Language & Grammar Module

8/3/2019 Language & Grammar Module

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LANGUAGELANGUAGEENHANCEMENTENHANCEMENT

Trainee GuideSteria Training

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Table of Content

S no. Lesson Page

1 Introduction 3

2 Subject Verb Agreement 4 to 7

3 Articles 8 to 13

4 Prepositions 14 to 20

5 Tenses 21 to 50

6 Active Passive 51 to 60

7 Punctuation 61 to 75

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The World of Grammar

GGrammar is the cornerstone to good and effective communication skills. Effectivelycommunicating ideas, information and emotions is fundamental to our daily lives

The purpose of this session is to better our language and communication skills in orderto be able to expand our active business vocabulary and use English, at work, withgreater confidence.

By the end of this training session, delegates will be able to:

Identify the grammatical rules of the language Implement these rules in constructing accurate and appropriate sentences,

both in speech and writing Use universally accepted words and phrases

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Chapter 1: Subject Verb Agreement

Making Subjects and Verbs Agree

1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronounsconnected by and, use a plural verb.

2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by oror nor, use asingular verb.

3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronounjoined by oror nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer

the verb.

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4. Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject.

Don't is a contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural subject. Theexception to this rule appears in the case of the first person and second personpronouns I and you. With these pronouns, the contraction don't should be used.

5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. Theverb agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.

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6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone,nobody, somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.

7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singularverbs.

Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, itrequires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb isrequired.

8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (Thereare two parts to these things.)

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9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb.Since there is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.

10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that areconsidered singular and take a singular verb, such as:group, team, committee, class,and family.

In very few cases, the plural verb is used if the individuals in the group are thought ofand specifically referred to.

11. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, oras welldo not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.

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SteriaEasy Reference

Articles

Definition of articles

English has two types of articles: definite (the) and indefinite (a, an.) The use of thesearticles depends mainly on whether you are referring to any member of a group, or toa specific member of a group:

1. Indefinite Articles: a and an

A and an signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to anymember of agroup. These indefinite articles are used with singular nouns when the noun is general;the corresponding indefinite quantity word some is used for plural general nouns. Therule is:

a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: aboy an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: anelephant a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: auser(sounds like 'yoo-

zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used) some + plural noun: some girls

If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on theinitial sound of the adjective that immedately follows the article:

abroken egg anunusual problem aEuropean country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y'

sound)

Note also that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a

profession, nation, or religion.

I am a teacher. Brian is an Irishman. Seiko is a practicing Buddhist.

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2. Definite Article: the

The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun isparticular or specific. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a

particularmember of a group. Compare the indefinite and definite articles in the

following examples:

Indefinite (a or an) Definite (the)

Singulara dog (any dog)an apple (any apple)

the dog (that specific dog)the apple (that specific apple)

Pluralsome dogs (any dogs)some apples (any apples)

the dogs (those specific dogs)the apples (those specific apples)

The is not used with non countable nouns referring to something in a general sense:

[no article] Coffee is a popular drink.

[no article] Japanese was his native language.[no article] Intelligence is difficult to quantify.

The is used with non countable nouns that are made more specific by a limitingmodifying phrase or clause:

The coffee in my cup is too hot to drink.The Japanese he speaks is often heard in the countryside.The intelligence of animals is variable but undeniable.

Theis also used when a noun refers to something unique:

the White Housethe theory of relativitythe 1999 federal budget

Note: Geographical uses ofthe

Do not usethebefore:

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names of countries (Italy, Mexico, Bolivia) except the Netherlands and the US names of cities, towns, or states (Seoul, Manitoba, Miami) names of streets (Washington Blvd., Main St.) names of lakes and bays (Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie) except with a group of lakes

like the Great Lakes names of mountains (Mount Everest, Mount Fuji) except with ranges of

mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn names of continents (Asia, Europe) names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like

the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands

Do use the before:

names of rivers, oceans and seas (the Nile, the Pacific) points on the globe (the Equator, the North Pole) geographical areas (the Middle East, the West) deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas (the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black

Forest, the Iberian Peninsula)

Further Uses of Articles

In addition, use of a, an, and the also depends on whether the noun following thearticle possesses one of these paired qualities:

Countable vs. non countable

First vs. subsequent mention General vs. specific

1. Countable vs. Non countable

A and an are used if the noun can be counted.

I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you step in?Just one. Therefore, use a.)

I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be counted)

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I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted)

The must be used when the noun cannot be counted.

I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive into?The question doesn't make any sense because waterisnoncountable. Therefore, use the.)

I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk cannot becounted)

I admired the foliage. (How many foliages? Foliage cannotbe counted)

2. First vs. Subsequent Mention

A or an is used to introduce a noun when it is mentioned for the first time in a pieceof writing. The is used afterward each time you mention that same noun.

An awards ceremony at the Kremlin would not normally have attracted so muchattention. But when it was leaked that Soviet President Konstantin Chernenko wouldbe presenting medals to three cosmonauts, interest in the ceremony intensified. Time,Sept. 17, 1984.

Note:There is and there are can be used to introduce an indefinite noun at thebeginning of a paragraph or essay.

There isa robin in the tree outside my window. When my cat jumps up on the desk,the robin flies away.

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3. General vs. Specific

A,

an, and

thecan all be used to indicate that a noun refers to the whole class towhich individual countable nouns belong. This use of articles is calledgeneric, from

the Latin word meaning "class."

A tiger is a dangerous animal. (any individual tiger)Thetiger is a dangerous animal. (all tigers: tigeras a generic category)

The difference between the indefinite a and an and the generic a and an is that theformer means any one member of a class while the latter means all of the members ofa class.

The omission of articles also expresses a generic (or general) meaning:

no article with a plural noun: Tigers are dangerous animals. (all tigers)no article with a noncountable noun: Anger is a destructive emotion. (any kind ofanger)

Omission of Articles

While some nouns combine with one article or the other based on whether they arecountable or noncountable, others simply never take either article. Some commontypes of nouns that don't take an article are:

1. Names of languages and nationalities

. Chinese . English . Spanish . Russian

2. Names of sports

. volleyball . hockey . baseball

3. Names of academic subjects

. mathematics . biology . history . computer science

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Chapter 3: Prepositions

English Grammar - Prepositions of time

Preposition

Use Examples

In

in months in July; in September

year in 1985; in 1999

seasons in summer; in the summer of 69

part of the day in the morning; in the afternoon; inthe evening

duration in a minute; in two weeks

At

part of the day at night

time of day at 6 o'clock; at midnight

Celebrations at Christmas; at Easter

fixed phrases at the same time

On

days of the week on Sunday; on Friday

Date on the 25th ofDecember*

special holidayson Good Friday; on Easter Sunday; onmy birthday

a special part of a dayon the morning of September the11th*

after later than something after school

agohow far something happened(in the past)

6 years ago

before earlier than something before Christmas

betweentime that separates twopoints

between Monday and Friday

by not later than a special time by Thursday

duringthrough the whole of aperiod of time

during the holidays

for period of time for three weeks

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from ... tofrom...till/until

two points form a periodfrom Monday to Wednesdayfrom Monday till Wednesdayfrom Monday until Wednesday

past time of the day 23 minutes past 6 (6:23)

since point of time since Monday

till/until no later than a special timetill tomorrowuntil tomorrow

to time of the day 23 minutes to 6 (5:37)

up to not more than a special time up to 6 hours a day

within during a period of time within a day

* The words in italic are only spoken, not written

English Grammar - Prepositions at, in, on

preposition examples

in We sit in the room.

I see a house in the picture.

There are trouts in the river.

He lives in Paris.

I found the picture in the paper.

He sits in the corner of the room.

He sits in the back of the car.

We arrive in Madrid.

He gets in the car.

She likes walking in the rain.

My cousin lives in the country.

There are kites in the sky.

He plays in the street. (BE)

She lives in a hotel.

The boys stand in a line.

He is in town.

I have to stay in bed.

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The robber is in prison now.

at

She sits at the desk.

Open your books at page 10.The bus stops at Graz.

I stay at my grandmother's.

I stand at the door.

Look at the top of the page.

The car stands at the end of the street.

You mustn't park your car at the front of the school.

Can we meet at the corner of the street?

I met John at a party.

Pat wasn't at home yesterday.

I study economics at university.

The children are at grandmother's.

He's looking at the park.

He always arrives late at school.

on

The map lies on the desk.

The picture is on page 10.

The photo hangs on the wall.

He lives on a farm.

Dresden lies on the river Elbe.

Men's clothes are on the second floor.

He lives on Heligoland.

The shop is on the left.

My friend is on the way to Moscow.

Write this information on the front of the letter.

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English Grammar - Prepositions of place and direction

preposition use examples

above higher than something The picture hangs above my bed.

acrossfrom one side to theother side

You mustn't go across this road here.There isn't a bridge across the river.

after one follows the otherThe cat ran after the dog.After you.

against directed towards sth. The bird flew against the window.

alongin a line; from onepoint to another

They're walking along the beach.

among in a group I like being among people.

around in a circular way We're sitting around the campfire.behind at the back of Our house is behind the supermarket.

below lower than sth. Death Valley is 86 metres below sea level.

beside next to Our house is beside the supermarket.

betweensth./sb. is on eachside

Our house is between the supermarket andthe school.

by near He lives in the house by the river.

close to near Our house is close to the supermarket.

down from high to low He came down the hill.

fromthe place where itstarts

Do you come from Tokyo?

in front ofthe part that is in thedirection it faces

Our house is in front ofthe supermarket.

inside opposite of outside You shouldn't stay inside the castle.

into entering sth. You shouldn't go into the castle.

near close to Our house is near the supermarket.

next to beside Our house is next to the supermarket.

off away from sth. The cat jumped offthe roof.

onto moving to a place The cat jumped onto the roof.

opposite on the other side Our house is opposite the supermarket.

out of leaving sth. The cat jumped out ofthe window.

outside opposite of inside Can you wait outside?

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over above sth./sb.The cat jumped over the wall.

past going near sth./sb. Go past the post office.

round in a circle We're sitting round the campfire.

throughgoing from one pointto the other point

You shouldn't walk through the forest.

to towards sth./sb.

I like going to Australia.

Can you come to me?I've never been to Africa.

towards in the direction of sth. They walk towards the castle.

under below sth. The cat is under the table.

up from low to high He went up the hill.

Exercises

Fill in the appropriate prepositions:

1. I went to bed _______ nine o'clock.

2. It rained last night _______ Ottawa.

3. I turned __________ the radio and listened to music.

4. I work out _______ my spare time.

5. I phoned ______ and said I would be late.

6. I hope to work full time ______ the office.

7. It was a hectic day ______ work yesterday.

8. The cat ran _______ the house when it started to rain.

9. I saved my file _______ the computer.

10. The store had very good sales _______ shoes.

11. ________ the mall I saw an old friend of mine.12. I watched a movie _________ the movie theatre with a friend.

13. I asked a girl for her phone number ________ work.

14. I bought three tickets _________ the ticket office.

15. The kids played games _________ the computer.

16. The store _____ the corner opens _____ six o'clock ______ weekdays.

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17. There's not a lot of work _________ Ottawa.

18. I went fishing _________ Lake Ontario last summer.

19. I hope to go to the winter Powwow ________ the Ottawa Friendship

Centre.

20.__________ the party everybody had fun all through the night.

21. He was _____ prison _________ two years. ___________ that time, he became

interested _________ pigeons.

22. As the child was too young to travel ____ herself, they arranged _______ her to

travel _____ the guards van _____________ the care of _____ guard.

23. Im very sorry _________ being late. It was very good ______ you to wait

_______ me.

24. Remember to be _____ good time ______ the opera because if youre late,

they wont let you ______.

25. He was wounded _____ the shoulder _________ a bullet, fired _________ an

upstairs window.

26. He is not independent _______ any means. He depends _______ his father

_________ everything.

27. He said he was ______ debt and asked me ______ a loan _______ Rs 1000.

28. I was horrified ____ his appearance. He looked as if he hadnt slept in weeks.

29. Whats the best way _______ cooking a lobster? Cook it ______ boiling salted

water, and serve it cold ________ mayonnaise.

30. He died _____ heart failure______ Tuesday. His wife is still ______ shock.

31. I thought he would offer Ann the job but he offered it _____ me.

32. When you have lunch _____ the restaurant, who pays the bill? Oh, each

_______ us pays _________ for what hes had.

33. How are you getting _______ at school.

34. They succeeded ________ escaping __________ the burning house.

35. Im very bad ___________ French, Ill have to work harder _____ it and spend

some more time ________ it.

36. You cant rely __________ him. Hes almost always late _________

appointments.

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37. I dont object _______ lending you my pen, but shouldnt you have one

________ your own?

Chapter 4: Tenses

TENSES

In English, there are 3 basic tenses - Present, Past and Future. The following showswhat each form of the tense indicates:

Perfect Form Completed ActionContinuous Form Ongoing ActionPerfect Continuous Form Ongoing Action that will be completed at a

definite time

Simple Forms Continuous Forms Perfect Forms Perfect Continuous Forms

Present take/s am/is/are taking have/has taken have/has been taking

Past took was/were taking had taken had been taking

Future will/shall take will be taking will have taken will have been taking

Lets take a look:

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SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

I sing

How do we make the Simple Present Tense?

subject + auxiliary verb + main verb

do base

There are three important exceptions:

1. For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.

2. For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or es to theauxiliary.

3. For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions andnegatives.

Look at these examples with the main verb like:

subject auxiliary verb main verb

+I, you, we, they like coffee.

He, she, it likes coffee.

-I, you, we, they do not like coffee.

He, she, it does not like coffee.

?Do I, you, we, they like coffee?

Does he, she, it like coffee?

Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary:

subject main verb

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+ Iam French.

You, we, they are French.

He, she, it is French.

-

I am not old.

You, we, they are not old.

He, she, it is not old.

? Am I late?

Are you, we, they late?

Is he, she, it late?

How do we use the Simple Present Tense?

We use the simple present tense when:

the action is general

the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future the action is not only happening now the statement is always true

John drives a taxi.

past present future

It is John's job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and future.

Look at these examples:

I live in New York. The Moon goes round the Earth. John drives a taxi. He does not drive a bus. We do not work at night.

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Do you play football?

Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for situations

that are not general. We can use the simple present tense to talk about now. Look atthese examples of the verb "to be" in the simple present tensesome of them aregeneral, some of them are now:

Am I right?Tara is not at home.

You are happy.

past present future

The situation is now.

I am not fat.Why are you so beautiful?

Ram is tall.

past present future

The situation is general. Past, present and future.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

I am singing

We often use the present continuous tense in English. It is very different from thesimple present tense, both in structure and in use.

In this lesson we look the structure and use of the present continuous tense

How do we make the Present Continuous Tense?

The structure of the present continuous tense is:


be base + ing


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subjectauxiliary verb main verb

+ I am speaking to you.

+ You are reading this.

- She is not staying in London.

- We are not playing football.

? Is he watching TV?

? Are they waiting for John?

How do we use the Present Continuous Tense?

We use the present continuous tense to talk about:

action happening now action in the future

Present continuous tense for action happening now

a) for action happening exactly now

I am eating my lunch.

past present future

The action is happening

now.

Look at these examples. Right now you are looking at this screen and at the sametime...

...the pages are turning. ...the candle is burning. ...the numbers are spinning.

b) for action happening around now

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The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and justafter now, and it is not permanent or habitual


Muriel is learning to drive. I am living with my sister until I find an apartment.

Present continuous tense for the future

We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the futureif we add afuture word!! We must add (or understand from the context) a future word. "Futurewords" include, for example, tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. Weonly use the present continuous tense to talk about the future when we have plannedto do something before we speak. We have already made a decision and a plan beforespeaking.

I am taking my exam next month.

past present future

A firm plan or programme

exists now.The action is in the future.


We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the table.. They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working. When are you starting your new job?

In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before speaking. The decisionand plan were made before speaking.

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John is going out with Mary.

past present future

The action is happening

around now.


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How do we spell the Present Continuous Tense?

We make the present continuous tense by adding -ing to the base verb. Normally it'ssimplewe just add -ing. But sometimes we have to change the word a little. Perhapswe double the last letter, or we drop a letter. Here are the rules to help you knowhow to spell the present continuous tense.

Basic rule Just add -ing to the base verb:

work > working

play > playing

assist > assisting

see > seeing

be > being

Exception 1 If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant,

double the last letter:s t o p

consonantstressedvowel

consonant

(vowels = a, e, i, o, u)

stop > stopping

run > running

begin > beginning

Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable of thebase verb is not stressed:

open > opening

Exception 2 If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y:

lie > lying

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die> dying

Exception 3 If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the e:

come > coming

mistake > mistaking

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

I have sung

The present perfect tense is a rather important tense in English, but it gives speakersof some languages a difficult time. That is because it uses concepts or ideas that donot exist in those languages. In fact, the structure of the present perfect tense is verysimple. The problems come with the use of the tense. In addition, there are somedifferences in usage between British and American English.

In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the present perfect

How do we make the Present Perfect Tense?

The structure of the present perfect tense is:


have past participle

Here are some examples of the present perfect tense:


+ I have seen ET.

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+ Youhave eaten mine.

- She has not been to Rome.

- We have not played football.

? Have you finished?

? Have they done it?

Contractions with the present perfect tense

When we use the present perfect tense in speaking, we usually contract the subjectand auxiliary verb. We also sometimes do this when we write.

I have I've

You have You've

He hasShe hasIt hasJohn hasThe car has

He'sShe'sIt'sJohn'sThe car's

We have We've

They have They've

Here are some examples:

I've finished my work. John's seen ET. They've gone home.

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How do we use the Present Perfect Tense?

This tense is called the present perfect tense. There is always a connection with the

past and with the present. There are basically three uses for the present perfecttense:

1. experience2. change3. continuing situation

1. Present perfect tense for experience

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the past. Weare not interested in when you did something. We only want to know ifyou did it:

I have seen ET.He has lived in Bangkok.

Have you been there?We have never eaten caviar.

past present future

The action or state was inthe past.

In my head, I have amemory now.

Connection with past: the event was in the past.

Connection with present: in my head, now, I have a memory of the event; I knowsomething about the event; I have experience of it.

2. Present perfect tense for change

We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new information:

I have bought a car.

past present future

- +

Last week I didn't have acar.

Now I have a car.

John has broken his leg.

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pastpresent future

+ -

Yesterday John had a goodleg.

Now he has a bad leg.

Has the price gone up?

past present future

+ -

Was the price $1.50

yesterday?Is the price $1.70 today?

The police have arrested the killer.

past present future

- +

Yesterday the killer wasfree.

Now he is in prison.

Connection with past: the past is the opposite of the present.Connection with present: the present is the opposite of the past.

3. Present perfect tense for continuing situation

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation. This is astate that started in the past and continues in the present (and will probably continueinto the future). This is a state (not an action). We usually use for or since with thisstructure.

I have worked here since June.He has been ill for 2 days.

How long have you known Tara?

past present future

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The situation started in thepast.

It continues up to now.(It will probably continue

into the future.)

Connection with past: the situation started in the past.Connection with present: the situation continues in the present.

For & Since with Present Perfect Tense

We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.

We use for to talk about a period of time5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years. We use since to talk about a point in past time9 o'clock, 1st January,

Monday.

for since

a period of time a point in past time

x------------

20 minutes 6.15pm

three days Monday

6 months January

4 years 1994

2 centuries 1800

a long time I left school

ever the beginning of time

etc etc

Here are some examples:

I have been here for 20 minutes. I have been here since 9 o'clock. John hasn't called for 6 months. John hasn't called since February. He has worked in New York for a long time.

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He has worked in New York since he left school.

SIMPLE PAST TENSE

I sang

The simple past tense is sometimes called the preterite tense. We can use severaltenses to talk about the past, but the simple past tense is the one we use most often.

In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the simple past tense

How do we make the Simple Past Tense?

To make the simple past tense, we use:

past form onlyor

auxiliary did + base form

Here you can see examples of the past form and base form for irregular verbs andregular verbs:

V1base

V2past

V3past participle

regularverb

workexplodelike

workedexplodedliked

workedexplodedliked

The past form for allregular verbs ends in-ed.

irregularverb

goseesing

wentsawsang

goneseensung

The past form forirregular verbs isvariable. You need to

learn it by heart.

You do not need the pastparticiple form to make thesimple past tense. It is shownhere for completeness only.

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The structure for positive sentences in the simple past tense is:

subject + main verb

past

The structure for negative sentences in the simple past tense is:

subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb

did base

The structure for question sentences in the simple past tense is:

auxiliary verb + subject + main verb

did base

The auxiliary verb did is not conjugated. It is the same for all persons (I did, you did,he did etc). And the base form and past form do not change. Look at these exampleswith the main verbs go and work:


+I went to school.

You worked very hard.

-She did not go with me.

We did not work yesterday.

?Did you go to London?

Did they work at home?

Exception! The verb to be is different. We conjugate the verb to be (I was, you were,he/she/it was, we were, they were); and we do not use an auxiliary for negative andquestion sentences. To make a question, we exchange the subject and verb. Look at

these examples:

subject main verb

+I, he/she/it was here.

You, we, they were in London.

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- I, he/she/itwas not there.

You, we, they were not happy.

?Was I, he/she/it right?

Were you, we, they late?

How do we use the Simple Past Tense?

We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situationan eventin thepast. The event can be short or long.

Here are some short events with the simple past tense:

The car exploded at 9.30am yesterday.She went to the door.

We did not hear the telephone.Did you see that car?

past present future

The action is in the past.

Here are some long events with the simple past tense:

I lived in Bangkok for 10 years.The Jurassic period lasted about 62 million years.

We did not sing at the concert.Did you watch TV last night?

past present future

The action is in the past.

Notice that it does not matter how long ago the event is: it can be a few minutes orseconds in the past, or millions of years in the past. Also it does not matter how longthe event is. It can be a few milliseconds (car explosion) or millions of years (Jurassicperiod). We use the simple past tense when:

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the event is in the past the event is completely finished we say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event

Here are some more examples:

I lived in that house when I was young. He didn't like the movie. What did you eat for dinner? John drove to London on Monday. Mary did not go to work yesterday.

Did you play tennis last week? I was at work yesterday. We were not late (for the train). Were you angry?

Note that when we tell a story, we usually use the simple past tense. We may use thepast continuous tense to "set the scene", but we almost always use the simple pasttense for the action. Look at this example of the beginning of a story:

"The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was pouring down. It wascold. The door opened and James Bond entered. He took off his coat, which wasvery wet, and ordered a drink at the bar. He sat down in the corner of the lounge

and quietly drank his..."

PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

I was singing

The past continuous tense is an important tense in English. We use it to say what wewere in the middle of doing at a particular moment in the past.

In this lesson we look at the structure and the use of the past continuouse tense

How do we make the Past Continuous Tense?

The structure of the past continuous tense is:

subject + auxiliary verb BE + main verb

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conjugated in simple past tense

present participle

waswere

base + ing

For negative sentences in the past continuous tense, we insert not between theauxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject andauxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past continuous tense:


+ I was watching TV.

+ You were working hard.

- He, she, it was not helping Mary.

- We were not joking.

? Were you being silly?

? Were they playing football?

How do we use the Past Continuous Tense?

The past continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the past. Theaction started before that moment but has not finished at that moment. For example,yesterday I watched a film on TV. The film started at 7pm and finished at 9pm.

At 8pm yesterday, I was watching TV.

past present future

8pm

At 8pm, I was in themiddle of watching TV.

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When we use the past continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understandswhat time we are talking about. Look at these examples:

I was working at 10pm last night. They were not playing football at 9am this morning.

What were you doing at 10pm last night? What were you doing when he arrived? She was cooking when I telephoned her. We were having dinner when it started to rain. Ram went home early because it was snowing.

We often use the past continuous tense to "set the scene" in stories. We use it todescribe the background situation at the moment when the action begins. Often, thestory starts with the past continuous tense and then moves into the simple past tense.Here is an example:

James Bond was driving through town. It was raining. The wind was blowing hard.Nobody was walking in the streets. Suddenly, Bond saw the killer in a telephonebox..."

Past Continuous Tense + Simple Past Tense

We often use the past continuous tense with the simple past tense. We use the pastcontinuous tense to express a long action. And we use the simple past tense to expressa short action that happens in the middle of the long action. We can join the twoideas with when or while.

In the following example, we have two actions:

1. long action (watching TV), expressed with past continuous tense2. short action (telephoned), expressed with simple past tense

past present future

Long action.

I was watching TV at 8pm.

8pm

You telephoned at 8pm.

Short action.

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We can join these two actions with when:

I was watching TV when you telephoned.

(Notice that "when you telephoned" is also a way of defining the time [8pm].)

We use:

when + short action (simple past tense) while + long action (past continuous tense)

There are four basic combinations:

I was walking past the car when it exploded.

When the car exploded I was walking past it.

The car exploded while I was walking past it.

While I was walking past the car it exploded.

Notice that the long action and short action are relative.

"Watching TV" took a few hours. "Telephoned" took a few seconds. "Walking past the car" took a few seconds. "Exploded" took a few milliseconds

PAST PERFECT TENSE

I had sung

The past perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and to use. This tensetalks about the "past in the past".

In this lesson we look at:

How do we make the Past Perfect Tense?

The structure of the past perfect tense is:

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subject + auxiliary verb HAVE+ main verb

conjugated in simple past tense

past participle

had V3

For negative sentences in the past perfect tense, we insert not between the auxiliaryverb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliaryverb. Look at these example sentences with the past perfect tense:


+ I had finished my work.

+ You had stopped before me.

- She had not gone to school.

- We had not left.

? Had you arrived?

? Had they eaten dinner?

When speaking with the past perfect tense, we often contract the subject andauxiliary verb:

I had I'd

you had you'd

he hadshe hadit had

he'dshe'dit'd

we had we'd

they had they'd

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The 'd contraction is also used for the auxiliary verb would. For example, we'd canmean:

We hador

We would

But usually the main verb is in a different form, for example:

We had arrived (past participle) We would arrive (base)

It is always clear from the context.

How do we use the Past Perfect Tense?

The past perfect tense expresses action in the past before another action in the past.This is the past in the past. For example:

The train left at 9am. We arrived at 9.15am. When we arrived, the train hadleft.

The train had left when we arrived.

past present future

Train leaves in past at9am.

9 9.15

We arrive in past at9.15am.

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Look at some more examples:

I wasn't hungry. I had just eaten. They were hungry. They had not eaten for five hours. I didn't know who he was. I had never seen him before. "Mary wasn't at home when I arrived."

"Really? Where had she gone?"

You can sometimes think of the past perfect tense like the present perfect tense, butinstead of the time being now the time is past.

past perfect tense present perfect tense

had |done |

> |

have |done |

> |

past now future past now future

For example, imagine that you arrive at the station at 9.15am. The stationmaster saysto you:

"You are too late. The train has left."

Later, you tell your friends:

"We were too late. The train had left."

We often use the past perfect tense in reported speech after verbs like said, told,asked, thought, wondered:


He told us that the train had left. I thought I had met her before, but I was wrong. He explained that he had closed the window because of the rain. I wondered if I had been there before. I asked them why they had not finished.

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For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we contract with won't, like this:

I will not I won't

you will not you won't

he will notshe will notit will not

he won'tshe won'tit won't

we will not we won't

they will not they won't

How do we use the Simple Future Tense?

No Plan

We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do somethingbefore we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking. Look atthese examples:

Hold on. I'll get a pen. We will see what we can do to help you. Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.

In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at thetime of speaking.

We often use the simple future tense with the verb to think before it:

I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow. I think I will have a holiday next year. I don't think I'll buy that car.

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Prediction

We often use the simple future tense to make a prediction about the future. Again,

there is no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are someexamples:

It will rain tomorrow. People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century. Who do you think will get the job?

Be

When the main verb is be, we can use the simple future tense even if we have a firmplan or decision before speaking. Examples:

I'll be in London tomorrow. I'm going shopping. I won't be very long. Will you be at work tomorrow?

FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

I will be singing

How do we make the Future Continuous Tense?

The structure of the future continuous tense is:

subject + auxiliary verb WILL + auxiliary verb BE + main verb

invariable

invariable

present participle

will be base + ing

For negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we insert not between will and

be. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and will. Look at these examplesentences with the future continuous tense:

subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb

+ I will be working at 10am.

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+ You willbe lying on a beach tomorrow.

- She will not be using the car.

- We will not be having dinner at home.

? Will you be playing football?

? Will they be watching TV?

When we use the future continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subjectand will:

I will I'll

you will you'll

he willshe willit will

he'llshe'llit'll

we will we'll

they will they'll

For spoken negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we contract with won't,like this:

I will not I won't

you will not you won't

he will notshe will notit will not

he won'tshe won'tit won't

we will not we won't

they will not they won't

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How do we use the Future Continuous Tense?

The future continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the future.

The action will start before that moment but it will not have finished at that moment.For example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm and stop work at 6pm:

At 4pm tomorrow, I will be working.

past present future

4pm

At 4pm, I will be in the

middle of working.

When we use the future continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understandswhat time we are talking about. Look at these examples:

I will be playing tennis at 10am tomorrow. They won't be watching TV at 9pm tonight. What will you be doing at 10pm tonight? What will you be doing when I arrive? She will not be sleeping when you telephone her. We 'll be having dinner when the film starts. Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

I will have sung

The future perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and use. The futureperfect tense talks about the past in the future.

How do we make the Future Perfect Tense?

The structure of the future perfect tense is:

subject + auxiliary verb WILL + auxiliary verb HAVE + main verb

invariable invariable past participle

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willhave V3

Look at these example sentences in the future perfect tense:

subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb

+ I will have finished by 10am.

+ You will have forgotten me by then.

- She will not have gone to school.

- We will not have left.

? Will you have arrived?

? Will they have received it?

In speaking with the future perfect tense, we often contract the subject and will.Sometimes, we contract the subject, will and have all together:

I will have I'll have I'll've

you will have you'll have you'll've

he will haveshe will haveit will have

he'll haveshe'll haveit'll have

he'll'veshe'll'veit'll've

we will have we'll have we'll've

they will have they'll have they'll've

How do we use the Future Perfect Tense?

The future perfect tense expresses action in the future before another action in thefuture. This is the past in the future. For example:

The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at9.15am. When you arrive, the train will have left.

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The train will have left when you arrive.

past present future

Train leaves in future at

9am.

9 9.15

You arrive in future at9.15am.

Look at some more examples:

You can call me at work at 8am. I will have arrived at the office by 8.

They will be tired when they arrive. They will not have slept for a long time. "Mary won't be at home when you arrive."

"Really? Where will she have gone?"

You can sometimes think of the future perfect tense like the present perfect tense,but instead of your viewpoint being in the present, it is in the future:

present perfect tense future perfect tense

|have |done |

> |

will |have |done |

> |

past now future past now future

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ExercisesTenses Practise:

1. Alex didn't come to see the film last night because he _____ it before. saw had seen has seen was seen

2. A cold wind _____ for the last three days. has been blowing Blows is blowing Blew

3. I _____ as ill as I do now for a long time. wasn't feeling haven't been feeling didn't feel haven't felt

4. I wish I _____ younger. had been would be Were have been

5. She said she _____ to me, but she didn't. would have written will have written would write will write

6. If he _____ lucky, he could get the job. is had been would be would have been

7. She told him that if he _____ his promise, she _____ speak to him again. break - would never break - will never broke - will never

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broke - would never

8. You _____ a six-month contract, when you are offered a permanent positionelsewhere. What will you do? have just started had started were starting Started

9. I'll see you in August when I _____ back. will come came will have come come

10.They claimed they _____ the law. haven't broken were not breaking hadn't broken wouldn't breaking

11.My friend _____ when the lesson started. hasn't arrived wasn't arrived hadn't arrived wasn't arriving

12.He _____ on the bank fishing when he _____ a man's hat floating down theriver.

has sat - had seen was sitting - saw sat - was seeing was sitting - has seen

13.July 10th is my wedding anniversary. Next month, my husband and I will _____for twenty years. marry have married be married have been married

14.Who _____ the boss tell him that?

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did hear does hear hears heard

15.Something extremely strange _____ yesterday while we were out jogging. was happened happened has been happening has happened

16.I _____ this letter around for days and haven't even looked at it. carry have been carrying am carrying was carrying

17.Ouch! I _____ my thumb! have cut am to cut had cut had been cut

18.I _____ the flowers yesterday morning. have been watering watered have watered did watered

19.As soon as you _____ that, I'd like you to go to bed. did will do will have done have done

20.By then I _____ my driving test, I hope. pass will have passed will be passed have passed

More Exercise

1. The red file_________ to me. Yours is the grey one. (BELONG)

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2. Look at that car! It _______ too fast. (GO)

3. If you wait here, the Director_______ you in a minute. (SEE)

4. At the moment he _______ to travel to Brussels on business every day. (HAVE)

5. When the courier _______ back, please give him the pack. (COME)

6. She _______well attend the conference, she is not sure. (MAY)

7. I _______ with this supplier for over a year now . (DEAL)

8. They _______ in Leeds from 1995 until 1999. (WORK)

9. We _______ to Greece on holiday last summer. (GO)

10. If I _______ in charge now, I would change the Managing Director. (BE)

The usage of For/Since :

Usually we use the wordforwith the Perfect tense. For example:1. I have studied for 3 hours.2. I had/have lived there for 10 years.

Usually we use the word Since with the continuous tense.

For example:1. I have been studying since the morning.2. I have been living here since 1994.

Fill in the blanks with either For/Since:

1. Ive worked here _______ I left Harvard Business School.

2. You should visit the Empire State Building _________ you are in New York.

3. Ive been looking at these documents ______________ you were at the

meeting.

4. Ive been jogging daily _____________ the last two years.

5. Could you hold on _____a few minutes while I check this with my boss?

6. Its all been going much better _______ we reorganized the department.

7. Theyll be stuck in customs awaiting clearance ________ at least three weeks.

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8. Its gone much better ______ John was sacked.

9. We hope you will stay with us _______ a long time.

10. Ive worked here ______ ten years.

11. Ive lived here _________ six years.

12. Ive been ill _______ last night.

13. I have known about that _________ yesterday.

14. My family has lived in this house ________ over a century.

15. Ive been in my job ________ September

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Chapter 6: Active Passive

Writers are often advised to use active verbs because they are more direct, moreemphatic, and more concise than passive verbs. Passive verbs are necessary, however,when writers do not know the "doer" of the verb, the "doer" of the verb is notimportant, or there are too many "doers" of the same verb.

Active Form

In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and thething receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active.

[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]

Examples:

Passive Form

In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence andthe thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You canuse the passive form if you think that the thing receiving the action is more importantor should be emphasized. You can also use the passive form if you do not know who isdoing the action or if you do not want to mention who is doing the action.

[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doingaction]

Examples:

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Active / Passive Overview

Active Passive

SimplePresent

Once a week, Tom cleans thehouse.

Once a week, the house is cleanedby Tom.

PresentContinuous

Right now, Sarah is writing theletter.

Right now, the letter is beingwritten by Sarah.

Simple Past Sam repaired the car. The car was repaired by Sam.

Past

Continuous

The salesman was helping the

customer when the thief cameinto the store.

The customer was being helped by

the salesman when the thief cameinto the store.

PresentPerfect

Many tourists have visited thatcastle.

That castle has been visited bymany tourists.

Past Perfect George had repaired many carsbefore he received hismechanic's license.

Many cars had been repaired byGeorge before he received hismechanic's license.

Past Perfect

Continuous

Chef Jones had been preparing

the restaurant's fantastic dinnersfor two years before he movedto Paris.

The restaurant's fantastic dinners

had been being prepared by ChefJones for two years before hemoved to Paris.

Simple FutureWILL

Someone will finish the work by5:00 PM.

The work will be finished by 5:00PM.

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Simple FutureBEGOINGTO

Sally is going to make a

A beautiful dinner is going to bemade by Sally tonight.

FutureContinuousWILL

At 8:00 PM tonight, John will bewashing the dishes. At 8:00 PM tonight, the disheswill

be being washed by John.

FutureContinuousBEGOINGTO

At 8:00 PM tonight, John is goingto be washing the dishes.

At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes aregoing to be being washed by John.

FuturePerfectWILL

They will have completed theproject before the deadline.

The project will have beencompleted before the deadline.

FuturePerfectBEGOINGTO

They are going to havecompleted the project beforethe deadline.

The project is going to have beencompleted before the deadline.

Used to Jerry used to pay the bills. The bills used to be paid by Jerry.

Would Always My mother would always makethe pies.

The pies would always be made bymy mother.

Future in the

PastWOULD

I knew John would finish the

work by 5:00 PM.

I knew the work would be finished

by 5:00 PM.

Future in thePastWAS GOINGTO

I thought Sally was going tomake a beautiful dinner tonight.

I thought a beautiful dinner wasgoing to be made by Sally tonight.

Active Voice

In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in theverb; the subject acts.

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In each example above, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed inthe verb.

Passive Voice

In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in theverb; the subject is acted upon. The agent performing the action may appear in a "bythe . . ." phrase or may be omitted.

(agent performing action has been omitted.)

Sometimes the use of passive voice can create awkward sentences, as in the lastexample above.

Also, overuse of passive voice throughout an essay can cause your prose to seem flatand uninteresting.

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In scientific writing, however, passive voice is more readily accepted since using itallows one to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particularresearchers as the subjects of sentences (see the third example above). This practicehelps to create the appearance of an objective, fact-based discourse because writerscan present research and conclusions without attributing them to particular agents.Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not limited or biased byindividual perspectives or personal interests.

You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb phrase will alwaysinclude a form of be, such as am, is, was, were, are, or been. The presence of a be-verb, however, does not necessarily mean that the sentence is in passive voice.Another way to recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may include a "bythe..." phrase after the verb; the agent performing the action, if named, is the objectof the preposition in this phrase.

Choosing Active Voice

In most nonscientific writing situations, active voice is preferable to passive for themajority of your sentences. Even in scientific writing, overuse of passive voice or useof passive voice in long and complicated sentences can cause readers to lose interestor to become confused. Sentences in active voice are generally--though not always--clearer and more direct than those in passive voice.

passive (indirect) active (direct):

Sentences in active voice are also more concise than those in passive voice becausefewer words are required to express action in active voice than in passive.

passive (more wordy) active (more concise)

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Changing passive to active

If you want to change a passive-voice sentence to active voice, find the agent in a "bythe..." phrase, or consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed inthe verb. Make that agent the subject of the sentence, and change the verb

accordingly. Sometimes you will need to infer the agent from the surroundingsentences which provide context.

Passive Voice Agent Changed to Active Voice

most of the class

agent notspecified; most

likely agents

such as "theresearchers"

the CIA directorand his close

advisors

agent notspecified; most

likely agentssuch as "we"

Choosing Passive Voice

While active voice helps to create clear and direct sentences, sometimes writers findthat using an indirect expression is rhetorically effective in a given situation, so theychoose passive voice. Also, as mentioned above, writers in the sciences conventionally

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use passive voice more often than writers in other discourses. Passive voice makessense when the agent performing the action is obvious, unimportant, or unknown orwhen a writer wishes to postpone mentioning the agent until the last part of thesentence or to avoid mentioning the agent at all. The passive voice is effective in suchcircumstances because it highlights the action and what is acted upon rather than theagent performing the action.

Active passive

The dispatcher is notifying police thatthree prisoners have escaped.

Police are being notifiedthat three prisonershave escaped.

Surgeons successfullyperformeda newexperimental liver-transplant operationyesterday.

A new experimental liver-transplantoperation was performedsuccessfullyyesterday.

"Authorities make rules to be broken," hesaid defiantly.

"Rules are made to be broken," he saiddefiantly.

In each of these examples, the passive voice makes sense because the agent isrelatively unimportant compared to the action itself and what is acted upon .

Changing active to passive

If you want to change an active-voice sentence to passive voice, consider carefullywho or what is performing the action expressed in the verb, and then make that agent

the object of a "by the..." phrase. Make what is acted upon the subject of thesentence, and change the verb to a form of be + past participle. Including an explicit"by the..." phrase is optional.

Active Voice Agent Changed to Passive Voice

Thepresidingofficer

Theleaders

Thescientists

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In each of these examples, the passive voice is useful for highlighting the action andwhat is acted upon instead of the agent.

Some suggestions

1. Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then shifting to passive.

Unnecessary shift in voice Revised

Many customers in the restaurantfoundthe coffee too bitter to drink,but it was still orderedfrequently.

Many customers in the restaurantfoundthecoffee too bitter to drink, but they still orderedit frequently.

He triedto act cool when he slippedin the puddle, but he was stilllaughed at by the other students.

He triedto act cool when he slipped in thepuddle, but the other students still laughed athim.

2. Avoid dangling modifiers caused by the use of passive voice. A dangling modifier is aword or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence.

Dangling modifier with passive voice Revised

To save time, the paper was written

on a computer. (Who was saving time?The paper?)

To save time, Kristin wrote the paper on acomputer.

Seeking to lay off workers withouttaking the blame, consultants werehiredto break the bad news. Who wasseeking to lay off workers? Theconsultants?)

Seeking to lay off workers without taking theblame, the CEO hiredconsultants to break thebad news.

3. Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in word-processing software. Many

grammar checkers flag all passive constructions, but you may want to keep some thatare flagged. Trust your judgment, or ask another human being for their opinion aboutwhich sentence sounds best.

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Practice Exercises

Everybody ___ by the terrible news yesterday.

shocked

was shocked

Mr. Green ___ at the University since 1989.

has been teaching

has been taught

Not much ___ about the accident since that time.

has said

has been said

A new book ___ by that company next year.

will publish

will be published

He ___ the girl's name now.

remembers

is remembered

The secretary ___ to her new boss yesterday.

introduced

was introduced

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Our plan ___ by the members of the committee.

is being considered

is considered He ___ responsible for the accident.

was holding

was held

A prize ___ to whoever solves this equation.

will be giving

will be given

When the manager arrived, the problem ___ .

had already been solved.

had already solved

More Practice

Change into Passive

1. I ate a piece of chocolate cake.2. The librarian read the book to the students3. The money was stolen4. They are paid on Fridays5. The movie is being made in Hollywood6. I washed my car three weeks ago7. His hair was cut by a professional8. I will introduce you to my boss this week.9. It would have been fixed on the weekend10. The national anthem is being sung by Jason this time

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Chapter 7: Punctuation

Apostrophe:

The apostrophe is used to indicate the possessive case of nouns and indefinitepronouns; to mark character omissions in contracted words and dates; and to form theplurals of symbols, abbreviations, and some dates and numbers.

1. Possessives:

Use ansto indicate possession for a singular noun.

o Sarah's coat is black.

When more than one noun can demonstrate possession of an item, use the 's on thelast noun in the list.

o Joe and Linda's house is being sold.

To demonstrate individual possession of similar items, apply thes to each noun.

o Mike's and Molly's grades have improved.

Singular nouns that are longer than one syllable and end ins, or ce may have eitheran apostrophe or an 's to designate possession. If the noun is only one syllable long,however, it must end in 's.

o Louis'candy is sticky.

o Ross's cat is mean.

When a singular noun ends in s and the next word begins with an s, use theapostrophe to indicate possession.

o Denis'sweet tooth is legendary.

If the plural noun ends ins, only the apostrophe is needed to indicate possession.

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o George is at the teachers'meeting.

If a noun ends with repeated s or zsounds, or an eez sound, use only the apostropheto indicate possession.

o Moses'mother hid him in the bulrushes.

o Louise'tooth hurts her.

Do not use an apostrophe or an 's with possessive pronouns.

o Sheila, whoseeyes are blue, wears green contacts.

You must use 's to indicate possession for an indefinite or an impersonal pronoun.

o I need someone's help with my homework.

When using compound nouns, put the 's on the noun closest to the object to indicatepossession.

o The Surgeon General's report is due soon.

Often, names of places or institutions will not use the apostrophe to designatepossession.

o He attendedJohns Hopkins University.

2. Contractions:

Contractions of words and dates can appear in informal writing. Use an apostrophe toindicate the place where characters have been omitted.

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o She wouldn't work for thegov't. in '93.

Omit the apostrophe in abbreviated names and titles.

o Lt. Wm. Jones visited us.

3.Plurals:

No apostrophe is needed when a word reflects its meaning in a sentence.

o Don't give me any ifs, ands, or buts.

However, when the word is referred to only as a word, add an 's for clarity.

o He used twenty-five and's in one paragraph.

Dates, numbers, and acronyms that end with an upper case letter do not require anapostrophe with the s.

o Seven Ph.D.s lived in this building in the 1970s.

If the plural of an upper case letter could be misunderstood, use an 's to form theplural.

o The Roman Numerals for the number eight is a V followed by three I's.

Comma:

The comma is used to connect, separate, or highlight grammatical elements, and toindicate the omission of words or characters in sentences.

1.Connecting Elements:

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The comma is used before the coordinating conjunction when a sentence containsmore than one main clause. The coordinating conjunctions are and, or, but, yet, for,nor,and so (i.e., therefore).

o He painted the exterior of the house, andshe painted the interior.

2. Separating Elements:

Use the comma to separate two or more coordinate modifying words. Be careful not toseparate a modifying word from its own modifier.

o Sam looked up at the bright, yellowsun.

o He ate a bright redapple.

Place a comma between an introductory phrase that modifies the subject, unless thephrase is short.

o While waiting for the bus on that cold rainy night, she started sneezing.

o At 10 o'clock the bus arrived.

Place commas before and after Jr., Sr., Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S., Inc., and similar

designations, unless the designation is genitive.

o They identified him as Howard R. Williams, Jr.,chairman of their board.

o That is Howard R. Williams, Jr.'s company.

A comma separates an imperative or declarative clause from its tag question.

o Do it, won't you?

o You know the answer, don't you?

An adverb or adverb phrase that begins a sentence must be followed by a comma if it

serves as a link to the previous sentence.

o She believed he had the talent to succeed. Unfortunately, he was lazy.

Place a comma before the final and, or, or norwhen it is part of a list of three ormore words, phrases, or other members of a list.

o He promised to supply thepencils, pens, and notebooks for the class.

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Place a comma between words, phrases, or figures that would otherwise beambiguous.

o That she knew where the money was, was news to me.

Use commas to separate direct quotations from the rest of the sentence.

o Maggie frowned and said, "You can't do that."

o "Perhaps,"Tom responded, "I will try anyway."

Place a comma after the name of someone being addressed.

o George, put out the garbage.

3. Highlighting Elements:

Use commas to set off interjected words, phrases, or clauses.

o He knew, however,that no one would listen to his warning.

o No, you may not come with us.

Words or phrases used in contrast should be set off with commas.

o Jane, not Shirley, will attend the meeting.

Set off nonrestrictive words or phrases with commas.

o Her husband, Bill, is a scientist.

4. Replacing Elements:

When a word or phrase is missing from a sentence because its meaning can beinferred, a comma marks the omission.

o George was the hard worker;John, the lazy one.

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Ellipses:

Ellipses are a series of dots used to indicate the omission of words or paragraphs fromquoted material. They can also be used to indicate hesitant speech.

1. Word Omission:

When words are omitted from the beginning of a quotation, three periods are used asthe ellipses. If the quotation begins in the middle of a sentence, the first word afterthe ellipses will be in lower case.

". . . into that good night."

When words are omitted in the middle of the quotation, the ellipses appear as threeperiods to mark the omission.

He agreed that prices were . . . reasonable.

If the omitted words appear at the end of a sentence, four periods are used.

She disagreed with the decision . . . .

2. Paragraph Omission:

The omission of one or more paragraphs is designated by ellipses in the form of asingle row of periods.

o This is paragraph 1.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


If the paragraph preceding the omitted one ends in the middle, use four periods toindicate the omission of the remaining words.

o This is . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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If the paragraph following the omitted one starts in the middle, use three periods toindicate the omission opening words of the paragraph.


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

o . . .is paragraph 3.

3. Speech Hesitation:

The ellipses may be used between words to indicate where the natural flow of speechhas been interrupted.

o Clutching at his throat, he gasped, " Help. . .help me."

Italics:Italics can be used to print titles of complete works, to emphasize specific parts of awritten passage, or to highlight unfamiliar words that may require some definition.

1. Titles:

Italics can be used for the titles of complete works, such as books, magazines, orplays.

o TheJournal of the American Medical Associationis on your desk.

Italics can also be used for the abbreviated titles of complete works.

o TheJAMAcontains reports on medical research.

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2. Emphasis:

Certain words may be printed in italics to emphasize a point.

o Maintaining normal blood pressure is extremelyimportant.

3. Unfamiliar Words:

Scientific words and foreign words not yet included in our vernacular are often set offin italics.

o The Escherichia coli 0157 is considered deadly.

Period:

Periods are used to end sentences; to signal the omission of words, sentences, orparagraphs; to form leaders that link information; and to end abbreviations. They alsoserve several different functions when used with numbers.

1. Ending Sentences:

Use the period to end declarative and imperative sentences. Some interrogativesentences that are intended as imperatives may also end in a period.

o The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog.

o Since when am I supposed to believe this.

It ends a quotation when it also ends the sentence, but not when the quote ends in themiddle of the sentence

2. Omissions:

The omission of words, sentences, or paragraphs may be indicated by a string ofperiods (see Ellipses).

3. Links:

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A string of periods may also be leaders, for example, to locate page numbers afterheadings in a Table of Contents:

o Chapter 2...........................................................page 30.

4. Abbreviations:

A period may be found after an abbreviation, after each letter of a person's initials,and within some acronyms.

o Mr. Jones will see you now.

o On the plaque were the initials W.R.K.

o The Rosicrucians are identified by the acronymA.M.O.R.C.

5. Numbers:

A period can indicate the multiplication function in mathematical expressions.

o 3 . 5 means 3 times 5.

It is also used to separate dollars from cents in monetary expressions.

o $13.50

Similarly, periods can be used to indicate decimal points.

o 11.9%, 25.3 C

The period is commonly found terminating numbers or letters tabulating a list.

o 1.(item 1)

o 2. (item 2)

Quotation Marks:

Quotation marks enclose direct quotations, titles, technical terms, nicknames, andselected words for emphasis.

1. Direct Quotations:

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Short quotations are enclosed within a paragraph. If a dialogue between severalpeople is being quoted, a new paragraph begins each time the speaker changes.

o "Did you do it?"he asked.o "No,"she replied.

Quoted material is usually set off from the rest of a sentence with commas. However,if the quotation should end with an exclamation mark or a question mark, thispunctuation will be used in place of the expected comma.

o "I'm finally tired enough to get to sleep,"she yawned.

o They shouted, "Congratulations!"through the door.

If the quotation ends the sentence, the end of the quotation will contain the endingpunctuation for the sentence.

o He exclaimed, "I am the strongest man in Texas!"

If the quoted material would end with a period, but the sentence is not complete, acomma is placed at the end of the quote, inside the quotation mark.

o "I'm in here,"he whispered.

If the body of the sentence is interrogatory or exclamatory, but the quoted material isnot, and if the quotation ends the sentence, the ending punctuation is put outside thequotation mark.

o Did she really say, "I've heard it all before"?

If one quotation contains another expression that itself requires quote marks, theinner expression is enclosed in single quotation marks.

o George explained, "I heard her say, 'Go away!'so I left."

2. Titles:

Titles of articles, reports, short stories, editorials, poems, plays, and films can beplaced in quotation marks.

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o The poem "Trees"was written by Joyce Kilmer.

3. Special Words:

When quotation marks are placed around technical words, or around words that arebeing emphasized, no comma is required before the first quotation mark. If thequotation is at the end of the sentence, the appropriate ending punctuation is placedbefore the final quotation mark.

o Doctors refer to the red blemish as an "hemangioma."

Colons:

1) A colon (:) is used to introduce series or lists.

o Questionnaires were sent to three states: New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and

Maine.

o The steps are as follows:

1. Construct a triangle...

2. Connect the points...

2) A complete sentence, question, or long quotation is introduced with a colon.

o One rule is supreme: Do not fire until the order is given.

o I quote from his recent speech: "In times such as this... our only option is to

declare war.

3) A colon is used to introduce speech into a dialog, and after the introductoryaddress of a speaker.

o Father: Has he asked you yet?

o Jan: No, he hasn't asked yet.

o Ladies and Gentlemen: ...

4) Colons are used to punctuate indications of time, Bible references, volume andpage references, and ratios.

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o At exactly 5:12 this afternoon...

o Genesis 1: 13

o Sports Illustrated 12: 5-8o At a ratio of 3:1

5) Colons are used to separate the subtitle from the main part of the title.

o Homecoming: The Earth's Call

o The Troubled Partnership: A Re-appraisal of the Atlantic Alliance

Parentheses:The independent part of a sentence that is not directly related to the main statementis enclosed in parentheses.

o Three people (all in the fourth row) were talking loudly.

o The pool will be open until Labor Day. (Last year it closed August 15.)

Parentheses are used to enclose letters or numbers to count items in a series, or withnumbers or other symbols used appositively.

o She traced the development of the symphony by using examples from the worksof 1) Bach, 2) Beethoven, and 3) Mozart.

o With each order of six (6), enclose a check or money order for three dollars

($3.00).

A place name that is not part of an official name but is necessary in a sentence isenclosed in parentheses.

o The Springfield (Massachusetts) Museum shouldn't be confused as being the

Springfield (Illinois) Museum.

When the parenthetical matter is a complete statement, the punctuation comesbefore the closing parentheses.

o The pool will be open until Labor Day. (Last year it closed August 15.)

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Question Marks:

A question mark (?) is placed after a direct question.

o Where are you going?

o What are you doing?

A question mark follows an interrogative sentence even if it is part of a largersentence.

o How could he do that? I wondered.

If a declarative or imperative sentence is intended to be interrogative, the sentenceends with a question mark.

o This is what we've been waiting for?

A question mark put in between parentheses is used to indicate uncertainty.

o She said she'll return July 11(?).

Semicolons:

Items in a series are separated by a semicolon (;) when the items already contain acomma or other form of internal punctuation.

o The number of games played this season is: Green Team, 3; Blue Team, 2; andRed Team, 6.

Two independent clauses which are not joined by a conjunction are separated by asemicolon.

o The old stadiums I liked; the new ones are atrocious.

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If the clauses of a compound sentence are long or internally punctuated, a semicolon

is used between the clauses, before the conjunction.

o The girls, who had been waiting for hours for a chance to see their favorite

movie star, pushed forward when he appeared; but their disappointment was

great when he ran to his limo without even acknowledging their presence.

A semicolon is used between the independent parts of a sentence that contain commasindicating omitted words.

o In Iowa there are eight delegates; Indiana, eleven; Illinois, thirteen.

Use a semicolon preceding explanatory phrases introduced by words such asforexample, that is, or namelywhen the writer wants a stronger break than a commawould provide.

o Secretaries have many unpopular assignments; for example, typing and making

coffee.

Language & Grammar Module

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