ku...In the scholarly literature, the phenomenon of self-tracking and its equivalent labels of...
Transcript of ku...In the scholarly literature, the phenomenon of self-tracking and its equivalent labels of...
u n i ve r s i t y o f co pe n h ag e n
Self-tracking as communication
Lomborg, Stine; Frandsen, Kirsten
Published in:Information, Communication & Society
DOI:10.1080/1369118X.2015.1067710
Publication date:2016
Document versionPeer reviewed version
Citation for published version (APA):Lomborg, S., & Frandsen, K. (2016). Self-tracking as communication. Information, Communication & Society,19(7), 1015-1027. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1067710
Download date: 28. aug.. 2020
Lomborg,S.&Frandsen,K.(2016).Self-trackingascommunication.[pre-printversion]
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Citation:Lomborg,S.&Frandsen,K.(2016).Self-trackingascommunication.Information,CommunicationandSociety,19(7):1015-1027.
Self-trackingascommunication
Introduction
Intheabundantmarketofdigitalmobiletechnologiesandservices,self-tracking
services,includingdedicatedsmartphoneapplicationsandwearabletechnologiessuch
assmartwatches,wristbandsandglassesseemstoconstitutethe‘newhype’.These
technologiesallowordinaryindividualstosystematicallymonitor,documentand
analyzeanarrayofaspectsofdailylife,includingsleeppatterns,mood,calorieintake,
heartrateandphysicalexercise.Allegedly,self-trackinggrantstheindividualusermore
anddeeperself-knowledge(Wolf,2010).Asaconsequence,self-trackinghasattracteda
lotofattentionfromresearchersandpublicopinionmakersowingtoitspotentialfor
improvinglifeconditionsthroughpreemptiveactiononhealth,andasatoolofuser
empowermentvis-à-vishealthcareprofessionalsandprivateandpublicinstitutions.
Nevertheless,the‘stuff’thatistypicallytracked–exerciseanddietbeing
thedominanttrackingactivities(Fox&Duggan,2013)–referstoculturalandsocial
practicesthat,fortheindividualuser,areutterlymundaneandresideinanexperiential
realmofeverydaylife.Self-trackingactivitiesareintegratedina‘processofconfluent
spheres,meaningsandactions’(Pilgaard,2012,p.31)inwhichindividual,actsascribe
meaningtoeverydaylifeandmediatetheconditionsofworkinglife,familylifeand
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leisuretimeasawhole(Pilgaard2012,Lomborg2014).Seenfromthisperspectiveself-
trackinghastobeunderstoodinrelationtobehaviorthatispredominantlyabout
gettingthingsdoneinwaysthatarepossible,suitableandmeaningfulfortheindividual.
Aswewillargue–self-trackingisnotjustmeaningfulinarationalorinstrumental,
utilitariansense,butalsointhesenseofbeingasourceofjoyandpleasureforthe
individual.Toaccountforthemeaningsofself-tracking,weproposetoconceptualize
self-trackingasasocialandculturalpracticethatisfundamentallycommunicative:it
mirrorsandmoldstheuser(Riegeluth,2014)towardsanaudiencecomprisingtothe
veryleasttheuserherself,butoftenotherusersofagivenserviceaswell.
Giventhediffusionandfurtherdevelopmentofself-trackingtechnologiesit
becomescrucialtoelaborateourunderstandingofthisphenomenon.Ouraiminthis
articleistocontributetothisnotonlybydevelopingacertaintheoreticalperspective
centeredoncommunication,butalsobydrawingonempiricalknowledgeaboutwhat
usersactuallydowithself-tracking.Thatis,wepresentfindingsfromaqualitativestudy
onhowself-trackingispracticedandexperiencedinthecontextofexercisebydifferent
categoriesofempiricalusers.Wedemonstratethatthemeaningsofself-tracking
practices,ontheonehand,areshapedbythemotivationofanindividualuserwhois
situatedinabroaderwebofeverydayactivities.Ontheotherhand,theexperiential
valueandmeaningisnotonlyamatteroftheindividualuser,butalsostimulatedand
augmentedbycommunicativefeaturesprovidedbythetechnology.Inthatsensewe
drawuponanotionofself-trackingtechnologiesasdigitalmedia,thatpossessvarious
affordances–meaningthattheyhavecertaintechnological,aestheticandsocial
potentials,buttheyaredefinedthroughtheiractualsocialuseandthusalsoformedby
theneedsoftheusers(Hutchby,2000,2001).
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Westartbyreviewingexistingresearchonself-trackingtomapthecurrent
researchagendaandclarifythepotentialcontributionofmediaandcommunication
researchinthiscontext.Next,wedevelopatheoreticalconceptualizationofself-tracking
asacommunicativephenomenonalongthreedimensionsaddressingtherelation
betweentheuserandthetrackingtechnology,theuserandtheself,andtheuseranda
widersocialnetworkofpeers,respectively,Eachdimensioniselaboratedusing
examplesfromourempiricalstudyofexerciseandself-tracking.
Stateoftheartofresearchonself-tracking
Inthescholarlyliterature,thephenomenonofself-trackinganditsequivalentlabelsof
life-logging,personalanalytics,quantifiedself,andself-monitoring(cf.Lupton,2014)
haveparticularlybeenassociatedwithmobiledigitalmediathatindividualscarry
aroundastheygoabouttheirdailybusiness.Smartphoneapplicationsand‘wearables’
suchastheFitbitandJawboneUpwristbandslogmovements,moods,heartrates,
calorieintakeandsooneitherautomatically(i.e.throughsensorsbuiltintothe
technologies)orbyindividual,manualregistrationthroughouttheday.Whilethevery
practiceofkeepinglogofspecificaspectsoftheselfanddailylifegoeswellbeyondbits
andbytesandintoanaloguesystems(penandpaper,orsimplyhumanmemory)(Fox&
Duggan,2013),digitalmediahavecertainlyenablednew,easyandeffortlessmeansof
self-tracking.1
1Ourfocusisondigitalmedia,butthecommunicativeperspectiveweadvanceinprincipleincludesallkindsofmediausedtokeeplogoftheself,andoften,newformsofself-trackingwillhavestrongaffinitywithearlier,analogue,forms(aswillbeevidentbelow).
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Thereareveryfewexplicitdefinitionsofself-tracking.Someapproachself-
trackingfromatechnicalperspectiveanddefineself-trackingintermsofthedigital
systemsanddevicesthatallowuserstocollect,analyzeandreflectupontheirdata(e.g.,
French&Smith,2013;Li,Dey,&Jodi,2010).Othersexamineself-trackingasapractice
ofcollecting,accumulatingandmakingvisibleeverydayhabitsandbodilyreactionsin
ordertoreflectuponandregulatethese(Ruckenstein,2014:68-69;alsoSwan,2009;
Choeetal.,2014).Inthisarticle,wefollowLupton(2014)whocombinesthe
technologicalandpracticedimensionsanddefinesself-trackingastheindividual’suseof
technologytorecord,monitorandreflectuponfeaturesofdailylife.Accordingto
Lupton,self-trackingwithdigitalmediacanassumeanumberofforms,dependingon
whetherornotitisvoluntary(i.e.initiatedbyoneself)andwhetheritisaprivateor
communalpractice.
Intheresearchliteratureonself-tracking,therearethreeclearlydiscernablebodiesof
literaturewhichdifferintermsoftheirdisciplinaryembeddingandassociatedresearch
interests.Theapplicationofself-trackinghasbeenstudiedinthecontextofa)health
careandb)interactiondesignandsystemsdevelopmentresearch,andc)theimplications
ofself-trackinghavebeendiscussedunderacritical-sociologicallensintermsof
surveillance,laborandlossofprivacy.
Theapplicationofself-tracking in thehealthcaresectorhasbeenstudied
through interdisciplinary work on health informatics systems at the intersection of
computer science and health studies. This strand of research centers on how self-
trackingtechnologiesmaybeusedbycitizenstopreventandidentifyhealthissueswith
aviewtooptimizinghealthcareservicesandthesectorassuch(Swan,2009,2012).A
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key idea is that self-tracking, because of itsmaking visible patterns regarding calorie
intake, exercise, sleep, and so on, may be seen as a resource for empowering the
individualuservis-à-vishealthcareprofessionals.Bydisplayingandgivingfeedbackto
users on their health in real-time and over time, self-tracking enables ‘self-care’
(Hansen,2012),butitalsoshiftstheresponsibilityforgoodhealthfromtheprofessional
system to the individual (Lupton, 2013b). Accordingly, a number of empirical studies
haveinvestigatedhowself-trackingtechnologyisusedto‘nudge’userstochangehabits
anddevelopahealthierlifestyle,forinstance,byhelpingthemtolooseweight(Turner-
McGrievyetal.,2013;Wangetal.,2014).Otherstudieshaveexaminedtheeffectsofself-
trackingappsondiseasetreatmentmanagementforcitizenslivingwithchronicdiseases
suchasdiabetesorcancer(forareviewofsuchstudies,seeWangetal.,2014).Yetother
studies have examined self-tracking as a tool for improving communication between
patientsandhealthcareprofessionals(Chiang,Yang,&Tu,2014;Steele,2013).
Anotherstrandofcomputerscienceresearchonself-trackingfocuses
specificallyontheoptimizationandrecommendationsforthedesignofself-tracking
services,typicallybasedonstudiesoftheuserexperiencewithconcreteself-tracking
apps(e.g.,Ahtinen,Isomursu,Ramiah,&Blom,2013).Thekeyaimistoidentifyfactors
inthedesignandintheuserthatimpedeandmotivateacertainuserexperienceandan
associatedbeneficialbehavior(e.g.,Kim,2014;Kranzaetal.,2013).Forinstance,Lietal.
(2010)surveyedusers’experiencedproblemsinself-trackingsystemsanddevelopeda
stage-basedmodelfordesigningpersuasivetechnologies.Inasimilarvein,Epstein,
Cordeiro,Bales,Fogarty,andMunson(2014)testedtheuserexperienceofvisualizations
ofcomplexself-trackingdatatoidentifyvisualizationmethodsthatareintuitively
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appealingandusefulfortheself-trackingusertodiscoveropportunitiesforbehavior
change(alsoConsolvoetal.(2008)).
Thethirdbodyofresearch,associatedwithsurveillancestudiesandother
critically-informedsociologicalanalyses,hasdevelopedinresponsetowhatisperceived
asanoverlyoptimisticviewofself-trackingasempoweringandrelegating
responsibilitytotheindividual,andasaninstrumentforself-improvementthrough
closemonitoringofbodilyandothersignalsandpractices.Thispositivediscourse,itis
argued,isdominantinthehealthanddesignliteratures(e.g.,French,2013),perhaps
chieflyowingtotheirappliedresearchaim.Incontrast,criticalsociologicalanalysesof
self-trackingaremainlytheoreticalinnature,andseektouncovertheimplicationsof
self-trackingfortheusers.Onestronglineofargumentinthisbodyofliterature
concernssurveillanceasanimplicitpartofself-tracking.Whenwerecordourdatain
digitalsystems,wearenotonlyabletomonitor,analyzeandoptimizeourselves;wealso
becomepartofsystemswhereourdataareaccumulatedandanalyzedbyaservice
provider,andoftensoldtounidentifiedthird-partycompanies.Theuseofuserdatato
monetizeandimproveproductsandservicesandtargetusersbetterhasbeencritically
examinedasprocessesofcommodificationandexploitationofuserlabor(Klauser&
Albrechtslund,2014;Till,2014).Furthermore,usershaveverylittleknowledgeofwho
getstoseeandbenefitfromtheirdata,andthisraisesissuesofprivacy(Patterson,
2013).DrawingonFoucault’snotionsofthepanopticonandtheresultingsubjectivation,
forinstance,Lupton(2013a;2013b;2014)andReigeluth(2014)arguethatself-tracking
technologiesanddataarefarfromneutral.Rathertheymaybeseenasnormative
enginesthatproduceanobjectivationofhumansubjectsasentitiesthataredefinedby,
augmentedbyandmaybecontrolledthroughtheirnumbers(Lupton,2013a,2014).
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Ruckenstein(2014)dubsthisconversionofthehumanbodyintonumbersand
visualizations‘datadoubles’,aconceptthatmaybeusefulforexploringtherelationship
andcommunicationbetweentheselfandtheselftrackingapp.
Inadditiontotheseconsolidatedbodiesofliterature,afewstudieshave
beenpublishedonthepurposeofandmotivationsforself-trackingineverydaylife.
Choe,Lee,Lee,Pratt,andKientz(2014)studiedthemotivationsandpracticesof
extremeself-trackersaffiliatedwiththequantifiedself-movement2withaspecificview
tobarriersforself-tracking.Stragierandcolleagues,rootedincommunicationstudies,
haveexploredusers’motivationsforsharingexerciseonsocialmedia(Stragier&
Mechant,2013;Stragier,Mechant,&DeMarez,2013).Thesestudiesreflectan
individual-psychologicalandutilitarianperspectiveonself-trackingakintothatofthe
healthandinteractiondesignperspectives.Counteringthis,Rooksby,Rost,Mossiron,
andChalmers(2014)incomputersciencedidaqualitativeinterviewstudyofeveryday
trackingstressingtheroleofcontextandaffect.Theyidentifiedasetofdistinctstylesof
personaltrackingthatweregroundedinusers’lifehistoriesandsocialcontexts,anddid
notprimarilyevolvearoundspecificrationalgoals,butweredeeplyaffectivein
character.Thesestyles,inturn,representwhattheylabel‘livedinformatics’.
Insum,theexistingbodiesofliteraturesuggestasignificantscopeand
breadthinself-trackingresearch,buttheveryintegrationofself-trackingpracticesin
thebroaderculturalandstructuralformationofeverydaylifeissurprisinglyabsent
fromview–bothintheoreticalandempiricalworkonself-tracking.Apartfromafew
highlyinsightfulanalyses(e.g.,Lupton,2014;Reigeluth,2014;Rooksbyetal.,2014;
Ruckenstein,2014),weknowverylittleaboutandhaveveryfewtheoreticaltoolsto
2http://quantifiedself.com.
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graspwhatisactuallygoingonintheuser’spracticalengagementwithconcreteself-
trackingtechnologies,thedatatheycollect,andthecommunicativenetworksand
personaltrajectoriesinwhichtheyareembedded.
Weproposethatamediaandcommunicationstudiesperspectiveenables
ananalysisofself-trackingthataddressestheseissues,byframingself-trackingasa
meaningful,evenpleasurable,experiencedeeplyinterwoveninthefabricofeveryday
life.Acommunicativeunderstandingofself-trackinghighlightsmeaning-makingasakey
aspectoftheappropriationanduseofself-trackingtechnologies.Meaning-making,in
turn,iscontextuallyembeddedindynamicsofinterpersonalandgroupaffiliationsthat
arepracticedineverydaylife,aswellasintheongoingpracticalorganizingofthe
everyday.Hence,meaning-makingofself-trackingisinformednotonlybytheindividual
users’cognitiveandaffectivecapacities,butalsothecontextofuse,andthe
communicativeaffordancesofthetechnologyathand.
Method
Theempiricaldatathatweusetodevelopourconceptualizationofself-trackingas
communication,stemsfromaqualitativestudyofself-trackingforexercisewitha
purposefulsampleoftwelveDanishrespondentsaged25to40.Oursampleincludedsix
menandsixwomenandbothavid,experiencedrecreationalathletesandbeginners.
Theywereallregularusersofvarioustypesoffitnessapps(GarminConnect,Garmin
Express,Strava,RunKeeper,EndomondoandWorkoutTrainerbySkimble),which
provideadiversesetofaffordancesforexerciseandsocialnetworking.Denmarkis
characterizedbyaremarkablerecentequalizationinrelationtogenderandsportsbut
alsoanincreaseinsportsandexerciseactivitiesamongthe25-to-40-yeal-olds.Roughly
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speaking,thecohortof25-to-40-year-oldsisinaspecificlifephasewithastrongfocus
onparentingandearlycareer.Arguably,thestructureofeverydaylifeinthiscohort
makesitparticularlychallengingtointegrateastableparticipationinsportandexercise
(Laub&Pilgaard,2013;Pilgaard,2012).Self-trackingtechnologymightprovidea
particularlyattractiveandrelevantsupportstructureforexercise.Owingtoits
communicativeaffordances,self-trackingtechnologyallowsforbothreflexivityanda
creationofflexibleroutines,whichPilgaard(2012)haspointedoutastwoparadoxical
butprevalentneedsinlate-modernsportsandexerciseparticipation.
Thestudycombinestwosetsofsuccessivequalitativedata:firstaone-
monthregistrationoftheactivitiesofeachrespondentloggedandvisualizedbytheapps
heorsheusedforexercise(trainingpatterns,communications,etc.),andthensemi-
structuredqualitativeinterviewswiththerespondentsabouttheirusesoftheappand
theroleofexerciseintherespondents’currentdailylives.Theinterviewsalso
documentedrespondents’lifestoryofsports,asbodilymemoryofearlierexperiences
withsportinformpeople’swaysofengaginginsportandphysicalexercise(Pilgaard
2012).
Self-trackingasacommunicativephenomenon
Inthissection,weconceptualizeself-trackingasacommunicativephenomenon,
specifyinghowthistheoreticalcontributionaddressesexistingblindspotsinthe
scholarlyliterature.Basically,weapplyaritualviewoncommunication(Carey,1992
(1989)),whichstressesthesymbolicandsharedproductionofrealityincommunicative
actionsasequaltothetransmissionofinformation.Communicationisconsidereda
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symbolicprocess,wheresharedbeliefsareformedandmaintained,andrealityis
reproducedandperhapseventransformed.Whentechnologicallymediated,theform
andcontentofcommunicationarenegotiatedbythecommunicativeaffordancesofthe
mediumathand,aswellasbythesocialnormsthathavebeenconstitutedaroundits
uses(Hutchby,2001).3Applyingaritualviewonmediatedcommunicationmeansthat
weareparticularlyinterestedinhowspecificactsofcommunication–inourcasethe
self-trackingpracticesofthesampledusers–construct,shareandmaintaincertain
valuesandbeliefsinaneverydaycontext.
Ourconceptualizationofself-trackingisbasedontwopremises.Firstly,
self-trackingtechnologiesaredefinedasmediathatenableadiversebutinterrelatedset
ofactivitiesincludingaccumulatingatrackinglogordiaryinadigitalsystem,interacting
withtheanalysisfeaturesthatareoftenbuiltintotheinterfaceoftrackingapplications,
sharingtrackingactivitiesandcommunicatingaboutself-trackingwithothers.These
activitiesarecentralforourconceptualizationastheyarefundamentally
communicative,althoughinverydifferentways,representingatonceprocessesof
conveyinginformationaboutoneselftoothersandtoasystem,ofconstitutingand
performingoneself,andupholdingasetofsocialrelationsinaparticularway(Carey,
1992(1989)).Secondly,fortheuser,theactivityofself-trackingisahabitualpracticeof
mediausethatisdeeplyinterwoveninothersocialandculturalpractices(bodily
practices,dailyrhythmsetc.)andmustthusbeanalyzednotinisolation,butwithaview
toitsbroaderfunctionintheusers’orchestrationofthedemands,structuresandneeds
ofvariouscontextsineverydaylife.Thisritual,‘non-media-centric’andpractice
orientedapproach(Moores,2012)contributeswithahighlyrelevantperspectiveasit
3ThisviewtoalargeextendalignswiththetraditionofMediumTheory(e.g.,McLuhan,1964;Meyrowitz,1985),andphenomenologicalperspectivesonmediause(Scannel,1995).
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appreciatestheparticularitiesofmediatechnologybuttakeitsprimaryanalyticalpoint
ofdepartureinthecommunicativepracticesoftheusersandtheireverydaycontext.
Inthefollowingsections,weunpackourconceptualizationofself-tracking
ascommunicationalongthreeinterrelateddimensions:asacommunicativepracticeof
interactingwithandaccumulatingdatainadigitalsystem(i.e.,aspecificexercisingapp,
butalsoacomplementarysetofnetworkedconnectedmediasuchasadigitalwristband
andasmartphoneapp);ofcommunicatingwithoneself(asrepresentedthroughdata)
andactingontheself,andofcommunicatingwithpeers.
Communicatingwithadigitalsystem
Whenweusedigitalmedia,we‘speakintosystems’ofcommunication(Jensen,2013).
Weimprintouractivitiesasdigitalbittrails–datathatarereceived,analyzed,stored
andoftenrepurposedbytheprovidersoftheservicesweuseforsystemrefinementand
personalizationoffutureuserexperiencewiththeservice,andtargetedadvertising.
Thatistosay,thesystemormedium‘responds’tothebittrail,makessenseofthedata
andfeedsbacktotheuser,aswellasforwardtoothers.Althoughwerarelythinkof
thesedataintermsofcommunication,perhapsweshould.Unfoldingatheoretical
analysisofdigitaldataascommunicationandmeta-communication,Jensen(2013)
arguesthat,justaswords‘do’things(Austin,1962),digitaldataareperformative–at
oncevehiclesofinformationandsourcesofmeaningthatconstructandactonrealityin
myriadways.WhenIlogontoEndomondoandtrackarun,theinformationindata
pointscollectedonmypace,geo-location,etc.areprocessedbyandcontributetofine-
tuningEndomondo’salgorithmsandthus,howeverminimally,reconfigurethesystem.It
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mayalsoleadtorenewalsandexpansioninthewholesystem,likewhenEndomondo
startse-mailingmeonamonthlybasissummingupmyexerciseinacclaimingterms,
andurgingmetoexerciseevenmore,keepupthemotivationbystrengtheningthesocial
networkontheserviceandusingthesupportfunctionsprovided.Similarly,themeta-
datathataccompanycommunicationswithpeersinthesystemabouttheexerciseor
customizetheirprofile(time-stamps,detailsontheplatformused,etc.)notonlycodify
thecommunicationandrelationshipbetweenusers,butalsometa-communicate
meaningabouttheuser’ssportsidentity.Inourdatathisisdistinctlymanifestedinthe
users’choiceofphoto.Theirphotosconveymeaningabouttheirtypeofengagementin
exercise,whichisstrategicallyandcommerciallyvaluablefortheproviderofthesystem.
Amongthoseusersthathavealongtrajectoryinsportsandexercise,thephotoisused
inaveryself-reflexiveandcontext-sensitivemanner.Theusersdistinguishanddisplay
thispartoftheiridentitywithphotosshowingthemselvesinsportswear,amongother
athletesorotherwisereferringtotheirtrainingpractices.Theycommunicateasports
identityandthussuggestaparticularkindofsocialrelationship–centeredonsports–
thattheywishtoexpressontheapp.Therespondentsforwhomsportandexercisehas
nothadahighpriorityinearlierstagesoflifeuseotherkindsofprofilephotos,ifanyat
all.Typically,theysimplyusetheirFacebookprofilephoto,whichcanbefetched
automaticallythroughsystemssuchasEndomondo,thusconveyingnointentofmarking
theiruseofself-trackingasreflectingastrongsportsidentity.
Ouruser’sresponsestothe‘system’scommunication’takeaffectiveand
normativeformsexpressedintermsofannoyance,irritationandpleasure.ForAlice
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(40)4,abeginnerinphysicalexercisebutaprofessionalininformationtechnologyand
aviduserofapps,itwasagreatsourceofirritationthatherpreferredapp(thatwas
usedbyalotofpeopleinherofflinesocialnetwork)didnotallowforintegrationwith
otherlifestyleapps.Shelamentsthisasblatantself-sufficiencyandinappropriatelackof
opennessinthetechnology.ThestudentTommy(26),whoisawell-experiencedathlete
withastrongfascinationoftechnologicalsportsequipment,respondstothesameapp’s
useofburgersasiconsforburnedcalorieswiththisstatement:‘Thisistheamountof
burgersthatyouhaveburned(…)Idon’tcare(…)Thisisaloadofcrap.’Forhimthe
systemcommunicatesculturalvaluesthatheconsiderstotallyinappropriateforhis
performanceofanidentityasaserious,competitivelyorientedathlete.Heandother
dedicatedathletesinthesample,suchasMartin(36)andSandra(34)mainlyappreciate
systemsfeaturessuchrankings,detailedinformationabouttrainingsessions,and
flexibilityinplanningtools,asthesefeaturescommunicatevariousvaluesassociated
withserioussports.
Self-trackingsystemsarealsocommunicativeinamoreexplicitmanner.
Someappsaffordinstantaccompanyingverbalfeedbackduringatrainingsession.
Althoughfeedbackmaycomefromthesocialnetwork,ourrespondentsdidnotusethis
feature.OneexceptionistheschoolteacherPeter(31),whosometimesis‘peptalked’by
hisEndomondofriends,andappreciatesthisfeaturetotheextentthathesometimes
changeshisuseoftechnologyinordertobenefitfromthisfacility:‘itismore
comfortabletorunwiththewatchthanhavingabigtelephoneonyourarm(…)But
sometimesitisfinetogetapeptalk,andthatisnotpossiblewiththewatch…’.
4Allparticipantsarepseudonymized,whereastheirrealageisdisclosed.
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Mostoftenitisthesystemitselfthatcommunicates–personifiedasa
speakingvoicestatingtimelapsanddistancepassedintraining.Alice(40)perceived
thisfeatureasanomni-presentpersonalcoachthatinformsheraboutprogressand
givesotherkindsoffeedbackinthecourseofandevaluatingatrainingsession.This
kindofpersonifiedfeedbackprovidesastructurethatfortherespondentsismeaningful
inthesituation.Butitalsobecomesmeaningfulinawidersense.Theaccumulationof
informationthatisarchivedandcommunicatedbacktotheusersmakesupanexplicit
individualizedperformancehistorythatisconsideredparticularlyhelpfulbysome
users.ForCarol(27)andEric(34),whobothhavesmallchildrenandnofixedtimeslots
forexercise,thisfunctionstokeepthemontrackandas‘aremindertomyself,thatI
shouldnotspendmoneyonthiswithoutusingit.So,inthiswayitignitesme.Last
monthwasnotoptimal,tightenup!’(Eric,34).Forthesetwousersthecommunication
backfromthesystembecomesaverymeaningfulresourcetonegotiatethestructureof
theireverydaylifeandsecuretimeforsportandexercise.
ForMartin(36)andKenneth(30)thesystems’communicativefeedbackis
soimportantthatitisextendedandgetspersonalizedastheycombineseveral
technologiesintheirtrainingpracticeinordertogetfeedbackfromawidersetofdigital
sources.KennethconnectstheStravaapponhismobilephonewithaGarminwatchvia
Bluetooth.Besidesgivinghimvariouskindsoffeedbackthissetupalsomakesitpossible
forhisfamilytofollowhimsimultaneouslyontheircomputerscreen.ForMartinthe
objectiveofusingbothaGarminwatchandEndomondo’sappmeetsacomplexneedfor
detailinfeedbackindetailwhilealsomaintaininganoverview:‘Endomondoisjust
runningonitsown.Andthenmywatch–I’musingitactivelytosetmypace(…)
Endomondo,Iuseitmostlytolookformysplittimesandthingslikethat.’BothMartin
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andKenneththusseektooptimizetheirpracticebycombiningresponsefromseveral
systems,thuscreatingawholenewstructureaccommodatingthesesystemsof
communicationtotheirownpersonalneeds.
Communicatingwithandactingontheself
Acoredimensionofself-trackingwithdigitalapplicationsaredatavisualizationsofthe
accumulatedinputtheuserhasofferedthesystem:rangingfromgeneralplotsof
exerciseactivityoveranextendedperiod,tomorefine-grainedvisualizationsof,for
instance,routesortheusers’pulseduringoneexercisesession.Thesevisualizations
clearlycommunicate:theyprovidefeedbacktotheuseronstabilityandchangesin
trainingpatterns,bodilystrengthandsoon.Inturn,theyfunctionasamirrorforthe
self,ameansofcommunicatingwiththeself(‘howwelldidIdotodaycomparedwith
thepastsessions,andwhatdoesthatsayaboutmyshape?’).
Inthecontextofself-tracking,Ruckenstein(2014)hasdevelopedthe
conceptofthe‘datadouble’,originallyconceivedinsurveillancestudies,todescribethe
auto-communicativerelationshipbetweentheuserandthedatavisualizationofher
trackingactivities.5Thedatadoubledenotes‘theconversionofhumanbodiesandminds
intodataflowsthatcanbefigurativelyreassembledforthepurposesofpersonal
reflectionandinteraction’(Ruckenstein,2014:68).Hence,thedatadoubleturns
hithertoinvisiblebodilyandmentaldetailsintocoherentpiecesofinformationthatthe
usercanengageandinteractwithinordertobetterunderstandtheself.Accordingto
Ruckenstein,whoempiricallystudiedtheuseofheartratemonitoringineverydaylife,
5Theconceptofauto-communication,originallydevelopedinculturalsemioticsbyLotman(1990),suggeststhatallcommunicationimpliesarelationshipbetweenthecommunicatorandherself.
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therelationshipbetweentheuserandherdatadoubleisaffectiveandpurposeful–
somethingthatisoftenunderstatedinthesurveillanceliterature.Rooksbyetal.(2014)
alsopointtotheaffectivedimensionandtheyrelateittoanexperienceofself-esteem.
Wewouldarguethatthepleasurablefeelingthatourusersassociatewithself-tracking
isverymuchrootedinthedatavisualizationsthatthesystemsprovide.Firstly,because
thevisualizationsprovidethemwithatoolforshort-termorlong-termreflectionon
theirbodilypractices,andthusprolongandaugmenttheexercisesession–asa
psychologicalexperience.Secondly,therhetoricalformofvisualizationsisimportantin
itself:charts,tables,iconsandfactualdataseemtoassociatetrackingwithscienceand
accordinglyalsowithvalueslikeseriousness,analysisandcompetentexpertise.
Arguably,thissupportsthegratificationofbasicpsychologicalneedsthat
communicationscholarshaveelsewherearguedmotivatestheuseofentertainment
products(Vorderer,Steen,&Chan,2006).AccordingtoVordererandcolleagues(2006)
peopleoftenusemediatomeetthreebasicpsychologicalneeds:1)Aneedtobe
autonomousandincontrol,2)aneedtofeelcompetent,and3)aneedtofeelrelatedto
others.Followingthislineoftheorythepositiveaffectiveresponsetoself-tracking
reflectsthegratificationofindividualusers’needs–becausethevisualdataestablishes
acommunicativeseriousnessandrespectaroundtheindividual,nomatterhisorher
levelofexercise.
Thenatureofourusers’engagementinandinteractionwiththe
visualizationsvariesalot.AsRooksbyetal.(2014)havenoticed,mostusers–including
thosewestudied–dealwiththesedataonashorttermbasis.Mostoftheusersreporta
particularfocusonthedata,likeEric(34)onburntcalories,Alice(40)ontimespentand
lengthofarun,andHelen(36)onpulse.Mostofthemengagewiththesedataviatheir
Lomborg,S.&Frandsen,K.(2016).Self-trackingascommunication.[pre-printversion]
17
mobilephoneforashortwhileimmediatelyafterfinishingtheexercisesession.They
seekimmediatefeedbackoncertainaspects.Tounderstandthefullmeaningofthis
communicationweneedtotakeintoaccounttheculturalmeaningofthe‘scientific’
modeofaddressandthemeaningofthecommunicativeactionitself.Auserwhoonly
spendsalittlemorethanaminutelookingatherrouteandheraveragepaceis
confirmedthroughthedatadoublethatsheisasarespectableindividualwhois
competentlytakingagencyinherownlife.Theactoflookingatthesevisualizationsare
notonlyservingasanevaluation,itmayalsobeconsideredacommunicativeritualasit
constitutesamomentwhentheexerciseexperienceisprolonged,whileatthesametime
changedfromabodilyexperienceintoapsychologicalexperiencewheredocumentation
allowsforgratification.Theexperientialmodeof‘sensing’thebodyistransformedintoa
communicativemodewhere‘seeing’acertainkindofrepresentationoftheverysame
sessionaddsnewmeaning.Thistransformationintothecommunicativemodeof‘seeing’
appearsparticularlyimportantforbeginnerslikeAlice(40),whoexplicitlysaysthatshe
feelslesscapableinsensingherownbody.ForexperiencedathleteslikeTerry(37)and
Helen(36)thedoublingoftheexerciseexperienceconstitutesanattractiveandjoyful
experientialspaceofauto-communication.Inthisspacetheycometoknowthemselves
asincontrolandverycompetent,systematicallyoscillatingbetweenmodesof‘sensing’
and‘seeing’inaveryreflexivesearchforimprovementoftheirownperformance.
Thesystem’saccumulationofinformationbasicallyassuresallusersthat
theykeeptrackoftheirownlife–andthusareincontrol.Butafew,likeKenneth(30)
andTommy(26)andspendmoretimeonexploringthedata,andthisinteractiontakes
placeatalaterhour,wheretheyhaveplentyoftimeforthemselves.Forthesetwousers
sportandexercisehasbeenaconstantandimportantelementthroughouttheirlife,and
Lomborg,S.&Frandsen,K.(2016).Self-trackingascommunication.[pre-printversion]
18
theyexpressgreatjoywhenindulgingthemselveswiththedatainsearchforboth
personaladvancementandcompetitivelyorientedcomparisonswithotherusers.
Communicatingwithpeers
Self-trackingtechnologiessuchasStrava,Endomondo,GarminConnectandRunkeeper
allowtheusertoestablishconnectionsandcommunicatewithotherusersthroughthe
technology.Inthatsense,self-trackingembedskeyfunctionalitiesfromsocialmedia,for
networking,sharing,liking,andcommentingthatarefurthershapedbytheusers’
communicativepracticesonsite.Followingfromthisperspective,studyingself-tracking
asacommunicativepracticehascloseaffinitywithresearchoncomputer-mediated
communication(CMC)asavehicleofsociality(e.g.,Bakardjieva,2005;Baym,2000;
Kendall,2002).Thisextensivebodyofliteraturehas,forinstance,demonstratedhow
peopleinterlaceanddeveloprelationshipsacrosscontextsonandoffdigitalmediain
everydaylife(e.g.,boyd,2008;Ellison,Steinfield,&Lampe,2007;Lomborg,2014;
Wellman&Haythornthwaite,2002).
Underthelensofsociality,communicationispredominantlyameansof
achievingacommonpracticeandsharedunderstandingofthesituationathand,of
maintainingsocialorderandthusfindingmeaningandpleasureinasenseofbelonging
(Carey,1992(1989);Vordereretal.,2006).Thatistosay,thepracticeofcommunicating
withothersimpliesanongoingnegotiationofwhatisappropriate,relevantand
expectedtobecommunicatedinagivencontextandwithagivensetofpeople.
Inourdata,thedegreeofconnectednessandtheamountofcommunication
withone’snetworkonself-trackingservicesvariesagreatdeal.Strikingly,
Lomborg,S.&Frandsen,K.(2016).Self-trackingascommunication.[pre-printversion]
19
communicationonself-trackingservicesismostprolificfortheparticipantswho
practicetheirsportswithothers,andwhousethetogethernessandcompetitioninthe
jointpracticeofexercisingasamotivator.Intheregistereddatafromtheirself-tracking
profiles,communicationtypicallytakestheformofdescriptionsandevaluationsof
individualtrainingpasses,whichmaythenreceivelikesandsupportivecomments.This
indicatesastrongtopicalfocusonexerciseasappropriateforthecontextathand.Italso
highlightssocialrecognitionofanindividual’seffortsasanimportantpartoftheself-
trackingexperienceforsomeoftheusers.Theactivitythusbecomessociallymeaningful
asitmeetsaneedtofeelcommunionwithothers(Vordereret.al.2006).Herewefind
parallelstodynamicsthatarewellknownandcentralinsocialmediaingeneral
(Lomborg2014)butalsotomechanismsthatconstitutesportsculture,wheresocial
recognitionfromaknowledgeableaudienceisanimportanttoolwhencelebratinga
winner(Frandsen,2013).Sandra(34),whohasfoundcommunionwithworkcolleagues
inrunningandtrackingitonEndomondo,assertsaboutself-tracking:‘itisallabout
supportingoneanotherintheplacethatweareeachin,and“itissocoolthatyoudo
this”andthelike’.Crucially,therecognitionandsupportissoughtfromthe‘relevant
others’.InthecaseoftheuserscommunicatingonEndomondo,Strava,etc.,therelevant
othersarethosewithwhomtheindividualusersharestheexercisingasacommontopic
andactivityineverydaylife.Peter(31)andSandra(34)bothuseexerciseasawayof
socializingwithcolleaguesthroughsmalltalkatwork,onEndomondo,andsometimes
throughrunningtogether.Hannah(39),whoisamemberofaseriousrunningcluband
whoseeverydaysociallifeevolvesaroundrunning,receivesmanylikesandhaslively
conversationsaboutherexercisepassesonEndomondowithherrunningmates,after
eachcompletedsession.Accordingly,thecommunicationontheself-trackingservices
Lomborg,S.&Frandsen,K.(2016).Self-trackingascommunication.[pre-printversion]
20
therebyextendsintime,andperhapsaugments,thesocialexperienceoftrainingwith
others.
Tobesure,communicationrelatedtoself-trackingofexercisenotonly
occursontheself-trackingapplications.Kenneth(30),whousesStravaandkeepsavery
smallandclosenetworkoffourclosefriendswithwhomhecyclesrevealshavingalotof
ping-pongaboutcyclingthroughemailandinface-to-facecommunicationwithhis
Strava-friends.Terry(37)hasstartedaFacebook-groupwhereheandhispeersshare
trainingdataandsupportone-another.Fortheseusers,concreteinstancesoftracking,
sharedwithpeersontheself-trackingapplications,serveasaconversation-starterin
othercontexts.
Otherparticipants,particularlyasubsetoftheuserswhoonlyexercise
alone,donotcommunicateabouttheirexerciseontheirpreferredself-trackingservice,
butsomeofthempostauto-updatesontheirexerciseactivitiestoFacebook,thereby
sharingtheirexercisewithawidernetworkoffriends.Carol(27)andDoris(29)both
usesharingonFacebookaspartoftheirindividualexercisingprojects.Creating
awarenessinthesocialnetworksabouttheirgoalsandpracticesofexercisingseemsto
inspirethemtostayontrack.Forinstance,Doris,whoisanewbietoexercisingin
generalandisintheprocessoflosingweightafterapregnancy,describesherautomatic
sharingofexerciseonFacebookassimplyawayoflettingpeopleknowwhatsheis
occupiedwith–perhapsasawayofmotivatingherselftocontinuewhenreceiving
supportivecommentsandlikesfromherFacebookfriends.Thecultureofrecognition
thatwehaveidentifiedonself-trackingservicesaswellasinothercontextsiswell
documentedasacrucialfunctionofCMCingeneral,forinstanceintheformofphatic
communication(Lomborg,2014;Miller,2008).Communicatingaboutexercise,and
Lomborg,S.&Frandsen,K.(2016).Self-trackingascommunication.[pre-printversion]
21
specificallythesharingoftrainingresultswithothershasimplicationsforandfeeds
backintothetrainingpracticesoftheself-trackers:mostofthemsaysitmeansthatthey
pullthemselvestogetherandgivetheirexerciseanextranudgebecauseitisondisplay
forothers.Forsomeoftheparticipants,communicatingaboutexerciseonFacebook
seemstoserveafunctionbeyondmotivatingoneself,namely,tourgeotherstoexercise
aswell.Alice(40)describeshersharingonFacebookasintendedbyawishtomotivate
others:‘whenpeopleknowmeassomeonewhoneverexercisedatallandwhowasvery
overweight,thenifIcanrunfivekilometers,theneverybodycanrunfivekilometers’.
Atthesametime,severalparticipantsalsovoiceaconcernwithsharing
exercisewithbroadersocialnetworkssuchasonFacebook.Theconcernhastodowith
aperceivedconflictwithbroadersocialnormsofwhatisrelevantforthecontext.AsEric
(34)contends:‘IgetreallyannoyedwithmyownFacebookfriendswhentheypostall
this“I’vebeenoutrunningfourkilometers”.Well,thatissuperforyou.ButIlikeitinthe
application,becausetomeitbelongsinthatuniverse,andthepeerswhoarethereare
therewiththatspecificpurpose’.Strikingly,particularlythemeninthesamplevoicethis
ideaofconfiningexercisecommunicationtospecificrelevantcontextsdedicatedto
specificpurposes.Forsomeofthewomen,inparticular,thesharingoftrackingassuch
isambivalent.Carol(27)worriesthatbylettingothersseehowmuchexerciseshefits
intohereverydayschedulewillcommunicateanunwantedideaofherasabadmother
whodoesnotgiveprioritytobeingwithherkids.Similarly,Helen(36)worriesabout
beinglabeledasobsessedwithtraining.Whatthesewomenseemtosuggestisthat
exercisingandsharingitisweighedagainstothersocialnormsandexpectationsof
normality(e.g.,notbeingfanaticabouttrainingsothatotherneedsandactivitiesare
compromised).
Lomborg,S.&Frandsen,K.(2016).Self-trackingascommunication.[pre-printversion]
22
Intermsoftheircommunicativefunctionalitiesforsharingindividual
exercise,self-trackingservicesmaybesaidtofitwithwhatCastellshasdubbed‘mass
self-communication’(Castells,2007),thatis,individualizedandself-centered
communicativestatementsdistributedonlinetoapotentialmassaudience.However,
thecommunicativepracticesoftheusersinthisstudytelladifferentstory.Overall,their
onsitecommunicationisfairlylimited,andsoarethesocialnetworksontheself-
trackingapplicationsofmostoftheparticipants,whoorientthemselvestowardsasmall
groupofrelevantothers.Thisissurprising,giventhatakeyexperientialofferofthe
applicationsistoaddanelementofsocialitytotheoften-individualexercisinghabits
(running,cycling,etc.).Moreover,ratherthanself-trackingfundamentallyalteringthe
exercisingpractice,whatwehaveseenisthatthepracticesofexercisingaloneorwith
othersreflectsintheuseofandcommunicationontheself-trackingapplication.Those
whoexercisetogethertendtocommunicateandsocializemoreintheself-tracking
system.Hence,whensocialnetworksmatteronthetrackingservices,itisbecausethese
networksarekeptvibrantinothercontextsineverydaylife.Self-trackingtechnologies
maythusassistinmaintainingandamplifyingexistingrelationships.
Conclusion:Self-trackinginaneverydaycontext
Wehavedevelopedacommunicativeperspectiveonself-trackingbyexaminingtheuse
ofself-trackinginthecontextofexerciseineverydaylifealongthreedimensions:
communicationwiththesystem,theselfandsocialnetworks.Thecommunicative
affordancesofself-trackingapplicationsprovideaflexibleandsocialstructurefor
exercising,onethatparticipantscometoseeaspleasurableandmeaningful,ingreat
Lomborg,S.&Frandsen,K.(2016).Self-trackingascommunication.[pre-printversion]
23
partbecauseitisscalabletotheirindividualandsocialneeds.Thestructuresand
demandsofeverydaylife,andthesocialrelationshipsparticipantsmaintainindiverse
contexts,manifestthemselvesineachofthecommunicativedimensionsexamined:the
systemprovidesaninfrastructureforplanningandexecutingexerciseinapersonalized
manner.Thatistosay,thesystemisresponsivetoindividualuserneeds.Thefeedback
providedbythesystemonexercisingmetrics,bothonindividualexercisingsessionsand
accumulatedpatternsovertime,functionsasabasisforadjustingtraininggoals,for
instancebypromptingtheusertoincreasetheamountofexercise.Andtheopportunity
tonetworkwithrelevantothersontheapplicationsservestointegrateexerciseinother
everydaycontexts(i.e.,work,leisure,familylife).Approachingself-trackingfromthe
perspectiveofcommunicationtheorymakesvisibletherelationshipbetweenself-
trackingpracticesandtheircontextualembedding:whatiscommunicatedontheapp(in
theformofprofileinformation,exercisedataandsocialnetworks)bearstracesofthe
contextsoftraining.Moreover,thiscommunicationservestoconstitutetheusers’sense
ofselfinthecontextofexercise:profileinformation,datavisualizationsandfeedback
fromthesystemandtheconnectedpeerscontributetoconfirmingtheusers’exercise
identity,competenceandagency.Arguably,thisisacrucialpartofwhatmakesself-
trackingpleasurable,motivatingandmeaningfulforusers.
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