KS3 Science - Assessment Overview - Amazon S3 · PDF fileKS3 Science - Assessment Overview ......
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KS3 Science - Assessment Overview
Students work through the units as indicated below.
At the end of each unit the students sit a test which assesses their knowledge and
application of the unit content which includes elements of all three sciences in
addition to science skills.
The top sets also cover the advanced content that relates to each unit. This content is
underlined in each of the units.
For detailed information of the knowledge, skills and understanding required for each
unit please click on the unit title in the table below.
Year 7 Elementary 1 Elementary 2 Elementary 3
Year 8 Elementary 4 Intermediate 1 Intermediate 2
Year 9 Intermediate 3 Intermediate 4
Elementary 1
Biology Cells as the fundamental unit of living organisms, including how to observe, interpret and record cell
structure using a light microscope.
Label the cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuole, mitochondria and chloroplasts.
The similarities and differences between plant and animal cells
Chemistry The properties of the different states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) in terms of the particle model
The differences in arrangements, in motion and in closeness of particles.
Similarities and differences between solids, liquids and gases
Changes of state in terms of the particle model.
Draw a simple atomic model
Model atoms as spheres that make up matter
Physics Describe forces as pushes or pulls, arising from the interaction between two objects.
Identify where push and pull forces are acting
Identify forces associated with deforming objects; stretching and squashing – springs; with rubbing and
friction between surfaces, with pushing things out of the way; resistance to motion of air and water.
Recall that forces are measured in N.
Use a force meter to measure stretching force as a spring changes length.
Skills Can fill variable values into a table
Be able to describe what you have seen
Use positive and negative numbers
Be able to round whole numbers
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Elementary 2
Biology The similarities and differences between plant and animal cells.
Identify different examples of specialised cells (Red Blood Cell, Nerve Cell, Root Hair Cell, Leaf Cell, Sperm Cell
and Egg Cell).
Organise the hierarchy of multicellular organisms: from cells to tissues to organs to systems to organisms.
Give examples and know the position of organs and organ systems. Including: Digestive System (Stomach,
Small Intestines, Large Intestine) and Circulatory System (Lungs and Heart).
The structure and functions of the human skeleton, to include support, protection, movement and making
blood cells.
Describe the function of the human skeleton (to include: support, protection, movement and making blood
cells.)
Describe the function of muscles.
State functions of parts of plant and animal cells. (Specifically: cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus,
vacuole, mitochondria and chloroplasts).
State the 7 different nutrient groups (carbohydrates, lipids (fats and oils), proteins, vitamins, minerals, dietary
fibre and water).
Chemistry The pH scale for measuring acidity/alkalinity; and indicators.
Recall examples of acids and alkalis.
Use litmus paper to determine whether or not a substance is acidic, alkaline or neutral.
Use universal indicator to determine the pH of substances and their strength.
Defining acids and alkalis in terms of neutralisation reactions.
Recall the general word equation: acid + alkali -> salt + water.
Recall that the reaction between an acid and an alkali is called neutralisation.
Recall that water is always produced in neutralisation reactions.
Physics Recall the names of the 4 magnetic materials.
Recall the difference between a magnet and a magnetic material.
Label the poles of a bar magnet.
Draw two bar magnets to show when they attract (without field lines).
Draw two bar magnets to show when they repel (without field lines).
Draw a single bar magnet and its magnetic field lines.
Use a plotting compass to show the direction of a magnetic field.
Recall that the magnetic field lines show the area that the magnetic force acts.
Explain why the magnetic poles have the strongest magnetic force.
Draw a diagram to show the shape and direction of Earth’s magnetic field.
Recall that a compass always points North.
Skills Use and round decimal numbers.
Be able to construct table of results.
Include appropriate units when giving results.
Identify obvious risks.
Ask simple questions to help me understand observations.
Suggest what might happen.
Select and use equipment for a task.
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Elementary 3
Biology Reproduction in humans (as an example of a mammal), including the structure and function of the male and
female reproductive systems, menstrual cycle (without details of hormones), gametes, fertilisation,
gestation and birth, to include the effect of maternal lifestyle on the foetus through the placenta. (I2)
Label the parts of the male and female reproductive systems.
Describe the functions of the different parts of the male and female reproductive system.
State how sperm and egg cells are adapted to their function.
Describe the menstrual cycle.
Describe the process of fertilisation in humans.
Describe the process of gestation and birth.
Chemistry Differences between atoms, elements and compounds
The concept of a pure substance
Mixtures, including dissolving
The varying physical and properties of different elements.
Chemical symbols and formulae for elements and compounds.
Define the terms atoms, elements, compounds and mixtures.
Use particle diagrams and formula to classify atoms, elements, compounds and mixtures.
Understand that compounds may have different properties to their constituent elements.
Identify elements using symbols from the periodic table (table provided).
Deduce the number of elements from a given compound.
Describe simple techniques for separating mixtures: filtration, evaporation, distillation and
chromatography.
Carry out filtration, evaporation and chromatography.
Identify which separation technique is required for a given mixture.
Determining the purity of substances from boiling/melting points and chromatograms.
Physics Our Sun as a star, other stars in our galaxy, other galaxies
The light year as a unit of astronomical distance
Non-contact forces: gravity forces acting at a distance on Earth and in space, forces between magnets
Using force arrows in diagrams.
Draw arrows to show gravity acting on an object on the Earth.
Draw arrows to show gravity acting on an object in space.
Draw field lines between two bar magnets.
Skills Include columns for calculations in tables including averages
Decide if results data matches a prediction
Convert units for the same variable to scale up or down
Explain reasoning for a prediction
Select appropriate variables to test
Explain how a scientific idea has changed as new evidence has been found.
Develop higher order questions to explore observations using scientific knowledge and understanding
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Elementary 4
Biology The interdependence of organisms in an ecosystem, including food webs
Draw a food chain (from Producer to Secondary Consumer)
Identify the meaning of the terms: Producer, Consumer, Herbivore, Omnivore, Carnivore, Predator and
Prey.
Draw a pyramid of number
Identify an individual food chain from a food web.
Identify differences between species.
The variation between individuals within a species being discontinuous, to include measurement and
graphical representation of variation.
How organisms affect, and are affected by, their environment, including the accumulation of toxic
materials.
The interdependence of organisms in an ecosystem, including food webs and insect pollinated crops
Chemistry The structure of the Earth
o Label a diagram describing the mantle, inner/outer core, mantle and crust.
o Recall that the Earth’s crust is a source of many materials, including coal, gas, oil, rock, clay and
metal ores.
o Recall that metals are extracted from ores.
o Recall that plastics are examples of polymers, and that these are made from oil.
o Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
The Periodic Table: periods and groups; metals and non-metals.
o Classify elements as metals or non-metals based on their position in the periodic table.
o Chemical symbols for elements.
o The varying chemical properties of different elements.
o The properties of metals and non-metals
o Recall that iron, cobalt and nickel are magnetic.
o Recall that metals, except mercury are solid at room temperature.
o Classify metals and non-metals based on their electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity,
malleability/brittleness, density and sound when struck.
o Recognise the tests for oxygen, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
The properties of ceramics, polymers and composites (qualitative).
o Recall that bricks and pottery are made from clay that is moulded and baked.
o Recall that ceramics are made by firing clay with other rock material before coating them with a
glaze to make them tough.
o Recall that bricks are normally brittle, but can be used to build houses because they are strong
when compressed.
o Recall that polymers can be used to make plastics because they are flexible and can be moulded.
o Describe composite materials as those made by mixing two or more materials so that the new
material has the properties of both, using reinforced concrete as an example.
Internal energy stored in materials
o Describe how energy is released when making bonds and absorbed to break bonds.
o Explain endothermic and exothermic reactions in terms of bond making and bond breaking with
the aid of an energy profile diagram.
Continued…
E4 continued
Physics Frequencies of sound waves, measured in hertz (Hz); echoes, reflection and absorption of sound
o Describe how sound travels
o Identify the frequency of low pitched sound and high pitched sound.
o Recall that frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz)
o Describe how an echo is formed
o Use a buzzer to investigate the effects of different materials on sound absorption.
Sound needs a medium to travel, the speed of sound in air, in water, in solids
Sound produced by vibrations of objects, in loud speakers, detected by their effects on microphone
diaphragm and the ear drum.
o Describe how sound travels
o Explain why sound travels at different speeds in solids, liquids and gases.
o Label a picture of the inner ear.
o Describe the role of the ear drum.
o Compare the ear to a microphone, in terms of energy transfer and vibrations.
o Auditory range of humans and animals.
Light waves travelling through a vacuum; speed of light
Recall that light can travel through a vacuum.
The transmission of light through materials: absorption, diffuse scattering and specular reflection at a
surface
Define the words opaque, translucent and transparent (in terms of absorption/transmission)
Draw a ray diagram to show how we see an object.
Skills
Calculate an average
Identify continuous and discontinuous data
Calculate range values
Show results in a bar chart
Describe patterns in data and tables
Describe a trend on a graph or chart
Suggest a reason for patterns in data
Look for other possible conclusions that may be drawn from data
Use conflicting evidence appropriately
Recall that scientific explanations are used to explain observations and are tested by collecting
data/evidence.
Plan to control risks in an investigation.
Justify selection of equipment
Identify limitations of equipment (precision)
Justify my data collection method
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Intermediate 1
Biology Organs of the human digestive system,
Name and label the organs of the digestive system (mouth, oesophagus, gall bladder, liver, pancreas, small
intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus)
Describe the function of each organ (mouth, oesophagus, gall bladder, liver, pancreas, small intestine, large
intestine, rectum, and anus)
Describe enzymes as molecules that break down large molecules into smaller mlecules during digestion
The structure and functions of the gas exchange system in humans,
Name and label the organs of the respiratory system (mouth, nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles,
lungs, ribs, intercostal muscles, alveoli, capillary network, diaphragm)
Describe the function of the organs of the respiratory system (mouth, nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, lungs, ribs, intercostal muscles, alveoli, capillary network, diaphragm)
The mechanism of breathing to move air in and out of the lungs,
Describe the mechanical process of breathing (diaphragm and rib cage movement only)
The tissues and organs of the human digestive system, including adaptations to function and how the
digestive system digests food (enzymes simply as biological catalyst)
Describe mechanical digestion including mastication and peristalsis
Describe chemical digestion including the specific enzymes for each food group
Adaptations of the villi in the intestine and function of bile
Chemistry Changes with temperature in motion and spacing of particles
Use the particle model to show the expansion and contraction of states of matter at different
temperatures.
Conservation of material and of mass, and reversibility, in melting, freezing, evaporation, sublimation,
condensation, dissolving
Define a physical change and provide examples of physical changes
Explain in terms of particles why mass is conserved.
The varying physical properties of different elements.
Energy changes on changes of state (qualitative)
Define melting and boiling point.
Describe whether energy is required or released for a given change of state.
Describe the motion of gas particles as random speed and direction including gas pressure.
Understand gas pressure as the concept of gas particles colliding with and exerting a force on a surface
Describe diffusion as a spreading out of particles due to Brownian motion
Explain diffusion as the spreading of particles from areas of high to low concentration.
The principles underpinning the Mendeleev Periodic Table
Describe how Mendeleev ordered the elements.
Describe the trend in reactivity of the alkali metals.
Use the periodic table to predict the reactivity of a metal
Explain how the chemical and physical properties of metals and non-metals can be predicted by their
position in the periodic table.
Continued
I1 continued
Physics Forces being needed to cause objects to stop or start moving, or to change their speed or direction of
motion.
Draw the driving force and frictional forces on moving objects.
Identify the three possible effects of unbalanced forces acting on an object.
Identify the two possible effects of balanced forces acting on an object.
Describe what happens to the motion of an object with different sized forces applied in different directions.
Opposing forces and equilibrium: weight held by stretched spring or supported on a compressed surface.
Define equilibrium.
Calculate the resultant force acting on an object for unbalanced and balanced forces in the same
dimension.
Gravity force, weight = mass x gravitational field strength (g), on Earth g=10 N/kg, different on other planets
and stars; gravity forces between Earth and Moon, and between Earth and Sun (qualitative only)
Calculate the weight of objects with different masses using W = mg
Explain why there is a difference in gravitational field strength on different planets
Calculate the weight of masses in different gravitational field strengths.
Describe what keeps an object in orbit (limited to gravitational pull).
Explain how the Earth’s tilt causes seasons (in terms of radiation intensity).
Compare the length of day in different hemispheres at different times of year.
Simple machines give bigger force but at the expense of smaller movement (and vice versa)
Describe how a hydraulic piston works
Moment as the turning effect of a force
o Define a moment
o Calculate the moment of a force
Force-extension linear relation; Hooke’s Law as a special case
Calculate the spring constant from the gradient of the graph of their results
Pressure measured by ratio of force over area – acting normal to any surface
Atmospheric pressure, decreases with increase of height as weight of air above decreases with height
Pressure in liquids, increasing with depth; upthrust effects, floating and sinking
Describe how pressure is formed in liquids
Explain the differences in pressure at different depths
Skills Show results through plotting a line graph
Scale an axis
Predict data from a curve or line of best fit
Use the term anomalous results correctly
Identify problems with an investigation
Suggest reasoned improvements for an investigation
Discuss the effectiveness of planning with others
Recognise significant control variables in investigations
Explain how the exclusion or acceptance of data can lead to different conclusions
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Intermediate 2
Biology Aerobic and anaerobic respiration in living organisms,
Describe the process of aerobic respiration
Describe the process of anaerobic respiration
Construct a word equation for anaerobic respiration
Construct the word equation for aerobic respiration
Describe the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration in terms of reactants and products
Recall that anaerobic respiration produces lactic acid build up which causes pain and fatigue
Name the reactants and products in photosynthesis
Construct a word equation to represent photosynthesis
The effects of recreational drugs (including substance misuse) on behaviour, health and life processes.
Describe the general effects of recreational drugs on behaviour (limited to those required at KS4)
Describe the general effects of recreational drugs on the body (limited to those required at KS4)
Describe the general effects of recreational drugs on a developing foetus
The structure and functions of the gas exchange system in humans, including adaptations to function
Describe adaptations of alveoli and capillary network
Chemistry Recall the key differences between chemical and physical changes.
Identify the signs of a chemical reaction.
Chemical reactions as the rearrangement of atoms
Use models to show that the atoms in reactants and products are arranged in different ways.
What catalysts do
Recall that a catalyst speeds up a reaction.
Representing chemical reactions using word equations.
Identify the reactants and products in a word equation.
Combustion, thermal decomposition, oxidation and reactions.
Carry out and describe thermal decomposition as the breaking down of a substance into two or more
substances using heat
Carry out and describe oxidation as the reaction of metals or non-metals with oxygen
Carry out and describe combustion as the burning of a fuel in the presence of oxygen to release heat
energy.
Describe a fuel as a substance that is burned in oxygen to release energy.
Construct word equations and balance given simple symbol equations for complete combustion, thermal
decomposition and oxidation reactions.
What catalysts do
Describe how the conditions in a car engine can lead to the production of carbon monoxide in addition to
oxides of nitrogen
Using combustion and thermal decomposition as examples, show that the number of atoms in reactant and
product are equal.
Recall the chemical formulae for simple acids, bases and salts.
Chemical reactions as the rearrangement of atoms
Observe the displacement reactions of the halogens, using the findings to predict products and the
reactivity of the Group 7 elements.
Carry out metal displacement reactions to order metals and carbon in a reactivity series.
Continued
I2 continued
Physics State the energy transfers that occur when a circuit is complete to include: battery, bulb, buzzer and motor.
Electric current, measured in amperes, in circuits, series and parallel circuits, currents add where branches
meet and current as flow of charge
Recall that current is measured in amps (A)
Describe what an electrical current is
Draw a two bulb series circuit and a two bulb parallel circuit.
Describe how current flows in a two bulb series circuit
Describe how current flows in a two bulb parallel circuit
Use an ammeter to measure current.
Potential difference, measured in volts,
Recall that voltage is measured in volts (V)
Define 'voltage'.
Other processes that involve energy transfer: changing motion, dropping an object,
Identify and describe the 8 types of energy (light, sound, kinetic, thermal, electrical, gravitational potential,
elastic, chemical).
Describe the energy changes in the three main stages of a swinging pendulum.
Using iron fillings plot the magnetic field around a current carrying wire
Make and use an electromagnet
Describe how to make an electromagnet stronger
Make a DC motor and describe how it works
Resistance, measured in ohms, as the ratio of potential difference (p.d.) to current.
Investigate the action of a LDR in different light intensities
Describe what happened when light hits the photosensitive materials in an LDR, the retina and a camera.
Skills Analyse data using error bars on a graph
Combine primary and secondary data in the same table
Draw a line of best fit and calculate
Compare two or more sets of data to highlight similarities
Describe limitations in methods and how they lead to inconsistencies in data
Recognise that some scientific questions do not yet have definitive answers.
Select precision equipment and use it appropriately to ensure accuracy
Generate hypothesis to test
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Intermediate 3
Biology The consequences of imbalances in the diet, including obesity, starvation and deficiency diseases
Describe the issues associated with obesity - arthritis, heart disease, diabetes and breast cancer.
Describe the issues associated with starvation – anorexia & bulimia.
Describe the issues associated with deficiency – Scurvy, Kwoshiorkhor & Brittle bones
Calculations of energy requirements in a healthy daily diet
Including the breakdown of organic molecules to enable all the other chemical processes necessary for life
Make links between glucose, digestion and respiration
Reproduction in plants:
o Compare the difference between wind and insect pollinated plants.
o Describe the process of insect pollination.
o Describe the process of fertilisation in plants.
o Describe seed and fruit formation and dispersal.
The adaptations of leaves for photosynthesis.
Label the cross section of a leaf.
State how palisade cells are adapted to their function.
Give the functions of each section of the leaf (related to photosynthesis).
The role of leaf stomata in gas exchange in plants.
Draw and label stomata and guard cells
Describe the terms turgid and flaccid and how the stomata open and close
Explain how oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse in and out of a leaf through the stomata (diffusion)
Chemistry Reactions of acids with metals to produce a salt plus hydrogen
Construct word equations for the reactions of metals with acids
Recognise that not all metals react with acids
Reactions of acids with alkalis to produce a salt plus water
Name the product salts given the reactants
Construct word equations for the reactions of acids with alkalis
The chemical properties of metal and oxides with respect to acidity.
Define the term base as a substance that reacts with acids
Describe an alkali as a base that is soluble in water
Recall that metal oxides are bases
Construct word equations for the reactions of metal oxides with acids
Exothermic and endothermic chemical reactions (qualitative).
Define exothermic and endothermic reactions as those which absorb or release energy
The chemical properties of metal and non-metal oxides with respect to acidity.
Sulphur dioxide is produced when fossil fuels are burned due to the presence of sulphur impurities
Describe how the temperature of car engines results in the production of nitrogen oxides
Identify the acids produced when non-metal oxides dissolve in rain water
Describe the long term environmental impact of acid rain
Explain how catalytic converters work, using the word and symbol equations: nitrogen oxides + carbon
monoxide --> carbon dioxide + nitrogen
These gases have less of an impact on human health than oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide.
The differences in arrangements, in motion and in closeness of particles (E1) explaining changes of state,
shape and density (and I3), the anomaly of ice-water transition.
Explain using particle diagrams, the how the difference in the arrangement of the particles affects the
shape and density of s, l and g.
Describe how ice is unusual, in terms of density, compared with other solids.
I3 continued
The use of carbon in obtaining metals from metal oxides
Explain the reduction of metal ores by carbon to extract metals
Carry out the thermal decomposition of copper carbonate.
Construct word and balanced symbol equations for the thermal decomposition of copper carbonate and
reduction of the resulting copper oxide.
Physics Speed and the quantitative relationship between average speed, distance and time.
Use the equation 'speed = distance/time' to calculate the speed of various objects
Define 'average speed'
The representation of a journey on a distance-time graph
Relative motion: trains and cars passing one another.
Calculate the relative velocity of trains and cars:
Heading towards each other
Travelling in the same direction e.g. on a motorway
Separation of positive or negative charges when objects are rubbed together: transfer of electrons, forces
between charged objects.
The idea of electric field, forces acting across the space between objects not in contact.
Non-contact forces: forces due to static electricity.
Identify materials that are insulators (using current not resistance)
Describe, in terms of electrons, what happens when a rod and a duster are rubbed together.
Skills
Understand that zero is not the starting point on all graphs
Explain how improvements could lead to an a more reliable and accurate conclusion
Critically evaluate conclusions drawn by others
Explain how valid results are in terms of reliability and accuracy
Define the terms accuracy and precision
Define the terms repeatability and reproducibility.
Construct a detailed risk assessment for an experimental procedure.
Explain predictions using scientific models
Recognise that some variables can not be easily controlled
Measure an appropriate range and quantity of data
Use primary and secondary data to form a conclusion
Describe a relationship between two or more sets of data.
Use an equation triangle to formulate an equation
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Intermediate 4
Biology The dependence of almost all life on Earth on the ability of photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and
algae, to use sunlight in photosynthesis to build organic molecules that are an essential energy store and to
maintain levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
Plants making carbohydrates in their leaves by photosynthesis and gaining mineral nutrients and water
from the soil via their roots.
Explain how a plants (including algae) use the products of photosynthesis
Explain how the gases involved in photosynthesis affect today’s atmosphere
Explain how you would show that starch is one of the organic molecules used as an essential energy store
(test for starch in a leaf)
State how root hair cells are adapted to their function.
Describe how minerals are absorbed, to include; dissolved in solution, by the root hairs and from the soil.
Explain how microorganisms can be useful to humans (bread making, brewing).
Explain how oxygen, glucose, carbon dioxide and other waste products move into and out of cells by
diffusion.
Explain the effect of exercise on breathing and pulse rate (make links with circulatory system E2)
State how red blood cells and ciliated epithelial cells are adapted to their function.
Describe the adverse effect of asthma on the gas exchange system
Explain the effect of smoking on the cilia,
Explain the function of bacteria in the human digestive system.
Chemistry The rock cycle and the formation of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
Describe the process of chemical weathering and physical weathering.
Describe the process of sedimentation
Explain why fossils are found in sedimentary rocks
Describe the process of metamorphic rock formation
Describe the process of igneous rock formation
Explain why fossils are not usually found in metamorphic or igneous rocks
The composition of the atmosphere
Recall the percentages of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and argon in the atmosphere
Identify the processes that influence the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
Describe the impact of these changes on global temperatures and sea levels
Define and give examples of renewable and non-renewable resources.
Evaluate the benefits and drawbacks of recycling.
Explain how combustion, respiration and photosynthesis influence the level of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.
Physics Comparing energy values of different foods (from labels) (kJ)
Use food labels to identify and compare the amounts of energy in different foods.
Comparing power ratings of appliances in watts (W, kW)
Convert power ratings between watts and kilowatts.
State reasons why different appliances have different power ratings e.g. heater compared to a television
Comparing amounts of energy transferred (J, kJ, kW hour)
Convert amounts of energy between joules and kilojoules.
Recall that a kWh is a large unit of energy.
Calculate the number of joules in a kWh.
Explain why fuel bills are given in kWh and not joules.
Calculate the amount of energy used in kWh.
Calculate the cost of a fuel bill from the amount of energy used.
State the different types of fuels used in the home
Describe different ways of harnessing energy e.g. solar panels, wind turbines and burning fossil fuels
State the law of conservation of energy
Draw a simple Sankey diagram for any appliance to demonstrate the law of conservation of energy.
Describe what happens in terms of heat transfer when objects of different temperatures are put together.
Explain the process of conduction using ideas about particles.
Explain the process of radiation.
Investigate how different materials affect the movement of heat (standard insulation experiment).
Comparing the starting with the final conditions of a system and describing increases and decreases in the
amounts of energy associated with temperatures. When cooking, describe the energy changes to:
o The burning fuel
o The oven
o The food
Skills Write units in standard form
Use a calculator efficiently to perform complex calculations
Make further predictions based upon results
Suggest a well thought out strategy to take an investigation further
Calculate results using formulas
Explain the importance of accuracy, precision, repeatability and reproducibility in providing evidence to
support hypotheses.
Use relevant evidence to support/refute an argument
Explain how scientists collaborate to support/refute scientific theories and evidence
Modify equipment or techniques to minimise error
Carry out statistical calculations on data (E.g. standard deviation)
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