzheimers disease, a sign that appears prior to any memory loss
Emotional behavior very susceptible to classical
conditioning
Through classical conditioning, environmental cues
associated with drug use can become conditioned
stimuli and later produce the conditioned responses of
drug craving
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Classical Conditioning
Neurological basis of classical conditioning
An intact amygdala is required for conditioning of fear
in both humans and animals, and context fear
conditioning further depends on the hippocampus
Research clearly indicates that the cerebellum is the
essential brain structure for motor conditioning and
also the storage site for the memory traces formed
during such conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
Factors influencing classical conditioning
There are four major factors that facilitate the
acquisition of a classically conditioned response
How reliably the conditioned stimulus predicts the
unconditioned stimulus
The number of pairings of the conditioned stimulus and the
unconditioned stimulus
The intensity of the unconditioned stimulus
The temporal relationship between the conditioned stimulus
and the unconditioned stimulus
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Operant Conditioning
The major theorists for the development of
operant conditioning are:
Edward Thorndike
John Watson
B.F. Skinner
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Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning investigates the influence of consequences on subsequent behavior.
Operant conditioning investigates the learning of voluntary responses.
It was the dominant school in American psychology from the 1930s through the
1950s.
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Operant Conditioning
Where classical conditioning illustrates S-->R learning, operant conditioning is often viewed
as R-->S learning
It is the consequence that follows the response that influences whether the response is likely
or unlikely to occur again.
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Operant Conditioning
The three-term model of operant conditioning (S--> R -->S) incorporates the concept that
responses cannot occur without an
environmental event (e.g., an antecedent
stimulus) preceding it.
While the antecedent stimulus in operant conditioning does not ELICIT or CAUSE the
response (as it does in classical conditioning),
it can influence its occurrence.
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Operant Conditioning
There are two types of consequences:
positive (sometimes called pleasant)
negative (sometimes called aversive)
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Disadvantages of punishment and response cost Punishment and response cost do not extinguish
an undesirable behavior; rather, they suppress that behavior when the punishing agent is present.
Punishment and response cost indicate that a behavior is unacceptable but does not help people develop more appropriate behaviors.
Operant Conditioning
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Disadvantages of punishment and response
cost
The person who is severely punished often
becomes fearful and feels angry and hostile
toward the punisher. These reactions may be
accompanied by a desire to retaliate or to avoid
or escape from the punisher and the punishing
situation.
Punishment frequently leads to both negative
affect and aggression. Those who administer
physical punishment may become models of
aggressive behavior.
Operant Conditioning
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Shaping behavior
An operant conditioning technique that consists of
gradually molding a desired behavior (response) by
reinforcing responses that become progressively
closer to the desired behavior
B. F. Skinner demonstrated that shaping is particularly
effective in conditioning complex behaviors
Operant Conditioning
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Analyzing An Example
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-
out on every Friday during the month of June. The
last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up
to his tent while he was sleeping and threw a bucket
of cold water on him. Billy has not camped-out for
three weeks.
a. What behavior was changed?
Camping out
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Analyzing An Example
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-
out on every Friday during the month of June. The
last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up
to his tent while he was sleeping and threw a bucket
of cold water on him. Billy has not camped-out for
three weeks.
b. Was the behavior strengthened or
weakened?
Weakened (Behavior decreased)
Eliminate positive and negative reinforcement
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Analyzing An Example
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-
out on every Friday during the month of June. The
last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up
to his tent while he was sleeping and threw a bucket
of cold water on him. Billy has not camped-out for
three weeks.
Having water thrown on him.
c. What was the consequence?
d. Was the behavior consequence added or
subtracted?
Added
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Analyzing An Example
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-
out on every Friday during the month of June. The
last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up
to his tent while he was sleeping and threw a bucket
of cold water on him. Billy has not camped-out for
three weeks.
Since a consequence was ADDED and the
behavior was WEAKENED (REDUCED),
the process was PUNISHMENT.
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Classical vs Operant Conditioning
Processes of generalization, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery occur in both classical and operant conditioning
Both types of conditioning depend on associative learning
In classical conditioning, an association is formed between two stimuli
In operant conditioning, the association is established between a response and its consequences
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Classical vs Operant Conditioning
In classical conditioning, the focus is on what
precedes the response
In operant conditioning, the focus is on what
follows the response
In classical conditioning, the subject is passive
and responds to the environment rather than
acting on it
In operant conditioning, the subject is active and
operates on the environment
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1. Every time someone flushes a toilet in the apartment building, the shower becomes very hot and causes the person to jump back. Over time, the person begins to jump back automatically after hearing the flush, before the water temperature changes.
2. Your father gives you a credit card at the end of your first year in college because you did so well. As a result, your grades continue to get better in your second year.
3. Your car has a red, flashing light that blinks annoyingly if you start the car without buckling the seat belt. You become less likely to start the car without buckling the seat belt
. 4. You eat a new food and then get sick because of the flu. However, you develop a dislike for the food and feel nauseated whenever you smell it.
5. An individual receives frequent injections of drugs, which are administered in a small examination room at a clinic. The drug itself causes increased heart rate but after several trips to the clinic, simply being in a small room causes an increased heart rate.
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6. A lion in a circus learns to stand up on a chair and jump through a hoop to receive a food treat.
7. A professor has a policy of exempting students from the final exam if they maintain perfect attendance during the quarter. His students attendance increases dramatically.
8. You check the coin return slot on a pay telephone and find a quarter. You find yourself checking other telephones over the next few days.
9. Your hands are cold so you put your gloves on. In the future, you are more likely to put gloves on when its cold.
10. John Watson conducted an experiment with a boy named Albert in which he paired a white rat with a loud, startling noise. Albert now becomes startled at the sight of the white rat.
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Main terms
1.Unconditiones stimulus: has an inborn power to
elicit a reflex.
2.Conditioned stimulus: is created by the learning
proces, it acuaires a power similar to the
conditional stimulus
3.Unconditioned reflex: is an inborn response
pattern.
4.Conditioned reflex: Is a learned response
pattern, they are outside of the councious.
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Extintion.
Stimulus generalization.
Discrimination.
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OPERANT CONDITIONING
Operant behavior is characterized by actions that have
consequences, it is acquired and shaped by experience.
1.REINFORCER is a stimulus that has the effect of
increasing the frequency of a given category of behavior
2.REWARD is perceived as valuable to the indivual giving
the reward, but might not be as valed by the receiving
organism.
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Main terms
Positive reinforcer : has a value for the organism
Negative reinforcer: has no value for the organism
Primary reinforcer: has intrinsic value for the organism, no
learning is recquired for the worth of the reinforcer to exist
Secondary reinforcer has acquired value for the organism,
but in this case learning is recquired.
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Trial and error learning taking the rocky road
Edward L. Thorndike (United States)
Robotlike process
1.Stamping In: An action that useful is impressed upon the nervous system
2.Law of effect: Tendency to retain what is learned (reinforcement)
3.Thorndike put forward a Law of effect which stated that any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fanm--WyQJo
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Finding what is wrong in a car. Could be learning by trial and error.,
http://www.simplypsychology.org/edward-thorndike.html
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PIGeNOBjlkc
http://www.theguardian.com/politics/reality-check-with-
polly-curtis/2011/dec/13/women-children
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CONCIOUSNESS AND LEARNING
Observational learning
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8AcWo3gbtBk
Vicarious Reinforcement
Social Learning theory
Prosocial behavior
Latent learning
Insight learning (learning set)
Learning to learn
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MEMORY
Learning implies retention, and recalling.
Memory involves the encoding, storage, and retrieval of
cognitive information.
ENCODING is a process characterzed by giving an
informational input a more usefull form,
The use of symbols, associations, and insights are
examples of it.
MNEMONIC DEVICE it is a cognitive structure that
improves both retention and recall, is a special case of
encoding.
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Storage
Storage refers to the fact that memories are retained for a
period of time.
Short-term memory (working memory)
Long-term memory
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Retrieval
Retrieval of cognitive information takes place when a
memory is removed for storage and replaced in
consciousness
RECALL Takes place when memory can be retrieved
easily by an act of will.
RECOGNITION Takes place when the retrieval of
memory is facilitated by the presence of a helpful stimulus
REPRESSION Is a form of defense against a
psychological threat, forces a memory into the
unconscious.