Juvenile Delinquency

Peter C. Kratcoski • Lucille Dunn Kratcoski Peter Christopher Kratcoski

Juvenile DelinquencyTheory, Research, and the Juvenile Justice Process

Sixth Edition

ISBN 978-3-030-31451-4 ISBN 978-3-030-31452-1 (eBook)https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31452-1

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 20203rd edition: © Prentice-Hall, Inc. a division of Simon & Schuster 19904th edition: © Prentice-Hall, Inc., Simon & Schuster/A Viscom Company 19965th edition: © Pearson Education Inc. 2004This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AGThe registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Peter C. KratcoskiSociology/Justice StudiesKent State UniversityTallmadge, OH, USA

Peter Christopher KratcoskiWilliams, Welser & Kratcoski LLCKent, OH, USA

Lucille Dunn KratcoskiTallmadge, OH, USA

This book is dedicated to three generations of the Kratcoski and Dunn families, who encouraged and supported our academic and professional endeavors.

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Publication of this sixth edition of Juvenile Delinquency provided an opportunity to reflect on the changes in the amount and types of juvenile misbehavior and the juve-nile justice response to it that have taken place since the first edition was published more than 35 years ago. The cyclical nature of delinquency and the increased for-malization of juvenile court procedures and juvenile justice system approaches became apparent in this examination. However, we have seen a renewed emphasis on diversion and treatment of youths with special needs.

The first edition explored the problems of youth deviance and unlawful behavior in the Unites States at the close of the 1970s and the methods used at that time to inhibit, detect, punish, deter, or reduce this activity. It reported trends and develop-ments in the amount and nature of delinquency that are still occurring, including increased similarities in the amount and types of offenses committed by males and females; involvement of younger age groups in delinquent activity; and increases in middle-class, suburban, and rural youths’ misbehavior, gang activity, and substance abuse. It was noted that treatment strategies had moved beyond the “medical model” and had begun to focus on minimization of penetration into the system, community treatment, deinstitutionalization, and the “right to punishment.”

The second edition focused on delinquency in the mid-1980s. The continuing narrowing of the gap between the rates of male and female offending and overrep-resentation of minority group members in arrests for property crime and violent crime were important trends. Key issues were the pressures for removal of both status offenders (those who commit offenses that are unlawful only for juveniles) and serious violent delinquents from juvenile court jurisdiction and revision of juve-nile codes to formalize processing of serious offenders and mandate their referral to adult criminal courts or specialized youth courts. For other offenders, the emphasis was on diversion, community treatment, and deinstitutionalization.

At the beginning of the 1990s, the third edition noted increases in arrests of juve-niles for offenses relates to substance abuse and substantial increases in gang activ-ity, which was regarded as a serious threat to safety in the schools and inner-city neighborhoods. As a result of policies for separate handling of delinquent and status offenders at all levels of the juvenile justice system, the debate over status offenders

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had largely subsided. Increased attention was given to physical and sexual abuse as threats to the welfare of children, and the juvenile court procedures for dealing with these problems became important. Firmer handling of serious offenders and more severe dispositions for habitual, serious offenders had been initiated, leading to increases in the number of juveniles held in long-term institutions. Treatment in institutions now focused on education, job skills, and preparation for return to the community rather than on the personal problems of the offenders. For other offend-ers, restitution, community service, and intensive probation were used. Privatization of juvenile corrections was a new trend.

When the fourth edition appeared in the mid-1990s, increases in arrests of juve-niles for serious and violent crimes and overrepresentation of minority group youths in these types of offenses, new surges in gang activity and expansion in the age ranges of gang members, and rapid increases in female delinquency were noted. These trends were seen as creating an identity crisis for the juvenile courts. Many states lowered the upper age of juvenile court jurisdiction so that older adolescent offenders could be referred directly to adult courts. Juvenile court procedures were formalized, and there were new pressures for complete removal of status offenders from juvenile court jurisdiction. Increases in the number of abuse, neglect, and dependency cases required the juvenile courts to devote more attention to these cases. The demands for harsher penalties for serious juvenile offenders resulted in waiver of more cases to adult criminal courts. The trend toward more severe disposi-tions for habitual, serious offenders continued, with increases in the number of insti-tutionalized juveniles and close supervision of them when they were released. Institutional treatment continued to focus on the skills needed for reintegration into the community. Privatization of juvenile corrections increased. The schools began to take greater responsibility for delinquency prevention programming.

When the fifth edition of Juvenile Delinquency appeared at the beginning of the twenty-first century, it was apparent that the problems of youth had not changed appreciably over the years since the first edition, but certain trends were identified. Juvenile arrests for both violent and property crimes declined considerably in the late 1990s, but offenses related to the personal, family, and community behavior of youths, including substance abuse, offenses against family, and disorderly conduct, increased. School-related violence and gang activity continued to capture the head-lines, minority group youths were still overrepresented in every facet of the juvenile justice system, and involvement of females in gang activity and serious and violent delinquencies showed strong increases. The reductions in arrests for violent and property crimes were attributed to the strong economy in the late 1990s, harsher dispositions for and closer supervision of serious offenders, and the institutionaliza-tion of many habitual serious offenders. However, as the economy declined in the early 2000s, serious and violent delinquency began to increase again, underlining the connection between poverty and lack of opportunities and delinquency. The formalization of juvenile court procedures had continued, and some legal scholars questioned the wisdom of having a separate juvenile justice system. Many states lowered the upper age of juvenile court jurisdiction so that older adolescent offend-ers were referred directly to adult courts. Judicial waiver (transfer of juveniles’

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cases to adult criminal courts), statutory exclusion (giving criminal courts original jurisdiction over certain offenses by juveniles, so that they are automatically excluded from the juvenile court), and concurrent jurisdiction (both the juvenile and criminal courts have jurisdiction, but the prosecutor has the discretion to file the case in either type of court) resulted in the removal of many serious delinquency cases from the juvenile courts. The renewed call for removal of status offenders from juvenile court jurisdiction was seen as a challenge to the purposes of the court, which was originally designed to intervene in and touch the lives of any youths believed to be disposed toward unacceptable or inappropriate conduct.

More severe dispositions for habitual, serious offenders frequently took the form of institutionalization. Treatment strategies in institutions that focus on preparing the incarcerated youths for return to the community were described. Such programs as restitution, community service, and intensive probation promoted greater involve-ment of the community in delinquency prevention control.

Police and the courts developed diversion programs and intensive supervision possibilities based on the “balanced approach,” which gives equal consideration to protecting the community and rehabilitating offenders. The schools become a focal point for meeting the needs of many children who had no other agency contacts. They developed programs to feed needy children during the school day, reach out to their families, and provide for their safety as they travel to and from school, through patrol of areas near the schools and by use of in-school police officers, who present classes on drug and alcohol abuse prevention and avoiding sexual exploitation. Schools also offered opportunities for teenage mothers to continue their education, and peer influence groups were formed to encourage youths to stay in school and avoid gang influences.

The title of the sixth edition has been changed to Juvenile Delinquency: Theory, Research, and the Juvenile Justice Process, to emphasize the importance of using the findings from “evidence-based” research in the enactment of laws, develop-ments of policies, and implementation of programs in the processing and treatment of juvenile offenders. Several of the theories of delinquency causation that were discarded because they were considered to be not relevant to contributing to our understanding of the behavior of youths, particularly that of delinquent youths, now have received renewed interest as a result of having the technology and assessment tools needed to complete large-scale research.

The conditions early theorists associated with delinquency, such as poverty, crowded living conditions, and lack of educational opportunities, can still be accepted as explanations for a portion of delinquent behavior, but they have little validity in explaining middle-class delinquency. The influence of portrayals of vio-lent and morally permissive subject matter in the mass media, violent video games, lack of supervision of young people brought on by the need for both parents to contribute to the family income or parents’ desires for self-fulfillment, rootlessness and lack of extended family ties, the impersonality of large school systems, and the lack of opportunities for meaningful work for teenagers, or various combinations of these factors, have been demonstrated to be conditions that contribute to the misbe-

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havior of certain young people. It is apparent that delinquency is still a complex phenomenon that defied easy explanations.

In addition, greater emphasis is placed on the influence of communications by way of the internet as it is related to the victimization of youth, violence in the schools and the family, and conflict in the community.

In this sixth edition, these matters and many others related to juvenile delin-quency in contemporary society were examined with the help of professionals in the juvenile justice field, including juvenile court judges, probation and aftercare offi-cers, police officers, youth leaders, social workers, researchers, and those involved in special diversion or community treatment programs. Their candor, assistance, and encouragement helped us to develop Juvenile Delinquency’s sixth edition into a book that we believe presents a picture of delinquency and the juvenile justice system as they were, as they are, and as they may exist in the future.

Tallmadge, OH, USA Peter C. KratcoskiTallmadge, OH, USA Lucille Dunn KratcoskiKent, OH, USA Peter Christopher Kratcoski

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The writing of this book would not have been possible without the assistance of many individuals who contributed their time and ideas and who provided invaluable information.

In addition to including the most recent developments in theories of delinquency causation and the latest research on young people who violate the laws and those who are victims of crime, we enlisted the aid of numerous professionals and the help of adults and juveniles who were willing to share their experiences with the juvenile justice system. Their insights and willingness to “tell it as it is” helped the authors develop an understanding of the operation of the juvenile justice system. These individuals include:

Robert Berger, Judge, Portage County, Ohio Court of Common Pleas, Juvenile Division

Daniel Cody, Magistrate, Summit County, Ohio Court of Common Pleas, Juvenile Division

Rory Franks, Chief Probation Officer, Portage County, Ohio Court of Common Pleas, Juvenile Division

Lisa Green, Administrator, New Philadelphia Girls’ Group Home, Multi-County Juvenile Attention System, New Philadelphia, Ohio

Kristine Pytash, Ph.D., Kent State University College of Education, Health, and Human Services

Troy Reeves, Attorney at Law, Kent, OhioLenny Sorboro, Director of Youth Rehabilitation, Portage County, Ohio Court of

Common Pleas, Juvenile DivisionLinda Tucci Teodosio, Judge, Summit County, Ohio Court of Common Pleas,

Juvenile DivisionLisa Testa, Ph.D., Kent State University College of Education, Health, and Human

Services

We also wish to acknowledge many others who contributed to this work through assisting with the research and typing the manuscript. They include Dawn McMurdo,

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Administrative Assistant, Williams, Kratcoski & Can, LLC, and Emma Samuels, Kent State University Paralegal Intern.

Special thanks to Judith Newlin, Social and Behavior Sciences Editor, Springer Publishing, who provided assistance to the authors throughout the process and Ms. Kala Palanisamy, Project Manager and Contents Solutions, who provided assistance with the production of the book.

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Contents

Part I Definition, Scope, and Trends in Juvenile Delinquency

1 The Transition of Child to Adult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.2 Societal Reaction to Youthful Misbehavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2.1 Children in the Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.2.2 The Renaissance and the Development of Interest

in Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.2.3 Childhood in Colonial America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.2.4 Childhood During the Period of Industrialization and

Immigration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.3 Houses of Refuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.4 Compulsory Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.5 Origins of the Juvenile Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.5.1 The Child Savers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.5.2 Creation of the First Juvenile Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.6 Extent of Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.7 The Concept Juvenile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1.7.1 Status Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 1.8 Measuring Juvenile Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 1.9 Officially Recorded Delinquency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1.9.1 Comparison of Arrests of Female and Male Juveniles . . . . 22 1.10 Referrals to the Juvenile Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1.11 Juveniles Tried as Adult Criminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

1.11.1 Self-Reported Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 1.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 1.13 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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2 Past and Current Bio-Social Perspectives on Delinquency Causation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.2 The Theory Development Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.2.1 The Classical School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.3 The Classical and Neoclassical Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.3.1 Neoclassical Thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.3.2 The Biological School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2.4 Heredity-Based Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 2.4.1 Current Biological Explanations of Delinquency . . . . . . . . 42

2.5 Biochemical Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 2.6 Hyperactivity and Learning Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.6.1 Twin Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 2.7 Studies of Adopted Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 2.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 2.9 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3 Social-Psychological Theories of Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.2 Psychoanalytic Theories of Crime and Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.3 Moral Development Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.4 Cognitive Development Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.5 Coping Mechanisms Used by Adolescents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.6 Personality Trait Explanations of Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3.7 Personality Measurement Methods to Ascertain

Behavior Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.8 The Criminal Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3.9 The Development of Self-Control, Introspection,

and Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.10 The Psychopathic, Sociopathic, and Conduct Disorder

Personalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.11 Mental Illness and Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.13 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4 Social Organization Perspectives on Delinquency Causation . . . . . . . 71 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 4.2 Social Strain Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

4.2.1 Homelessness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 4.2.2 Effects of Poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4.3 Environmental Influences on Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 4.4 Social Organizational Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4.4.1 Delinquency Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 4.4.2 Delinquency and Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

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4.5 Routine Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 4.5.1 Intergenerational Conflict Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

4.6 Anomie and Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 4.6.1 Reaction Formation Defense Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 4.6.2 Lack of Opportunity and Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 4.6.3 Stress Factors Relating to Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

4.7 Social Learning Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.7.1 Differential Association Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 4.7.2 Differential Reinforcement Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.7.3 Risky Life Styles and Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.7.4 The Influence of Mass Media and Internet Violence on

Adolescent Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4.7.5 The Culture of Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

4.8 Social-Psychological Explanations of Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 4.8.1 The Gluecks’ Multiple-Factor Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 4.8.2 Containment Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 4.8.3 Social Control/Bonding Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

4.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4.10 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

5 Perspectives on Interpersonal Relationships in the Family . . . . . . . . 99 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 5.2 Historical Development of the Role of Children in the Family . . . . 101

5.2.1 Development of the Legal Concept “Child” . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 5.2.2 Children in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 5.2.3 Houses of Refuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 5.2.4 Compulsory Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 5.2.5 Origins of the Legal Status of Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5.3 Significant Cases Pertaining to Parent–Child Relations . . . . . . . . . 106 5.3.1 State Obligations to Protect a Child Under State

Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 5.3.2 Juvenile Rights Pertaining to the Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

5.4 The Family and Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 5.4.1 Delinquency and Disrupted Family Structure . . . . . . . . . . . 110 5.4.2 Child Emancipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 5.4.3 Socialization in the Family and Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . 112 5.4.4 Family Violence and Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 5.4.5 Delinquency and Parental Rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 5.4.6 Relationship of Parental Discipline to Delinquency . . . . . . 114

5.5 Counseling Families and Juvenile Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 5.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 5.7 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

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6 Perspectives on Gangs and Peer Group Influences Pertaining to Delinquency Causation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 6.2 Definition of Gangs and Scope of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

6.2.1 Number of Youth Gangs and Gang Membership . . . . . . . . . 121 6.3 The History of Gang Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

6.3.1 Gang Behavior in the 1970s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 6.3.2 Gang Behavior in the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s . . . . . . . . . . 125

6.4 Theories of Gang Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 6.4.1 Thrasher’s Theory of Gang Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 6.4.2 Research of the Chicago School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 6.4.3 Lower-Class Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 6.4.4 Delinquency and Opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 6.4.5 Research Findings on Criminal Gangs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 6.4.6 Research Findings on Youth Gangs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 6.4.7 Drug and Alcohol Use by Gang Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 6.4.8 The Underclass as a Generating Milieu

for Gang Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 6.4.9 Motivation for Joining a Gang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 6.4.10 Development of the Gang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

6.5 Variations in Gang Membership and Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 6.5.1 Female Gangs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 6.5.2 Suburban, and Small-Town Gangs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

6.6 Control of Youth Gangs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 6.6.1 Community Organization for Gang Control . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 6.6.2 Social Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 6.6.3 Opportunities Provision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 6.6.4 Special Police Gang Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 6.6.5 Legislation for Youth Gang Prevention and Control . . . . . . 146

6.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 6.8 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

7 Perspectives on Delinquency and Violence in the Schools . . . . . . . . . . 153 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 7.2 The Socialization Process: Rewards and Punishments . . . . . . . . . . 155 7.3 School Environment and Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

7.3.1 School Climate and School Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 7.3.2 Use of Medication as a Control Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 7.3.3 Aspirations of Students, Fear of Failure and Delinquency . 161

7.4 Learning Disabilities and Delinquency in the Schools . . . . . . . . . . 162 7.5 School Drop Out and Delinquency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 7.6 Removal from School—Suspension and Expulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 7.7 Alternative School Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

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7.8 The Amount of Crime in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 7.8.1 Characteristics of Offenders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 7.8.2 Types of Offenses Reported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 7.8.3 Property Crimes in the Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 7.8.4 Arrestees of Crimes in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

7.9 School Shootings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 7.9.1 Victims of School Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 7.9.2 Approaches to Prevention of Bullying in the Schools . . . . . 172 7.9.3 Security Programs to Prevent School Shootings

and Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 7.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 7.11 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Part II Youth in the Juvenile Justice System

8 Laws and Court Cases Pertaining to Children: Offenders and Victims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 8.2 Supreme Court Decisions Relating to Parents

and Their Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 8.3 Summary of the Family Law Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

8.3.1 Ex Parte Crouse (1838) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 8.3.2 Stanley v. Illinois (1973) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 8.3.3 Santosky v. Kramer (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 8.3.4 DeShaney v. Winnebago County Department

of Social Services (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 8.3.5 Troxel v. Granville (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

8.4 Interaction Between the Police and Juveniles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 8.5 Juvenile Rights Pertaining to Questioning, Interrogation,

and Custody by the Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 8.5.1 Haley v. Ohio (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 8.5.2 Gallegos v. Colorado (1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 8.5.3 Miranda v. Arizona (1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 8.5.4 Wade v. U.S. (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 8.5.5 Simmons v. U.S. (1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 8.5.6 Fare v. Michael C. (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 8.5.7 New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1984) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 8.5.8 Yarborough v. Alvarado (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 8.5.9 J.D.B. v. North Carolina (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

8.6 Court Cases Pertaining to Release and Preventive Detention of Juveniles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 8.6.1 McKeiver v. Pennsylvania (1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 8.6.2 Schall v. Martin (1984) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

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8.7 Supreme Court Cases Pertaining to Petitioned Juvenile Court Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 8.7.1 Kent v. U.S. (1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 8.7.2 Gault v. Arizona (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 8.7.3 In re Winship (1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 8.7.4 McKiever v. Pennsylvania (1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 8.7.5 Breed v. Jones (1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

8.8 Supreme Court Cases Related to Juvenile Dispositions . . . . . . . . . 205 8.8.1 Eddings v. Oklahoma (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 8.8.2 Thompson v. Oklahoma (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 8.8.3 Roper v. Simmons (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 8.8.4 Graham v. Florida (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

8.9 Juveniles’ Right to Treatment When Under Juvenile Justice Supervision and Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

8.10 The Interplay of State Legislation and Court Decisions . . . . . . . . . 208 8.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 8.12 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 8.13 Court Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

9 Perspectives on Children as Victims of Abuse and Neglect . . . . . . . . . 215 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 9.2 Primary Victimizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 9.3 What Are Child Abuse and Neglect? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 9.4 Process for Reporting and Investigating Child Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . 220 9.5 Extent and Nature of Child Maltreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 9.6 Documentation of Child Maltreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 9.7 Sexual Exploitation and Abuse of Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

9.7.1 The Incidence of Sexual Abuse of Children . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 9.7.2 Sources of Referrals on Child Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 9.7.3 Victim-Precipitated Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 9.7.4 The Generational Theory of Child Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

9.8 Risk Factors of Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 9.8.1 Identifying Child Abuse and Neglect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

9.9 Legislation Directed Toward Protecting Maltreated Children . . . . . 232 9.10 Juvenile Court Process in Neglect and Abuse Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

9.10.1 Special Consideration Giving to Victims of Abuse or Neglect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

9.10.2 Dispositions in Child Abuse and Neglect Cases . . . . . . . . . 236 9.11 Criminal Prosecution of Child Abusers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 9.12 The Criminal Court Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 9.13 Prevention Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 9.14 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 9.15 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

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10 The Police Role in Delinquency Prevention and Control . . . . . . . . . . 245 10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 10.2 Police Work with Juveniles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

10.2.1 Police Response to Misbehavior of Youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24910.2.2 Police Discretion in Responding to Youth Misbehavior . . . 25010.2.3 Police Juvenile Diversion Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25210.2.4 Factors Influencing Police Decisions to Take

Youths into Custody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 10.3 Police Procedures and Juvenile Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

10.3.1 Questioning and Interrogation Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25410.3.2 Identification Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25510.3.3 Fingerprinting and Photographing Juveniles . . . . . . . . . . . 256

10.4 Specialized Police Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25710.4.1 Investigating Offenses Against Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25710.4.2 Juvenile Bureau. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25810.4.3 Police Youth Gang Control Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

10.5 Police Role in Community and School Programs for Delinquency Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

10.6 Community Policing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 10.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 10.8 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

11 Processing the Juvenile Offender: Diversion, Informal Handling, and Special Dockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 11.2 Sources of Juvenile Court Referrals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

11.2.1 Types of Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27011.2.2 Number of Cases Processed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

11.3 The Juvenile Court Process and Diversion from Official Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27111.3.1 Four Phases of Informal Handling by the Court . . . . . . . . . 27211.3.2 The Petition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27311.3.3 Intake Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27411.3.4 Custody of Parents or Temporary Detention . . . . . . . . . . . 27411.3.5 Diversion at Juvenile Court Intake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

11.4 Juvenile Court Diversion Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27811.4.1 The Safe Harbor Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27811.4.2 Truancy Mediation Diversion Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27811.4.3 Diversion in Traffic Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

11.5 Juvenile Diversion Programs in the Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28011.5.1 Youth Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28011.5.2 Diversion of Females . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28211.5.3 Critiques of Diversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

11.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 11.7 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

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12 The Juvenile Court Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 12.2 Sources of Juvenile Court Referrals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

12.2.1 The Petition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28912.2.2 The Intake Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29012.2.3 Release or Temporary Detention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

12.3 Official Processing of Juvenile Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29212.3.1 Traffic Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29212.3.2 Hearing to Transfer to Criminal Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29612.3.3 The Waiver Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29712.3.4 The Prehearing Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30012.3.5 Role of the Prosecutor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30012.3.6 Role of the Defense Attorney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30112.3.7 Role of the Juvenile Court Judge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30512.3.8 Adjudication Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31412.3.9 Disposition Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31512.3.10 Sentencing of Juveniles Adjudicated

in Criminal Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 12.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 12.5 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

13 Probation and Community-Based Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 13.2 Historical Development of Probation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 13.3 Definition on Probation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 13.4 Adjudicated Delinquents on Probation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 13.5 The Probation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 13.6 Tasks Performed by Juvenile Probation Officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

13.6.1 Investigator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32813.6.2 Case Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32913.6.3 The Case Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33213.6.4 Service Provider and Research Broker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

13.7 Supervision of High Risk Probationers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 13.8 Probation Revocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 13.9 Community Residential Treatment for Delinquents . . . . . . . . . . . 340

13.9.1 The Provo Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34113.9.2 Kentfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34113.9.3 Home Detention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34513.9.4 Restitution and Community Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

13.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 13.11 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

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14 Perspectives on Juveniles Incarcerated in Secure Facilities . . . . . . . . 353 14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 14.2 History of Juvenile Institutions in America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

14.2.1 Orphan Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 14.3 Types of Correctional Facilities for Juveniles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

14.3.1 Detention Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35814.3.2 Juveniles in Adult Jails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36314.3.3 Shelter Homes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36414.3.4 Reception or Diagnostic Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

14.4 Long-Term Secure Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 14.5 Unit Management (Functional Units)

Organizational Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 14.6 Classification of Residents: Based on Security Risks

and Special Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 14.7 Treatment Programs in Secure Institutions: Academic

and Vocational Education, Individual and Group Counseling, Recreational Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

14.8 Factors That Inhibit the Effectiveness of Institutional Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

14.9 The Juvenile’s Response to Institutional Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 14.10 Victimization and Violence in Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 14.11 Institutional Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 14.12 Normalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 14.13 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 14.14 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378

15 Parole and Community Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

15.1.1 Case I: Teen Charged In Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38115.1.2 Case II: Teen Suspected in Chapel Hill Robbery . . . . . . . . 382

15.2 The Juvenile Parole (Aftercare) Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 15.3 The Parole (Aftercare) Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 15.4 Preparation for Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 15.5 The Parole (Aftercare) Treatment Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

15.5.1 General and Special Rules of Parole. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38815.5.2 Discharge from Parole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

15.6 Parole Revocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38915.6.1 The Revocation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38915.6.2 Youth’s Rights at a Revocation Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

15.7 The Effectiveness of Parole (Aftercare) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 15.8 Intensive Parole Supervision for High-Risk Juvenile

Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39115.8.1 Developing Intensive Supervision Case

Management Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392

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15.8.2 Implementing Intensive Supervision Case Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

15.8.3 Effectiveness of Intensive Parole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 15.9 Parole and Residential Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

15.9.1 History of the Halfway House Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 15.10 Community Corrections Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

15.10.1 Highfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39615.10.2 Volunteers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

15.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 15.12 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

16 Counseling and Treatment of Juvenile Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 16.2 Treatment Personnel and Definition of Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

16.2.1 The Application of Management Principles to the Implementation of Treatment Programs . . . . . . . . . 404

16.2.2 Management of Treatment Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 16.3 Interviewing: The Initial Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 16.4 Types of Interviewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

16.4.1 Cognitive Interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40716.4.2 The Motivational Interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40816.4.3 The Counseling Interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

16.5 The Decision to Use Individual or Group Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . 408 16.6 The Role of Treatment Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 16.7 Specific Treatment Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

16.7.1 Psychotherapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41016.7.2 Reality Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41116.7.3 Brief Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41216.7.4 Crisis Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41216.7.5 Assertiveness Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41316.7.6 Behavior Modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41416.7.7 Milieu Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41616.7.8 Group Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41716.7.9 Guided Group Interaction and Positive

Peer Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41816.7.10 Family Counseling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41816.7.11 Anger Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

16.8 Treatment Techniques for Specific Types of Offenders . . . . . . . . . 42016.8.1 Art Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42016.8.2 Treatment Programs for Sex Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42116.8.3 Programs for Substance Abusers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42116.8.4 Drug Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

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16.9 Treatment Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 16.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 16.11 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

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About the Authors

Peter C. Kratcoski earned a PhD in sociology from Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania; an MA in sociology from the University of Notre Dame, Indiana; and a BA in sociology from King’s College, Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. He was selected for several postdoctoral grants by the National Science Foundation. He taught at the College of St. Thomas, St Paul, Minnesota, and at the Pennsylvania State University before assuming the position of assistant professor of sociology at Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, in 1969. He retired as professor of criminal justice studies and chair of the Department of Criminal Justice Studies at Kent State University, where he is currently a professor emeritus and adjunct professor. He has published many books, chapters in books, and journal articles in the areas of juvenile delinquency, juvenile justice, international policing, crime prevention, corrections, and victimology. His most recent writing and research have centered on juvenile delinquency, juvenile justice, collaborative policing, cor-rectional counseling, financial crimes, corruption and fraud, and victimization of the elderly.

Lucille Dunn Kratcoski was awarded a Bachelor of Arts degree from Marywood College, Scranton, Pennsylvania, and a master’s degree from Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania. She has numerous years of teaching experience at the elementary, high school, and university levels. She coauthored Juvenile Delinquency and many book chapters and journal articles on the subjects of social issues, victims of crime, juvenile delinquency, and juvenile justice.

Peter Christopher Kratcoski was awarded a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science from The Ohio State University and a Juris Doctorate degree from The Ohio State University College of Law. He is the managing partner at the law firm Williams, Kratcoski & Can where he has been practicing law since 1988. In addi-tion to his law practice, he has taught as an adjunct professor at several colleges and universities for over 30 years. He currently teaches as an adjunct professor in the

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paralegal program at Kent State University, teaching various law-related courses. He has coauthored two books related to experiential education in law, coauthored chapters of books, and has presented papers at professional meetings.

About the Authors