DRAFT

Development Assistance for Agricultural Research in Bangladesh: Trends, Outcome and Future Strategy

Dr. Mohammed Zainul Abedin (Team Leader)

Dr. Abdul Hamid

Dr. M. Abdus Satter

Dr. G. M. Monirul Alam

Krishi Gobeshona Foundation

BARC Campus, Farmgate, Dhaka

April 2020

ContentsEXECUTIVE SUMMARYivACKNOWLEDGEMENTSviiiTABLESviiFIGURESviiiABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMSix1.Introduction and Context11.1 Introduction11.2 Background11.3 Objectives31.4 Limitations31.5 Scope of the study42. Approach and Methodology42.1 Approach42.2. Methodology53. MAJOR FINDINGS53.1 Evolution of agricultural research in Bangladesh53.2 Foreign aid or development assistance73.3 Foreign assistance for agricultural research in Bangladesh73.3.1 Development of research capacity103.3.2 Human capacity development113.3.3 Physical facilities123.4 State of Agricultural Research in Bangladesh133.5 International Research Collaboration143.6 A Review of Projects Implemented153.7 Impact of development assistance173.7.1 Impact on productivity173.7.2 Self-sufficiency in food grains183.8 Way Forward194.References225.Appendix24Appendix 1Terms of Reference24Appendix II. Format for requesting information on aided projects from recipient institutions25Appendix III. Format for KGF International collaboration study 201926Appendix IV. Review of IMED Report, NATP, IAPP, RMP and Others27Appendix V. List of JICA Funded Projects36Appendix VI. List of AFACI funded projects in Bangladesh36Appendix VII. List of ACAIR funded projects in Bangladesh38Appendix VIII. Flow of external resources into Bangladesh agriculture39Appendix IX. Total agricultural spending and research focus41Appendix X. GDP growth rate and agricultural R&D spending as a share of AgGDP (%)43Appendix XI. Bilateral and Multilateral Projects implemented by the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) during 1973-2019.45Appendix XII. IRRI’s contribution to rice varietal development in Bangladesh56Appendix XIII. Historical changes in rice production and Yield of MV rice58Appendix XIV. Bangladesh agriculture at a glance59Appendix XV: Bangladesh agriculture in the international context60Appendix XVI. List of Participants in various meetings61

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Bangladesh is a recipient of foreign assistance since pre-independence era. A part of the assistance has been used for infrastructure development and capacity enhancement for agricultural research. At the verge of transformed into a middle-income nation, the country still continues receiving development assistance, albeit the form and modalities of assistance changes over time. Meanwhile, Bangladesh attained a fair degree of food security with self-reliance in food grains. There has been substantial capacity improvement in agricultural research and development (R&D) with attendant human resources. Research focus is now changing from subsistence agriculture to business agriculture. In view of economic growth, changes in agricultural production and research perspective, Krishi Gobeshona Foundation (KGF) commissioned to study the trend of development assistance received for the agricultural research system in Bangladesh and design its future outlook and strategy in terms of form, modalities and use of development assistance for agricultural research and development in Bangladesh.

This report reviews the nature of development assistance received for agricultural research and development in Bangladesh, analyzes the quality of assistance and collaboration and impact of international development assistance on productivity growth in agriculture sector suggesting future strategy making use of development assistance. The report also provides the trends in agricultural production and productivity growth over four decades following independence of Bangladesh. The productivity growth has been related with the contribution of agricultural research, innovations, and uptake by farmers. Research results are the shared responsibilities and contributions of Bangladesh National Agricultural Research System (NARS) and the international partners.

Population growth and low production led to chronic food shortage in Bangladesh during Pakistan era and subsequent four decades following independence. In the face of increased food demand Bangladesh established and strengthened research capacity to generate technologies aiming at boosting agricultural production. With financial and technical assistance from international development partners, institutions like Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI), Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute (BFRI), Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute (BLRI), Institute of Postgraduate Studies in Agriculture (IPSA), and Krishi Gobeshona Foundation (KGF) were established and developed. Together these research institutions form National Agricultural Research System (NARS) and coordination of research and development (R&D) activities of these institutions has been vested in an apex organization Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC). In order for making these organizations functional and effective, major emphasis was on building infrastructures and developing human resources. Report provides changes in research capacity including human resources engaged in different institutions in successive years. International development partners provided assistance for establishing and strengthening NARS institutions in the form of aid, grants and technical assistance for more than four decades.

NARS institutions implemented a large number of donor-assisted projects over the past four decades. Some of the development projects were jointly implemented by several NARS institutions while majority of the projects were of bilateral in nature. BRRI and BARI implemented a sizeable number of multilateral projects in collaboration with CGIAR institutes. Not all the projects could be reviewed. This report provides the outcome and impact of the projects in terms of institutional improvement and socio-economic development.

BRRI released 100 modern varieties (MVs) of rice. Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA), Bangabandhu Sk. Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU, formerly IPSA) and Bangladesh Agricultural University together released 28 modern rice varieties. MV coverage has now expanded to over 91% of the rice area. Annual rice production varied from less than 10.0 million tons in to 40.0 million tons in 2019. The technological progress has helped Bangladesh maintain the food-population balance without having to extend rice cultivation to new lands. Development, dissemination and uptake of MVs of rice created significantly positive impact on life and livelihood of farmers. Wheat Research Center of BARI (now Wheat and Maize Research Institute, WMRI) developed wheat varieties that cover over 0.4 million ha producing over 1.0 million tons wheat grain annually. Modern varieties of rice and wheat together contributed to attaining self-sufficiency in food.

Vegetables were in short supply decades ago. Availability of improved varieties and attendant improved production technologies facilitated farmers growing a large number of vegetable crops including potato, brinjal, tomato, cabbage, cauliflower, gourds (sweet gourd, bottle gourd, teasle gourd, bitter gourd) etc. throughout the year. Abundant supply of vegetables helped expand far income and improve human nutrition diversifying dietary habit. Research targeting improved varieties and agronomic practices generated location specific farming systems. In the flood free medium high lands, farmers are now practicing three crops a year where a single aman crop was the major cropping system decades ago.

Agriculture will continue to play a vital role in economic growth and poverty reduction and key to the achievement of the SDGs, most specifically, Zero Hunger and Nutrition Security. In view of increasing population and demand growth, shrinking arable land and increasingly adverse impact of climate change sustaining agricultural production is the key challenge. The challenge that Bangladesh is no longer just about how to grow more food; the challenge now is to grow more and healthier food, and crops and crop products with export potentials.

As Bangladesh economy grows, it will be increasingly integrated with world economy putting greater pressure on agriculture sector to compete in the world market. Competitiveness of Bangladesh agriculture can be ensured maintaining higher growth in agricultural productivity. This will require transforming agricultural research and development to an extent matching with developed economy. However, research funding remains a challenge which may be overcome using development assistance. Receiving bilateral assistance from development partner (e.g., ACIAR), and multilateral assistance through CGIAR centers has been suggested.

3.8 Recommendations.

As Bangladesh economy grows, it will be increasingly integrated with world economy putting greater pressure on agriculture sector to compete in the world market. Competitiveness of Bangladesh agriculture can be ensured maintaining higher growth in agricultural productivity. This will require transforming agricultural research and development to an extent matching with developed economy. However, research funding remains a challenge which may be overcome using development assistance.

Bangladesh needs good, tightly-focused research projects that may apply the insights and tools from a single discipline on a particular aspect of a farming system or agrifood system. Research partners from the developed nations including CGIAR centers might be interested in the intersections and interactions between food, water, climate and energy, in the context of farming systems, ecosystems and value chains. This necessitates multi-, inter- and transdisciplinary perspectives, in generally larger research teams working on multifaceted projects of longer duration, ideally with strong engagement from agricultural research systems and policy stakeholders from the outset.

Result-based collaborative research projects, bilateral or multilateral, involve and researchers from both from developed (donor) and developing (recipient) countries making responsible for project implementation. Outputs of such projects are not only the information and technologies tested and validated in developed and developing countries as well but also the fostering of cooperation and instilling confidence among the scientists. It is suggested that BARC and NARS institutions may think of negotiating such collaborative projects involving Bangladesh scientists and partner country scientists making equally responsible for project implementation.

Lack of visualization of the role of science and technology that can play in socio-economic development is generally prevalent in Bangladesh. Science and technology should be viewed as a growth engine rather than a consumer good. In that perspective there should be efforts of taping new knowledge to spur generation of new technologies and innovations. Tapping and generation of knowledge requires international collaboration, be it high-income countries or in the developing world. Training of Bangladesh scientists in developed countries through post-graduate degrees, post-doctoral fellowships, short term training, participation in international seminars and workshops should be encouraged for tapping of knowledge and facilitating networking. Of particular importance, for example, is that about 60% of BARI PhDs will retire in next few years and they will have to be replaced. Networking and collaborative research can have multiplicative effect on research output.

Based on the learning from implementing different types of research and projects, it is suggested that BARC and NARS institution may negotiate bilateral funding for formulating and taking up research and development project. Multilateral assistance may also be received through CGIAR system projects on fundamental and strategic issues bearing impact on the economies and societies of the partner countries.

TABLES

Table 1

Table 2

Changes of scientists in the research institutes in Bangladesh

Growth rate of GDP and agriculture in different periods

45

45

Table 3

IRRI’s contribution to rice varietal development in Bangladesh

56

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Team would like to express gratitude to Krishi Gobeshona Foundation (KGF) and its Executive Director Dr. Wais Kabir for useful guidance and input to accomplish the study.

The team would like to specially acknowledge and thank all the DGs, directors, divisional heads and senior scientists of NARS institutions (BARI, BRRI, BINA, BJRI, BSRI, SRDI, BFRI and BLRI) for holding meeting and sharing their insights and opinion.

Due thanks to the Vice-Chancellor and senior teachers of different agricultural universities (BAU, BSMRAU and SAU) for arranging meeting and their discerning opinion.

The team members are also deeply grateful to all the senior researchers who took part in the Inception Report presentation held at BARC, Dhaka for providing penetrating comments and suggestions. The team will be failing if it does not express its respect and gratitude to Dr. Kazi M. Badruddoza, National Emeritus Scientist.

Lastly, the team acknowledges with thanks the assistance received from the officials of KGF from time to time. Without their assistance and support, it would have been difficult to prepare this report.

FIGURES

Figure 1

Flow of project aid into agriculture sector in Bangladesh from 2072 to 2018

39

Figure 2

Percentage of Multilateral and Bilateral aid into agriculture sector from 1972 to 2018

39

Figure 3

Changing pattern of Aid disbursement into agriculture sector from 1972 to 2018

40

Figure 4

Total agricultural spending on research & development

41

Figure 5

Share of agricultural research spending (%) in 2016

41

Figure 6

Share of crops research spending (%) in 2016

42

Figure 7

Growth rate of GDP and AgGDP

42

Figure 8

Total agricultural R&D spending as a share of AgGDP (%)

43

Figure 9

Number of researchers per 100 thousand farmers in Bangladesh

43

Figure 10

IRRI’s contribution of human resource development

58

Figure 11

Yield (t/ha) of modern verities rice over the years

58

Figure 12

Historical changes in rice production in Bangladesh (000’ tons)

58

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ABPS

Agricultural Biotechnology Support Project

ACIAR

Australian Center for International Agricultural Research

ADB

Asian Development Bank

AFACI

Asian Food and Agriculture Cooperation Institute

AusAID

Australian Agency for International Development

AVRDC

Asian vegetable Research and Development Center

AVRDC

Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre 

BARC

Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council

BARI

Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute

BAU

Bangladesh Agricultural University

BFRI

Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute

BINA

Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture

BLRI

Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute

BRRI

Bangladesh Rice Research Institute

BSMRAU

Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University

BSRI

Bangladesh Sugar Crop Research Institute

CGIAR

Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research

CIDA

Canadian International Development Agency

CIMMYT

International Center for Wheat and Maize Improvement

DANIDA

Danish International Development Agency

DFID

Department of International Development

EC

European Commission

FSRDP

Farming System Research and Development Project

HYV

High yielding variety

IAEA

International Atomic Energy Agency

IAPP

Integrated Agricultural Productivity Project

ICARDA

International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas

ICRAF

International Center for Research on Agroforestry

IDA

International Development Agency

ILRI

International Livestock Research Institute

IMED

Implementation Monitoring & Evaluation Division

INIBAP

International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain 

IPSA

Institute of Post-Graduate Studies in Agriculture

IRRI

International Rice Research Institute

JDCF

Japan Development Credit Fund

JDS

Japanese Grant Aid for Human Resource Development Scholarship

JICA

Japan International Cooperation Agency

KGF

Krishi Gobeshona Foundation

KII

Key Informant Interviews

KOICA

Korea International Cooperation Agency

NARS

National Agricultural Research System 

NATP

National Agricultural Technology Program

SAU

Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University

SAVERNET

South Asian Vegetable Research Network

SRDI

Soil Resources Development Institute

TCP

Technical Cooperation Programme

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

USAID

United States Agency for International Development

UTFANET

The Under-utilised Tropical Fruit in Asia Network

WB

World Bank

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1. Introduction and Context1.1 Introduction

For long time, Bangladesh has been a recipient of international assistance for the country’s economic development. In the early stage of institutional infrastructure development and program building agricultural research institutions received generous assistance and support from the international donor agencies. National Agricultural Research System (NARS) of Bangladesh is now well established and its contribution to spectacular success of agriculture sector is well recognized. Bangladesh still receives development assistance although the size of assistance shrunk with nature and modalities changed over time (See the flow of external resources into Bangladesh agriculture in Appendix VIII). It is conceivable that assistance is likely to continue in future.

Krishi Gobeshona Foundation (KGF), a Bangladesh government sponsored entity to foster and accelerate agricultural research and established largely with support from the Word Bank, is considered an institutional innovation. KGF within its portfolio commissioned a 4-member team of experts intending to make an independent assessment of international assistance received so far for Bangladesh agricultural research in the form of aid and/or soft loan from various partner agencies, organizations and governments and to make recommendations to feed into process of formulating a strategy for utilizing development assistance in agricultural research in future.

This report sets out the objectives and design of the ‘Trend of International Collaboration in Agricultural Research and Education and Future Strategy’, based on the terms of reference, and the overall guidance provided by the Executive Director of KGF and the approach and methodology developed by the evaluation team. Following a brief overview of the context within which KGF is operating, the report summarizes the purpose and scope of the study, describes the study design and provides the study findings.

1.2 Background

Majority of Bangladesh population depends on agriculture as a source of income and livelihood. Nearly half of country’s total workforce is engaged in agriculture. Agriculture is the cradle of economic growth and sustainable development. Major thrust of agriculture sector is to attain and sustain food and nutrition security. With rising income, demand for food and fiber is also on the increase. By 2030 the country needs to double the agricultural production. Productivity increase is the only answer to meet the demand.

Agricultural research is the key to improving agricultural productivity and sustaining food security. Previous research, more particularly of post-liberation era have had a dramatic effect – for example, yield growth of rice and wheat through high yielding varieties, enhanced fish production through aquaculture, abundance of eggs and meat through improved poultry breeds. Establishment of research institutions, human resources development and technology transfer contributed to such innovations. Institutional development and innovations were supported by development partners since Pakistan era, but the volume of assistance increased and pace of development accelerated during post-independence era, more particularly in early 1980s. Development assistance poured in for agricultural research and innovation, however, varied in terms of modality, quality and quantity, and source of funding. Assistance for agricultural research in Bangladesh is still being continued, albeit progressively dwindling.

Bangladesh has now established a national agricultural research system (NARS) much stronger than those of many developing countries in Asia and Africa. Multilateral and bilateral partnership played significant role in developing research program and implementation of those. These include infrastructural, institutional and skill development including higher studies since 1970s. Collaborative research programs resulted in development of research capacity, improvement of skill and generation of technologies in agriculture, more particularly in crop sector. Bilateral or multilateral collaboration programs involved public sector institutions of agricultural research and higher education often in phases. Major donors include USAID, Ford Foundation, Rockefeller Foundation, JICA, ODA & DFID, AusAid. USAID supported building infrastructure and developing research and education programs (EPAU and later BAU; BARI) during 1961 -1990. Rockefeller Foundation, Ford Foundation and USAID assisted developing BRRI. JICA helped develop IPSA (later BSMRAU) into a center of excellence in research and higher education. BINA’s collaborative research with IAE resulted in development of crop varieties resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses. DANIDA’s support helped SRDI expanding its service delivery building modern laboratories at Dhaka as well as in several districts. Agriculture Research Project (ARP, ARP-I, ARP II), Extension and Research Project (E&RP), etc. through IDA credit made significant contribution to creating research environment building infrastructures, improving quality and relevance of research and improving human resources of NARS institutions. IDA supported recent projects like Agricultural Research Management Project (ARMP), National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) Phase I made visible impact on agriculture developing technological and management innovations including value chain. Integrated Agricultural Productivity Project (IAPP) also included research and extension during 2010-2013. Support to livestock research has been the least and the impact of ILRI project has not been visible though the potential of livestock (including poultry) research impact is higher.

CGIAR centers played a significant role in developing agricultural research providing technical assistance and collaborative research with the NARS institutions and other public sector organizations. IRRI’s collaboration with BRRI in training and technology transfer spurred generation of high yielding varieties of rice. IRRI pioneered inter-disciplinary cropping/farming systems research, which made major contributions in developing system-based technologies and strengthening participatory agricultural research, including inter-institutional collaboration. CIMMYT helped BARI making wheat a second staple crop in Bangladesh. Likewise, AVRDC assisted BARI in capacity enhancement and building a strong program on vegetable research. Multi-donor supported partnership programs like CSISA brought together scientists of different countries and institutions contributing substantially to solving agricultural problems regionally and internationally.

DFID supported REFPI (farm machinery development) and PETRRA for rice research based poverty reduction program during 2004/05. The UN agencies also played role in the development of agriculture. On the other hand government has increased its support in agricultural research. There are few other actors like UN ESCAP, SAARC who are visible in agriculture in exchanging best practices.

Sponsored by the GOB and the World Bank, KGF as a private entity is formed to support agricultural research. Establishment of KGF is considered an institutional innovation in agricultural research.

Spectacular success of NARS scientists in creating knowledge and developing technologies helped Bangladesh attain self-sufficiency in rice, achieve world’s fourth position in vegetable production and third position in freshwater aquaculture fish production. Bangladesh already graduated from LDC to middle income country status. Given that development assistance for agricultural research is likely to continue in future, it is now necessary that we look back to past and make an assessment reviewing the modality of aid for agricultural research that Bangladesh received so far, effectiveness of aid, and how best Bangladesh could utilize assistance for agricultural research in future.

1.3 Objectives

KGF seeks to develop policy instruments on receiving and utilizing development assistance for agricultural research. The study will address the following:

1) Document trend of international collaboration and investment projects in research, development and education in Bangladesh as institutional memory;

2) Analyze quality of investment projects and collaborative programs; and

3) Suggest future strategy and priority through study and will act as a guide to the policy makers and research managers.

1.4 Limitations

The team is fully aware of limitations of the study that include non-availability of documents relating to funding of different projects, particularly those implemented prior to mid-1980s. Many of the scientists and research leaders involved in designing and implementing the projects and institution building are no longer in active service or expired. The study missed to capturing their insights. Neither the NARS institutions nor the agricultural universities were found to have not collected and maintained data on investment flows and stocks in a consistent manner. Non-availability of data on the amount of development assistance received for agricultural research in successive years presented problem in preparing the report. The report also suffers from several shortcomings including country coverage, inconsistent sectoral classification and categorization, etc. Moreover, development assistance often are provided on sectoral basis making it difficult to disaggregating for agricultural research. Therefore, the magnitude of impact of foreign assistance for agricultural research on production, economic growth in Bangladesh economy is rather difficult to estimate quantitatively. Our plausible explanation of the progress of agricultural research, generation of technologies, and dissemination and uptake thereof could not be described effectively. However, given the limitations, the impact of research on the growth in agricultural production over the past four decades is discernible.

The team was tasked to evaluate the role of development assistance in improving higher agricultural education as well. The team made efforts in understanding the nature of assistance by the agricultural universities and the impact thereof in terms of quality and quantity; but except Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University no other universities made data or quantitative information available to the team. Therefore, the observation on academic institutions remains highly incomplete and not comprehensive.

This is rather a short-term study seeking overall impact of the projects, modalities of project implementation, mapping strength and weakness in implementing thereof, and making strategic direction of receiving and utilizing international development assistance for Bangladesh agricultural research in future. Accomplishment of such a huge volume of works within a short time-frame is difficult. Moreover, due to poor record keeping system most of the institutes were not able to provide the documents prerequisite for our study despite their full cooperation in holding meetings with them.

1.5 Scope of the study

Scope of the study are limited to reviewing the development assistance received in Bangladesh for research institutes and programs relating to crops, livestock and fisheries and its impact thereof; and suggesting future outlook and policy of development assistance in agricultural research and education.

2. Approach and Methodology2.1 Approach

The evaluation is to draw upon performance data and meta-analysis of monitoring and evaluation studies, where available, and the experiences and insights of a range of stakeholders and interested parties in development assistance programming and management, to assess and understand better the underlying causes and effects, and most crucially, to learn lessons, rather than simply recording the past events.

The intention was to make a strategic evaluation. It was estimated that there were well over 200 projects (grant and concessional loans) implemented during 1972-2018 involving 25 or more development partners – USAID, JICA, ODA-DFID, bilateral and multilateral partners (including World Bank). It was not possible to evaluate every project in detail. Instead, we looked at the relevance, effectiveness, efficiency, impact and sustainability of the assistance as whole, at the level of recipient organizations (e.g., BARC, BARI, BRRI, BAU, BSMRAU) and the beneficiaries.

The evaluation took account of the situation as it was; what was planned and could reasonably be anticipated; what occurred in real-time and therefore what can be learned from this experience for programming now. This evaluation dealt with the questions: what has been achieved in Bangladesh agricultural research with international development assistance during 1972-2018, and what worked (or did not) and why, to inform the updating of the NARS; and future programing of agricultural research through international assistance.

2.2. Methodology

Discussing among the members, the team developed strategy and evaluation tools. Efforts were made to prepare a list of projects supported by various donors and international partners and implemented by different NARS institutes by using multiple means. Krishi Gobeshona Foundation, with assistance from the team, organized an Expert Consultation meeting at BARC on 08 April 2019 with the past and present key research leaders, senior scientists, university professors and project implementing scientists to discuss on the topic and getting further insights, suggestions and guidance. The list of participants of the consultation meeting is provide in Appendix XVI. The team also collected project documents, terminal reports and other related documents depicting the modalities and outputs of the projects.

Both quantitative and qualitative information were collected. A short, formatted template was developed and forwarded to project heads, heads of institutions or designated persons requesting them to fill in as much as possible, the information related to the project(s) implemented (Appendix II, III). Information on the projects/sub-projects implemented were collected through discussing with the heads of NARS institutions, research leaders, representatives of donor agencies, expatriate scientists and other stakeholders. The team visited most of the NARS institutions (BARI, BRRI, BINA, BJRI, BSRI, SRDI, BFRI and BLRI) and hold meeting with the DGs, Directors, divisional heads and senior scientists of the institutes (Appendix XVI). The team also visited different agricultural universities (BAU, BSMRAU and SAU) and hold meetings with the VCs and senior teachers (Appendix XVI). Besides, the team hold discussion meeting with the senior scientists of the country at BARC on 13 July 2019 (Appendix-XVI).

The team collected information from the secondary sources like project documents and other related publications from the libraries of different institutes and universities, ERD, IMED etc. (Appendix IV-VII).

To gain insight of formulating projects and getting implemented through donor assistance, the team conducted Key Informant Interview (KII) with selected research leaders of the past and present (Appendix-XVI) including National Emeritus Scientist Dr. Kazi M. Badruddoza.

3. MAJOR FINDINGS3.1 Evolution of agricultural research in Bangladesh

Although scientific research in agriculture began in this region of Indian subcontinent more than a century ago, the pace of research and development advanced slowly in post-colonial era (1950s and 1960s). Food production could not meet the demand, and hunger, near-famine and famine situations persisted till mid-1970s. During Pakistan era, institutional innovation in erstwhile East Pakistan remained limited to certain academic reforms and establishment of agricultural university at Mymensingh; research organization masked with extension in the Directorate of Agriculture having a Laboratory at Dhaka with a few substations at selected locations outside carried out routine works. No substantial research outputs generated either in the form of problem-solving technologies or any information useful for accelerating production, excepting waging a ‘Grow More Food’ campaign without any technological support in 1960s. Research trials remained confined in trials of indigenous varieties and adoption or use of manures and fertilizers in crop growing. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) innovated high yielding rice varieties (HYVs) when this region was facing chronic food crisis leading to famine- or near famine situation almost throughout Pakistan era (1947-1970). East Pakistan being the rice growing province and rice being the only staple food of the people, Accelerated Rice Research Project was implemented to develop and adopt HYVs. Assistance of the Ford Foundation and USAID helped implement the project which eventually culminated into the establishment of Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) and linking with IRRI. Introduction of HYV IR-8 in East Pakistan towards the end of 1960s, albeit in a limited scale, set the scene of modern technology in the country. Except in the case of food aid, development assistance received for agricultural research during Pakistan era was usually spent for infrastructure development and capacity enhancement in West Pakistan.

During post-liberation era, war-ravaged Bangladesh inherited skeleton agricultural research establishment, Directorate of Agriculture (Res & Edn.) mainly developed in colonial Bengal. BRRI was at the early developmental phase. With the meagre support of Ford Foundation still continuing, linkage of BRRI with IRRI spurred research towards developing new varieties. However, low production due to limited expansion of HYV IR 8 variety and consecutive flooding coupled with non-availability of adequate food aid and even non-cooperation of US in timely delivery of food grains resulted in a devastating famine in Bangladesh in a period of mass starvation beginning in March 1974 and ending in about December of the same year. It was a time when the economy of Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable economies in the world characterized by an extremely high population density, low resource base, high incidence of natural disasters, and persistent sociopolitical instability, especially during the initial years (Sen et al., 2007).

In the midst of perpetual food deficit and intermittent famine-like situations, the urgency of making available of enough food either producing locally or importing from outside was realized; but importance of developing research infrastructure and strengthening agricultural research systems for enhancing food security was not fully realized in 1960s or early 1970s. The worst famine of 1974 was rather a turning point for Bangladesh agriculture in a sense that the government put sufficient emphasis on agricultural research aiming at achieving self-sufficiency in food. Socio-political instability during 1970s affected country’s overall economic growth. Added to this were the poor infrastructure, weak management, and lack of technical capacity wrecking development in agricultural research.

Although appreciable institutional changes and innovations were apparent during the early years of the Bangladesh liberation through establishment of Horticulture Development Board, Cotton Development Board, Tobacco Development Board, Intensive Jute Production Directorate apart from the existing Directorate of Agriculture Extension Management, research wing of the Directorate of Agriculture had no transformative changes except the establishment of a nominal Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council.

After the bifurcation of the erstwhile Directorate of Agriculture in 1969, Directorate of Agriculture (Research & Education) continued its research activities with skeleton manpower and poor physical facilities. Demand for technology innovation for sustaining and increasing production escalated after the War of Liberation but available resources allowed no expansion or intensification of research activities until the development assistance came in. Two research institutions, Directorate of Agriculture (R&E) and Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) were functional in the post-independence period. With meagre foreign assistance, BRRI continued struggling despite limited man power and resources, DA(R&E) almost stagnated until it transformed into Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) a fully autonomous organization in 1976.

3.2 Foreign aid or development assistance

Foreign aid or development assistance is the voluntary transfer of resources in the form of material and money usually from developed countries to developing or least developed countries having no robust industrial base. It can be in the form of a loan or a grant. Development assistance is one of the most significant sources of foreign exchange. A government giving assistance directly to the government of another country is Bilateral Aid while assistance provided by many governments pooling funds to international organizations like the World Bank, United Nations, and the International Monetary Fund is termed as Multilateral Aid. The purpose of aid can be strategic, political, and economic development. Bilateral or multilateral Assistance, bilateral or multilateral, provided for implementing a project is called Project Aid or Project Assistance. Foreign assistance can be of humanitarian grant or development assistance. Foreign aid Bangladesh received during the period immediately after independence was mainly of bilateral type directed for humanitarian assistance that the war-ravaged country required most.

Bilateral research collaboration is proved to be beneficial both for developed and developing countries. Such collaborations in agricultural research do not only help in boosting demand for products of donor countries overseas. They also provide scientists of donor countries with information which is valuable in raising the efficiency of donor countries’ farm production (Anderson, 1987).Understanding and acknowledgement of such a win-win situation of development assistance in the form of bilateral research project is essential for effective and participatory implementation.

3.3 Foreign assistance for agricultural research in Bangladesh

Bangladesh received foreign assistance for agricultural research in various forms, e.g. (1) direct financial assistance as grant or as loan to the government for development of facilities like buildings, laboratory equipment, green houses, vehicles, etc, (2) Support for post-graduate studies, training, fellowships, study tours, etc to develop human resources through project aid or through CGIAR Centres, and (3) Experienced Technical Assistance (TA) personnel based in Bangladesh or from CGIAR Centres, allowing Bangladeshi researchers to work together with such TA personnel.

In the initial years following independence in 1971 Bangladesh received foreign assistance mainly as relief or bilateral commodity aid with little technical assistance. Beginning late 1970s Bangladesh started receiving development assistance in the form of project aid and technical assistance addressing economic development issues including agriculture (Appendix VIII). Since then bilateral collaboration by the USAID, CIDA, ODA (UK), JICA, EU, and AusAid through ACIAR constituted the major segment of development assistance provided to Bangladesh agriculture.

Apart from the formal bilateral or multilateral development assistance programs, an ad-hoc consortium of governmental and non-governmental organizations, foreign aid agencies, philanthropies, UN agencies, and international financial institutions called the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) actively collaborates agricultural research collecting, distributing and coordinating development assistance for the International Agricultural Research Centers (IARC) as well as national agricultural research systems (NARS) in developing nations since its formation. CGIAR constituted with founding four IARCs in 1971, grew to 13 in 1983 and 18 a decade later. Today there are fifteen CGIAR research centers. Each of the CGIAR centers receives multi-donor supports. Collaboration between CGIAR centers and NARS institutions apparently constitutes a multilateral assistance providing guidance and technical support promoting technology transfer from developed institutions to developing recipient research institutions. Prior to CGIAR in place, Bangladesh has had this special type of research collaboration since mid-1960s (Pray and Anderson, 1985). It started in 1966 with the beginning of IRRI's relationship with the Directorate of Agriculture prior to the establishment of Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI). The number of collaboratively researched crops expanded gradually to include wheat, maize, potatoes, and some pulses and oilseed crops. The most important types of contact included posting center researchers in Bangladesh to work with local researchers on local problems, regular visits by center staff, training programs at the centers or run by the centers, joint programs of germplasm testing, and publications.

Appendix XI gives brief description of 132 foreign aided projects BRRI implemented in partnership with IRRI. While generating technologies (varieties, production technologies, and knowledge) BRRI could improve institutional capacity (infrastructure and human resources) implementing these projects in partnership with highly developed institutions like IRRI.

BRRI’s research and developmental activities can be gleaned from evolution and release of 100 varieties and their large-scale cultivation throughout the country. Rice is grown over almost 80 percent of the land area and is the country’s most important crop. Two-thirds of this land area is now covered by modern varieties mostly developed through BRRI. The adoption of MVs has been driven largely by the subsistence demands of households and supplemented with systematic agricultural extension efforts. Smaller farmers have adopted MVs more readily than larger ones. The privatization of shallow tubewell (STW) irrigation helped to make wide scale MV adoption possible, as has the provision of improved infrastructure such as rural roads, bridges, and rural electrification. However, households in flood-prone and coastal areas somewhat by-passed the benefits of MVS where adoption has so far proved difficult.

Bangladesh farmers have been growing rice as the single most important cereal crop. Wheat was introduced as secondary staple during Pakistan era, however, farmers were not used to growing the crop in eastern part of the country. During post-liberation era Bangladesh initiated introducing wheat as a field crop. The initiative got momentum after the famine of 1974. International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) provided some core funding to BARI for its cooperative research work in Bangladesh. BARI’s partnership with CIMMYT contributed to development and release of 34 varieties of wheat making it a major crop in the country.

Likewise, BARI in partnership with CIMMYT developed and released composites and varieties of maize in Bangladesh establishing it a major crop. The crop now covers an area of about – ha producing over 4.5 million tons annually. BARI-CIMMYT collaboration also contributed to development of improved farm machinery for growing and harvesting wheat and generated information technology supporting dissemination of wheat, maize as major grain crops and triticale as fodder crop in Bangladesh (Anon., 2008).

Aid or development assistance approach for supporting growth of NARS in the initial stage relied on donor-driven technical support to develop physical and intellectual capacity. Preparation and implementation of donor supported projects ‘Establishment of Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute’ and the subsequent ‘Agricultural Research Project’ were directly coordinated or overseen by the USAID employing foreign consulting groups. A large number of foreign experts engaged in implementing such projects but only a smaller segment of them worked along with the NARS scientists.

JICA supported ‘Institute of Postgraduate Studies in Agriculture’ (IPSA) project aimed at accelerating agricultural research in Bangladesh providing building capacity for basic research to support applied and adaptive research programs of NARS institutions. And in order for doing that IPSA was established bringing quality change in higher education in Bangladesh instituting a research-based academic program offering independent MS and PhD programs. Major physical infrastructure of IPSA project was developed through a Japanese Grants-in-Aid, followed by a long-term Technical Assistance Project where USAID participated. Both Japan and US governments project IPSA globally as a highly successful project. In IPSA project also, major decisions used to come from JICA and Japanese experts, but the Japanese experts engaged in developing and implementing research projects hands-in-hands with the local counterpart academics and scientists. A real partnership between experts (donor) and local counterparts in decision making in respect of selecting research and academic resources and physical facilities, training needs, technological options. Strong leadership at institution level, participatory planning and smooth implementation at the ground were the major contributors to the success of the project.

Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institutes (BFRI) has made significant contribution in fisheries and aquaculture development in the country since its establishment in 1984. The institute received grant/loan from various sources including IDA, IDRC, USAID/ICLARM, ACAIR, IFAD to establish research facilities and human resource development. Initiation of Hilsa research in Bangladesh started with the grant of IDRC.

Bangladesh Livestock Research Institutes (BLRI) has also made substantial contribution in livestock and poultry development in the country since 1986. The institute received grant/loan from various sources including JICA, AFACI, ILRI to establish research facilities and human resource development. Poultry research was facilitated through JICA funding (TCP).

Altogether a separate type of donor support for agricultural research is through multi-donor funding through the CGIAR. CGAIR centers like CIMMYT, IRRI, AVRDS, ICRISAT, CIP, ILRI and ICARD funds through bilateral research projects bringing in technical and financial assistance. In the multi-donor supported CGIAR mediated projects focused on specific problems requiring scientific insight, expatriate scientists worked directly with local scientists sharing data and transferring knowledge, skill and technologies. Similarly, Australian supported ACIAR projects were fielded in Bangladesh under the leadership of Australian scientists taking on the lead role of reporting to the donor. Both ACIAR and CGIAR center mediated projects are generally collaborative wherein both expatriate and local Bangladeshi scientists share equally in project implementation. In such projects Bangladeshi scientists worked directly in partnership with expatriate scientists claiming due recognition of their contribution. In the later dates, when NARS institutions developed their technical and intellectual capacities, the modalities of assistance started changing.

Conditionality of development assistances differ depending on donor countries or organizations as well as on recipient countries. Assistance can be in the form of loan or aid. Aid money is not repaid; but loan is conditioned to be repaid on conditions. In the early years following independence Bangladesh used to receive assistance. With passage of time and as the country showed economic progress, development assistances are poured in in the form of loan. Recently implemented multilateral projects like NATP or IAPP are largely loan-projects.

NATP-I was such a project (Appendix IV). The project was jointly funded by Bangladesh Government, World Bank and IDB. The Project Proposal was conceived and largely formulated by Bangladeshi scientists in consultation with World Bank team. The financial assistance by the World Bank and IDB comes as loan, not a grant. NATP is formulated for a period of 15 years in phases. The first phase of the project was complete in 2015, and the second phase is on-going.

3.3.1 Development of research capacity

Capacity building is the first and foremost task of a research organization to be functional for achieving its objectives. Capacity development is defined as the process by which individuals, groups, organizations, institutions, and societies increase their ability to perform core functions, solve problems, define and achieve objectives, and understand and sustainably deal with development issues.

Resource limitation very often challenges capacity enhancement of research institutions in the developing countries. This was the case in Bangladesh immediately following liberation in the seventies and early eighties. Again, the lower levels of capacity that are inherent in many institutions further aggravate the problem of capacity utilization. Lower levels of capacity combined with ineffective utilization results in limited impact of existing capacities including innovation systems.

Having said these, it must be recognized that international collaboration and foreign aided development assistance made significant contributions in both human capacity development and creating physical facilities in Bangladesh (Discussed below). Despite some weaknesses, loss of quite a large number of trained human resources through migration and gradual degradation of the system performance, the impact of such contributions in nation’s food and nutrition security is highly visible, The research team believes that without such international collaboration and support, it would have been impossible to achieve what the country has achieved.

3.3.2 Human capacity development

Both BRRI and BARI placed greater emphasis on building capacity at the formative phase that the development partners endorsed. Institutional capacity required for attaining developmental goal includes human capacity. Understanding the importance developing manpower as a part of capacity enhancement NARS institutions invested heavily on training scientists at different levels despite facing challenges in acquiring resources. Since 1964 IRRI provided different categories of training to 1,184 participants from Bangladesh, mostly BRRI scientists. In all the bilateral and multilateral projects that most NARS institutions implemented as part of their development goal, training including higher degrees formed important component for improving knowledge, skill and capacity.

Looking at the impact of development assistance to supporting generation of new higher yielding (modern) crop varieties and management technologies will be too simplistic. While this has been, and continues to be, a very important aspect, other research products may, in the long run, prove to be even more significant. One of these is the training of scientists and technicians from Bangladesh in the universities and IARCs of developing and developed countries.

Figure 10 shows that IRRI had given formal training on aspects of agricultural sciences and research methods to as many as 1,184 scientists of BRRI and other organizations during 1964 to 2019. It is conceivable that the scientists with their enhanced skills and productivity, were critical to scientific advancement and productivity of BRRI.

Table 1 shows the changes in human resources of different NARS institutions over four decades. There were a few scientists having higher degrees (PhD) and scientists with BS degree dominating in most of the NARS institutions during the seventies and early eighties of the last century. But today, scientists with PhDs dominate. This has capacitated NARS institutions bringing to world standard at least in terms of knowledge and technical skills.

Recently, with financial support of the World Bank and IFAD, Bangladesh government implemented National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) phase I at a total cost of Tk. 13,530.60 lakh for a period of five years. The implementing units includes: Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC), Krishi Gobeshona Foundation (KGF), Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE), Department of Livestock Services (DLS), Department of Fisheries (DoF), Hortex Foundation (Hortex) and Project Coordination Unit (PCU). The overall objective of the project was to increase agricultural production, productivity and income of farmers. NARS institutes and public universities participated in research activities under PIU-BARC and NARS, universities, NGOs and private organizations (POs) also participated in research activities under KGF. With NATP support, the research system have supported 108 researchers in getting PhDs during 2009-2014.

Consequent upon support to having researchers with post-graduate degrees, we saw a significant increase in number of PhDs and MScs over the last 40 years since 1976 in BARC-affiliated institutions. While in 1976, there were only 137 PhDs, out of 1,378 researchers, in all of these research institutions, the number increased to 531 in 2016. Of the MScs, the number was 879 in 1976, which increased to 879 in 2016. Considering that many with PhDs and MScs have retired and left their institutions during the last 40 years, the support for higher training was significant. However, we could not disaggregate how many of the PhDs and MScs received support from Government fund. But we are knowledgeable from our experience that bulk of these were the products of support from international collaboration.

In addition of support for PhDs and MScs, international collaboration in various forms have helped supported a good number of researchers get leadership level training through post-doctoral training at various international research centers and universities.

Of significant importance in human capacity development was support for on-the job-training of researchers through providing technical assistance personnel in various research institutes, particularly during those formative years of the research system in the seventies and eighties. Such collaboration was very important for researchers to learn while they worked and all of them could learn.

Many international collaborative activities included support for our scientists in participating in international seminars, symposium, short training courses, study tours, etc, which allowed them to learn from other scientists, sharing their own research results, improve presentation capabilities, learn about other research related skills and leadership skills. These also help building conficence so improve for a research leader.

3.3.3 Physical facilities

Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) the largest agricultural research establishment was established and developed during two decades following independence in 1971. The journey of BARI began with skeleton physical infrastructure of old Laboratory buildings at Dhaka and few research substations at Ishurdi (Pabna), Jessore, Hathazari (Chattogram), Rahmatpur (Barishal), and Jamalpur belonging to the erstwhile Directorate of Agriculture. With financial support of USAID and other donor agencies, BARI established its major laboratories and headquarters at Joydebpur (Gazipur). Donor assistance also helped BARI improving research environment through development of laboratories, experiment farms both in its headquarters (at Joydebpur) and in regional stations. For the initial few years, BARI shouldered the responsibility of running Bangladesh Agricultural Institute, the oldest agricultural institution of higher learning in the region (currently, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University). In addition, BARI established the Institute of Postgraduate Studies in Agriculture (IPSA) with financial and technical assistance of JICA. Establishment of IPSA and its independent academic programs at postgraduate level was a milestone in the field of higher agricultural education in Bangladesh.

Major research facilities and physical infrastructures of Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) were also developed through foreign development assistance. Agricultural Research Project (ARP) largely funded by the USAID contributed greatly to infrastructure development of Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC), BARI, BRRI, Bangladesh Jute Research Institute (BJRI), Sugarcane Research Institute (BSRI), Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute (BLRI) and Bangladesh Fishery Research Institute (BFRI). In recent years, World Bank and IDB funded NATP project established a government supported fully autonomous research grant-making institution, Krishi Gobeshona Foundation (KGF).

3.4 State of Agricultural Research in Bangladesh

Planning, priority setting and management: BARC in recent years facilitates formulating and reviewing annual research programs of the NARS institutions. While the programs are developed in house by scientists of respective institutes, these are placed in an annual event for discussion in BARC-led annual event where scientists of different institutions remain present.

Apparently, annual research proposals that the NARS institutes propose are annual activity plans. Unless otherwise formulated for international collaboration, the institutes plan research proposals somewhat on ad-hoc basis and a bigger output can hardly be expected from such activities. Instead of ad-hoc planning, NARS institutes can place emphasis on building medium- and long-term projects and programs aiming at larger outputs. Interdisciplinary scientists could be pooled for developing and implementing such programs and projects with shared objectives.

Mapping out of the problems and aspiration of farming communities is a pre-requisite for research agenda. Prioritization of research agenda in accord to the national programs and policies. Research planning in Bangladesh usually stems from scientists’ academic training, professional interest, skill and institutional capability where wisdom of farmers and agribusiness communities is rarely reflected. Farming communities and agribusiness groups should have put pressure on the research system; but it seems that farming communities are not adequately qualified or prepared to express their needs and challenges they face. Or the system does not encourage or provide avenues for sufficient interaction between the scientists and the farming communities. This is particularly true in the case of planning and implementing research in academic arena. Failure in setting research agenda in view of national policies and formulating research programs ignoring farmers’ problems and views will not produce useful research.

For developing research or development projects, recipient organizations require to prepare a proposal by making an inventory of research required to improve production in an environment of which climatic, soil and other relevant characteristics are known. With a few exceptions, research institutions depended much on the proposition of the donor agencies in project formulation during the early years of receiving donor support. This holds goods even in the case of most successful projects. This non-participatory role of local research leaders in designing project ultimately resulted in poor outcomes.

Research at agricultural universities: While IPSA (subsequently BSMRAU) was established as a postgraduate research institution as an organ of the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) aiming at operating research-based MS and PhD programs, it had its research orientation from the beginning. However, in the other agricultural universities, whether in rural or urban setting, the primary focus remains academic programs while research is relegated to secondary option. Moreover, the focus of the research paradigm under which the bulk of the research programs operating in the agriculture universities are thematically organized, academically focused, often having little relevance of the real-world agriculture being practiced by the Bangladesh farming communities. Whether in the universities or in the NARS institutions, development thinking should have moved away from this approach to a more holistic view.

In the three decades following the independence of Bangladesh, agricultural research centered around research institutes or NARS institutions. The focus of the development cooperation in the field of agricultural research was also thematically-organized largely involving research institutions. During recent years development thinking has moved away from this approach to a more holistic view bringing in a broad-based stakeholders, value chains and wider consideration of policy environments. NATP, for example, included multiple stakeholders like NARS, DAE, DoF, DLS and agricultural universities.

3.5 International Research Collaboration

In the age of globalization scientific research is becoming increasingly collaborative (Gibbons et al., 1994), the network is growing (Wagner and Leydesdorff, 2004), and the global system is becoming more integrated (Persson and Melin, 2002). A 'research collaboration' should be viewed as the working together of researchers to achieve the common goal of producing new scientific knowledge. International collaboration in science as a bilateral or network, where a pattern of communication enables exchange, interdependent flows of resources, and reciprocity contributes to enhance research processes (Palla et al., 2007; Hoekman et al., 2010). Such collaboration enables researchers to access additional, often specific, expertise, gain new perspectives on research and build relationships with others in the field, which for early stage researchers can be key to career development.

Over recent years, there has been increasing interest among researchers and within science policy circles in the notion of research collaboration. It is widely assumed that collaboration in research is ‘a good thing’ and that it should be encouraged. Numerous initiatives have been launched with the aim of developing collaboration among individual re- searchers--bringing them together, for instance, in new or larger centers of excellence, or alternatively in interdisciplinary research groups. There have also been policies aimed at improving the links between science and technology through fostering research collaboration across sectors--in particular, between university and industry. Furthermore, most governments have been keen to increase the level of inter- national collaboration engaged in by the researchers whom they support in the belief that this will bring about cost savings or other benefits.

CGIAR brokered establishing collaborative research between or among different organizations and institutions spanning countries and regions. CGIAR centers also managed developing and implementing research projects hiring experts along with the collaborative scientists and institutions across nations. These collaborative research not only generated knowledge and technologies spurring productivity but also acted as a major vehicle of transferring and disseminating technologies from developed world to the developing world. On the other hand, working with international scientists NARS scientists gained confidence and professional experience in tackling challenges that the nation faces. Productive collaboration of BRRI with IRRI, BARI with CIMMYT, AVRDC and ICRISAT provided access to genetic materials from across the world that helped developing varieties suitable for local situations. Partnership with NARS institutions with CGIAR centers thus forms a unique technical collaboration.

Bangladesh is transforming to a middle-income country by next year, and projected to be a developed country two decades later. Given that agriculture an economic growth engine, capacity and performance of agricultural research institutions must match with that of developed countries.

Strengthening institutional and research capacity of NARS institutions agricultural universities in key areas by calling on the skills and capacity available in the laboratories, institutions and universities in developed countries.

3.6 A Review of Projects Implemented

Bangladesh began its journey as an independent country amidst poverty and hunger with chronic food deficits. During the Liberation War many farmers fled the country resulting to poor harvests immediately following the country’s liberation. Devastating flood in mid-seventies led to poor harvests for consecutive growing seasons. Endured hunger coupled with non-availability of food even on purchase due to non-cooperation of certain developed nations pushed Bangladesh to prolonged famine that perished thousands of lives both in rural and urban areas.

Bangladesh learned a lesson from famine and hunger leading to determination of being self-sufficiency in food that over generations the people in this part of Bengal longed for. Determined Bangladesh administration realized that immediate developmental goal of the country should have been growing more food for the hungry millions. This was the ultimate objective of the ‘Second Revolution’, the dream of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. It was realized that the foundation of self-reliance of food rests on strengthening agricultural research and development. Despite financial crisis, government created several agricultural research and development institutions including Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI), Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC), Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA), Horticultural Development Board (HDB), Cotton Development Board (CDB) (See total agricultural spending and research focus in Bangladesh in Appendix IX).These organizations were created at a time when international donor organizations were more interested in providing relief and rehabilitation assistance to war-torn Bangladesh. In the decade following liberation Bangladesh could hardly draw any assistance for building research institutions dedicated for increasing yield or enhancing agricultural production.

Development assistance started pouring in towards the end of 1970s. Bilateral assistance through Ford Foundation, Rockefeller Foundation, CIMMYT, IRRI, JICA, ACIAR; but the assistance was mostly not organized harmonizing country’s development objectives. Participation of the scientists and research leaders in formulating aid/development assistance was absent. Bangladesh scientists were also not much conversant about the best utilization of development aid. Directorate of Agriculture (Research & Education), the fore runner of the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute and Bangladesh Rice Research Institute

Ending hunger through accelerating production was perceived a daunting task. In the seventies when the success of ‘green revolution’ was already visible in many of the Asian countries, Bangladesh was still struggling with low productivity and hunger. Development and dissemination of high yielding rice varieties speeded up and hope of ending hunger became imminent towards the end of seventies. As the role of science in tackling development challenges being exemplified by the ‘green revolution’ in South Asia, Bangladesh also looked for science-based solution to poverty and hunger gaining experience and acquiring knowledge establishing R&D facilities and accelerating biological research culminating to development and dissemination of modern varieties of rice, wheat and vegetable crops. By the mid-1980s, agricultural research organizations in the 1960s. The speed and scale of bringing about a solution to the food crisis was unprecedented and led by the scientific contributions of Norman Borlaug, whose research on improved cereal varieties, fertilizer, irrigation practices, and pest control measures are credited with saving more than one billion people.

USAID’s R&D investments have been crucial to generating results in areas such as global health, agriculture, economic growth, environment, and early warning systems. The results of these investments reflect success in gaining knowledge and applying science, technology, and innovation toward impactful solutions.

With increasing investment and accelerated progress in agricultural research and development Bangladesh performed well achieving MDG. Pace of progress towards achieving SDG is also appreciable so far. However, doubling agricultural production and securing nutritious food by 2030 seems very difficult if not impossible (See number of researchers per 100 thousand farmers in Bangladesh in Appendix X). This would rather require a multidimensional developmental approach involving agricultural production, health sector providing education and creating general awareness and outlook.

Focusing on Bangladesh’s tropical climate and impending climate change impact on agriculture, infrastructure and economic development in general, it is likely that climate change will reduce the rate of agricultural productivity growth. To sustain agricultural growth Bangladesh will have to struggle for increasing productivity and contain the backlash of climate change through adopting effective mitigation and adaptation strategies. So long agriculture remains a major growth engine of Bangladesh economy it will require massive investment in agriculture at least in the form of infrastructure development or revamping agricultural research (See AgGDP growth rate and R&D spending as a share of AgGDP in Appendix X).

Sustaining agricultural research will be required for creating new knowledge and technological growth. Propensity of agricultural information and knowledge should be the major role of the agricultural universities.

3.7 Impact of development assistance

Development assistance or foreign financial aid has been viewed as a significant incentive for development. However, this view has always been controversial. While Burnside and Dollar (1997 contend that the impact of aid is effective only if governments have good policies, others refute this view and argue that aid enhances economic growth regardless of the type of policies. Study by Tashrifov (2012) indicates that the relationship between policy and the effectiveness of aid is tenuous, at best. Earlier, Rajan and Subramanian (2005) also found no evidence that aid works better in better policy or geographical environments, or that certain forms of aid work better than others.

Development assistance or foreign financial aid has been viewed as a significant incentive for development however this view has always been controversial. While Burnside and Dollar (1997 contend that the impact of aid is effective only if governments have good policies, others refute this view and argue that aid enhances economic growth regardless of the type of policies. Study by Tashrifov (2012) indicates that the relationship between policy and the effectiveness of aid is tenuous, at best. Earlier, Rajan and Subramanian (2005) also found no evidence that aid works better in better policy or geographical environments, or that certain forms of aid work better than others.

3.7.1 Impact on productivity

Agricultural research and development (R&D), in general, contributes to agricultural growth and total factor productivity (TFP) by increasing crop and livestock yields through development of new technologies (that is, new varieties and techniques) and increased technological diffusion and adoption.

Perez and Rosegrant (2015) measured impact through comparative analysis of projections to 2030 of agricultural commodity prices, area, yield, production, and effect on food security through investment in agricultural R&D and concluded that investment would be more effective if allocated to the system focused toward closing the existing resource productivity and yield gaps. Recent empirical studies demonstrated that the landless and marginal farm families benefited from the green revolution technology and provided a critique of the hypothesis of polarization and social conflict put forward by eminent social scientists from studies in 1970s and 1980s (Jahangir 1979; Van Schendel 1981; Boyce 1987; Jansen 1987).

Analyzing household data on the effect of adoption on productivity, profitability of rice farming, unit costs of production and prices, and food entitlement of low-income people, Hossain et al. (2007) attempted to understand the magnitude and impact of technological progress in rice cultivation on the livelihood of the rural households, particularly of the poor in Bangladesh.

The major achievement of rice research in Bangladesh, as in other Asian countries, has been the development of high-yielding MVs (See historical changes in rice production and Yield of MV rice in Appendix XIII). Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) has released 100 rice varieties for different agroecological conditions, while the Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA)-22 varieties, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU)- 3 varieties and the Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh (BAU), released 3 rice varieties. IRRI has played a major role in developing the rice research capacity in Bangladesh (See IRRI’s contribution to rice varietal development in Bangladesh in Appendix XII). Many of the BRRI and BINA varieties are direct releases of advanced lines developed at IRRI, and most of the crosses made for developing the varieties contained IRRI breeding materials distributed through IRRI’s International Network for Genetic Evaluation of rice (Evenson and Gollin, 1997). Farmers have adopted only a few of them, but some remained popular long after their release. Almost 80 percent of the varieties released in Bangladesh have IRRI lineage (Hossain et al. 2003). MV coverage has now expanded to over 85 percent of the rice area. The technological progress has helped Bangladesh maintain the food-population balance without having to extend rice cultivation to new lands.

Hossain et al. (2007) demonstrated that for the richer 50 percent of households with access to land, there has been direct positive impact from adoption of MVs in the form of increased yields, reduction in unit costs, and increased farm incomes. The productivity increases led to lower output prices, but the unit cost of production was reduced faster, thereby ensuring that MV rice cultivation still remains more profitable than cultivation of traditional varieties. However, with decreasing average farm size due to demographic pressure income from rice farming now accounts for less than 20 percent of the household income. Although not highly profitable, rice contributes to improved food security and provides a springboard for both rich and poor farm households to move into nonfarm income generation and employment. In terms of impact on the poor, MV adoption does not have a substantial direct effect, except for some purely tenant households that were able to gain access to land from the expanding tenancy market.

3.7.2 Self-sufficiency in food grains

Wheat production in Bangladesh during Pakistan time in fact remained confined in experiment station and government run seed production farms. The crop was not under production commercially. Amid chronic food deficits, difficulty in importing, pervasive hunger BARI (DA-R&E) scientists turned to research in growing wheat as a secondary staple crop. BARI's collaborative research CIMMYT resulted in wheat varieties suitable for growing in the northern districts. Armed with technological support of the CIMMY, a big push of BARI and huge campaign by the Directorate of Agric (E&M) resulted in a leap producing 218,000 tons wheat in 1975. The growth in wheat production continued reaching a peak in 1999 producing a recorded production of nearly 2 million tons of wheat. Subsequent drop in wheat production in Bangladesh is associated with emergence and expansion of maize as a feed crop and global warming due to climate change. Meanwhile wheat has gained ground and further downtrend in wheat production is not immediately apparent. Rather intensification research eyeing on development of varieties with multiple tolerance to diseases and high temperatures will further spur wheat production in Bangladesh.

Adoption of MVs of rice and wheat not only increased food security but also contributed to farmers’ resilience to natural disasters, floods, and droughts. Introduction of wheat as a secondary staple crop in the dry season strengthened food security producing over a million tons of food grains. Production of over 4.5 million tons of maize enhanced farmers’ income and contributed to improving human nutrition through establishing and sustaining vibrant poultry industry.

Adoption of early maturing varieties of high yielding rice during aman season paved the way of planting wheat and maize in the dry season. Development and expansion of MVs of boro rice reduced the area under aus rice. Yields of traditional aus rice were low and erratic due to its susceptibility drought and flood damage.

Vegetables were in short supply decades ago. Availability of improved varieties and attendant improved production technologies facilitated farmers growing a large number of vegetable crops including potato, brinjal, tomato, cabbage, cauliflower, gourds (sweet gourd, bottle gourd, teasle gourd, bitter gourd) etc. throughout the year. Bangladesh now ranks fourth in vegetable production. Abundant supply of vegetables helped expand far income and improve human nutrition diversifying dietary habit.

Research targeting improved varieties and agronomic practices generated location specific farming systems. In the flood free medium high lands, farmers are now practicing three crops a year where a single aman crop was the major cropping system decades ago. Crop intensification growing short duration high varieties/hybrids of rice, wheat, maize and vegetables has changed the rural landscape in Bangladesh. All these have been possible through scientific innovation and rapid adoption thereof in a large scale.

Development, dissemination and uptake of HYVs created significantly positive impact on life and livelihood of farmers. Analyzing the trend of HYV adoption in Bangladesh and its effects on rural economy Hossain et al. (2003) demonstrated that while growing HYV rice farmers increased production, cropping intensity, expanded marketable surpluses and provisioning of more land for non-rice crops for non-poor farmers, it has increased year round employment, increased wage rate and diversified livelihood for the poor and very poor farmers. Boro rice that ranked third among the three rice crops a few years ago now leads covering an area of 4859 ha (42% of the total rice area) producing 19576 tons (54% of total rice production) annually in 2017-18 (BBS, 2018). Extensive production of boro rice that is harvested in April-May help increase rice supply in lean period. The indirect effect of expansive cultivation of boro rice in lowlands has reduced the area under aus rice.

3.8 Way Forward

Agriculture will continue to play a vital role in economic growth and poverty reduction and key to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals, most especially, Zero Hunger and Nutrition Security. Investing in agriculture is thus essential to improve food and nutrition security for the population of Bangladesh. Government stresses on export of high value crops and crop products for income growth of rural population. In view of increasing population and demand growth, shrinking arable land and increasingly adverse impact of climate change sustaining agricultural production is the key challenge (See Bangladesh agriculture at a glance in Appendix XIV). Our challenge is no longer just about how to grow more food. The challenge now is to grow more and healthier food, more equitably distributed, using less land, less water, less fossil-fuel energy, and leaking fewer nutrients and greenhouse gases.

It will be necessary to make a comprehensive approach to agriculture and food security that targets the immediate and future needs while also strengthening the foundations of agricultural industries through improving agricultural productivity and opening new markets. This will however, require major advances in productivity, market systems, natural resource management and governance. Such advances in agriculture will depend on innovation underpinning science.

It requires mentioning that agricultural research for development has proven to be highly effective to aid the goals of enhanced prosperity and reduced poverty in developing countries, and this contributes directly to regional peace and security at national and regional levels. Recognizing the importance of agriculture in economic growth, achieving SDGs, life and livelihoods of millions of people, investment in agriculture deserves priority. Given that the economic growth rates remaining high enough transforming Bangladesh into a middle income country by next year and graduating to a developed nation by 2041, Bangladesh will still require to have development assistance, albeit with change in form and modalities. Needless to mention that in order to spur scientific activities and derive productive outputs international collaboration is a must.

3.8 Recommendations

Agriculture is the growth engine in Bangladesh, employing over 40% of the country’s total workforce. Rising income growth and increasing population will demand increasing production. The food system is now increasingly seen as a priority for research. Sustaining food security and attaining nutrition security warrant increased and diversified production raising productivity in a sustainable way.

As Bangladesh economy grows, it will be increasingly integrated with world economy putting greater pressure on agriculture sector to compete in the world market. Competitiveness of Bangladesh agriculture can be ensured maintaining higher growth in agricultural productivity. This will require transforming agricultural research and development to an extent matching with developed economy. However, research funding remains a challenge which may be overcome using development assistance.

Bangladesh needs good, tightly-focused research projects that may apply the insights and tools from a single discipline on a particular aspect of a farming system or agrifood system. Research partners from the developed nations including CGIAR centers might be interested in the intersections and interactions between food, water, climate and energy, in the context of farming systems, ecosystems and value chains. This necessitates multi-, inter- and transdisciplinary perspectives, in generally larger research teams working on multifaceted projects of longer duration, ideally with strong engagement from agricultural research systems and policy stakeholders from the outset.

Result-based collaborative research projects, bilateral or multilateral, involve and researchers from both from developed (donor) and developing (recipient) countries making responsible for project implementation. Outputs of such projects are not only the information and technologies tested and validated in developed and developing countries as well but also the fostering of cooperation and instilling confidence among the scientists. It is suggested that BARC and NARS institutions may think of negotiating such collaborative projects involving Bangladesh scientists and partner country scientists making equally responsible for project implementation.

An impending catastrophe in Asian countries could have been avoided through Green Revolution. Green revolution technologies were an innovation through scientific advancement in biological science developing crop varieties manipulating plant genetics and generation of attendant technologies for greater nutrient uptake and synthesis. Lack of visualization of the role of science and technology that can play in socio-economic development is generally prevalent in Bangladesh. Science and technology should be viewed as a growth engine rather than a consumer good. In that perspective there should be efforts of taping new knowledge to spur generation of new technologies and innovations. Tapping and generation of knowledge requires international collaboration, be it high-income countries or in the developing world. Training of Bangladesh scientists in developed countries through post-graduate degrees, post-doctoral fellowships, short term training, participation in international seminars and workshops should be encouraged for tapping of knowledge and facilitating networking. Of particular importance is that about 60% of BARI PhDs will retire in next few years and they will have to be replaced. While we support that majority should come from locally developed PhDs/MScs, there must be opportunities for higher learning from the internationally renowned institutions and universities. Networking and collaborative research can have multiplicative effect on research output. Based on the world output of scientific research in 2014, UNESCO (2015) reported that 86% of scientific articles were the fruit of international scientific collaboration in low-income countries. In high-income countries, one in three (34%) articles had a foreign co-author.

Based on the learning from implementing different types of research and projects, it is suggested that BARC and NARS institution may negotiate bilateral funding for formulating and taking up research and development project. Multilateral assistance may also be received through CGIAR system projects on fundamental and strategic issues bearing impact on the economies and societies of the partner countries.

4. References

Anderson, J.R. 1987. Impact of Agricultural Research in Developing Countries, pp. 9-14. In Ryan, J. G. (ed.). Building on success: agricultural research, technology, and policy for development. Report of a symposium held at Canberra. 14 May 1987. ACIAR Technical Reports No. 7, 39 p.

Anonymous. 2008. Achievements of the Bangladesh CIMMYT Partnership for Agricultural Research and Development. CIMMYT Office in Bangladesh, Dhaka. 25 pp.

Alam, G.M.M., Alam, K. and Shahbaz, M. 2018. Drivers of food security of vulnerable rural households in Bangladesh: Implications for policy and development. South Asia Economic Journal, 19(1): 1-21.

Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2018. Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics.

Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, 2018. Annual Reports.

Boyce, J. K. 1987. Agrarian impasse in Bengal: Institutional constraints to technological change? Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Burnside, C. and Dollar, D., 1997. ‘Aid Spurs Growth-in a Sound Policy Environment’, Finance & Development 34: 4-7.

Evenson, R. E., and D. Gollin. 1997. Genetic resources, international