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Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute

“Hasiru Bhavana”, Doresanipalya Forest Campus, Vinayakanagar Circle, J. P. Nagar 5th

Phase, Bangalore 560 078, INDIA

Tel: +91-(0)80-2649 0744 /46 /47 Fax: 45 Email: [email protected] Website: www.karnataka.gov.in/empri

State of Environment Report

Karnataka 2011

FUNDED BY

Ministry of Environment and Forests

Government of India

Department of Forest, Ecology and Environment

Government of Karnataka

WITH SUPPORT OF NATIONAL HOST INSTITUTE

PREPEARED BY

Published in October 2012

Front cover

Castle Rock, Courtesy Kaushik Mukherjee, IAS

Suggested citation

Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute (2012). State of Environment Report Karnataka 2011.

Disclaimer

EMPRI grants researchers the freedom of enquiry. The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in this work are those of the contributors and editors and do not necessarily reflect the views of Government of Karna-taka or Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute (EMPRI). While all care has been taken in research-ing, editing and reviewing this report, the accuracy of the data included cannot be guaranteed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute (EMPRI), Bangalore is

thankful to the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of In-

dia and Department of Forest, Ecology and Environment, Government of Kar-

nataka for entrusting the task of preparation of the State of Environment Re-

port (SoER) for Karnataka 2011 and for providing necessary financial support

and encouragement.

Our sincere thanks to Mr. Kaushik Muhkerjee, former Additional Chief Secre-

tary, Department of Forest, Ecology and Environment and Mr. Kanwerpal, Sec-

retary, Ecology and Environment, for their dedicated assistance and time.

The report is authored by a team of 22 experts and co-authors. In this regard

we thank late Mr. N.S. Adkoli, Dr. V.N. Nayak, Dr. Krishna Raj, Dr. H. Sridhara,

Dr. Riyaz Basha Sardar, Dr. Hemant Thapsey, Dr. Arjunan Issac, Dr. Farah Naaz

Fathima, Dr. Gautam Sukumar, Dr. J. Chandraprakash, Dr. M.D. Nadeem

Fairoze, Dr. K. Shivashankar, Mr. A. Basavaraj, Dr. T. Venkata Ramanayya, Mr.

Yash Saxena, Mr. Aloke Barnwal, Mr. Ashwin Subramanian, Mr. Ramachandra

Naidu, Mr. K. Narasimhamurthy, Ms. Prathana Vishal, Ms. Shanku Vashisht and

Dr. Shailaja R.

A Steering Committee was constituted by Government of Karnataka under the

chair of Principal Secretary (Department of Forest, Ecology and Environment)

to give direction for the preparation and finalisation of the report. We are

grateful to the members of the Steering Committee for their support and also

to the line departments that responded with necessary inputs and comments

on different chapters. The significant contribution of Smt. Meera Saxena, IAS

(Retd.), former ACS & Development Commissioner with whom one-to-one dis-

cussions were held on many of the chapters of the report is duly acknowl-

edged. The dedicated support provided by Mr. D.B.N. Murthy in undertaking a

review of the entire report and his valuable suggestions are highly appreciated.

We thank Mr. Anand Kumar, Senior Programme Manager, Development Alter-

natives, New Delhi for rendering unrelenting and timely help in planning and

conceptualising the report. Thanks are also due to Dr. D. Seenappa, Professor

and Head, Inland Fisheries, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore for his

inputs on coastal fisheries. Special thanks to Mr. Dipak Sharma, IFS, Additional

PCCF, Vigilance, Karnataka Forest Department and Mr. K.N. Murthy, IFS, CCF,

Bellary Circle, Bellary for providing inputs on forests. We also thank Mr. Gokul

Prasad, Assistant Statistical Officer, Department of Agriculture for providing ad-

ditional data on agriculture.

We acknowledge Mr. G. Pramod, Post Graduate student and Dr. T.V. Rama-

chandra Prasad, Professor of Agronomy, University of Agricultural Sciences,

Bangalore for providing assistance with data sets. The unreserved support and

facilitation provided by Dr. M.D. Nadeem Fairoze, Professor, Dr. Rani Chacko,

Assistant Professor, and Mr. L. Lakshmanamurthy of Department of Livestock

Products Technology, Karnataka Veterinary, Animal & Fisheries Sciences Uni-

versity, Bangalore in the task of finalisation of the draft is gratefully acknowl-

edged.

Our own colleagues at EMPRI cooperated whole-heartedly and extended their support whenever required. The facilitation provided by Ms. Vanashree V. Singh, IFS, EMPRI and Mr. K. H. Vinaya Kumar, IFS, EMPRI is duly acknowledged.

Last but not least, the untiring effort and commitment of Dr. Mandayam A. Singlachar, Director of Research (Retd.), University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore who worked as coordinator for preparation and finalisation of the report is commendable.

AUTHORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Dr. Mandayam A. Singlachar | Director of Research (Retd.), University of Agricultural Sciences,

Bangalore

PROFILE OF KARNATAKA


Bangalore

CHAPTER 1: FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY

Late N. S. Adkoli, IFS (Retd.) | Treelands Development Services Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore

K. H. Vinaya Kumar, IFS | Deputy Conservator of Forests, Environmental Management & Policy

Research Institute, Bangalore

CHAPTER 2: COASTAL ZONE

Dr. V. N. Nayak | Professor of Marine Biology, Karnataka University Post Graduate Centre, Karwar

CHAPTER 3: WATER RESOURCES AND MANAGEMENT

Dr. Krishna Raj | Associate Professor, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore

CHAPTER 4: AIR AND NOISE

Dr. H. Sridhara | Professor and Head (Retd.), Department of Agricultural Statistics, University of

Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Bangalore

CHAPTER 5: HEALTH

Dr. Riyaz Basha Sardar | Associate Professor, Bangalore Medical College & Research, Bangalore

Dr. Hemant Thapsey | Associate Professor, M. S. Ramiah Medical College, Bangalore

Dr. Arjunan Isaac | Associate Professor, M. S. Ramiah Medical College, Bangalore

Dr. Farah Naaz Fathima | Assistant Professor, St. Johns Medical College, Bangalore

Dr. Gautam Sukumar | Assistant Professor, M. S. Ramiah Medical College, Bangalore

CHAPTER 6: AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE

Dr. J. Chandraprakash | Professor, University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forestry

and Environmental Science, Bangalore

CHAPTER 7: LIVESTOCK

Dr. M. D. Nadeem Fairoze | Professor, Karnataka Veterinary, Animal & Fisheries Sciences

University, Dept. of Livestock Products Technology, Bangalore

CHAPTER 8: INDUSTRY

Dr. K. Shiva Shankar | Professor of Agronomy/ Forestry (Retd.), UAS, Bangalore & President

Environment Protection Institute, Bangalore

Puja Sachanandani | Research Scientist, Environmental Management & Policy Research

Institute, Bangalore

CHAPTER 9: MINING AND QUARRYING

A. Basavaraj | Deputy Director (Retd.), Department of Mines and Geology, Bangalore

CHAPTER 10: TRANSPORT

Dr. T. Venkata Ramanayya | Professor of Public Systems (Retd.), Indian Institute of

Management, Bangalore

CHAPTER 11: ENERGY

Yash Saxena | Consultant, Emergent Ventures India Pvt. Ltd., Gurgaon

Aloke Barnwal | Consultant, Emergent Ventures India Pvt. Ltd., Gurgaon

Ashwin Subramanian | Consultant, Emergent Ventures India Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore

CHAPTER 12: WASTE MANAGEMENT

Ramachandra Naidu | Managing Director, Centre for Urban and Rural Infrastructure Planning

enterprises (CURIPe), Bangalore

K. Narasimhamurthy | Technical Director, CURIPe, Bangalore

Prathana Vishal | Consultant, CURIPe, Bangalore

CHAPTER 13: URBAN AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

K. Narasimhamurthy | Technical Director, CURIPe, Bangalore

Shreedevi D. Kabadgi | Senior Research Associate, Environmental Management & Policy


CHAPTER 14: CLIMATE CHANGE

Shanku Vashisht | Consultant, Emergent Ventures India Pvt. Ltd., Gurgaon

Aloke Barnwal | Consultant, Emergent Ventures India Pvt. Ltd., Gurgaon

Ashwin Subramanian | Consultant, Emergent Ventures India Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore

CHAPTER 15: ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS

Dr. Krishna Raj | Associate Professor, Institute of Social and Economic Change, Bangalore

CHAPTER 16: ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Dr. Shailaja R. | Regional Director, Centre for Environment Education, CEE South, Bangalore

ACTION POINTS


Bangalore

D. B. N. Murthy | Author and freelance writer, Bangalore

Felix Nitz | Technical Adviser, Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute,

Bangalore

ADDITIONAL RESEARCH


Bangalore




Bangalore

PROJECT COORDINATION


Bangalore



REVIEW

Meera C. Saksena, IAS (Retd.) | Additional Chief Secretary and Development Commissioner,

Government of Karnataka

Kanwerpal, IFS | Secretary, Department of Ecology & Environment, Government of Karnataka

R. M. N. Sahai, IFS | Director General, Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute,

Bangalore

K. H. Vinaya Kumar, IFS | Deputy Conservator of Forests, Environmental Management & Policy


D. B. N. Murthy | Author and freelance writer, Bangalore

P. K. Mishra, IFS | Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (Retd.), Madhya Pradesh


Bangalore

EDITING


Bangalore

COMPILATION AND LAYOUT



Shiva Subramanya S. | Programme Coordinator, ENVIS, Environmental Management & Policy


Girish K. M. | Research Associate, Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute,

Bangalore

Dr. Papiya Roy | Research Scientist, Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute,

Bangalore

JACKET DESIGN

Dr. Papiya Roy | Research Scientist, Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute,

Bangalore

PHOTOGRAPHY

Kaushik Mukherjee, IAS | Additional Chief Secretary, Department of Forest, Ecology and

Environment, Government of Karnataka

Mr. M. N. Jay Kumar, IFS (Retd.) | Member Secretary, Zoo Authority of Karnataka

Ravindra Kotaki | Freelance media professional

V. Sreenivas | Research Scientist, Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute,

Bangalore

Every chapter was subjected to substantial editing of content, structure and language with exception of ‘Environmental Education’ and ‘Profile of Karnataka’.

CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1

PART 1: PROFILE OF KARNATAKA 7

PART 2: SECTORAL ASSESSMENT 19

Chapter 1: Forest and Biodiversity 21

Chapter 2: Coastal Zone 47

Chapter 3: Water Resources and Management 65

Chapter 4: Air and Noise 87

Chapter 5: Health 101

Chapter 6: Agriculture and Horticulture 121

Chapter 7: Livestock 137

Chapter 8: Industry 155

Chapter 9: Mining and Quarrying 171

Chapter 10: Transport 189

Chapter 11: Energy 207

Chapter 12: Waste Management 223

Chapter 13: Urban and Rural Development 239

Chapter 14: Climate Change 255

Chapter 15: Economic Instruments 271

Chapter 16: Environmental Education 289

PART 3: ACTION POINTS 307

REFERENCES 325

ACRONYMS 345

1

ABOUT THIS REPORT

Environment is the quality of the air we breathe, the

water we drink, expanding to our forests, rivers, lakes

and lands. This report presents an assessment of the

current state of Karnataka’s environment. It presents an

update of the earlier State of the Environment Report

Karnataka 2003 as well as an expansion of it. New top-

ics include agriculture, which is the state’s main liveli-

hood provider, and livestock. Also a discussion of cli-

mate change appears here for the first time, whose

bearing on environment cannot be neglected. Educa-

tion, which is a new entrant as well, offers a valuable

entry point for conservation of natural resources

whose full potential has not been utilised yet. Coinci-

dently, the release of the Census of India 2011 provides

a backdrop for recent information on demographic

pressures that impact the management of our envi-

ronment.

Part 1: Profile of Karnataka provides a concise per-

spective of the state in terms of geography, demogra-

phy, climate, socio-economic development and gov-

ernance. Part 2: Sectoral Assessments investigates

environmental issues in all spheres in sixteen chapters

and identifies intervention areas to improve manage-

ment practices and institutional capacities. Challenges

identified give way to a short-list of suggested actions

in Part 3: Action Points. These combine good practic-

es with new approaches for quick reference.

ASSESSMENTS IN A NUTSHELL


The chapter outlines the uniqueness of the forest eco-

systems of Karnataka. The Western Ghats in particular

represent a repository of rich biodiversity and rank

among the world’s 25 biodiversity hotspots. Vegeta-

tion types portray their significance to the environ-

ment. Statistics relating to forest cover and land reflect

their state and significance. Issues of institutional

mechanisms, legal framework, forest education and re-

search are relevant to forest management. Forests in-

cluding shrubs constitute 20.5% of the state’s geo-

graphical area. The tree cover however is 21.9% and

larger because it also includes trees on private and

other lands. Notified forest and deemed forest covers

22.6%. Sustainable harvest of forests and forest prod-

ucts through empowered agencies are described. Con-

servation focuses on issues such as protected areas,

tourism and wildlife. Current challenges draw attention

to diversion of forestlands for developmental needs,

mining, encroachments, man-animal conflicts, forest

degradation, forest offences and tribal welfare. The di-

versity of species and threats to their sustainable con-

servation seem relevant to the environment of Karna-

taka’s forest ecosystem. Nearly 50% of the biodiversity

of the Western Ghats is reportedly available in Karna-

taka. A significant number of globally threatened spe-

cies of plants, mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and

fishes are found in the Western Ghats. Conservation

action through People’s Biodiversity Registers and me-

dicinal plant conservation are detailed.


This chapter highlights the fragility of our coastal re-

gion extending over three districts. It details the char-

acteristics of the region in terms of its climate, natural

resources, coastal fisheries and the important role of

the Western Ghats. The role of the Coastal Regulation

Zone (CRZ) notification and the state of its implementa-

tion brings out a case for the need to strengthen en-

forcement. Greater inter-departmental coordination is

required for curbing violations. The problem of coastal

erosion and the status of remedial measures are dis-

cussed. The controversy surrounding the soundness of

reef construction to mitigate erosion is suggested for a

revisit. Issues of sea encroachments, reclamation, dam-

age to estuaries and mangroves and the impact of

tourism are discussed in detail. The different systems of

coastal fisheries vis-à-vis the coastal environment and

CRZ are discussed in detail. Attention is drawn to

threats to coastal fishing and important bio-

geographical units. Suggestions for improved man-

agement of the state’s coastline for the future have

been made. Dumping of urban solid waste and plastics

in coastal rivers and the sea is not uncommon and the

disposal of sewage and biomedical waste in the coastal

region is of particular concern. Sand and shell mining,

destruction of mangroves and aquaculture are damag-

ing estuaries in all coastal districts. Poor sanitation in

fish landing sites, markets and processing units is an

environmental issue that needs to be addressed.


The chapter makes a detailed analysis of the current

status of water resources in Karnataka. Surface and

groundwater sources are covered. Competitive water

demand for agriculture, domestic needs and industry

are reviewed. Pollution of water resources and user

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY xxxxxx

Executive Summary

2

pressures are also discussed while the impacts of deple-

tion of water resources are detailed. Challenges identi-

fied include groundwater depletion, agriculture’s de-

pendence on groundwater, limitations in drinking wa-

ter supply in terms of quality and quantity and the ab-

sence of demand side management vis-à-vis rising de-

mands. Overall groundwater development reached

70% while extraction is beyond recharge in five dis-

tricts. Groundwater provides for 31% of irrigation wa-

ter, irrigating 37% of irrigated area. Action plans in re-

spect of investment in irrigation, water policy, water

conservation and groundwater management have

been detailed. The recent enactment of the Karnataka

Groundwater Act to regulate exploitation is a neces-

sary and encouraging step. Rainwater harvesting has

made inroads but its potential for the state is far from

being realised. Water pollution prevention has not

been a success. Surface and groundwater in the state

appears to be increasingly contaminated by biological,

toxic, organic and inorganic pollutants. Untreated

sewage is entering water bodies in urban areas. A re-

cent analysis of groundwater in Bangalore’s industrial

areas bears testimony to the fact that industrial efflu-

ents percolate aquifers.


The quality of air and water are two key concerns of

environmental health. This chapter discusses the ambi-

ent air quality of Karnataka’s cities vis-à-vis standards

prescribed. Ambient air quality of Bangalore and other

urban centres is generally poor. A wide range of pollu-

tants exceeds limits frequently. Of grave concern,

however, are respirable suspended particulate matter

(RSPM). Their rise in many locations reflects a pan-

Indian trend attributed to the rapid growth of diesel

vehicles while older ones remain in service and the

continued presence of 2-stroke vehicles. The revised

National Ambient Air Quality Standards notified in

2009 indicate a shift from SPM (which includes fine

dust) to its respirable fraction (RSPM of PM10 and be-

low). In Bangalore, 62% of PM10 is attributed to the

transport sector including road dust. Sulphur dioxide

levels appear to be abating thanks to consistent reduc-

tions of sulphur content of fuel and tightening of Bha-

rat emission norms. The myriad of sources of air pollu-

tion and their impact on health have been described.

The ill effects of oxides of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide,

carbon monoxide, ozone, particulate matter and vola-

tile organic compounds and air toxins have been de-

tailed. The review is supported with current statistical

data pertaining to Bangalore and other cities of Karna-

taka to the extent available. The status of noise pollu-

tion is discussed based on scarce data available. Rele-

vant acts and regulations have been provided and the

lack of enforcement of prescribed noise limits through

effective measures is apparent. Monitoring and infra-

structure needs have been identified.

CHAPTER 5: HEALTH

A safe environment is a precondition for public health.

Health issues arise from water and air pollution, noise

and biological pollutants. In particular the pressure of

water and air pollution on health are reviewed in detail

with available data. Health indicators suggest a threat

to health due to air pollution and waterborne diseases.

The precise magnitude of the impact of pollution and

environmental degradation is insufficiently understood.

Several impact studies have been cited here, most of

them are of foreign origin. A study on water quality of

more than 30,000 villages of Karnataka indicated con-

tamination of groundwater with bacteria in 23% of vil-

lages, excess fluoride (17%), total dissolved salts (4%),

total hardness (25%), iron (28%), and nitrate (10%) be-

yond permissible limits. The health impact of noise pol-

lution, though supported with limited data, is present-

ed. Pressures and impacts of water pollution have been

detailed. Water borne diseases have also received at-

tention. Issues relating to health impacts of municipal

solid waste and biomedical waste are detailed. Animal

threats and mitigation options are discussed besides

climate change, which could emerge as new stressor.

A detailed matrix suggests emerging intervention are-

as.


In this chapter, the review covers droughts and floods,

soil erosion, use and abuse of chemical fertilisers and

pesticides, positive and negative effects of some pro-

duction practices, decline of agro-biodiversity and tra-

ditional crops, organic farming, environmental impacts

of irrigation, biological air pollution, positives and neg-

atives of global warming, issues in horticulture and

suggested improvements in dryland agriculture. Wa-

tershed development and management is recom-

mended as a holistic approach to optimise land use for

agriculture and horticulture. Injudicious use of irriga-

tion has resulted in land degradation caused by acidity,

alkalinity, leaching of nutrients and pesticide residues

threatening groundwater quality. The use of N-P-K fer-

tilisers in excess of 300 kg per hectare in some districts

(Bangalore Rural 483 kg, Bellary 318 kg, Mandya 311

kg and Shimoga 313 kg) raises concerns about long-

term effects on soil and groundwater quality. Emerging

intervention areas have been suggested for improving

the status of dryland farming.

Executive Summary

3


Karnataka’s livestock and poultry population, compris-

ing 30 and 42 million respectively, creates substantial

environmental pressures. Important issues identified

are grazing of domestic animals, the contribution of

livestock to greenhouse gases, waste management in

slaughterhouses, the erosion of genetic diversity and

livestock diseases. Common grazing land is declining

both in terms of area and quality. The chapter discuss-

es options for reducing methane emissions from live-

stock and strategies for safe disposal of slaughter waste

to prevent the contamination of groundwater and wa-

ter bodies. Existing abattoirs (slaughterhouses) lack fa-

cilities, procedures for compliance with legislation;

some operate without authorisation. In rural areas ab-

attoirs are completely missing. A sharp decline in in-

digenous cattle breeds over an eleven-year period is

taken as indicator for the erosion of genetic stock.

Causes and options for conservation have been de-

scribed.

CHAPTER 8: INDUSTRY

Karnataka ranks among the top five industrialised

states in India and the chapter reviews the impact of

the state’s estimated 6.5 lakh industries on the envi-

ronment. Trends in industrial production are discussed

with supporting statistics. Industrial policy and institu-

tional mechanisms for industrial development of the

state are described. Concerns emerge prominently on

water use, deficits in treatment and discharge of efflu-

ents and the consequential pollution of surface water

and groundwater. Gaps of the present data, the issue

of waste generation, pressures on land and water re-

sources in a climate of competitive demands are dis-

cussed with data. Special attention is given to Red cat-

egory industries, their pollution levels and compliance

and among them, units belonging to the 17 categories

of highly polluting industries. Official data, apart from

being remarkably limited, is fragmented, insufficiently

compiled and hardly reconciled. More and better data

is needed for understanding impacts and better envi-

ronmental management. As actual water consump-

tion, wastewater discharge and pollution loads in the

state are unknown, estimates have been introduced as

substitutes. A suitable institutional mechanism is re-

quired to promote environmental stewardship. The

strict enforcement of existing regulation appears vital

for safeguarding our environment more effectively.


The chapter gives a brief review of natural resources

and details the spatial distribution of minerals in Karna-

taka. The history of mining operations and case profiles

with respect to mining of gold, limestone, granite and

sand extraction in riverbeds and riverbanks have been

detailed. A recent EIA study reveals the nature and ex-

tent of damage to the environment in Bellary district

due to unregulated mining. The impact of mining on

air pollution, water quality, land degradation, loss of

flora and fauna and noise is discussed in detail. Air, wa-

ter and soil quality have substantially deteriorated in

mining areas of the state as necessary mitigative

measures are often elusive. Surface and groundwater

were found polluted with heavy metals like iron (Fe)

and manganese (Mn) and also fluorides. Also the deg-

radation of roads, the impacts of mine closures on the

socio-economic fabric and the widespread absence of

appropriate reclamation are of concern. Considering

the attention illegal mining has received in Karnataka

in 2011, legislation and recent rulings have been dis-

cussed in fair detail along with emerging intervention

areas. The need for strict enforcement of regulations

seems essential for securing environmental safety in

key mining districts of the state.


This chapter deals with environmental problems gen-

erated by Karnataka’s rapidly growing transport sector.

The environmental impact has been analysed with ref-

erence to road transport (passenger and freight), rail-

ways, air and seaport traffic. Critical discussion focuses

on issues such as the age of motor vehicles, the vehicle

mix, tightening emission standards and fuel adultera-

tion on one side and the road network and traffic

management on the other. While transport is an essen-

tial enabler of economic development, in urban areas it

has become an obstacle in respect of its purpose. The

vehicle population reached 99.3 lakh in 2011 while

road infrastructure is developing at a rather moderate

pace. Commuters thus spend more time travelling,

both causing and inhaling more polluted air. Road

transport is responsible for about 10% of the state’s

GHG emissions as estimated in Chapter 14 and 62% of

RSPM (PM10) emissions in Bangalore as shown in Chap-

ter 4. The commencement of the Bangalore metro and

the addition of fly-overs, underpasses and expressways

is alleviating congestions to some extent. At the same

time, these achievements make private transport more

attractive as decongestion is a powerful incentive for

commuters. The chapter also includes a fair discussion

of public transport and the need to offer more attrac-

tive choices, especially to those who can afford private

transport. Non-motorised transport is seriously disin-

centivised, convenience being one factor, risk being

another. Bicyclists are competing with motorised traffic

for the same road space. Pedestrians require enabling

infrastructure and inclusion in transport planning

which would further the objectives of urban public

transport as well. Fortunately, many such interventions

are already on the anvil.

Executive Summary

4

CHAPTER 11: ENERGY

Energy is a prerequisite for growth and development.

Karnataka’s rapidly growing economy continues to

outpace the supply of electricity. This chapter reviews

power generation, the development of energy from

renewable sources, energy efficiency and GHG vis-à-vis

policies and institutional capacities. In 2009-10 the

state consumed nearly 43 billion kWh generated by

9,702 MW of power generation capacity, comple-

mented by central allocations and inter-state purchas-

es. Presently only about 10% of Karnataka’s renewable

energy potential of 28,000 MW is utilised. Significant

deficits in electricity supply remain a matter of primary

concern. The demand-supply gap is responsible for the

fact that industries, trade establishments and even

household invest in secondary energy infrastructure

which include DG sets, UPSs and stabilisers. DG sets in-

crease especially urban air pollution and noise, UPSs

add to the volume of lead-acid batteries disposed while

UPS and stabilisers actually increase the demand for

energy, forcing in turn more users to adopt the same.

Certain energy efficient appliances however cannot

work efficiently with wide voltage fluctuations. This vi-

cious cycle can be broken only through the meeting of

demand. Noteworthy initiatives include the planned in-

troduction of 3,500 MW of gas power generation,

which will provide the state with an intermediary

source of supply of lower carbon intensity than ther-

mal power plants. The Belaku scheme under which in-

candescent lamps are replaced with CFLs has led to re-

ductions in household energy demand. A concern

however is the slow progress on energy efficiency in

industries and in the building sector for which the nec-

essary framework and institutional capacity remains

largely to be created.


The quantity and nature of waste generated and the

adequacy of its disposal determine the quality of the

environment in a very direct way. The chapter reviews

the status of solid, hazardous, electronic, biomedical,

slaughterhouse and plastic waste vis-à-vis quantities

generated, the regulatory framework and institutional

capacities for its management. Prominent attention is

placed on solid waste, some 8,825 tons of which are

generated per day in the state’s 218 urban local bodies

(ULBs). Landfill development has been completed in

only 7 ULBs while 203 have acquired land for the same

and its development is underway. Also door-to-door

collection has commenced in 36% of ULBs. About

161,000 tons of hazardous waste is generated by

about 3,000 industries per year. Its management has

significantly improved upon commencement of opera-

tion of the Dobaspet facility for treatment and storage

near the state capital in 2009. Bangalore generates

about 125 tons of e-waste per year, according to a par-

tial estimate limited to TVs, computers and mobile

phones. The actual number could be ten times higher

and estimates for Karnataka as a whole are not availa-

ble. Concerns regarding e-waste are related to the ab-

sence of systematic collection and recycling in the in-

formal sector, where workers are exposed to significant

health impacts. It is assumed that if an adequate collec-

tion system could be established then waste could be

successfully channelled to authorised recyclers in the

formal sector. Karnataka’s health care establishments

generate about 73 tons of potentially infectious bio-

medical waste per day. 14 common treatment facilities

are in operation covering 28 of the 30 districts. Access

to these, however, is constrained in rural areas and

consequently 82% primary health centres have adopt-

ed disposal through deep burial. Slaughterhouse waste

is not receiving the necessary attention. Infrastructural

inadequacies in registered slaughterhouses and rural

abattoirs lead to the unhindered release of potentially

infectious material and contamination of groundwater

and water bodies.


This chapter discusses how pressures of rapid devel-

opment especially in Bangalore have overwhelmed the

ability of the state to respond effectively. The review

examines key issues in detail which include the legisla-

tive framework, the process of urban planning, land

utilisation and housing and the important role of urban

local bodies. Attention is paid to the state of parks and

open spaces in urban areas. Nearly 47% of schools in

the state lack playgrounds. Rural tracts around devel-

opment zones are often temporary and the need for

permanent greenbelts is emphasised. Other urban is-

sues such as rivers, tanks, nallas, valleys in relation to

zonal regulations and development control have been

discussed. The significance of rural development for

safeguarding environmental resources is twofold. On

the one hand, rural development requires natural re-

sources, on the other hand, inadequacies are a key

driver of rural-urban migration that contribute to the

rapid growth of cities. This chapter reviews existing re-

gional imbalances concerning access to education,

health services, sanitation and employment. Setbacks

in agriculture have aggravated migration to urban cen-

tres and thus intensified urban pressures on transport,

waste management and water supply. While signifi-

cant improvements have been achieved in health indi-

cators, literacy, water supply and sanitation, urban are-

as have witnessed greater progress and the tangible

urban-rural divide thus remains. Tourism is discussed in

its impact on the environment and its potential to con-

tribute to rural development.

Executive Summary

5


This chapter critically examines a topical subject that

has generated much concern, debate and controver-

sies in recent times. It examines possible consequences

of climate change in selected sectors of the state. The

predominant dependence of rural livelihoods on agri-

culture and in turn on rain, the considerable number of

over-exploited watersheds, the presence of large arid

and semi-arid tracts and the state’s 320 km long coast-

line render Karnataka highly vulnerable to climatic

changes. The state emits an estimated 80 million tons

of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Energy accounts for 54%

and includes electricity, transport fuel and cooking fuel.

The industry accounts for 23%, agriculture for 20% and

waste for 4% of emissions. In March 2012 Government

of Karnataka approved the Karnataka State Action Plan

on Climate Change Plan (SAPCC). It provides detailed

reviews of climatic trends, impacts and vulnerabilities

as well as an action plan that seeks to enhance prepar-

edness and foster mitigation of and adaptation to cli-

matic changes. A comprehensive discussion of its find-

ings has been omitted here as this concurrent docu-

ment merits a separate reading.


This chapter discusses the role and potential of eco-

nomic instruments in designing appropriate measures

for safeguarding environmental health. Economic in-

struments can act as agents of behavioural change.

They can influence citizens, institutions and enterprises

to act in ways that minimise adverse impacts on the

environment. The chapter cites examples of existing in-

struments in Karnataka while proposing an appropriate

choice of further instruments. The chapter also traces

the current insignificance of economic instruments to

the fact that in today’s products and services, not all

costs are considered in the price. The remainder, so-

called external costs, is borne by society, chiefly in

terms of social and health costs. The absence of prop-

erty rights for key resources such as air and water are

another obstacle. Taking a long-term perspective, eco-

nomic incentives are viewed as superior agents of

change compared to regulatory approaches. The chap-

ter makes the case that defined and enforced property

rights paired with the adoption of the the-polluter-pays

principle, well-developed markets, broad political ac-

ceptance and an enlightened society can bring close

alignment between environmental and economic poli-

cy to realise sustainable development.


Awareness and knowledge about the environment of

every citizen is highly desirable if not a prerequisite for

successful conservation of environmental resources.

The chapter traces the historical development of envi-

ronmental education in the country and makes a de-

tailed assessment of its status in Karnataka. It reviews

initiatives by the state, NGOs and communities, assess-

es environmental education in schools and universities

and discusses the role of corporate social responsibility

and mass media. The challenges with reference to fa-

vourable factors and constrains are highlighted. While

several important milestones have been achieved in re-

spect of mainstreaming the subject into curricula, the

chapter argues that environmental education in its

present form is neither effective in impacting environ-

mental conservation, nor helping to boost the devel-

opment of the state in a sustainable way. Coordination

between stakeholders and interesting ways of engag-

ing students are found lacking. A suitable approach is

suggested to enhance the impact of environmental

education. Taken together, an appropriate mix of envi-

ronmental education and economic instruments may

have the potential to prepare a new generation who

ably safeguards the environment.

A CONCLUDING THOUGHT

The imperative trajectories of development and con-

cerns for the environment have often been perceived

as adversarial issues but it need not necessarily be so. A

well-made plan that integrates issues, concerns and

stakeholders has the potential to sustain an environ-

ment that is safe for humans, fauna and flora. It is true

that the rapid pace of economic development in the

state in the last 15 years has overwhelmed the ability of

the state to moderate the negative impact on our envi-

ronment. Perceptible degradation is apparent in urban

as well as rural areas. Overall, the direction should be

to identify present deficiencies as attempted in this re-

port and the strengthening of the state’s institutional

and regulatory capacity to achieve conformity with the

developmental vision and compliance with law. This

present report aims to be a guide on this way. Its true

value, however, can emerge only if acted upon.

Executive Summary

6

7

Profile of Karnataka

PA

RT

1


8


9

CONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTS

1.1.1.1. INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11111111

2.2.2.2. BIOPHYSICAL PROFILEBIOPHYSICAL PROFILEBIOPHYSICAL PROFILEBIOPHYSICAL PROFILE ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11111111

2.1.2.1.2.1.2.1. CLIMATECLIMATECLIMATECLIMATE ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12121212

2.2.2.2.2.2.2.2. WATER RESOURCESWATER RESOURCESWATER RESOURCESWATER RESOURCES........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12121212

2.3.2.3.2.3.2.3. AGROAGROAGROAGRO----CLIMATIC ZONESCLIMATIC ZONESCLIMATIC ZONESCLIMATIC ZONES ........................................................................................................................................................................ 13131313

2.4.2.4.2.4.2.4. BIODIVERSITYBIODIVERSITYBIODIVERSITYBIODIVERSITY .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13131313

3.3.3.3. DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCDEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCDEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCDEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIOIOIOIO----ECONOMIC PROFILEECONOMIC PROFILEECONOMIC PROFILEECONOMIC PROFILE ............................................................ 13131313

3.1.3.1.3.1.3.1. CULTURECULTURECULTURECULTURE .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13131313

3.2.3.2.3.2.3.2. RELIGIONSRELIGIONSRELIGIONSRELIGIONS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14141414

3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3. LANGUAGELANGUAGELANGUAGELANGUAGE ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14141414

3.4.3.4.3.4.3.4. EDUCATION AND HEALTHEDUCATION AND HEALTHEDUCATION AND HEALTHEDUCATION AND HEALTH ................................................................................................................................................ 14141414

4.4.4.4. ECONOMIC BASEECONOMIC BASEECONOMIC BASEECONOMIC BASE ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14141414

4.1.4.1.4.1.4.1. FOOD PROCESSINGFOOD PROCESSINGFOOD PROCESSINGFOOD PROCESSING........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14141414

4.2.4.2.4.2.4.2. AGRICULTUREAGRICULTUREAGRICULTUREAGRICULTURE ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 15151515

4.3.4.3.4.3.4.3. MANUFACTURING INDUSTMANUFACTURING INDUSTMANUFACTURING INDUSTMANUFACTURING INDUSTRYRYRYRY ............................................................................................................................ 15151515

4.4.4.4.4.4.4.4. MINERALSMINERALSMINERALSMINERALS ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 15151515

4.5.4.5.4.5.4.5. INFORMATION AND BIOINFORMATION AND BIOINFORMATION AND BIOINFORMATION AND BIOTECHNOLOGYTECHNOLOGYTECHNOLOGYTECHNOLOGY ................................................ 15151515

4.6.4.6.4.6.4.6. INFRASTRUCTUREINFRASTRUCTUREINFRASTRUCTUREINFRASTRUCTURE .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15151515

5.5.5.5. GOVERNANCE STRUCTUREGOVERNANCE STRUCTUREGOVERNANCE STRUCTUREGOVERNANCE STRUCTURE ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 16161616

6.6.6.6. STATESTATESTATESTATE ENVIRONMENT POLICYENVIRONMENT POLICYENVIRONMENT POLICYENVIRONMENT POLICY ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 16161616


10

TABLESTABLESTABLESTABLES

Table 1: Population density and Human Development Index (HDI) ......................................................................................... 11

Table 2: Geographical coverage of agricultural zones .................................................................................................................. 13

FIGURESFIGURESFIGURESFIGURES

Figure 1: Agro-climatic zones of Karnataka ....................................................................................................................................... 12


11

1.1.1.1. INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

Karnataka is a vibrant, unique, multi-cultural, multi-

religious ‘melting pot’ state of India. The state of Karna-

taka was formed on November 1, 1956 by merging

Kannada speaking regions in accordance with the

States Reorganisation Act, 1956. Currently the state has

a total of 30 districts, 4 revenue divisions and 29,340

revenue villages.

Karnataka at a glanceKarnataka at a glanceKarnataka at a glanceKarnataka at a glance

A legacy of cultural and administrative traditions traceable

to the Hoysala (eg. Halebeedu), Vijayanagar (eg. Hampi)

and Mysore Kingdoms. A pioneer in hydroelectric power

generation as far back as 1902. Home to the Indian Insti-

tute of Science (The country’s premier science and tech-

nology institution) and India’s first private engineering

college. Leader in financial services, with two districts alone

(Dakshina Kannada and Udupi) being the birthplace of five

major commercial banks. Being the centre of high technol-

ogy manufacturing industries after independence in areas

such as machine tools, defence electronics, aerospace,

telecommunications and earth-moving equipment. One of

the first states to introduce decentralised systems of gov-

ernance.

Creating a supportive environment for India’s globally

competitive information technology services industry. Pio-

neering e-governance in the country through the Bhoomi

project to computerise rural land records. Highest number

(eight) of Jnana Peeth awardees for literature. Generally

peaceful environment and communal amity.

2.2.2.2. BIOPHYSICAL PROFILEBIOPHYSICAL PROFILEBIOPHYSICAL PROFILEBIOPHYSICAL PROFILE

Karnataka is located between 11˚34’ 59” and 18˚27’

20” Latitude North and 74˚5’ 16” and 78˚ 35’ 17” Lon-

gitude East. The State is situated on a tableland where

the Western and Eastern Ghats converge into the

Nilgiri Hills complex in the Deccan Plateau region of

India. Karnataka is bound by Maharashtra in the north,

Goa in the northwest, by Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the

South, by the Andhra Pradesh in the east and by the

Arabian Sea in west. Karnataka extends to about 750

km from north to south and about 400 km from east to

west. Karnataka has one of the highest average eleva-

tions at 1,500 feet.

Karnataka has a total area of 191,791 km2 and ac-

counts for 5.83% of the total area of the country. It is

eighth in the country in terms of size. The population

density which stands at 319 persons per km2 is consid-

erably lower than the national average of 382 as per

2011 Census. Details about districts, population density

and human development appear in Table 1.

Table Table Table Table 1111: Population density and : Population density and : Population density and : Population density and Human Development Index Human Development Index Human Development Index Human Development Index ((((HDIHDIHDIHDI))))

District Code

District

Population Density

HDI

2001 2011 2005

1 Bagalkot 251 288 0.591

2 Bangalore 2,985 4,378 0.653

3 Bangalore (Rural)

380 441 0.753

4 Belgaum 314 356 0.648

5 Bellary 240 300 0.617

6 Bidar 276 312 0.599

7 Bijapur 172 207 0.589

8 Chamarajanagar 189 200 0.576

9 Chikkaballapur 273 298 0.625

10 Chikkamagalur 158 158 0.647

11 Chitradurga 180 197 0.627

12 Dakshina Kannada

416 457 0.722

13 Davanagere 302 329 0.635

14 Dharwad 377 434 0.642

15 Gadag 209 229 0.634

16 Gulbarga 198 233 0.564

17 Hassan 253 261 0.639

18 Haveri 298 331 0.603

19 Kodagu 134 135 0.697

20 Kolar 346 384 0.625

21 Koppal 215 250 0.582

22 Mandya 356 365 0.609

23 Mysore 385 437 0.631

24 Raichur 198 228 0.547

25 Ramnagara 288 303 0.753

26 Shimoga 194 207 0.673

27 Tumkur 244 253 0.630

28 Udupi 287 304 0.714

29 Uttara Kannada 132 140 0.653

30 Yadgir 183 224 no data

Total 276 319

Adapted from Government of India (2011). Provisional Census 2011


12

2.1. CLIMATE

Karnataka has the following seasons:

� The winter season from January to February;

� The summer season from March to May;

� The monsoon season from June to September;

� The post-monsoon season from October to De-

cember.

Karnataka is divided into three meteorological zones,

as under:

� Coastal Karnataka — This zone comprises the dis-

tricts of Uttara Kannada, Udupi and Dakshina Kan-

nada. It is a region of heavy rainfall and receives an

average rainfall of 3638 mm per annum.

� North interior Karnataka — This zone occupies the

districts of Bidar, Belgaum, Bijapur, Bagalkot, Haveri,

Gadag, Dharwad, Gulbarga, Koppal, Bellary and

Raichur districts. This is an arid zone receiving only

about 711 mm of average rainfall per annum.

� South interior Karnataka — The rest of the districts

of Karnataka falls into this zone. This zone receives

about 1,064 mm of average rainfall per annum.

2.2. WATER RESOURCES

Karnataka has a water potential of about 102 km3. The

state accounts for about 6% of the country’s surface

water resources. Around 60% of this is provided by the

west flowing rivers while the remaining comes from

the east flowing rivers. There are seven river basins in

all formed by the Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, the west

flowing rivers, South Pennar, and Palar.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 1111: : : : AgroAgroAgroAgro----climaticclimaticclimaticclimatic zzzzones of Karnatakaones of Karnatakaones of Karnatakaones of Karnataka


13

2.3. AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES

The geographic, physiographic, climatic and eco-

system diversity of Karnataka is reflected in the fact that

it has 10 agro-climatic zones. Each of these zones com-

prise a combination of rainfall, seasons, soil type, crops

grown and specific agro-eco-systems. The agro-climatic

zones and their coverage in the state are shown in

Figure 1 and Table 2.

2.4. BIODIVERSITY

Karnataka has a rich diversity of flora and fauna. The

state has a recorded forest cover of 39,369 km2 which

constitutes 20.5% of the total geographical area of the

state. These forests support 25% of the elephant and

18% of the tiger population of India. The Western

Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot, includes the western re-

gion of Karnataka. There are five National Parks at An-

shi, Bandipur, Bannerghatta, Kudremukh and Nagar-

hole and 24 wildlife sancturaires. The abundant diver-

sity of the Western Ghats includes hundreds of medici-

nal plants of high value.

3.3.3.3. DEMOGRAPHIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIOSOCIOSOCIOSOCIO----ECONOMIC PROFILEECONOMIC PROFILEECONOMIC PROFILEECONOMIC PROFILE

According to the 2011 Census of India, the total popu-

lation of Karnataka is 61,130,704. Of this, 50.9% are

male and 49.2% are female. There has been a decrease

in the decadal increase in population of 15.67% from

2001 to 2011, population density is 319 per km2, the

sex ratio is 968 females to 1000 males. The literacy rate

is 75.60% with 82.85% for males and 68.13% for fe-

males. The eight largest districts of Karnataka in order

of their population are: Bangalore Urban, Belgaum,

Mysore, Tumkur, Gulbarga, Bellary, Bijapur and Dak-

shina Kannada. Karnataka has one of the largest popu-

lation of Anglo-Indians in the country.

3.1. CULTURE

Karnataka presents a rich diversity of linguistic and

ethnicities that are native to the state combined with

their long histories and contributed immensely to the

varied cultural heritage. Apart from Kannadigas, Karna-

taka is also home to Tuluvas, Kodavas and Konkanis.

Minor populations of Tibetan Buddhists and tribals like

Soligas, Yeravas, Todas and Siddhis also live in the state.

Table Table Table Table 2222: Geographical coverage of agricultural zones: Geographical coverage of agricultural zones: Geographical coverage of agricultural zones: Geographical coverage of agricultural zones

Agricultural zone

Number of

taluks Name of taluks

1. 7 Aland, Bhalki, Basava Kalyana, Bidar, Chincholi, Humnabad, Aurad

2. 11 Afazalpur, Chitapur, Gulbarga, Jewargi, Sedum, Shahapur, Yadgir, Shorapur, Raichur, Deodurga, Manvil

3. 35

Gangavathi, Koppal, Kushtagi, Lingasurgur, Sindhanur, Yelburga, Badami, Bagalkote, Bagewadi, Biligi, Bijapur, Hungund, Indi, Jamkhandi, Mudhol, Muddebihal, Sindhagi, Bellary, Hagaribommanahalli, Hara-panahalli, Hadagali, Hospet, Kudligi, Sandur, Siruguppa, Ron, Navalgund, Naragund, Gadag, Mundaragi, Ramdurga, Gokak, Raibag, Soundatti, Athani

4. 17 Challakere, Chitradurga, Davanagere, Harihara, Hiriyur, Hosadurga, Holalkere, Jagalur, Molakalmur, Arasikere, Kadur, Madhugiri, Pavagada, Koratagere, C.N. Haly, Sira, Tiptur

5. 24 Gubbi, Tumkur, Anekal, Bangalore South, Bangalore North, Channapatna, Devanahally, Doddaballapur, Hoskote, Kanakapur, Magadi, Nelemangala, Ramanagar, Bagepalli, Bangarpet, Chikkaballapur, Chinta-mani, Gudibande, Gowribidanur, Kolar, Malur, Mulbagal, Shidlagahatta, Srinivaspur

6. 19 K.R. Nagar, T. Narasipur, Mysore, Kollegala, Nanjanagudu, Turuvekere, Kunigal, Nagamangala, Sriran-gapatna, Malavalli, Maddur, Mandya, Pandavapura, K.R.Pet, Channarayapatna, Hassan, Chamarajana-gar, Yelandur, Gundlupet

7. 13 H.D.Kote, Hunsur, Piriyapatna, H.N.Pura, Alur, Arkalgud, Tarikere, Bhadravathi, Shimoga, Honnali, Shi-karipura, Channagiri, Arasikere

8. 14 Hukkeri, Chikkodi, Bailahongal, Belgaum, Haveri, Shiggoan, Shirahatti, Kundgol, Savanur, Hubli, Dhar-wad, Byadgi, Hirekerur, Ranibenur

9. 22 Sirsi, Siddapura, Yellapura, Supa, Haliyal, Mundgod,lKhanapur, sorab, Hosanagar, Sagar, Thirthahally, Koppa, Sringeri, Mudigere, Narasimharajapur, Chikmagalur, Kalghatagi, Hangal, Sakaleshpura, Virajpet, Somavarpet, Mercara

10. 13 Karwar, Kumta, Honnavar, Bhatkal, Ankola, Bantwal, Udupi, Belthangadi, Karkala, Kundapur, Mangalore, Puttur, Sulya

Adopted from State Land Use Board, Govt. of Karnataka 2001


14

The traditional folk arts cover the entire gamut of mu-

sic, dance, drama, story-telling by itinerant troupes etc.

Yekshagana of Malnad and coastal Karnataka, a classi-

cal dance drama is one of the major theatrical forms of

Karnataka. The state is also home to the world of In-

dian classical music with both Karnataka (Carnatic) and

Hindustani styles having produced a number of stal-

warts. The Haridasa movement of the sixteenth cen-

tury contributed to the development of carnatic music.

3.2. RELIGIONS

Karnataka is home to the first of the four maths estab-

lished by Sri Shankaracharya at Sringeri in Shimoga

district. Sri Madhavacharya, proponent of Advaita phi-

losophy hailed from the state. Over a span of nearly six

centuries, several saints and mystics helped shape the

culture, philosophy and art of South India and Karna-

taka in particular by exerting considerable spiritual in-

fluence over the masses and kingdoms that ruled

South India. Prominent among them were – Ramanu-

jacharya, Basavanna, Akkamahadevi and Al-

lamaprabhu. Besides, Jain philosophy and literature

have contributed immensely to the cultural and literary

landscape of Karnataka. In addition, Islam and Christi-

anity have significant following in Karnataka.

3.3. LANGUAGE

Kannada is the language of the majority. Other lan-

guages spoken by significant sections of the popula-

tion are Telugu, Tamil, Hindi and English. Tulu, Kodava

and Konkani are popular in the districts of Dakshina

Kannada, Kodagu and Uttara Kannada respectively.

3.4. EDUCATION AND HEALTH

Karnataka has a literacy rate of 75.6% (2011). The state

ranks 16th in Education Development Index (EDI) out of

35 states in India. In the last one decade Karnataka has

come to be regarded as an attractive educational hub

for students wishing to pursue higher studies in medi-

cine, engineering and management courses.

Karnataka is the first state in the country to launch the

Comprehensive Nutrition Mission. The state has 17

district hospitals, 10 other hospitals, 29 autonomous

and teaching hospitals, 326 Community Health Cen-

tres, 2,193 Primary Health Centres, 27 Urban Primary

Health Centres, 108 health centres under the Indian

Population Project (IPP), 19 mobile health clinics and

8,143 sub centres run by the state government. Karna-

taka has made remarkable progress in promoting tradi-

tional medicine. There are 103 ayush (ayurvedha,

yoga, uanai, nature cure, homeopathy) hospitals with

659 dispensaries with 1,545 hospital beds.

4.4.4.4. ECONOMIC BASEECONOMIC BASEECONOMIC BASEECONOMIC BASE

Karnataka’s economy largely depends on agriculture. It

is the largest producer of coffee, raw silk, and sandal-

wood in the country. The state is adding considerably

to the horticulture production of the country. The min-

eral and cottage based industries also generate a good

percentage of resources. Karnataka is one of the fastest

growing states over the past decade in terms of GDP

and per capita GDP.

Karnataka has become one of India’s global economic

players owing to industries in areas of electronics,

aerospace, software and biotechnology. The capital

city of Bangalore is the silicon valley of India. Most

global IT companies have opened subsidiaries in Ban-

galore. Karnataka accounts for nearly 40% of country’s

electronic and software exports.

Sectors that contribute to Karnataka’s economy,

broadly, are:

� PrimaryPrimaryPrimaryPrimary:::: Comprising agriculture, animal husbandry,

forestry, horticulture, and fishery.

� SecondarySecondarySecondarySecondary:::: Mining, quarrying, manufacturing, con-

struction, electricity, gas and water supply.

� TertiaryTertiaryTertiaryTertiary: Transport, education, storage, communica-

tion, trade, hospitality, banking, insurance, real es-

tate, business services, public administration, infor-

mation technology and other services. The contri-

bution of the primary, secondary and tertiary sec-

tors has been 21.4%, 14.2% and 17.6% respectively.

According to the recent Economic Survey, Gross Do-

mestic Product (GDP) is projected to grow by about

6.4% during 2011-12.

4.1. FOOD PROCESSING

Karnataka is poised to become a leading food process-

ing hub in the country, according to a FICCI–Yes Bank

study. The report suggests that Karnataka has specific

supply strengths conferring it a comparative advantage

to become a leading food processing hub in the coun-

try. With 10 agro-climatic zones and land topography

highly suitable for agriculture, the state represents one

of the most agriculturally diverse situation.

Karnataka is the largest producer of ragi, sunflower,

tomato, coffee and arecanut and the second largest

producer of maize, safflower, grapes, pomegranate

and onion. In addition, the state has wealth of livestock

and marine resources that auger well for processing

dairy, meat, fish and shrimps.

Karnataka also has a strong agro-infrastructure, includ-

ing 146 main market yards, 352 sub-market yards, 138

cold storages of about 0.4 million tons capacity and


15

warehousing capacity of about 1.95 million tons. The

strengths are augmented by official efforts to promote

development of agro-infrastructure, especially through

initiatives like crop cluster development, food parks,

agro-economic zones and agro-SEZs, among others.

4.2. AGRICULTURE

Cultivated land in Karnataka constitutes 64.6% of the

total geographical area of the state. Farmers and agri-

cultural labourers formed 56.5 of the workforce of Kar-

nataka. Agriculture in Karnataka is heavily dependent

on southwest monsoon. 26.5% of the sown area is irri-

gated. The major crops grown are ragi, jowar, rice,

maize and pulses (tur and gram) besides oilseeds and

number of cash crops. Cashew, coconut, arecanut,

cardamom, chillies, cotton, sugarcane and tobacco are

among the other crops grown in the state. Karnataka is

the largest producer of coarse cereals, coffee and raw

silk. Horticultural crops occupy a significant area whose

annual production is about 9.58 million tons. The in-

come generated from horticulture is estimated to be

over 40% of income generated from agriculture and it

is about 17% of the state GDP. In floriculture, Karnataka

occupies second position in India in terms of produc-

tion.

4.3. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY

Karnataka has evolved as a manufacturing hub for

some of the largest public sector industries of India.

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is focused on

research and development for indigenous fighter air-

craft for the Indian Air Force (IAF). With over 9,500

employees, it is one of the largest public sector em-

ployers in Karnataka.

Other industries include Bharat Heavy Electricals Lim-

ited (BHEL), Indian Telephone Industries (ITI), Bharat

Earth Movers Limited (BEML), Bharat Electronics Lim-

ited (BEL), Hindustan Machine Tools (HMT) and Indian

subsidiaries of Volvo and Toyota are also located in

Bangalore. India’s national space agency, Indian Space

Research Organisation (ISRO) has headquarters in

Bangalore and employs about 20,000 employees. TVS

Motors has a motorcycle manufacturing plant at My-

sore and Tata Motors at Dharwad. Many companies

are engaged in the manufacture of electrical equip-

ment and machinery like Kirloskar, ABB, Kavika, Larsen

and Toubro etc. The location of the Central Power Re-

search Institute in Bangalore may play a supportive

role.

Further, there is a petroleum refinery (MRPL) at Kati-

palla in Dakshina Kannada district. There is also a fertil-

izer factory (MCF) near New Mangalore Port.

4.4. MINERALS

Gold, iron ore, quartz, limestone, manganese, kyanite

and bauxite are the important minerals found in Karna-

taka. After the closure of Kolar Gold Fields, the only

company that mines and extracts gold is Hutti Gold

Mines whose plants are located in Hubli and Chi-

tradurga in Karnataka. Major mines of manganese and

iron ore are located in Bellary district. Viswesvaraya

Iron and Steel Ltd. at Bhadravathi and Jindal Vijayana-

gar Steel Ltd. at Torangal are engaged in the produc-

tion of iron and steel. Indian Aluminium Company Ltd.

is located in Belgaum. Mysore Minerals Ltd. is produc-

ing chromite in Hassan district. Rajashree Cements at

Adithyanagar, Vasavadatta Cements at Sedam and the

Associated Cement Company Ltd. (ACC) at Wadi are

engaged in the production of cement.

4.5. INFORMATION AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

Karnataka is the leader in the information technology

sector in the country. The capital Bangalore is known

as the Silicon Valley of India. In the IT sector, Karnataka

generated total revenue of INR 17 billion in the finan-

cial year 2009-10. A total of 2,156 companies in Karna-

taka are involved in IT related businesses. Bangalore is

a IT hub with headquarter of WIPRO and Infosys,

which are among the top three IT companies in India

with respect to market capitalisation. Many of the IT

related companies are also located in Mysore, Manga-

lore and Hubli.

As of 2006, Karnataka is home to 44% of India’s 320

biotechnology companies, creating an estimated reve-

nue of INR 14 million. The number of biotech compa-

nies rose to 195 in 2009-10. Karnataka has headcount

of over 6,800 scientists in biotech research. In the year

2005-06, 28 biotech companies were newly registered

in India, 27 of them in Karnataka.

4.6. INFRASTRUCTURE

The state has a good road network of about 220,000

km and is well connected to its neighbouring states

and other parts of India through a network of national

highways constituting about 6% of the total network in

India. District centres are linked through 114 state

highways.

There is one major port at Mangalore apart from which

the state has ten minor ports. Bangalore and Manga-

lore have international airports that are extensively

used for domestic operations as well. Domestic airports

are located at Hubli, Mysore, Belgaum and Toranagallu

in Bellary district. The state is well connected to the

other parts of the country. The railway network has

3,089 km. Bangalore’s metro rail is well underway. Its

two corridors developed in the first phase cover 33 km.


16

The Karnataka Industrial Area Development Board

(KIADB) and Karnataka State Industrial Investment De-

velopment Corporation (KSIIDC) are jointly responsible

for the development of industrial infrastructure in the

state. The Government of Karnataka is promoting the

development of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) for

food processing, agro-based industries and textile at

Hassan, IT and a ‘Coastal SEZ’ at Mangalore as well as

for pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries.

5.5.5.5. GOVERNANCE STRUCTUREGOVERNANCE STRUCTUREGOVERNANCE STRUCTUREGOVERNANCE STRUCTURE

Karnataka, like the other Indian states, has a parliamen-

tary system of government with bi-cameral legislature,

the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council.

The Assembly consists of 224 elected members while

the Council is a permanent body of 75 members with

one-third (25 members) retiring every two years. The

Chief Minister is the head of the Government. The

Chief Minister assisted by a Council of Ministers, drives

the legislative agenda and exercises executive powers.

However, the constitutional and formal head of the

state is the Governor who is appointed by the Presi-

dent of India for a five-year term. The people of Karna-

taka also elect 28 members to the Loksabha, the lower

house of the Indian Parliament. The Members of the

State Legislative Assembly elect 12 members to the

Rajya Sabha or upper house of the Indian Parliament.

For administrative purposes, Karnataka comprises four

revenue divisions, 30 districts, 176 taluks and 747

hoblies/revenue circles. Each district is headed by a

Deputy Commissioner belonging to the Indian Admin-

istrative Service (IAS) and assisted by officers belonging

to the Karnataka Administrative Services (KAS). The

Superintendent of Police belonging to the Indian Police

Service (IPS) is assisted by officers of Karnataka Police

Service who are responsible for the maintenance of

law and order in a district. There are police commis-

sionerates for the cities of Bangalore, Hubli-Dharwad,

Mysore and Mangalore, which are headed by a Police

Commissioner, supported by a Deputy Commissioner

of Police. Sectoral development in the districts is man-

aged by the district head of the respective departments

such as public works, agriculture, health, animal hus-

bandry, forest etc. The judiciary consists of the Karna-

taka High Court in Bangalore, district and session

courts in each district and lower courts and judges at

the taluk level.

Panchayat Raj System

Karnataka has a long history of experimenting with

decentralisation dating back to pre-independence

days. The introduction of a two-tier, elected sub-state

level governance structure through the 1983 Act

marked a turning point in Karnataka. Elections under

this Act were held in 1987. In 1993, the Karnataka

Panchayat Raj Act came into force providing for a

three-tier structure, viz:

� Zilla Panchayat at district level;

� Taluk Panchayat at block level; and

� Gram Panchayat at village level.

The Act provided for representation for women,

Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs) and

Other Backward Classes (OBCs). Gram Panchayats –

constitute the most important tier as they are directly

involved in local governance. Some key features of

gram panchayats are as under:

� Elected once in five years;

� Constitutional status;

� Comprise a group of villages with a total population

of 5 to 7,000;

� One representative for every 400 people;

� 33% seats reserved for women;

� 33% seats reserved for OBCs;

� Funds from the state and central governments;

� Powers of taxation.

Good governance is about providing more efficient

and effective administration committed to improve the

quality of life of people. It is about what people expect

from the administration and the willingness and capac-

ity of the administration to fulfil their expectations.

There are no standard indicators for governance,

which need to be evolved. International organizations

have developed indicators for human development,

but these alone cannot be considered as indicators for

good governance. The state would stand to benefit by

revisiting the set of recommendations contained in the

Human Development Report, Karnataka 2005.

6.6.6.6. STATE ENVIRONMENT STATE ENVIRONMENT STATE ENVIRONMENT STATE ENVIRONMENT POLICYPOLICYPOLICYPOLICY

Karnataka does not have a separate state environ-

mental policy. Department of Ecology and Environ-

ment (DEE), Government of Karnataka oversee protec-

tion and conservation in accordance with central acts

and rules. Although DEE and Karnataka Forest De-

partment have a common secretariat, DEE does not

have a line department and therefore does not enforce

laws directly. Subsidiary bodies assume essential func-

tions, namely:

� Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB,

statutory body);

� Lake Development Authority (LDA, autonomous

body);


17

� Karnataka Biodiversity Board (KBB, statutory body);

� Environment Management & Policy Research Insti-

tute (EMPRI, autonomous body);

� Karnataka State Coastal Zone Management Author-

ity (KSCZMA, statutory body).

KSPCB is the key organ of the state government to en-

force environmental acts and laws. It regulates indus-

tries, mines, stone crushers, health care establishments,

urban local bodies and even apartment complexes

through its Regional Offices present in most districts

(refer to www.kspcb.gov.in). The conservation, restora-

tion and development of water bodies is entrusted to

LDA which was established in 2002 (refer to

www.karnataka.gov.in/lda). In the same year EMPRI

was established to strengthen capacities for environ-

mental management through research and training

(refer to www.karnataka.gov.in/empri). The provisions

of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 are implemented

by Karnataka Biodiversity Board established in 2003

(refer to www.kbb.kar.nic.in).

The secretariat of Department of Forest, Ecology and

Environment (DFEE) also anchors Karnataka State

Coastal Zone Management Authority (KSCZMA). The

authority is a member-based body without permanent

establishment or office. The Principal Secretary, De-

partment of Forest, Ecology & Environment is its

chairman and functions of the authority have been

defined. Under the pertaining law, District Coastal

Zone Management Committees have been constituted.

Regulatory norms have been prescribed for the Coastal

Regulation Zone (CRZ). Karnataka State Coastal Zone

Management Plan (CZMP) was prepared and approved

by the Government of Karnataka in the year 1996.


18

19

Sectoral Assessments

PA

RT

2

Sectoral Assessments

20

21

CHAPTER 1

FOREST AND

BIODIVERSITY

Chapter 1: Forest and Biodiversity

22


23

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 27

2. FORESTS ................................................................................................................ 27

2.1. EXTENT ................................................................................... 27 2.1.1. Forestland .................................................................................... 27 2.1.2. Forest cover ................................................................................. 27 2.1.3. Tree cover and growing stock ............................................... 27

2.2. VEGETATION ........................................................................ 28 2.2.1. Tropical wet evergreen and semi evergreen forests ...... 28 2.2.2. Tropical moist deciduous forests ........................................... 29 2.2.3. Tropical dry deciduous forests ............................................... 29 2.2.4. Tropical thorn scrub forests .................................................... 29 2.2.5. Littoral forests ............................................................................. 29

2.3. FOREST MANAGEMENT ..................................................... 30 2.3.1. Institutional arrangements ..................................................... 30 2.3.2. Joint Forest Planning and Management (JFPM) ............. 30 2.3.3. Legal framework ........................................................................ 31 2.3.4. Afforestation ............................................................................... 32 2.3.5. Urban forestry ............................................................................. 32 2.3.6. Other initiatives .......................................................................... 32 2.3.7. Forest education and training ............................................... 33 2.3.8. Research ....................................................................................... 33

2.4. COMMERCIAL UTILISATION .............................................. 33 2.4.1. Forest produce ........................................................................... 33 2.4.2. Forest corporations ................................................................... 34 2.4.3. Wood based industries ............................................................ 34

2.5. CONSERVATION .................................................................. 34

2.6. CHALLENGES ........................................................................ 36 2.6.1. Diversion of forestlands ........................................................... 36 2.6.2. Forest encroachments ............................................................. 38 2.6.3. Man-animal conflict................................................................... 38 2.6.4. Forest degradation, fire and soil erosion ............................ 38 2.6.5. Invasion of weeds ...................................................................... 39 2.6.6. Forest offences ........................................................................... 39 2.6.7. Tribal welfare .............................................................................. 39

3. BIODIVERSITY ...................................................................................................... 39

3.1. FLORA ..................................................................................... 40

3.2. FAUNA ................................................................................... 41 3.2.1. Insects ............................................................................................ 41 3.2.2. Fishes ............................................................................................. 41 3.2.3. Amphibians ................................................................................. 41 3.2.4. Reptiles .......................................................................................... 41 3.2.5. Birds ............................................................................................... 41 3.2.6. Mammals ...................................................................................... 42

3.3. THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES ................. 42


24

3.4. LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK .................. 42 3.4.1. Biological Diversity Act ............................................................ 42 3.4.2. Karnataka Biodiversity Board ................................................. 43

3.5. CONSERVATION .................................................................. 43 3.5.1. Peoples’ biodiversity registers ................................................ 43 3.5.2. Medicinal plants ......................................................................... 43

4. EMERGING INTERVENTION AREAS ........................................................... 44


25

TABLES

Table 1: Forestland by legal status (2011) .......................................................................................................................................... 27 Table 2: Forest cover trend (km

2) in Karnataka (2011) ................................................................................................................... 28

Table 3: Tree cover and growing stock (2011) ................................................................................................................................. 28 Table 4: Posts and personnel of KFD (2011) ...................................................................................................................................... 30 Table 5: Sharing of JFPM benefits ......................................................................................................................................................... 30 Table 6: Status of JFPM in Karnataka .................................................................................................................................................... 31 Table 7: Revenue of VFCs as on December 2011 ............................................................................................................................ 31 Table 8: Plantations raised by KFD in hectares ................................................................................................................................. 31 Table 9: Accomplishments under ‘Greening of Urban Areas’ ...................................................................................................... 32 Table 10: Forest produce in 2010-11 ................................................................................................................................................... 33 Table 11: Revenue of forest produce (2010-11) ............................................................................................................................... 34 Table 12: Estimated output value of forest products at current prices in 2007-08 in INR core/a ..................................... 34 Table 13: Plantations raised by KFDC in hectare .............................................................................................................................. 34 Table 14: Forest produce consumption by wood based industries in 1997............................................................................ 35 Table 15: Sanctuaries ................................................................................................................................................................................ 36 Table 16: Approved forestland diversions in Karnataka................................................................................................................. 37 Table 17: Status of compensatory afforestation in Karnataka ...................................................................................................... 37 Table 18: Status of forest encroachment in Karnataka ................................................................................................................... 38 Table 19: Damage cases in Karnataka ................................................................................................................................................. 38 Table 20: Trends of detected forest offences ..................................................................................................................................... 39 Table 21: Species under threat in Karnataka ..................................................................................................................................... 42 Table 22: Medicinal plant conservation areas in Karnataka .......................................................................................................... 44

FIGURES

Figure 1: Forest area by types ................................................................................................................................................................ 28 Figure 2: Prevalence of forest types in Karnataka ............................................................................................................................ 29 Figure 3: Firewood – A cause of forest depletion ............................................................................................................................ 29 Figure 4: Firewood transport in Magadi, Bangalore district ......................................................................................................... 34 Figure 5: National parks and wildlife sanctuaries............................................................................................................................. 35 Figure 6: Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary in Mandya district .......................................................................................................... 36 Figure 7: A wild elephant in Mysore city ............................................................................................................................................ 38 Figure 8: Bamboo is a scarce resource ................................................................................................................................................ 39 Figure 9: The world’s biodiversity hotspots........................................................................................................................................ 40 Figure 10: Biodiversity hot spots in the Western Ghats ................................................................................................................ 40 Figure 11: Where have all the sparrows gone? — Some are found at Bangalore airport now ......................................... 41 Figure 12: A group of blackbuck — Threatened species in Karnataka ..................................................................................... 43 Figure 13: Aloe vera — An important medicinal plant of Karnataka ......................................................................................... 44 Figure 14: Grazing cattle.......................................................................................................................................................................... 44 Figure 15: Damage of forest fire ........................................................................................................................................................... 45


26


27

1. INTRODUCTION

The forest ecosystem of Karnataka is unique and highly

diverse. It forms an important component of the natu-

ral resources of the environment. Vegetation types in-

clude tropical evergreen, semi-evergreen, moist decid-

uous, dry deciduous, thorny scrubs, sholas and coastal

mangroves. They are a repository of rich biodiversity at

the level of gene, species and ecosystem. Different for-

est ecosystems are the result of the interplay of topo-

graphic, climatic and edaphic differences influenced by

altitude and the distance from the sea. The Western

Ghats forests are a fragile ecosystem that is one of the

mega biodiversity hotspots of the world.

Several initiatives have been taken towards forest con-

servation. The continuous efforts in afforestation over

several decades have resulted in the increase of forest

cover. The growing of trees on private lands in large

numbers contributed to the increase in the tree cover

outside forests. In spite of these efforts, the tremendous

pressure on forests in terms of diversions of land for

mining and hydropower besides encroachment, graz-

ing, fire etc. has led to a degradation of the stock,

fragmentation of habitats and loss of biodiversity.

2. FORESTS

2.1. EXTENT

2.1.1. Forestland

The geographical area of the state is 191,791 km2 of

which 43,356 km2 (22.6%) is forest area. Notified for-

ests measure 33,238 km2

(17.3%) and include reserved,

protected, village and private forests.

2.1.2. Forest cover

The forest cover is independently being assessed by

the Forest Survey of India based on satellite imagery

and sample ground verification. With reference to the

latest report 2011, there has been an increase in open

forest of 6 km2 and a decrease in dense forest of 2 km

2

over the past two years.

2.1.3. Tree cover and growing stock

Outside forests, Karnataka’s tree cover is estimated to

be 5,733 km2. This accounts for 3.0% of the state’s ge-

ographical area and consists of tree plantations of rub-

ber (Haevia braziliensis), silver oak (Grevillea arobusta),

dadap (Erythrina indica), mango (Mangifera indica),

coconut (Cocos nucifera), cashewnut (Anacardium oc-

cidentale), eucalyptus, casurina (Casuarina equiseti-

FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY AT A GLANCE

Geographical area 100% 191,791 km2 Biodiversity

Forest cover incl. shrubs (2011) 20.5% 39,369 km2 Species

Tree cover (2011) 21.9% 41,927 km2 Flowering plants 4,500

Within forests thereof 18.9% 36,194 km2 Medicinal plants 1,493

Outside forests thereof 3.0% 5,733 km2 Birds 600

Areas afforested (2011) 10.3% 19,713 km2 Fishes 800

Forestland (2011) Reptiles 160

Forest area with legal status 22.6% 43,356 km2 Mammals 120

Notified forest 17.3% 33,238 km2 Wildlife population

Unclassified forest 5.3% 10,118 km2 Elephants (approx.) 5,900

Forest land diverted in 2011 273.3 km2 Tigers (approx.) 300

Forest land encroached 175.5 km2 Threatened species of entire Western Ghats region

Growing stock (2011) Globally threatened occurring here 332

In forests 315 mn m3 Vulnerable thereof 129

Trees outside forests 101 mn m3 Endangered thereof 148

Biodiversity protection Critically endangered thereof 55

National parks 5

Wildlife sanctuaries 24

Tiger reserves 5

Table 1: Forestland by legal status (2011)

Legal status Area in

km2

Share in forest area

Share of geograph-ical area

Notified forest

Reserved 29,550.2 68.2% 15.4%

Protected 3,585.2 8.3% 1.9%

Village forest 49.1 0.1% 0.03%

Private forest 54.1 0.1% 0.03%

Total notified 33,238.5 76.7% 17.3%

Unclassified forest 10,117.9 23.3% 5.3%

Total 43,356.5 100% 22.6%

Adapted from Karnataka Forest Department (2011). Annual Report 2010-11


28

folia) and other cash crops. The growing stock of

woody biomass for major forest types has been esti-

mated to be 417 million m3. This estimate considers

both the forest inventory and trees outside forests.

2.2. VEGETATION

The vegetation of Karnataka is influenced by climate,

topographic and edaphic factors. Biotic factors have

played a major role in determining vegetation types as

seen in any other parts of India. Based on Champion

and Seth’s system of classification (1968) the following

major types are recognised in Karnataka:

Southern tropical wet evergreen forests (1Ac3,

1Ac4);

Southern tropical semi evergreen forests (2Ac2,

2S1);

South Indian tropical moist deciduous forests (3Bc1-

1a, 1b, 1c, C2, 2S1);

Southern tropical dry deciduous forests (5Ac1, c2);

Southern tropical thorn forests (6A);

Subtropical broad leaved hill forests (8A);

Littoral and swamp forest (4A, 4B).

2.2.1. Tropical wet evergreen and semi evergreen forests

The rainfall in these forests is in the range of 3,600 to

7,000 mm per year. The estimated area is 5,800 km2

situated along the top, upper slopes and valleys of the

Western Ghats. The dipterocarpus – kingiodendrons –

vateria association is the most common. The slopes and

valleys are rich in biodiversity and fairly well preserved

in terms of flora occupying different levels of the forest

canopy. Around 75,000 hectare of grassy blanks are

found at the crest and top portions of the Western

Ghats in elevations around 1,000 m above sea level.

Reeds, rattans (cane) and palms occupy the humid val-

leys in these forests. Dominant tree species in the

coastal evergreen zone are bhogi (Hopea parviflora),

karimara (H. wightiana) and bobbi (Calophyllum in-

ophyllum). Dominant tree species in the hill zone are

dooma (Dipterocarpus indicus), poon (Calophyllum

tomentosum), saldooopa (Vateria indica), balgi (Poeci-

loneuron indicum), yenne mara (Kingiodendron pinna-

tum), pali (Hadsale, Dichopsis elliptica) and eugenias.

The semi evergreen forests contain gulmavu (Machillus

Table 2: Forest cover trend (km2) in Karnataka (2011)

Forest type 1993 1997 2009 2011 Distribution

2011 Change 2009-11

Very dense 24,852

* 24,854

*

1,777 1,777 4.5% +/-0

Moderately dense 20,181 20,179 51.3% -2

Open 7,491 7,546 14,232 14,238 36.2% +6

Scrub 4,637 4,566 3,176 3,175 8.1% -1

Total 36,980 36,966 39,366 39,369 100% +3

Non-forest no data no data 152,425 152,422 -3

Note: * Composite value comprising both categories Adapted from Forest Survey of India (ca. 1998 and ca. 2012) India State of Forest Report 1997 and 2011

Table 3: Tree cover and growing stock (2011)

Category Tree cov-er in km

2

Share of geo-graphical area

Growing stock in million m

3

Forests 36,194 18.9% 315.2

Outside forests

5,733 3.0% 101.7

Total 41,927 21.9% 416.9

Adapted from Karnataka Forest Department (2011). Annual Report 2010-11

Figure 1: Forest area by types — Adapted from KFD. Perspective plan for forests


29

macrantha), cinnnamomum species, banate (Lophope-

talum wightianum), bolpale (Alstonia scholaris), white

cedar (Disoxylum malabaricum), mango (Mangifera in-

dica) etc. as dominant trees and rattans as associates.

2.2.2. Tropical moist deciduous forests

The rainfall in these forests is in the range of 1,200-

2,000 mm. These forests occupy about 5,600 km2 and

are found on the higher slopes of the Western Ghats

and contain valuable commercial trees. The moist de-

ciduous belt consists of tectona – dillenia and lager-

stroemia – terminalia associations. The thorny big

bamboo (Bamusa bambos) is found as associate of de-

ciduous trees in about 30% of these forests. The moist

deciduous hill zone contains valuable trees like rose-

wood (Dalbergia latifolia), teak (Tectona grandis), lau-

rel (Terminalia tomentosa), jambe (Xylia xylocarpa),

benteak (Lagerstroemia lanceolata), gumkino (Ptero-

carpus marsupium), yellow teak (Adina cordifolia) and

others with bamboos as associates.

2.2.3. Tropical dry deciduous forests

The rainfall in these forests is in the range of 800-1,250

mm. They are found on the eastern slopes of the West-

ern Ghats and eastern plains and are spread over

about 7,200 km2. Since they are closer to populated

habitations, they are under continuous pressure from

people and cattle. Small bamboos (Dendrocalamus

strictus) are the associates of trees in about 25% of

these forests. Common tree species in the dry zone of

the dry deciduous forest ecosystem are maiswal

(Chloroxylon swietenia), basavanpada (Bauhinia pur-

purea), channangi (Lagerstroemia parviflora), padri

(Steriospermum chelenoides), sowmya (Soymeda fe-

brifuga) and many species of acacias, cassias with alale

(Terminalia chebula), marua (Terminalia paniculata),

dindiga (Anogeissus latiflola), kokko (Albizzia lebbek),

nelli (Emblica officinalis), charoli (Buchnania lanzan)

and sandal (Santalum album) as trees of economic im-

portance.

2.2.4. Tropical thorn scrub forests

The rainfall in these forests is less than 800 mm per

year. The rain shadow districts of the state have low

rocky hills supporting xerophytic scrub forests. These

are scattered between vast stretches of agricultural

lands occupying about 8,190 km2 of dry uplands. San-

dal (Santalum album) is a valuable tree in southern and

southeastern districts and comes up naturally in the

bordering dry deciduous forests. Apart from this Albiz-

zia lebbek, Hardwickia, Aacia leucophloea and Albizzia

odoratissima are also seen. Casuarina and some acacias

are grown in the dry zone for harvest in short rotations

of four to eight years for sale as firewood, pulp wood

and small timber.

2.2.5. Littoral forests

These are saltwater swamps near the confluence of

rivers joining the Arabian Sea. Mangroves occupy

about 3 km2. in the state. Two types of littoral vegeta-

tion is found in the coastal zone:

Psammophytes: These are special plants which

have adapted to overcome the scorching sun, salt

laden winds and shifting sand e.g. sand binder

plants like Spinifix littoreus, Ipomea pes-caprae etc.;

Halophytes: These occur near estuaries where the

west flowing rivers meet the Arabian Sea. These are

also called mangrove formations which stabilise the

sea shores and river banks against erosion and are

home to several fishes and marine animals.

Mangroves which consist of a rhizophora –

avicennia – bruguiera species combination are

commonly seen on coastal highways.

Figure 2: Prevalence of forest types in Karnataka

15.2%

14.1%

24.1%

25.2%

12.4%

0.8% 8.2%

Tropical wet evergreen forests

Tropical semi evergreen forests

Tropical moist deciduous forests

Tropical dry deciduous forests

Tropical thorn forests

Subtropical broad leaved hill forests

Plantation/ Trees outside forests

Figure 3: Firewood – A cause of forest depletion


30

2.3. FOREST MANAGEMENT

2.3.1. Institutional arrangements

All steep slopes, ecologically sensitive areas, the Nilgiri

biosphere reserve bordering Kerala and Tamil Nadu,

the five national parks and 24 sanctuaries receive total

protection. Such protected forest areas cover 10.8% of

notified forest area. These forest areas are fairly well

preserved although some interference along the bor-

der of protected areas from villagers and cattle is inevi-

table.

Forest areas have scientific working plans that are im-

plemented systematically. Extraction is limited to sal-

vaging of dead and fallen material, as there is ban on

felling of naturally growing green trees. Extraction of

green trees is permissible only from plantations for

thinning or on completion of rotation periods. Extrac-

tion is done through the Karnataka State Forest Indus-

tries Corporation Limited (KSFIC), forest labour co-

operative societies or Karnataka Forest Department

(KFD). The prescriptions of working plans for bamboo

forests have to be modified, for instance due to gregar-

ious flowering. In Uttara Kannada district alone an es-

timated 950 km2 of bamboo forests flowered between

2007 and 2010. On a conservative estimate, the quan-

tity of usable dead bamboos exceeds 3.5 lakh tons. The

total flowered bamboo areas in the state exceed 2,500

km2.

Forests are managed by KFD. The state is divided in-

to13 circles and 64 forest divisions. Each division is di-

vided into field units termed ranges. Ranges are subdi-

vided into sections and beats. KFD’s working plan wing

prepares inventories and plans interventions through

prescriptions revised periodically. There are separate

wings for research, training, social forestry, checking of

forest offences, monitoring, evaluation and vigilance.

The work of the department is increasingly aided by e-

governance services in areas such as human resources,

procurement and tracking of forest produce. The

number of posts sanctioned in various categories and

vacancies are given in Table 4.

2.3.2. Joint Forest Planning and Management (JFPM)

The National Forest Policy of 1988 envisages creating a

massive peoples’ movement with the involvement of

women to achieve its objectives and minimise pressure

on existing forests. By an order of 1990, Government

of India (GoI) encouraged states to involve local com-

munities around the forest as partner in forest conser-

vation through a regular programme called Joint For-

est Planning and Management (JFPM). Since 1993,

Government of Karnataka (GoK) has been implement-

ing this by involving rural communities through the

formation of village forest committees (VFCs) in protec-

tion, planning and restoration of tree cover in open

forests with less than 25% of tree cover. As of 2011,

about 25% of assigned degraded forests have benefit-

ed from such treatment so far. All schemes and projects

including work in tribal areas, watershed development,

the National Bamboo Mission (NBM), afforestation

through the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employ-

ment Guarantee scheme, those supported by Japanese

Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC) are planned,

approved and implemented with active participation

from communities who also share benefits. Forest

management is therefore fairly participatory. However,

communities tend to look for immediate benefits,

which is limited to certain entry point activities. There is

also limited trust between the community and KFD, of-

ten resulting in indifference in respect of the relation-

ship and participation in forest protection and devel-

opment. In view of rapid forest decimation in the past,

KFD takes a very conservative approach in releasing

forestland for other developmental activities. The shar-

ing pattern of benefits of JFPM between community

and government is indicated at Table 5. The current

level of participation in Karnataka is shown at Table 6

and the actual income generated and shared is shown

at Table 7.

Table 5: Sharing of JFPM benefits

Products and activities Com-

munity Gov-

ernment

With village forest committees (VFCs)

Non-timber forest products (NTFP) 90% 10%

Forest timber produce from planta-tions created prior to participation

50% 50%

Forest timber produce from planta-tions created after to participation

75% 25%

Forest timber produce from natural growth

50% 50%

With eco development committees (EDCs)

Running cafeterias and stalls against nominal ground rent

90% 10%

Fees for entry and car parking 75% 25%

Boating charges and other services 75% 25%

Adapted from Karnataka Forest Department (2012). Internal records

Table 4: Posts and personnel of KFD (2011)

Category Sanc-tioned

Filled Vacancies

Absolute Relative

Group A 378 367 11 3%

Group B 756 748 8 1%

Group C 8,302 6,793 1,509 18%

Group D 2,668 2,186 482 18%

Total 12,104 10,094 2,010 17%

Adapted from Karnataka Forest Department (2011) Annual Report 2010-11


31

Table 6: Status of JFPM in Karnataka

JFPM committees established 3,848

Forest area identified for JFM 808,020 ha

Members 545,615

Families 272,805


2.3.3. Legal framework

The state has legislated the Karnataka Forest Act, 1963

and the Karnataka Forest Rules, 1969. Rules under the

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 have also been notified.

Timely amendments to the acts and rules have been

made to give sufficient powers for prevention, detec-

tion and punishment of offences. But the slow progress

of trials and meagre punishments do not serve as suffi-

cient deterrent for offenders. This is compounded by a

lack of legal and procedural knowledge among forest

personnel. There are no special or fast track courts to

deal with serious offences under acts pertaining to for-

est and wildlife protection. Compensation for loss of life

and property caused by wildlife is slow and inade-

quate. Cooperation from the community in prevention

and detection of forest offences is lacking in spite of a

system of rewards.

Table 7: Revenue of VFCs as on December 2011

Top 20 forest divisions

Source of revenue Revenue in

lakh INR

Revenue gener-ated

5,370 t of forest produce 1,129.2

Amount credited to village development fund (VDF) account

556.1

Amount credited to village forest development fund (VFDF) account

471.5

Top 5 villages

Mensi Acacia and casuarina wood for pulpwood, timber, firewood and billets

71.2

Dongri Acacia wood for poles 16.1

Karjuvalli Acacia plantation 10.1

Nadamanchale-Kanugodu

Acacia plantation for pulpwood and timber

9.1

B. Hosahalli Acacia wood 7.5


Forest and wildlife protection is governed by the fol-

lowing statutes and manuals:

Karnataka Forest Act, 1963 and Rules, 1969;

Karnataka Preservation of Trees Act, 1976 and

Rules, 1977;

Forest Conservation Act, 1980 and Rules, 1981;

Karnataka Forest Code, 1976;

Table 8: Plantations raised by KFD in hectares

Plantation Up to 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 Total

Teak 147,435 389 195 1,009 2,015 363 1,891 153,297

Cashew 41,135 101 215 6,491 313 117 10 48,382

Eucalyptus 142,988 628 496 3,371 1,668 753 174 150,077

Softwood 14,954 884 767 - 0 - - 16,605

Firewood & others 1,042,569 17,749 16,076 30,297 20,444 23,873 20,158 1,171,166

Bamboo 21,827 1,187 1,937 2,068 730 2,000 1,730 31,479

Lavender 1,097 - - - - - - 1,097

Red 9 - - - - - - 9

Coco 1,595 - - - - - - 1,595

Rubber 6,597 - - - - - - 6,597

Spices 74 - - - - - - 74

Coffee 20 - - - - - - 20

Canes 5,191 1,409 462 690 851 687 675 9,965

Tea 7 - - - - - - 7

Sandalwood 8,934 2 1 1,076 - 6 12 10,031

Fruits 13,891 591 131 5,034 1,911 2,731 1,297 25,587

School 17,623 245 542 293 736 814 1,075 21,328

Roadside 46,345 2,946 2,468 2,421 1,209 1,918 2,578 59,885

Canalside 11,056 86 222 231 595 205 323 12,718

Others 93,602 12,005 12,973 11,209 35,959 35,190 50,488 251,426

Total 1,616,949 38,222 36,485 64,190 66,430 68,657 80,412 1,971,345

Adapted from Karnataka Forest Department. Annual Report 2010-11


32

Karnataka Forest Account Code;

Karnataka Forest Manual;

Karnataka Land Grant Rules, 1969;

Environment (Protection) Act 1986 and Rules;

Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and Rules 2005;

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 and Rules.

2.3.4. Afforestation

Since the beginning of the five-year plans, efforts have

been made to either replace poorly stocked forests or

raise economically useful trees through artificial regen-

eration. The aggregate area covered by such planta-

tions is about 19,713 km2. Many such plantations have

been felled and replanted. Many failed plantations

have undergone fresh efforts for afforestation under

new schemes. The emphasis has changed to planting a

variety of local species suitable for the agro-climatic

zone aiming at restoration of local ecology. During

2010-11, 94,308 ha were planted with 827 lakh seed-

lings. Under the Farm Forestry Programme, 214 lakh

seedlings were distributed for planting on private

lands. In 2011-12, afforestation progressed by another

65,447 ha and 598 lakh seedlings as of December

2011 refer Table 8.

2.3.5. Urban forestry

Bangalore city has a good record in urban forestry

from the mid 80s onwards. Flowering trees were

planted along roadsides by Bangalore Urban Forest

Division. Due to the expansion of roads, bridges, water

supply and sewer lines innumerable trees had to be

removed. A large share of roadside trees are hindered

in their development by the annual lopping for electric-

ity utilities to protect overhead wires. However, Banga-

lore’s municipal corporation Bruhat Bengaluru Ma-

hanagara Palike (BBMP) created two forest divisions

which plant roadside trees and maintain nurseries. The

Karnataka Preservation of Trees Act requires prior per-

mission for removal of existing trees and grants these

only for valid reasons while stipulating replanting after

felling. Several municipalities in the state have also tak-

en up planting and maintenance of gardens. Neverthe-

less, due to large scale felling of roadside trees in cities,

the loss of tree cover is estimated to be higher than

current efforts of roadside tree planting. To make up

for this loss and mitigate air pollution the Greening of

Urban Areas scheme has been introduced for planting

ornamental, shade and fruit bearing trees. As shown at

Table 9, plantations have significantly increased over

the years, indicating that the importance of urban for-

estry is well recognised. Another new concept has

been introduced in Karnataka: The development of

tree parks in each district of 100 hectares each. This in-

cludes pavitra vanas (sacred forests), theme parks, bio-

diversity parks for ecological education along with

playgrounds and walking trails.

2.3.6. Other initiatives

In 2008 Government of Karnataka established the

Western Ghats Task Force to advise government on

protection and other issues concerning the Western

Ghats of Karnataka. The agency is playing an im-

portant role in undertaking studies, fostering inter-

institutional coordination and creating awareness

among citizens on environmental conservation

through workshops and symposia. It also provides

recognition to people who made outstanding contri-

butions towards the protection and conservation of

forest and environment.

In the same year government also constituted the Bio-

Fuel Task Force to develop a policy and strategy pro-

moting the utilisation of bio-fuel, so as to mitigate

global warming and reduce dependence on fossil

fuels. Bio-fuel plantations have been raised to an extent

exceeding 4,000 ha.

Back in 2002, the Lake Development Authority (LDA)

has been created for protection and development of

lakes. Water bodies are under threat by encroachments

of tank beds, infiltration with untreated sewage and

dumping of garbage. Efforts to restore, recharge and

beautify them through public-private partnership initia-

tives in line with adopted policy lack legal backing and

have run into litigations. Large lakes outside Bangalore

are also requiring attention.

‘Krishi Aranya Protsah Yojane’ is a new scheme for

farmers for planting multipurpose species and incentiv-

ising their protection for three years. Barring some ex-

ceptions, INR 10, 15 and 20 per seedling are provided

for surviving plants at the end of the first, second and

third year for a maximum of 400 seedlings per hectare.

Under the ‘Maguge Ondu Mara – Shalege Ondu Vana’

scheme saplings are provided to schools and students.

3.8 lakh seedlings had been distributed to students of

2,659 schools until December 2011. Around 11 lakh

seedlings will be raised under the scheme for next year.

A unique programme for development of daivi vanas

(forests dedicated to God) on 100 hectares in each of

the 30 districts has been initiated. On forest areas se-

lected tree species of religious significance are planted

that are either native or attributed with religious or

medicinal importance. To further the promotion of

these species it is proposed to establish nurseries in

Table 9: Accomplishments under ‘Greening of Urban Areas’

Year Area in ha

2008-09 465

2009-10 601

2010-11 1180

Adapted from Department of Planning, Programme Monitoring and Statistics (2012). Economic Survey 2011-12


33

each daivi vana for the distribution of seedlings to visi-

tors.

India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change

(NAPCC) places special attention on forestry through

the National Mission for Green India. The mission aims

are to respond to climate change by a combination of

adaptation and mitigation measures. These include ex-

panding afforestation to 20 million ha within ten years,

increasing the greenhouse gas (GHG) sequestration

potential of the India’s forests to 6.35% of annual GHG

emissions and to enhance resilience of forests and eco-

systems.

2.3.7. Forest education and training

Personnel of the Indian Forest Service (IFS), State Forest

Service and range forest officers are trained in institu-

tions of the central government. Karnataka has training

facilities for protection personnel at Kushalnagar in Ko-

dagu and Tattihalla in Uttara Kannada district. Orienta-

tion training for social forestry is provided at Gungara-

ghatti near Dharwad and Kadugodi near Bangalore.

While training in JFPM is inbuilt into the scheme, train-

ing in wildlife and zoo management is provided by

Wildlife Institute of India at Dehradun. Training in me-

dicinal plants and their use in the traditional cures is of-

fered by Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health

Traditions (FRLHT), Bangalore. Awareness training for

students and the general public in wildlife and biodi-

versity is provided in nature camps in selected national

parks and sanctuaries in the state. The University of Ag-

ricultural Sciences (UAS) at Dharwad and Bangalore es-

tablished Forest Colleges at Sirsi and Ponnampet,

where degree and postgraduate courses in forestry are

offered. These colleges also carry out research and ex-

tension work in agro- and social forestry.

2.3.8. Research

Karnataka has specialised research institutes compris-

ing of the Institute of Wood Science & Technology

(IWST) and the Indian Plywood Industries Research &

Training Institute (IPIRTI) located at Bangalore. Further

KFD has a Research Wing with regional research cen-

tres which undertake research in raising and manage-

ment of tree crops, genetic improvement and suitability

of species in respect of agro-climatic conditions. Forest-

ry colleges carry out research in forestry practices, so-

cial and farm forestry related topics at both of its cam-

puses. The Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore

has a research wings focusing on environmental and

biological sciences. This is complemented by applied

research in forestry and other fields of environment by

Environmental Management & Policy Research Insti-

tute (EMPRI) at Bangalore.

2.4. COMMERCIAL UTILISATION

2.4.1. Forest produce

Both major forest produce as well as non-timber forest

products (NTFPs) contribute to meeting the growing

societal demands (refer Table 10). The sector also con-

tributes significantly to the state exchequer. The total

revenue of KFD during 2010-11 is INR 93 crore (refer

Table 11). Karnataka ranked third in India in terms of

fuel wood value in 2007-08. Central Statistics Organisa-

tion estimated that wood and minor forestry products

contributed INR 7,230 core to Karnataka’s economy

when processing and value addition is considered (re-

fer Table 12).

Table 10: Forest produce in 2010-11

Products Quantity Apr. – Dec. 2010

Major produces

Rose wood 2,848 m3

Teak wood 1,072 m3

Sawn timber 593 m3

Other kinds of timber 19,826 m3

Eucalyptus 947 m3

Pulpwood 20,387 m3

Softwood 1,181 m3

Round poles 8,826 m3

Firewood 82,702 m3

Sandalwood 1,348 m3

Bamboo 98,349 m3

Canes 150,480 m3

Total 388,559 m3

Non-timber forest products

Beedi leaves 8.5 Mt

Honey 55.1 Mt

Wax 2.2 Mt

Fruits 737.0 Mt

Kappe huli 524.0 Mt

Kasaga 8.0 Mt

Seegekai 44.4 Mt

Halmaddi 187.2 Mt

Cashew 9.9 Mt

Alaekai 136.7 Mt

Rampatre 10.1 Mt

Catehili 8.0 Mt

Suragi hoovu 22.7 Mt

Uppigehuli 613.2 Mt

Tamrind 71.9 Mt

Ganapekai 4.9 Mt

Muruganahuli 79.0 Mt

Amsole 29.0 Mt

Dupadarala 2.0 Mt

Antuvalakai 210.5 Mt

Maradapachi 1.5 Mt

Other seeds 2.0 Mt

Others 174.7 Mt

Total 2,942.5 Mt

Adapted from Karnataka Forest Department, Annual Report 2010-11


34

2.4.2. Forest corporations

Karnataka Forest Development Corporation Ltd.

In order to put degraded forestland into productive

use, commercially viable plantations of rubber, euca-

lyptus, acacia, teak bamboo, tamarind and casuarina

have been raised by Karnataka Forest Development

Corporation Limited (KFDC) on nearly 50,000 ha of

forest land. Pulpwood and rubber latex are sold to in-

dustries. The benefits of these plantations include rev-

enue generation as well as reclamation of wastelands

and their conversion into productive assets. The reve-

nue realised in 2010-11 was INR 65 crore.

Karnataka Cashew Development Corporation Ltd.

In order to maintain cashew plantations of KFD and to

promote the development of other cashew plantations,

the Karnataka Cashew Development Corporation Lim-

ited (KCDC), Mangalore was established. It manages

25,658 ha of forestland and raises new plantations of

high yielding varieties, maintains older plantations,

promotes plantations on farmland and sells grafted

seedlings of high yielding varieties. These plantations

have been successful in arresting land degradation,

generating employment and developing a robust

economy down the line.

Karnataka State Forest Industries Corporation Ltd.

One of the key objectives of Karnataka State Forest In-

dustries Corporation Limited (KSFIC) is to eliminate the

role of forest contractors in logging. Other responsibili-

ties comprise exploitation and processing of forest pro-

duce, marketing of finished products, promotion of

new forest industries and the creation of employment

in the state forest industries sector. There are 64 fire-

wood depots under its control which supply fuel wood

to the public for domestic purposes at reasonable pric-

es. Logging operations seek to salvage and extract

timber and firewood by reducing damage to standing

crop and regeneration. In 2010-11, about 21,620 m3 of

timber, 45,233 m3

of firewood, 70,583 tons of poles

and 36,613 tons of pulpwood have been extracted.

2.4.3. Wood based industries

Wood based industries such as saw mills, plywood

manufacturers and veneer mills are contributing to in-

come generation and employment. They acquire wood

from government as well as imports from other states

and foreign countries. The Supreme Court in 1996 di-

rected GoK to constitute an expert committee to assess

the sustainable capacity of forest produce and wood

based industries. The committee found that there are

3,045 licensed wood based industries in the state, of

which 93% are functioning. The overall installed capac-

ity of 23.37 lakh m3/a is utilised on average to only 47%

(refer Table 14).

2.5. CONSERVATION

The state has five national parks and 24 wildlife sanc-

tuaries covering 6,794 km2 of forest areas managed by

the Wildlife Wing of KFD (refer Table 15). Activities

undertaken include habitat improvement, prevention

Table 11: Revenue of forest produce (2010-11)

Forest produce Revenue in lakh INR/a

Timber 6,649

Sandalwood 453

Firewood 1,372

Bamboo 311

Cane 48

Minor forest produce 420

Total 9,255


Table 12: Estimated output value of forest products at current prices in 2007-08 in INR core/a

Produce Karnataka India

Industrial wood 2,740 43,810

Fuel wood 4,164 40,556

Minor forest produce 326 11,974

Total 7,230 96,340

Adapted from Central Statistics Organisation, 2010

Figure 4: Firewood transport in Magadi, Bangalore district Table 13: Plantations raised by KFDC in hectare

Type 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11

Pulpwood 1,431 1,287 1,262 1,631

Rubber 273 231 249 250

Total 1,704 1,518 1,511 1,881

Adapted from Karnataka Forest Department. Annual Report 2010-11


35

of poaching, eco-development and reduction of man-

animal conflicts as well as education, training and re-

search.

The forests bordering Tamil Nadu and Kerala are in-

cluded in Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Since these areas

receive total protection, they are repositories of native

biodiversity. However, there are weak links in the pro-

tection of the natural succession of these forest. Such

weak links include tribal settlements, grazing of village

cattle bordering on these areas, ground fires, clandes-

tine collection of NTFP, smuggling of valuable trees

and poaching of animals for meat and pelt. Also fires

affect bamboos which provide shelter to wildlife and

fodder to herbivores. Yet protected areas are compara-

tively free from human interference. The increasing in-

flux of tourists outside the core zone is a cause for con-

cern. Militant Naxalites taking shelter in protected areas

and the recent deployment of special police in the ev-

ergreen zone of Chikkamagalur and Shimoga causes

disturbances in the habitat.

Management plans for improving the habitats of wild-

life in protected areas have been drawn up in recent

years. National parks are divided into a core zone, a

tourism zone and outer zone for differential treatment.

Protection personnel, communication systems, vehicles

and other equipment are inadequate for prevention of

poaching and offences, control of unauthorised vehi-

cles and cattle ingress. Continuous administrative pre-

paredness is needed for prevention of epidemics like

rinderpest, anthrax, foot and mouth disease etc. Tour-

ism zones of protected areas such as Bandipur, Biligiri-

Rangaswamy Temple (BRT) Hills and Nagarhole are

over-visited. Many resorts have come up close to Ban-

dipur to cash in on the rising popularity of wildlife tour-

ism. There is inadequate coordination between tourist

operators and wildlife administration. State and na-

tional highways passing through protected areas have

also attracted criticism in view of night traffic which has

been banned on the highway through Bandipur Na-

tional Park. A firm policy for protection of wildlife cross-

ing roads is yet to be evolved.

The state has initiated several flagship projects for wild-

life conservation. Under the centrally funded ‘Project

Elephant’, the Mysore Elephant Reserve is created to

provide protection of habitat to the state’s nearly 5,900

elephants in an area spanning 6,725 km2 covering

parts of Bangalore Urban, Bangalore Rural, Chamara-

janagar, Mysore, Kodagu and Hassan districts. Also

funded by Government of India (GoI) is the Nilgiri Bio-

sphere Reserve which covers part of Nagarhole Na-

tional Park, Bandipur National Park and Chamarajana-

gar Wildlife Division. A Butterfly Park of international

standard opened for visitors in 2006 at Bannerghatta

Biological Park under the auspices of the Zoo Authority

Table 14: Forest produce consumption by wood based industries in 1997

Particulars Sawmills Plywood Veener mills Total

Industries 2,972 48 25 3,045

Operating thereof 2,770 48 25 2,843

Installed capacity in lakh m3/a 19.53 2.71 1.13 23.37

Timber sawn lakh m3/a 9.01 1.50 0.53 11.04

From government thereof 1.65 0.12 0.04 1.09

From private parties thereof 6.44 0.98 0.39 7.80

From other states 0.49 0.35 0.004 0.85

From other countries 0.43 0.06 0.09 0.58

Actual utilisation 46% 55% 47% 47%

Adapted from State Expert Committee (2011). Wood availability assessment report for establishment of wood based industries in the state of Karnataka

Figure 5: National parks and wildlife sanctuaries


36

of Karnataka with major funding from GoI. Project

Tiger is a long-standing programme which helped to

improve the tiger population in the state.

2.6. CHALLENGES

2.6.1. Diversion of forestlands

Being public property, forest areas are considered as

first target for development schemes. In the early years

post independence, the food scarcity led to the ‘grow

more food campaign’, when arable forests were re-

leased for marginal agriculture. The five-year plans

aimed at expanding irrigation, electricity, mining, im-

proving railways, communication and promoting in-

dustries. Forests were sacrificed for large reservoirs,

command areas, rehabilitation of displaced families,

transmission lines, mines, townships, industries etc. The

trend still continues though lot of restraint is now exer-

cised after enactment of the Forest Conservation Act,

1980 and the intervention of Supreme Court since

1996. Table 16 presents forest areas lost since 1980.

After 1980 the pattern of releases of forestland for non-

forestry uses changed. The act provided for compensa-

tory afforestation of equal extents of non-forest lands

at the cost of the user agency. A system of leasing ra-

ther than converting forestland was introduced. This

resulted in extents remaining unchanged while leased

lands lost original forest cover replaced by mines,

townships, transmission lines, water and gas pipes,

wind energy farms, airports, industries and roads.

Guidelines under the Forest Conservation Act provide

for mandatory payments for compensatory afforesta-

tion. While this appears adequate, in reality non-forest

lands available for such afforestation are fragmented

and degraded revenue or private wastelands under

threat of encroachment and burdened with privileges.

Such afforestation, therefore, can only add to existing

open forests which do not contribute adequately to an

increase in the tree cover.

A Supreme Court order of 1995 directed that user

agencies need to pay an additional amount per ha of

diverted forestland as net present value with effect of

November 2002. The Supreme Court monitors the use

of these funds, which seem to be in excess of INR

10,000 crore. In April 2009 the release of a portion of

this amount was ordered for forest improvement. This

happened under control of State Authority for Com-

pensatory Afforestation Management and Planning

(CAMPA) which was constituted for the management

of the money collected. In 2009 Ministry of Environ-

ment and Forests (MoEF), issued guidelines for the uti-

lisation of CAMPA funds at state level. At the same time

MoEF also notified revised compensation levels,

Table 15: Sanctuaries

Sanctuaries Extent in km2

1. Adichunchanagiri Peacock Sunctuary 0.8

2. Arabithittu Wildlife Sanctuary 13.5

3. Attiveri Wildlife Sanctuary 2.2

4. BRT Wildlife Sanctuary 539.5

5. Badhra Wildlife Sanctuary 492.5

6. Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary 181.3

7. Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary 527.0

8. Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary 475.0

9. Doraji Bear Sanctuary 55.9

10. Ghataprabha Wildlife Sanctuary 29.8

11. Gudavi Bird Sanctuary 0.7

12. Melukote Wildlife Sanctuary 49.8

13. Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary 247.00

14. Nugu Wildlife Sanctuary 30.3

15. Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary 102.6

16. Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary 0.7

17. Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary 119.0

18. Sharavathi Wildlife Sanctuary 431.2

19. Shettihalli Wildlife Sanctuary 395.6

20. Someshwarra Wildlife Sanctuary 88.4

21. Thalakaveri Wildlife Sanctuary 105.6

22. Bhimgad Wildlife Sanctuary 131.7

23. Rangayyanadurga Four-Horned Ante-lope Sanctuary

77.2

24. Chincholi Wildlife Sanctuary 134.9

Total sancuaries 4,234

National parks

1. Anshi National Park 339.9

2. Bandipur National Park 872.3

3. Bannerghatta National Park 104.3

4. Kudremukh National Park 600.3

5. Nagarhole National Park 643.4

Total national parks 2,560

Total sanctuaries and national parks 6,794


Figure 6: Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary in Mandya district


37

ranging between INR 4.38 and 10.43 lakh per ha de-

pending on the forest type (three categories are speci-

fied) and the eco-class of which six types have been de-

fined. The share of CAMPA fund released to Karnataka

is INR 300 crore to be used over five years starting from

2010.

The case of mining

Large deposits of iron-ore and manganese are found in

forest areas. Many leases have not been renewed after

notification of the Forest Conservation Act, 1980. The

latest closure is the lease of Kudremukh Iron Ore Com-

pany Limited in 2005. 103 mining leases in forest areas

remained operational, covering 7,363 hectares, the

majority of which is in Bellary and Chitradurga districts.

The movement of heavy machinery, blasting, power

drilling, excavation, benching and dumping of tailings

are responsible for destabilising soils, slopes and mas-

sive ingresses into watercourses. Environmental dam-

age is significantly enlarged because of the fact that

conditions stipulated for soil and moisture conserva-

tion, rehabilitation of mined areas and planting of sta-

bilising vegetation were inadequately followed. Mine

positioned higher on the ridges and upper slope of hills

cause more damage to flora and fauna not only in

leased areas but also downhills, in watercourses and

reservoirs. Large-scale mining of iron ore has caused

extensive damage of forests in the hills of Sandur and

Hospet forests.

A recent macro level environmental impact assessment

(EIA) of Bellary conducted on the order of the Supreme

Court found that between 2000 and 2011, 8.9 km2 of

forest area has been converted while mining impacted

an area of 43.4 km2, spreading significantly beyond

lease boundaries. As per KFD, 82 leases, covering a to-

tal extent of 6,776 ha exist in forest areas of Bellary,

Sandur and Hospet. Mining is in progress in 66 mine

leases while another 16 cases are under consideration.

9.9% of forest cover has already been lost due to exist-

Table 16: Approved forestland diversions in Karnataka

Nature of project 1980 to March 2010 2010-2011 Total

Cases Extent in ha Cases Extent in ha Cases Extent in ha

Irrigation 69 1,970.6 0 0 69 1,970.6

Hydro and wind power 57 6,563.9 1 47.7 58 6,611.6

Mining and quarrying 114 9,075.0 2 10.9 116 9,085.9

Roads 29 149.0 2 5.2 31 154.2

Railway lines 7 397.0 0 0 7 397.0

Transmission lines 81 1,020.2 1 3.0 82 1,023.3

Others 159 8,081.7 2 1.3 161 8,083.0

Total 516 27,257 8 68.25 524 27,326

Adapted from Karnataka Forest Department, Annual Report 2010-11

Table 17: Status of compensatory afforestation in Karnataka

Compensatory afforestation land Area in ha

Stipulated extent 25,216

Implemented thereof 23,490

Balance 5,659


Intervention of the Supreme Court

The intervention of Supreme court of India in forestry

matters came as great saviour to the precious ecosystems

of the country. The order pronounced by the court in

Godavarman’s case on December 12, 1996 is a milestone

in the history of Forestry and Environmental

Conservation. It extended the scope of Forest

Conservation Act, giving an ecological dimension to the

meaning of the word ‘forest’ in the law. Several interim

applications have been filed from across the county

relating to forestry and wildlife issues. Important

judgements in respect of forestry of Karnataka include:

Closure of Kudremukh iron ore mines: An iron ore lease

was given to Kudremukh Iron Ore Company Limited, a

public sector unit (PSU), in a forest area which

subsequently became an enclosure to the Kudremukh

National Park. A public interest litigation (PIL) was filed

requesting closure of the company as it was causing

damage to the sensitive wildlife habitat in evergreen

forests of the Western Ghats. The court finally ordered

the closure of the mines.

Encroachment of coffee planters: Several coffee planters

have encroached semi-ever green forest area in

Chikkamagalur district, systematically removing overhead

trees and clearing ground flora. On an application, the

court ordered for removal of encroachment in Tatkola

Reserve Forest and the survey of other areas, which is in

progress.

Bellary mining cases: Taking cognisance in a petition

alleging rampant encroachment and unscientific mining

leading to environmental deterioration in Bellary district,

the Supreme Court ordered suspension of all mining in

the districts on August 5, 2011. The court further

extended the order of suspension to mining areas of

Tumkur and Chitradurga districts. The court may review

its orders after assessment and submission of a

reclamation and rehabilitation plan pertaining to mining

areas.


38

ing mines here. A comparison of floral diversity shows

that in Sandur’s disturbed areas 168 species were

found while undisturbed areas in the same region pro-

vided habitat for 186 species. In Hospet the contrast

was even starker: 84 species were identified in dis-

turbed areas against 106 in undisturbed areas. The re-

duction in floral diversity is likely to impact the forest

structure and habitat characteristics and lead to a de-

cline in habitat quality for wildlife dependent on these

ecosystems. The study also found that bunds of water

bodies had been breached due to heavy silt load while

small streams draining into the watershed have been

altered. Fish production has reduced due to habitat

destruction, runoff from the mines and increased water

pollution. Environmental impact of mining is discussed

in detail in Chapter 9: Mining and Quarrying.

2.6.2. Forest encroachments

The loss of forests due to encroachments has a long

history. Even before the birth of the forest administra-

tion, there was a system of shifting cultivation practiced

mainly by tribals. With a view to regulate the loss of

forest cover, certain administrative measures were tak-

en such as leases (one-year, periodic), clearance of for-

est strips around cultivated lands for crop protection

from wild animals, grants for fruit cultivation, permits

for coffee and cardamom cultivation etc. Many of them

later became forest encroachments, either due to non-

renewal of leases or breach of conditions of the lease

or conditions imposed by the Forest Conservation Act.

As detailed in Table 18, around 17,500 ha of for-

estland are encroached. Whether poor migrants, rich

or influential, nearly all strata of society have en-

croached forestland.

2.6.3. Man-animal conflict

Karnataka is facing significant incidence of man-animal

conflicts. Conflicts occur mostly with wild elephants,

panthers and wild boars. The degradation and destruc-

tion of habitat leads animals to stray into border and

surrounding areas, often creating havoc in plantations

and human habitations. Elephants raid crops, occa-

sionally trampling humans causing injury or even

death. Panthers kill cattle frequently and occasionally

injure humans. Wild boars also destroy crops. KFD is

seeking to prevent such incidents by excavating ele-

phant proof trenches along the boundaries of forests

and through the erection of (solar) electric fences

around critical areas. Compensation is also paid by KFD

for loss of crops, injuries or loss of life (refer Table 19).

2.6.4. Forest degradation, fire and soil erosion

The two primary factors responsible for degradation of

forests are the excessive (and mostly unrecorded) re-

Table 18: Status of forest encroachment in Karnataka

Encroachment prior to April 27, 1978 Area in ha

Area encroached 19,153.6

Area approved 14,536.9

Regularised by authorities 4,770.0

Regularisation rejected 4,410.8

Decision pending 5,351.8

Encroachments since April 27, 1978

Area encroached 101,854.4

Encroachment evicted 42,154.6

Encroachments to be evicted 59,699.9

Remaining encroachment 17,545.3

Adapted from Karnataka Forest Department (2010). Statistical Wing. Internal records

Table 19: Damage cases in Karnataka

Kind of damage 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11

Crop damage 27,693 15,716 33,555

Cattle killed 674 571 751

Human Injury 204 157 211

Permanent disability 2 4 5

Death 40 33 44

Loss of property 3 4 22

Total cases 28,560 16,425 34,588

Total compensation paid in INR lakh

46.7 41.2 94.9

Adapted from Karnataka Forest Department, Annual Report 2008-09, 2009-10, 2010-11

Jumbos hold Mysore hostage, leave 1 dead

The citizens of the Royal City were running helter skelter

on Wednesday when two elephants strayed from the

Muttati forest and went on a rampage, leaving one

person dead and several injured. Three cows perished and

many vehicles were damaged before one of the elephants

was tranquillised in the morning and the other sedated

just before nightfall. Three persons have been

hospitalised.

Adapted from Times of India, June 8, 2011

Figure 7: A wild elephant in Mysore city — Adapted from http://reviews.in.88db.com


39

moval of firewood and small timber and uncontrolled

grazing of large numbers of cattle. Other factors such

as fire and soil erosion are important but subsidiary to

the primary factors and will largely be under control

once primary factors are addressed. Fires spread to sur-

rounding forests, destroying the natural regeneration

and exposing the topsoil. Rains following the fire sea-

son cause soil wash, gullies and leaching of humus, nu-

trients and accelerate erosion. Rushing rainwater carry-

ing silt causes erosion along watercourses, silting of

reservoirs, floods and destruction of life, crops, and

property downstream. Nearly 150,000 families have

settled in encroached forestlands. In addition to their

requirements for fuel, fodder, poles, fencing, settlers

generally clear their surrounding for self-protection

from fire and wildlife.

2.6.5. Invasion of weeds

According to Umashankar R. et al. (2009), Strobilan-

thus aspera, Desmodium pulchella, Indigofera sp., wild

ginger, Curcuma sp., Murraya coenigii, Helictris isora,

Cassia tora and Holerrhena antidysentrica are some of

the species that formed the native ground vegetation

in the forest of the Western Ghats in the early 20th

cen-

tury. Lantana camera, Eupatorim odoratum and Par-

thenium sp. are new entrants invading the forest floor

and causing obstruction to natural regeneration of in-

digenous species. Efforts to manage weeds through

manual, biological, chemical and physical means have

not been successful. Research to find extensive eco-

nomic uses for these weeds may help in finding solu-

tions to the problem.

2.6.6. Forest offences

Forest offences such as illicit felling of trees, the remov-

al of wood and NTFP, hunting and poaching of wild

birds and animals for meat, bones, tusks and pelt take

place clandestinely in all forest areas including protect-

ed areas (refer Table 20). The existing protective per-

sonnel including anti-smuggling outfits are clearly in-

adequate to cope with the magnitude of responsibili-

ties entrusted. KFD is now recruiting frontline person-

nel periodically to fill remaining vacancies.

2.6.7. Tribal welfare

6.6% of Karnataka’s population belong to scheduled

tribes. Those living in forests are dependent on forest

labour and forest produce for their livelihood. To pro-

mote income generation among these, KFD dedicates

a portion of its budget to tribal sub-plans. The state has

21 large multipurpose societies (LAMPs) which are al-

lowed to collect and market NTFP from forests allotted

to them at a token fee of INR 100 per annum (irrespec-

tive of the extent) with a view to augment income of

forest tribes and improve their standards of living.

There are two state assisted corporations named after

Dr. Ambedkar and Devraj Urs respectively who are

concerned with the welfare of tribal communities. Vo-

cational training, housing and subsidised hostels,

schooling, water supply, sanitation, health care, schol-

arships etc. are also provided by Department of Social

Welfare. Nevertheless, lopping of trees and setting

ground fires for easy collection of NTFP are still com-

mon practices detrimental to the growth and regener-

ation of desirable species. Further there are a large

number of bamboo weavers’ societies who obtain

bamboo at concessional rates from KFD. As per the

Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest Dwellers

Act, 2006 the rights of forest dwellers are being settled

by the government by allotting titles (hakkupatra).

Those willing to move out of protected areas are given

rehabilitation packages of INR 10 lakh per family.

3. BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is the variability among living organisms

within and between species and ecosystem. Karnataka

is a repository of rich biodiversity at the level of gene,

species and ecosystem. The Western Ghats region,

which extends well beyond Karnataka, is recognised as

one of the 25 biodiversity hotspots of the world and

accounts for 4,000 known species of flowering plants.

Figure 8: Bamboo is a scarce resource

Table 20: Trends of detected forest offences

Nature of offence 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11

Wildlife offences 36 48 112

Sandal wood offences 138 175 97

Other offences 12,434 14,834 8,181

Total 12,572 15,009 8,278

Adapted from Karnataka Forest Department. Annual Report 2008-09, 2009-10, 2010-11


40

The biodiversity of Karnataka as a state however is es-

timated to have more than 1.2 lakh known species in-

cluding 4,500 flowering plants, 800 fishes, 600 birds,

160 reptiles, 120 mammals and 1,493 medicinal plants.

Some new species have been reported from Karnataka

viz. Semecarpus kathalekanensis, spider (Ornithoctonus

gadgilli) and fresh water fish (Parabatasio sharavaten-

sis). Hubbardia leptaneuron – a grass species found

earlier at the Jog Falls – is reported to have gone ex-

tinct. Karnataka has a wide variety of ecosystems name-

ly forests, grasslands, marine, riverine, pond, brackish

water and anthropogenic.

A study of Bawa K.S. et al. (2007) funded by the Critical

Ecosystem Partnership Fund made an exhaustive anal-

ysis of biodiversity of the Western Ghats. It concludes

that 50% of its biodiversity is present in Karnataka. It

further found that 332 globally threatened species oc-

cur in the Western Ghats, comprising of 229 plant spe-

cies, 31 mammals, 15 bird species, 52 amphibians, four

reptiles and one fish species. 55 of these are critically

endangered, 148 endangered and 129 are vulnerable.

Given the relevance of this work it has been referred to

extensively in the following discussion.

3.1. FLORA

Nair and Daniel (1986) estimated that there are 4,000

species of flowering plants in the Western Ghats of

which about 1,500 are endemic. Approximately 63% of

India’s woody evergreen taxa are endemic to the

Western Ghats according to Johnsingh (2001). Daniels

(2001) states that 352 of the 650 tree species found in

the Western Ghats are endemic. Tree genera endemic

to the Western Ghats include Blepharistemma, Erino-

carpus, Meteromyrtus, Otenophelium, Poeciloneuron,

and Pseudoglochidion. Other plant genera endemic to

the Western Ghats include Adenoon, Griffithella, Wil-

lisia, Meineckia, Baeolepis, Nanothamnus, Wagatea,

Campbellia, and Calacanthus (Nair, 1991). The grass

family Gramineae (Poaceae) has the highest number of

endemic genera and the genus Nilgirianthus has 20

endemic species across all genera in this family (Nair,

1991).

Figure 9: The world’s biodiversity hotspots — Adapted from www.nicholas.duke.edu/people/faculty/pimm/keywest/hotspot.php accessed May 29, 2012

Figure 10: Biodiversity hot spots in the Western Ghats — Adapted from Bawa K.S. et al. (2007)

http://www.nicholas.duke.edu/people/faculty/pimm/keywest/hotspot.php


41

3.2. FAUNA

The Western Ghats supports a diverse fauna. Among

the vertebrates, birds represent the largest number of

known species (508 species), followed by fishes (218),

reptiles (157), mammals (137), and amphibians (126).

Many species are endemic to the Western Ghats re-

gion. The greatest number of endemics is found

among the amphibians (78%) followed by reptiles

(62%), fish (53%), mammals (12%), and birds (4%).

3.2.1. Insects

Much of the research on invertebrates in the Western

Ghats has focused on butterflies and ants. Very little is

known about other groups of insects. In addition,

much of the research is of a taxonomic nature; very

few studies address questions of ecology and biodiver-

sity (Daniels, 2001). Butterflies in the Western Ghats be-

long to five families, 166 genera, and 330 species, of

which 37 species are endemic (Gaonkar, 1996). The

southern Western Ghats extending from Agasthyama-

lai to the Palghat Gap holds the highest diversity of

butterfly species with the most number of endemics

(Gaonkar, 1996). Goa and Uttara Kannada are other

regions within the Western Ghats with high butterfly

diversity. According to a recent study, there are at least

200 species of spiders in the Western Ghats. The domi-

nant families are Argyopidae, Salticidae, Thomisidae,

Oxyopidae, Lyniphidae, and Hersilidae (Rajashekhar

and Raghavendra, 2001 cited by Daniels, 2001). Stud-

ies have indicated that there has been a decline in the

diversity of aquatic insects in some areas of the West-

ern Ghats due to anthropogenic interference leading

to habitat loss and pollution (Daniels, 2001).

3.2.2. Fishes

Daniels (2001) reports 218 species of fishes from pri-

mary and secondary freshwaters in the Western Ghats,

of which 116 (53% representing 51 genera) are en-

demic to the region. Streams and rivers in the southern

parts tend to support greater diversity than those in the

north and east-flowing streams and rivers have richer

fish faunas than west-flowing ones. High levels of en-

demism are also associated with the ichthyofauna of

the southern Western Ghats, which includes several

endemic genera (Brachydanio, Lepidopygopsis, Bha-

vania, Travancoria, Horabagrus,Horaglanis, Horaich-

thys). The highest diversity of freshwater fishes is in

deep, slow-moving waters. The species composition of

many freshwater fish assemblages has been extensive-

ly modified by the introduction of invasive alien spe-

cies, which are now naturalised. The distribution of

many species is also adversely affected by the construc-

tion of dams to create artificial lakes and reservoirs.

3.2.3. Amphibians

Approximately 126 species of amphibians from 24

genera are known from the region, with new species

being frequently added to the list (Daniels, 2001). The

Western Ghats has the highest levels of amphibian en-

demicity in India. The largest family is Ranidae (49 spe-

cies) followed by Rhacophoridae (30 species). The

Western Ghats also harbour a remarkable number of

caecilians (families Ichthyophidae and Caeciliidae) – 16

species, all of them endemic to the region. Distribution

within the region varies from extremely widespread

e.g. black-spined toad (Bufo melanostictus), skittering

frog (Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis), Indian bullfrog (Hop-

lobatrachus tigerinus) to highly restricted e.g. Malabar

torrent toad (Ansonia ornata), Indirana gundia and Mi-

crixalus kottigeharensis (Nair, 1991 and Daniels, 1992).

3.2.4. Reptiles

Approximately 157 species of reptiles are reported

from the Western Ghats, representing 36 genera: Two

genera of turtles/tortoises, 14 genera of lizards, and 20

genera of snakes (Ishwar, unpublished information). Of

these, nearly 50% are endemic. Among the different

habitats of the Western Ghats, the evergreen forests

alone are known to support approximately 130 species

of reptiles. Certain groups of reptiles have a very high

proportion of endemics; for example, about 70% of the

uropeltid snakes are endemic to the Western Ghats.

Endemism is also high among lizards (65%). Many of

the rare and endemic reptiles are known only from

single locality records. A major challenge to conserva-

tion efforts in this region is the lack of a complete un-

derstanding of the distributional patterns, habitat re-

quirements, and conservation status of reptiles in the

Western Ghats.

3.2.5. Birds

The status and distributions of bird species in the West-

ern Ghats is relatively well known. A total of 508 spe-

cies have been recorded in the region, including 324

resident species (64%). This figure also includes 144

(28%) species of aquatic birds, many of them from the

western coastline. The central parts of the region (es-

pecially Uttara Kannada district) harbours the highest

diversity of bird species. Due to the interspersion and

Figure 11: Where have all the sparrows gone? — Some are found at Bangalore airport now


42

juxtaposition of different habitat types in secondary

and disturbed evergreen and moist deciduous forests,

these forests have the highest number of bird species

including many habitat generalists and migrants in ad-

dition to resident and endemic species. 16 species are

endemic to the Western Ghats region (Daniels, 2001),

most of them occurring in the areas southwards of

Goa. Many of the endemics are obligates of evergreen

forests and shola-grassland systems.

3.2.6. Mammals

Of the 137 species of mammals recorded in the West-

ern Ghats, the largest representation is from the orders

Chiroptera (41 species), Rodentia (27 species) and In-

sectivora (11 species). Of the 127 species, 14 are en-

demic (Daniels, 2001) and three are listed as critically

endangered. One of the critically endangered species,

Wroughton’s free-tailed bat (Otomops wroughtonii), is

restricted to a single cave within the Western Ghats

and has been recently discovered in Cambodia and

north-eastern India (Walston and Bates, 2001 and

Thabah and Bates, 2002).

Wide-ranging and flagship mammal species such as

the tiger and elephant have attracted significant con-

servation efforts, both by the Indian government as

well as conservation NGOs, but relatively little is known

about the distribution and conservation status of the

smaller mammals, particularly small carnivores and ro-

dents. A total of seven species of mammals are endem-

ic to the southern Western Ghats and Sri Lanka as a

unit: The mountain shrew (Suncus montanus), slender

loris (Loris tardigradus), stripe-necked mongoose (Her-

pestes vitticollis), Sri Lankan giant squirrel or grizzled

giant squirrel (Ratufa macroura), Layard’s striped squir-

rel (Funambuluslayardi), dusky striped squirrel (Fu-

nambulus sublineatus), and the Travancore flying

squirrel (Petinomys fuscocapillus).

3.3. THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES

Critically endangered flora in Karnataka include ever-

green trees such as Dipterocarpus bourdilloni, Hopea

erosa and Hopea jacobi, Croton lawianus (a small tree)

and Pinnatella limbata (a moss). Other endangered

trees include Isonandra stocksii, Kingiodendron pinna-

tum, Maesa velutina, Myristica magnifica, Rapanea stri-

ata and Xylosma latifolium.

Endangered fauna in Karnataka includes the tiger, the

Indian elephant, the lion tailed macaque, the turtle and

the Indian wild dog dhole (Cuon alpinus). It also in-

cludes amphibians (Indirana brachytarsus, Microhyla

sholigari, Minervarya sahyadris, Nyctibatrachus aliciae,

Nyctibatrachus hussaini, Nyctibatrachus sanctipalustris,

Philautus charius, Philautus wynaadensis, Ramanella

mormorata and Rhacophorus lateralis), a toad (Bufo

beddomii) the Kolar leafnosed bat (Hipposideros hy-

pophyllus) and a mollusc (Pseudomulleria dalyi).

3.4. LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAME-WORK

3.4.1. Biological Diversity Act

The Biological Diversity Act, 2002, in short Biodiversity

Act, aims to promote conservation, sustainable use and

equitable sharing of benefits of India’s biodiversity re-

sources. With this in view, it provides for the establish-

ment of a National Biodiversity Authority, State Biodi-

Table 21: Species under threat in Karnataka

Domain Total species Key species under threat

Plants

330 under threat and 30 endangered including Artocarpushirsutus (hebbalasu), Coscinium fenestratum (maradarsina), Pterocarpus santalinus (raktha chandana), Persea marcrantha (gulmavu), Rau-volfia serpentina (sarpagandha) and Drosera indica (hula hiduka)

Medicinal plants 1,493 species of 808 genera and 108 families

Rauvolfia serpentina, Saraco asoca and Gloriosa superba

Birds More than 45 including the long billed vulture, the great Indian bustard, the lesser florican und the white backed vulture

Butterflies Over 300 species Some are endangered such as crimson rose, Danaid eggfly, cramer and Appias hippo

Fishes 300 freshwater species, 405 marine species

A total of 20 fish species have been reported to be on the verge of extinction, which includes Labeo fimbriatus (bloch), Gonoprok-topterus curmuca (Hamilton – Buchanan), Puntius carnaticus (jer-don) and Neolissochilus hexagonolepis (McClelland).

Reptiles More than 8 species including Indian python, olive ridley turtle and black pond turtle

Mammals More than 18 including blackbuck, gaur, tiger, sloth bear, elephant, lion tailed macaque, palm civet, nilgiri leaf monkey, fishing cat, Bengal fox, smooth Indian otter

Adapted from KBB (2008). Biological diversity conservation and development for survival; KBB (2010). Biodiversity of Karnataka: At a Glance


43

versity Boards and biodiversity management commit-

tees at the level of panchayats and municipalities.

3.4.2. Karnataka Biodiversity Board

Karnataka Biodiversity Board (KBB), established in

2003, is responsible for the implementation of the Bio-

diversity Act in the state. Through the intervention of

KBB 3,542 biodiversity management committees

(BMCs) were established until March 2011 to anchor

conservation, sustainable use and documentation of

biological diversity at local levels. Crucial in this pursuit

is the preparation of peoples’ biodiversity registers

(PBRs, refer section 3.5.1). KBB initiated the preparation

of a bio-diversity atlas and directs major efforts to the

establishment of dry zone biodiversity conservation

sites. Project areas of 100-200 ha have been demarcat-

ed in 13 dry districts. In these, there will be no harvest-

ing while fire protection, sowing of indigenous species,

soil and water conservation are ensured. This field in-

tervention is complemented with thorough documen-

tation of biodiversity so as to help the conservation of

dry zone forest species under threat due to their high

medicinal value. Actions taken or funded by KBB in-

clude:

Declaration of three areas as biodiversity heritage

sites. These comprise of Nallur Tamarind Grove, and

sites at GKVK Campus, Bangalore and Hogrekhan

in Chikkamagalur district. Two more sites at

Ambargudda in Shimoga district and Netrani Island

are under consideration. Also the Kali and

Agnashini estuaries were surveyed to assess their

eligibility to be proposed as biodiversity heritage

sites;

Proposal to declare ten tree species as heritage

trees;

Directing the declaration of seven inland fish

sanctuaries while nine more sanctuaries are in the

process of being recognised. Changes in fisheries

due to climatic changes remain to be studied;

Establishment of a herbarium and a botanical

museum of Western Ghats species;

Conducting studies such as on the ecological

carrying capacity of Uttara Kannada district, sacred

groves in coastal Karnataka and the Western Ghats

region and the riparian flora of Netravathi river

system in Dakshina Kannada district.

3.5. CONSERVATION

3.5.1. Peoples’ biodiversity registers

PBRs were first initiated in Karnataka in 1995 through

the Foundation for the Revitalisation of Local Health

Traditions (FRLHT). Between 1996 and 1998 Indian In-

stitute of Science (IISc), Bangalore coordinated the

preparation of 52 PBRs in eight states under the Biodi-

versity Conservation Prioritisation Programme. The Bio-

logical Diversity Act, 2002 made the preparation of

PBRs mandatory. KBB took the lead in establishing

3,542 biodiversity management committees (BMCs)

who are to prepare these and simultaenously devel-

oped guidelines for their preparation in collaboration

with Centre for Ecological Studies of IISc. The prepara-

tion of PBRs in consultation with gram panchayats is

well in progress. PBRs aim to build repositories for bio-

diversity information, medicinal properties and usage

of certain species at village level. They play a vital role

in enhancing local capacities for safeguarding and sus-

tainable use of natural resources. Until March 2011

some 213 of them had been prepared and the comple-

tion of another 25 is planned for 2012.

3.5.2. Medicinal plants

Medicinal plants are the key ingredients in traditional

medicines. They are essential for sustenance of tradi-

tional health systems and practices. Modern technolo-

gy and over-extraction of many species has resulted in

considerable depletion of their population and some

have become extinct. According to a study of the Bo-

tanical Survey of India, Karnataka has 3,924 plant spe-

cies belonging to 1,323 genera and 199 families in the

forests, of which 1,493 species are of medicinal value.

These belong to 808 genera and 108 families. They oc-

cur in different vegetation types across the Western

Ghats. It is estimated that 90% of the industrial re-

quirement of plant material is coming from forests.

Both the conservation of habitats and steps to enhance

production are essential to stop further degradation.

KFD initiated various programmes for herbs, shrubs

and trees associated with traditional medicines.

In Karnataka with the help of FRLHT, 13 medicinal

plant conservation areas and medicinal plant devel-

opment areas have been established and managed

with the help of local communities (refer Table 22). The

creation of conservation areas for medicinal plants has

to be supplemented with the creation of medicinal

Figure 12: A group of blackbuck — Threatened species in Karnataka


44

gardens, both in private and public sector lands to pre-

vent over-exploitation in the wild.

4. EMERGING INTERVENTION AREAS

Forest management

Forest management should shift from product to a

process and service oriented approach. To enhance

performance and accountability of KFD, vacancies (for-

est guards, foresters) need to be filled without delay.

There is also a need to rationalise the size of the beats

as at present some of these are unmanageable and

unwieldy. Field level personnel (forest guards, foresters

and range forest officers) should not only be well-

trained but also be provided with the facilities neces-

sary to perform their duties.

Forest cover and biodiversity conservation

The boundaries of forest areas need to be identified

on maps and in the field. Structures, trenches and

hedges are necessary to minimise human and cattle

intrusions;

Management units like blocks and compartments

should be described through GIS and remote

sensing for flora and fauna, for inputs and outputs,

cost and benefit through compulsory records in

print and on KFD’s website;

Updating of forestland records (in administration

the process is termed mutation) through better

coordination with Department of Revenue;

Strengthen measures to provide complete

protection to forests from biotic interferences like

smuggling, poaching, encroachment, over-grazing,

fire etc. Comprehensive measures will ensure

natural regeneration of forests requiring reduced

investment through artificial regeneration;

Reduce excessive removal of biomass from forests

by creating abundant biomass resource outside

forests through intensive agro-forestry. The notion

that fuel wood should come from forest must be

dispelled. Agro-forestry would reduce the pressure

on forests and at the same time help increasing the

tree cover and in improving the rural economy;

Regulate grazing of unproductive cattle in forest

areas by discouraging the rearing of unproductive

cattle and promotion of cattle improvement, stall-

Figure 13: Aloe vera — An important medicinal plant of Karnataka

Table 22: Medicinal plant conservation areas in Karnataka

Area Important medicinal plants

BRT Hills Decalepis hamiltonii, Gloriosa superba, Santalum album

Sandur Celastrus paniculatus, Pterocarpus san-talinus, Santalum album

Savanadurga Decalepis hamiltonii, Gloriosa superba, Santalum album

Karpakapalli Gardenia gummifera, Pterocarpus san-talinus, Santalum album

Talacauvery Cinnamomum sulphuratum, Nothopo-dytes nimmoniana, Persea macrantha

Subramanya Temple

Ampelocissus arnottiana, Persea macran-tha, Rauvolfia serpentina

Charmadi Curcuma pseudomontana, Persea macrantha, Rauvolfia serpentina

Devimane Calophyllum apetalum, Embelia ribes, Symplocos racemosa

Kudremukh Celastrus paniculatus, Dipterocarpus indi-cus, Persea macrantha

Kemmanagundi Cinnamomum sulphuratum, Gymnema montanum, Piper mullesua

Devaraya-nadurga

Decalepis hamiltonii, Pterocarpus santali-nus, Santalum album

Agumbe Calophyllum apetalum, Dipterocarpus in-dicus, Dysoxylum malabaricum, Garcinia indica

Kollur Saraca asoca, Canarium strictum, Nothopodytes nimmoniana, Persea macrantha

Adapted from Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions

Figure 14: Grazing cattle — Adapted from KFD, Hunsur 2009


45

feeding and improvements of fodder and gomal

land. Forestry projects need to incorporate a larger

component of agro-forestry and integrate it

appropriately with animal husbandry practices;

Increase crown density and habitats of the natural

forest ecosystem;

Suitable forest management by re-strategising and

incentivising the present concept of people’s

participation to enhance collaborative participation

and accrual of mutual benefits;

Abolish mining and quarrying in eco-sensitive

zones, protected areas and reserve forests. Mining

in any other forest area is to be rigorously

controlled. Proper safeguards need to be in place

against any adverse impact of mining;

Refuse permission for new hydropower projects

within protected areas and reserve forests;

Regulation of tourism in protected areas and

reserve forests to mitigate human and animal

conflicts;

Survey and documentation of biodiversity in the

forest and other ecosystems;

Research on the propagation and use of bio-

material;

In-situ and ex-situ conservation of rare, endangered

and threatened species;

Soil and moisture conservation measures.

Beyond forests

Promoting extensive farm forestry with market

support, liberalisation of rules and simplification of

procedures with regard to tree felling on private

lands under Karnataka Preservation of Trees Act;

Adopting an integrated approach for mitigating

human-elephant conflicts through improvement of

habitat, creation of physical barriers (elephant proof

trenches, solar electric fencing and maintenance of

these) as well as and psychological barriers. This

should be complemented with adding buffer zones

to habitats, regulating tourism and financial

compensation commensurate with crop damage;

Increasing investments, inputs and resources;

Greening of urban areas: Canal banks, road sides,

railway lines, industrial areas, gomals, public spaces,

gram thanas, schools, temples and public office

premises at large scale.

All measures listed form a part in the mitigation of and

adaptation to climate change.

Figure 15: Damage of forest fire — Adapted from KFD, Hunsur


46

47

CHAPTER 2

COASTAL ZONE

Chapter 2: Coastal Zone

48


49

CONTENTS

1. THE COASTAL SETTING ................................................................ 51

2. COASTAL ZONE REGULATION ................................................. 51

2.1. LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK ..................................... 51

2.2. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS ......................... 54

3. PRESSURES AND RESPONSES ...................................................... 55

3.1. POLLUTION ................................................................. 55

3.2. EROSION ...................................................................... 55 3.2.1. Littoral drift and erosion ............................ 55 3.2.2. Sand dunes ................................ .................. 55 3.2.3. Sea walls ................................ ....................... 56 3.2.4. Reefs ................................ ............................. 57

3.3. GROUND- AND SALINE WATER ............................. 57

3.4. ENCROACHMENT ...................................................... 57

3.5. RECLAMATION ........................................................... 58

3.6. FISHERIES ..................................................................... 58 3.6.1. Significance ................................ .................. 58 3.6.2. Institutional framework .............................. 59 3.6.3. Issues ................................ ............................ 59 3.6.4. Fresh water and estuarine fishery ............. 59 3.6.5. Monsoon fishery .......................................... 60 3.6.6. Brackish water aquaculture ....................... 60

3.7. SAND AND SHELL MINING ..................................... 60

3.8. BIODIVERSITY ............................................................. 61 3.8.1. Overview ................................ ...................... 61 3.8.2. The case of Netrani island .......................... 62 3.8.3. Conservation of sea turtles ........................ 62

3.9. TOURISM ...................................................................... 63

3.10. OTHER INTERVENTIONS .......................................... 63

4. EMERGING INTERVENTION AREAS ........................................... 63


50

TABLES

Table 1: Maritime taluks of Karnataka .................................................................................................................................................. 51 Table 2: CRZ violation cases as on May 30, 2011 ............................................................................................................................. 55 Table 3: Sea wall constructions in metres ........................................................................................................................................... 57 Table 4: Groundwater development .................................................................................................................................................... 57 Table 5: Fish production of Karnataka ................................................................................................................................................. 59 Table 6: Fisheries sector of Karnataka 2010-11 ................................................................................................................................. 59 Table 7: Substances banned in aquaculture by MPEDA ................................................................................................................ 60 Table 8: Lime shell and silica sand mining in coastal Karnataka in metric tons/a .................................................................. 61

FIGURES

Figure 1: Geomorphologic map of Karnataka’s coast .................................................................................................................... 52 Figure 2: Coastal zone management map of a part of Thannirbavi village ............................................................................. 53 Figure 3: Eroded dune face .................................................................................................................................................................... 56 Figure 4: A natural green wall ............................................................................................................................................................... 56 Figure 5: Erosion in Karnataka’s coast ................................................................................................................................................. 56 Figure 6: Typical coast with dune flora at Devbag .......................................................................................................................... 58 Figure 7: A natural mangrove ................................................................................................................................................................ 61 Figure 8: Destroyed mangroves ............................................................................................................................................................ 61 Figure 9: Semi evergreen forest atop Netrani island ....................................................................................................................... 62 Figure 10: Worship of deity Jatekeshwara ......................................................................................................................................... 62 Figure 11: Turtle breeding centre of KFD ........................................................................................................................................... 62 Figure 12: Sea turtle at Haldipur ............................................................................................................................................................ 62

2012-07-05%20Draft%2069CZ%20-%20Revision%20RMNS%20CFN%20GKM.doc#_Toc329944592




51

1. THE COASTAL SETTING

Coastal regions have always been on the forefront of

civilisation and been by far the most exploited geo-

morphic unit on Earth. Easy access and the abundance

of resources have never failed to attract human activi-

ties and settlements, leading to misuse and as well as

abuse.

Karnataka’s coastline stretches across nearly 300 kilo-

metres from Kerala in the south to Goa in the north

(see Figure 1). Coastal islands raise the state’s shoreline

to 320 km. The coastline is flanked by the moderately

unpolluted Arabian Sea in the west and a vast pictur-

esque Western Ghats in the east. Several ridges and

spurs of Western Ghats traverse this region and open

into the sea. It has difficult terrains full of rivers, creeks,

waterfalls, peaks and hill ranges. The coastal region

consists of two broad physical units, the plains and the

Western Ghats. The coastal plains comprise narrow

stretches of estuarine and marine plains of a width be-

tween 50 km and 80 km. The discussion in this chapter

focuses mostly on this area. The coast spans across

three districts and eight maritime taluks. Over the last

decade, Mangalore taluk has witnessed an increase in

population by 12% (refer Table 1).

The tropical monsoon climate covers the entire south

western coastal belt and adjoining areas. The climate in

this region is hot with heavy rainfall during monsoon

season, i.e. from June to September with an average

rainfall of 3,650 mm. Almost the entire annual rainfall

takes place in these four months in the coastal plains.

The soil is laterite followed by sand in the coast.

The coastal region represents highly dynamic ecosys-

tems. Both landmass and wetland regions support

enormous biodiversity due to unique ecological condi-

tions. People living in this narrow strip between the sea

and the central Deccan Plateau depend on these eco-

systems for their livelihood. However, both the struc-

ture and functions of the coastal environment is un-

dergoing changes. The coastal zone of Karnataka is

under increasing pressure from the growth of the hu-

man population, development of industries, fishing and

mining and discharge of municipal sewage and indus-

trial waste. This has resulted in a rapid deterioration of

coastal lands and wetlands, depleting biodiversity and

causing imbalances in ecological dynamics (Korse,

2003).

2. COASTAL ZONE REGULATION

2.1. LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK

Coastal zones require special protection. Government

of India issued the first Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)

notification in 1991 under powers vested by the

Table 1: Maritime taluks of Karnataka

Taluk District Area in

km2

Population in 2001

Persons/km2

in 2001 Population

in 2011 Persons/km

2

in 2011 Population increase

Karwar Uttara Kannada 732 147,890 202 155,143 212 5%

Ankola Uttara Kannada 919 101,549 110 107,428 117 6%

Kumta Uttara Kannada 582 145,826 251 154,515 265 6%

Honnavar Uttara Kannada 755 160,331 212 166,390 220 4%

Bhatkal Uttara Kannada 349 149,338 428 161,577 463 8%

Kundapur Udupi 1,560 377,420 242 398,841 256 6%

Udupi Udupi 929 529,225 570 562,966 606 6%

Mangalore Dakshina Kannada 834 882,856 1,059 989,856 1,187 12%

Adapted from Directorate of Economics and Statistics (2009). Districts at a glance 2008-09, Uttara Kannada, Udupi and Dakshina Kannada; Census of India 2001; Census of India 2011

COASTAL ZONE AT A GLANCE

Coastline 320 km Fisheries

Mainland thereof 300 km Fish production (2011) 527,000 t/a

Islands thereof 20 km Marine thereof 340,000 t/a

Seawall constructed until 2009 41.8 km Inland thereof 186,000 t/a

Coastal watersheds 15 Fishing villages 191

Safe thereof 12 Fishing community population 275,976

Semi-critical thereof 2 Practicing fishermen thereof 141,720

Overexploited thereof 1 Boats 14,166

CRZ complaints (2011) 69 Mechanised thereof 61%

Confirmed violations thereof 40 Fishing nets in use 41,983

Shell and sand mining (2010-11) 65,827 Mt/a Cold storage capacity (metric tons) 8,910


52

Figure 1: Geomorphologic map of Karnataka’s coast — Adapted from Department of Forest, Ecology & Environment (2004). State of Environment Report Karnataka 2003


53

Environment (Protection) Act. It regulated land use in

coastal areas and provided safeguards and vested insti-

tutional responsibilities. The CRZ includes coastal

stretches of seas, bays, estuaries, creeks, rivers and

backwaters that are influenced by tidal action and a

belt of 500 metres beyond the high tide. The 1991 no-

tification divided the coastal zone into three instead of

today’s four categories, which are largely consistent

with today’s definition. A different set of regulations

was stipulated to balance environmental conservation

with developmental interests for each of them in the

best possible manner.

Implementation and enforcement however did not

succeed in delivering to the intent of the notification.

The 1991 notification went through several amend-

ment, owing to difficulties in implementation, court rul-

Figure 2: Coastal zone management map of a part of Thannirbavi village — Adapted from Department of Ecology & Environment


54

Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 2011

The government declares the following areas as CRZ: (i)

The land area from the high tide line to 500 m on the

landward side; (ii) The land area between the high tide

line to 100 m, or the width of creeks, whichever is less on

the landward side along tide influenced water bodies; (iii)

The land area between the hazard line and 500 m from

the high tide line on the landward side in case of seafront,

and between the hazard line and the 100 m line in case of

tide influenced water bodies. Hazard line denotes the line

demarcated by MoEF taking into account tides, waves, sea

level rise and shoreline changes; (iv) The land area be-

tween the high and low tide line; (v) The water and bed

area between the low tide line and the territorial water

limit (12 nautical miles) in case of the sea, and the water

and bed area between the low tide line at the bank and

on the opposite side of tide influenced water bodies.

For conserving and protecting coastal areas and marine

waters, the CRZ area is classified as follows: CRZ I: Areas

that are ecologically sensitive, geomorphological features

which play a role in the maintaining the integrity of the

coast and the areas between the high and the low tide

line; CRZ II: Areas that have been developed up to or close

to the shoreline; CRZ III: Areas that are relatively undis-

turbed and those not belonging to CRZ I or II including

rural areas (developed and undeveloped) and legally des-

ignated urban areas, which are not substantially built up;

CRZ IV: The water area from the low tide line up to 12

nautical miles on the seaward side and the water area of

tide influenced water bodies from the mouth of the water

body at the sea up to the influence of tide measured as

salinity concentration of five parts per thousand during

the driest season of the year; Areas requiring special con-

sideration for protecting critical coastal environments and

local communities include critically vulnerable coastal are-

as and other ecologically sensitive areas identified under

the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

The following activities are prohibited within the CRZ with

exception of notified exemptions: (i) Setting up and ex-

panding industries; (ii) Manufacture or handling of oil

storage or disposal of hazardous substances; (iii) Setting

up and expansion of fish processing units including ware-

housing except hatcheries and natural fish drying in per-

mitted areas; (iv) Land reclamation, bunding or disturbing

the natural course of seawater; (v) Setting up and expan-

sion of units or mechanisms for disposal of waste and ef-

fluent; (vi) Discharge of untreated waste and effluent from

industries, cities or towns and other human settlements;

(vii) Dumping of city or town wastes including construc-

tion debris, industrial solid wastes, fly ash for the purpose

of land filling and the like; (viii) Port and harbour projects

in high erosion stretches; (ix) Reclamation for commercial

purposes; (xi) Drawl of groundwater and constructions

related thereto within 200 m of the high tide line; (xii)

Constructions in CRZ I; (xiii) Dressing or altering sand

dunes, hills, natural features; (xiv) Facilities required for

patrolling and vigilance by marine/coastal police stations.

-ings and continuing debates on the rights of coastal

communities versus conservation needs. In 2004, Min-

istry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) constituted an

expert committee under the chair of Prof..M.S.

Swaminathan that undertook a comprehensive review

of the notification and its amendments in the light of

judicial pronouncements, representations of stake-

holders and findings of previous committees to make

the coastal regulatory framework consistent with es-

tablished scientific principles of coastal zone manage-

ment. The committee’s 2005 report proposed a coastal

zone management notification, later released as 2007

draft notification, which found favour with neither

fishermen’s unions nor NGOs and environmentalists.

Government permitted the draft notification to lapse

and, after extensive consultations, issued a fresh CRZ

notification in 2011 superseding the 1991 notification.

Under the new notification coastal areas are classified

into four categories (CRZ I to IV). In short, activities are

prohibited in CRZ I comprising ecologically sensitive

areas and those falling between the low and the high

tide line. Coastal stretches of urban and developed ar-

eas are categorised under CRZ II. In CRZ III, no con-

struction is permitted up to 200 m from the high tide

line in areas that do not come under CRZ I and II. Areas

between the low tide line and twelve nautical miles in

to the sea (22.2 km) are categorised in CRZ IV. Refer

the box for an abridged excerpt of the notification and

the example at Figure 2. Environmental impact assess-

ments (EIAs) have been made mandatory prior to ac-

cording consent for permitted projects in the CRZ.

2.2. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

Under the CRZ notification, a National Coastal Zone

Management Authority (NCZMA) has been established

at central level. At the state level the Karnataka State

Coastal Zone Management Authority (KSCZMA) has

been constituted, chaired by Principal Secretary, De-

partment of Forest, Ecology & Environment. The au-

thority has powers to take measures for protecting and

improving of quality of the coastal environment and

operates under the supervision of NCZMA. Following

public interest litigations before the Supreme Court,

Government of Karnataka (GoK) prepared a Coastal

Zone Management Plan (CZMP) for which conditional

approval from Ministry of Environment and Forests was

obtained in 1996. Areas to be regulated were identi-

fied with maps and satellite imagery. The precision of

the demarcations however proved insufficient. Map-

ping with better accuracy was later entrusted to Na-

tional Hydrographic Office, Dehradun.

KSCZMA constituted district coastal zone management

committees (DCZMC) in each of the three coastal dis-

tricts in 2002. These are headed by Deputy Commis-

sioners while key responsibilities have been entrusted

to the Regional Directors, Environment. The DCZMCs

are responsible for enforcement of the CRZ notification

at the district level and are authorised to take action on

its own (suo moto) on complaints. Violations, as pre-

sented in Table 2, appear far too less compared to per-


55

ceptions on violation. Personnel, infrastructure and

legal support available to DCZMCs appears inadequate

to discharge vested responsibilities. Besides, legal re-

course requires typically long periods. Also local gov-

ernance institutions (gram panchayats and urban local

bodies) need to be acquainted with the CRZ notifica-

tion so as to be able to issue building licenses in com-

pliance with legislation.

Coastal Development Authority

In 2008 Government of Karnataka constituted the Coastal

Development Authority, Mangalore serving as advisory

body on the development of Dakshina Kannada, Udupi

and Uttara Kannada. The authority pursues a develop-

mental agenda by identifying potential projects for basic

infrastructure creation and economic activities. Consider-

ing the need for sustainable coastal development, aspects

of environmental conservation are integrated into the

work and recommendations made by the authority.

Table 2: CRZ violation cases as on May 30, 2011

Status of cases

Confirmed violations 40

Compliance achieved thereof 14

Stay order obtained thereof 9

Directions withheld by KSCZMA thereof 3

Direction anticipated thereof 14

Adjourned 12

Considered by KSCZMA 5

Dismissed as non-violation 12

Total complaints 69

3. PRESSURES AND RESPONSES

3.1. POLLUTION

While the CRZ notification prohibits discharge of un-

treated wastewater into water bodies, untreated sew-

age and industrial effluents from coastal Karnataka are

known to enter the Arabian Sea. Taking cognisance of

this transgression, KSCZMA decided in 2011 to curb

discharge of untreated wastewater with support of the

agencies concerned by April 2013. Coastal Karnataka is

home to one city corporation (Mangalore), two town

municipalities (Udupi and Karwar), four municipalities

(Kundapura, Saligrama, Bhatkal and Kumta) and four

town panchayats (Ullal, Mulki, Honnavar and Ankola).

Sewage treatment schemes are being implemented

with assistance from Karnataka Urban Infrastructure

Development and Finance Corporation (KUIDFC) to

mitigate this problem. Fish and fish oil processing units

have been found to discharge effluents directly into

the sea or backwaters in defiance of both the Water

Act and the CRZ notification. Karnataka State Pollution

Control Board (KSPCB) instructed units to set up treat-

ment plants. Major industries on the coast release their

effluents only after due treatment and their treatment

performance is monitored regularly by KSPCB.

Illegal disposal of solid waste in coastal rivers and the

sea are common. Plastic waste has emerged as a major

problem owing to its low rate of degradation. The

coast is littered with plastic of all types and fishermen

are hauling up growing shares of plastic in their catch.

This concern also extends to biomedical waste, which

is infectious in nature. Large-scale awareness cam-

paigns have been conducted up by an NGO at town

levels. However, in absence of regulatory restrictions

and close monitoring the impact so far has been insig-

nificant.

3.2. EROSION

3.2.1. Littoral drift and erosion

The data available on littoral drift in Karnataka does not

appear reliable. Estimates are generally arrived from

maintenance dredging of port entrance channels.

Dredging in the outer approach channel of New Man-

galore Port for instance varied from 0.5 million m3/a to

3.8 million m3/a (Kamat, 1986). But the material

dredged is silt and clay, whereas beach sand is fine

with a diameter between 0.2 mm and 0.4 mm. Matter

dredged is generally of seabed origin disturbed by

wave action in the monsoon period and carried by

currents to deeper and calmer waters of entrance

channel and the harbour basin. Observations of the

deposition and erosion tendencies adjacent to the

breakwaters at New Mangalore Port indicate that the

magnitude of the littoral drift is negligibly small, if any,

and has a bias to move to the south. This is true for

most of the areas along Karnataka’s coast.

Erosion is a natural phenomenon caused by wave ac-

tions, which are pronounced in the monsoon season.

Human interventions in the coastal zone intensify ero-

sion. This is particularly true for encroachments into the

sea for jetties and wharfs as well as dredging in port

areas. The construction of bunds into riverbeds and

backwaters to reclaim more land has also been found

to contribute to erosion as it forces a change in the

direction of the flow during the rainy season (refer also

section 3.4). In several locations erosion has also

caused damage to agricultural land, link roads, fishing

industries and buildings.

3.2.2. Sand dunes

When oceanic winds hit sandy shores, sand grains are

lifted and deposited wherever barriers are encoun-

tered. This results in the formation of so-called embry-

onic dunes. When these grow further in size they be-

come either primary, secondary or tertiary dunes, de-

veloping dune specific flora. Thus sand dunes of differ-

ent sizes with varieties of flora are found along sandy

shores. Dune flora can tolerate saline waters and grow

well to form a green wall.


56

From the early days of civilization, people left dunes as

shelterbelts against the fury of the sea. However, in the

recent past, developments in the coastal zone increas-

ingly ignored the significance of sand dunes and the

green shelterbelt, sometimes giving way to their de-

struction. Quite a few dunes stretches have been lev-

elled and converted into agricultural fields, leaving only

primary dunes as a single weak protection from wave

action.

Figure 3: Eroded dune face

In places where seawater enters agricultural fields,

natural forces have levelled and denuded primary

dunes (V.N. Nayak, 2010). This has been identified as a

cause for erosion. If left intact, sand dune plants break

the wind force and slow down the impact on the

shore. Dunes that hold these plants act as solid barri-

ers.

Government of Karnataka has acknowledged the loss

of dunes and is planning to revive dunes through plan-

tations. The ‘Hasiru Kavacha’ (green wall) project of

GoK protects the existing dunes through replanting of

dune flora, particularly indigenous species such as as

dune plant. Besides the benefit of protection dunes

provide, people’s participation in this project is encour-

aged through the revenue from the collection of fruits,

seeds and fuel wood.

Figure 4: A natural green wall

Coastal green wall project

The Coastal Green Wall Project was developed by Western

Ghats Task Force specially for Karnataka’s coastal area in

consultation with experts, administrators, communities and

NGOs. With an outlay of INR 6 cores for 2010-11, it has

been launched in Karwar, Honnavar, Kundapura and

Mangalore Forest Divisions where it is implemented in 24

gram panchayats with support of communities, farmers,

fishermen and Village Forest Committees (VFC), Biodiversi-

ty Management Committees (BMC), self help groups (SHG)

and NGOs.

Under this project green belts of local tree species are de-

veloped close to the high tide line, with a width of at least

100 meters. Natural drainage channels will be restored to

prevent stagnation and facilitate runoff in to the sea. Also

mangroves and estuaries will be restored through bund

restoration, pitching of stream banks and planting of man-

groves. To safeguard coastal biodiversity, nurseries of

mangroves and medicinal plants as well as rare, endan-

gered and threatened (RET) species will be established in

each Forest Range besides creating coastal biodiversity

parks in each Forest Division

Source: Western Ghats Task Force

3.2.3. Sea walls

To prevent erosion, sea walls have been constructed

along severely affected stretches. Since 2001 around

42 kilometres of seawalls were constructed in Karna-

taka, half of it in Udupi district (refer Table 3). Although

41% of Udupi’s coast and 20% of Dakshina Kannada’s

coast has been protected by now, it is necessary to

keep in mind that this intervention has also somewhat

insulated the coast from the sea. Proposals for further

sea wall constructions are under consideration. While

mitigating erosion does deserve attention, a large-scale

fortification of the coast does not appear to be the

right response. Incidentally, in several locations walls

constructed have disappeared under the sea or the sea

has receded by 20 to 50 metres as evident from site

inspections in Uttara Kannada district (V.N. Nayak un-

dated). In fact the best way to face erosion is to retreat

(Dattatri, undated).

Figure 5: Erosion in Karnataka’s coast


57

Table 3: Sea wall constructions in metres

Year Dakshina Kannada

Udupi Uttara

Kannada

2001 646 1,713 0

2002 2,270 4,098 0

2003 1,815 3,754 1,174

2004 2,511 1,324 894

2005 3,626 5,720 1,119

2006 1,654 1,675 2,149

2007 110 188 2,028

2008 401 1,554 347

2009 - 759 300

Total 13,033 20,805 8,011

Cost in lakh INR 991 1,255 1,715

Adapted from Department of Public Works, Ports and Inland Water Transport

Table 4: Groundwater development

Watershed Development

1997 Development

2009 Category in 2009

Uttara Kannada

5B1A5 Karwar 16% 51% Safe

5B1A2 Ankola 16% 16% Safe

5B1A1 Kumta 54% 48% Safe

5A3C4 Honnavar 45% 39% Safe

5A3C3 Bhatkal 52% 52% Safe

Udupi

5A3C4 n/a 52% Safe

5A3C2 Kundapura 33% 67% Safe

5A3C1 n/a 53% Safe

5A3B7 n/a 87% Semi-critical

5A3B6 Karkal n/a 22% Safe

5A3B5 Udupi 45% 61% Safe

Dakshina Kannada

5A3B5 n/a 61% Safe

5A3B4 Mangalore 45% 51% Safe

5A3B1 Bantval n/a 79% Semi-critical

5A3B7 n/a 102% Over-exploited

Adapted from Department of Mines & Geology (2010). Dynamic groundwater resources of Karnataka; Department of Forest, Ecology & Environment (2004). State of Environment Report Karnataka 2003

3.2.4. Reefs

A natural reef is a ridge of rock or coral in the sea. They

break wave action and thus reduce erosion. Given this

quality, efforts have been made to create reefs artificial-

ly. They are constructed parallel to the shore using sin-

gle or series of moulds made of concrete, rock or stone.

Examples of artificial reefs are revetments, rock ar-

mours, groynes, gabions, seawalls, breakwaters and

headlands.

MoEF has cleared a proposal for coastal zone im-

provements at Ullal Village in Dakshina Kannada dis-

trict in 2010. The project envisages the construction of

three artificial offshore reefs, the nourishment of

beaches with sand and the remodelling inlet breakwa-

ters at a cost of INR 143 crore. A similar proposal for

Uttara Kannada district seems to be under examina-

tion. However, a similar project creating artificial reefs

at Kovalam in Kerala has met with opposition from

fishermen and also in Karnataka reservation has been

voiced.

3.3. GROUND- AND SALINE WATER

Department of Mines & Geology has classified 12 of

Karnataka’s 15 coastal watersheds as safe. Two are

semi-critical with groundwater development between

79% and 87% of annual recharge and one is over-

exploited at 102%. Karwar has recorded a very signifi-

cant rise in groundwater development from 16% to

51% over the past twelve years. Mangalore has seen a

moderate increase from 45% to 51% in the same peri-

od (refer Table 4). For two watersheds even a decline

in groundwater development was observed, contra-

dicting the general trend observed in Karnataka (refer

Chapter 3: Water Resources and Management).

Decline in groundwater is a key facilitator for the intru-

sion of saline water. Intrusion is also facilitated by ero-

sion and the deliberate levelling of sand dunes (refer

section 3.2.2). On riverbanks, intrusion is caused by

tidal influx into estuaries that is kept in check inade-

quately by bunds on account of poor understanding of

tidal heights.

Intrusions destroy large spans of standing agricultural

and horticultural crops. Seawalls constructed help pre-

venting the entry of salt-water into paddy fields albeit

this benefit is compromised by poor construction

standards (refer section 3.2.3).

3.4. ENCROACHMENT

Notable encroachments are observed at Mangalore

port, Belekeri port, the naval base and Murdeshwar.

Along the coast extensive encroachments are not ob-

served although there is visible evidence of sand dune

levelling and filling of low-lying areas. Dredging of

harbour regions has led to dumping of dredging mate-

rial on reclaimed land, amounting to encroachment.

Erosion associated with this practice, as well as dredg-

ing requires scientific evaluation. After the construction

of breakwaters in Baithkol, Karwar and Binga naval

area, erosion has increased on the Karwar beach and

Devbag, leading to erosion between Belekeri and

Majali. Similarly, an encroachment into the sea near

Belikeri is posing problems for citizens of Bhavikeri. En-

croachments into the sea are also made for construc-

tion of jetties and wharfs. New jetties and landing cen-

tres along the coast from Mangalore to Majali are pro-

posed by Department of Fisheries. However they are

few in number considering the extent of the coastline.

Whenever such interventions are made, it is necessary


58

to carry out an EIA to prevent erosion, which is also

stipulated by the CRZ notification.

To prevent salt-water intrusion into cultivated lands

bunds are constructed on the banks of rivers and

creeks. In the process, waterways are being disturbed

in respect of drainage and mangroves. Permissions for

such activities, mandatory under the CRZ notification,

should be granted only after a holistic consideration of

waterways and mangrove ecosystems and, to the ex-

tent feasible, be confined to constructions on existing

foundations. In certain cases, local landowners influ-

ence bund construction contractors and encroach the

riverbed and backwaters to reclaim more land. This

causes a change in the direction of the water flow dur-

ing the rainy season and contributes to erosion in es-

tuarine banks.

Figure 6: Typical coast with dune flora at Devbag

Coastal settlements in jeopardy

In Tulu language bengre denotes an elongated sand bar

formed between river and sea. There are several bengres

along the coast and two of them, one near Mangalore and

one near Kodi in Udupi districts, are heavily inhabited.

Spread over an area of 4 km2, Mangalore’s Bengre has a

population of about 10,000, most of them belonging to the

fishing community. According to earlier records, Gurupur

river joined the sea near the Bokapatna-Bolur area. The

river took an abrupt southward turn in 1987, creating a

new sand spit. Since the land formed newly; there is no

survey number based allotment of land and hence settle-

ments do not have legal status. Shelterbelt plantations cov-

er 25% of the area, comprising mainly of casurinas while

the Gurupur riverbank is partially covered with mangrove

vegetation. The exposure and vulnerability of Bengre to

natural calamities is a matter of concern and settlements

should be discouraged here in the best interest of settlers

and the land should be used only for purposes furthering

environmental sustainability.

3.5. RECLAMATION

Along the coastline, land has been reclaimed from

swamps, mangrove areas and backwaters for cultiva-

tion and construction of buildings. In some cases the

construction of bunds is used to facilitate an expansion

of reclaimed land (refer section 3.4). In the river Kali

nearly half of the bed is private property and the CRZ is

in private ownership on both banks. Most reclaimed

lands are in private property and complaints are hardly

received. To regulate reclaimed land has remained as

much of a challenge as enforcing existing Law. Further

unauthorised reclamations should be prevented by

strict vigil.

3.6. FISHERIES

3.6.1. Significance

The state has a 320 km long coastline and 27,000 km2

of continental shelf area, rich in pelagic and demersal

fishery resources. Traditionally Karnataka’s coast is

known as ‘Mackerel Coast’. The fisheries sector plays an

important role in the socio-economic development of

the state in view of its contribution to the food basket,

nutritional security, large foreign exchange earnings,

employment generation and income. Out of the Indian

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2.02 million km2,

Karnataka has a share of 87,000 km2.

The marine fishery potential of the state is estimated at

4.25 lakh metric tons per annum, of which 2.25 lakh

metric tons are from inshore areas up to a depth of 70

m. The contribution of fisheries to the GSDP in 1993-94

was INR 163 crore and increased to INR 1,395 crore in

2008-09. The marine fish production during 2010-11

was 3.4 lakh metric tons and 1.1 lakh tons worth INR

688 crore were exported from the state (refer Table 5).

The inland fish production in the same period was 1.86

lakh tons. The value of marine and inland production

stands at a combined INR 2,109 core per annum. The

Department of Fisheries was set up in 1957 to promote

the development of fisheries and fishermen through

developmental schemes for marine and in inland wa-

ters. The fish production however has been fluctuating.

The highest contribution comes from Dakshina Kanna-

da followed by Udupi. During the monsoon fishing

with mechanised boats has been prohibited in territo-

rial waters by the Karnataka Marine Fishing (Regula-

tion) Act, 1986.

The pelagic fishery wealth of Karnataka coast, mainly

comprising mackerel and oil sardines, used to be tradi-

tionally harvested through shore seines known as

rampani. With the introduction of mechanisation of

fishery operations, this method has now become obso-

lete. The introduction of trawlers in 1957, purse seines

in 1970, motorisation of traditional crafts like gill net-

ters and long-liners and encouragement of offshore

fishing beyond 50 meters of depth with larger vessels

in fishing voyages lasting 7-8 days have effectively in-

creased the range of fishing operations. Further, finan-

cial institutions have extended boat loans, which have


59

helped in increasing the fleet strength. At present there

are about 8,615 mechanised and 5,551 traditional

boats operating in the coast and there are over 40,000

fishing nets. There are 7 fishing harbours and 20 fish

landing centres in the state. In recent years, fishermen

are being trained in operation of sophisticated elec-

tronic equipment both for fishing and navigation (see

Table 5 for further details).

Table 5: Fish production of Karnataka

Year Quantity (Mt/a)

Marine Inland Total

1997-98 189,859 120,542 310,401

1998-99 160,627 118,419 279,046

1999-00 165,653 126,646 292,299

2000-01 177,907 127,468 305,375

2001-02 128,416 121,196 249,612

2002-03 180,161 86,262 266,423

2003-04 187,003 70,036 257,039

2004-05 171,227 80,470 251,698

2005-06 176,974 120,599 297,573

2006-07 168,545 123,919 292,464

2007-08 175,566 122,124 297,690

2008-09 218,137 143,717 361,854

2009-10 249,000 159,000 408,000

2010-11 340,000 186,000 527,000

Adapted from Department of Fisheries (2010). General statistics and fish production; Department of Fisheries (2011). Karnataka fisheries

at a glance 2010-11

Table 6: Fisheries sector of Karnataka 2010-11

Parameter Quantity

Fishing villages 191

Fishing community population 275,976

Practicing fishermen 141,720

Boats, mechanised 8,615

Boats, traditional 5,551

Fishing nets in use 41,983

Fishing harbours 7

Fish landing centres 20

Cold storage capacity (metric tons) 8,910

Fisheries cooperative societies 560

Fish markets 421

Department of Fisheries (2011). Karnataka fisheries at a glance 2010-11

3.6.2. Institutional framework

Government of Karnataka promotes fisheries through

various means. It constructs and maintains harbours

and landing centres, subsidises the refurbishment of

fish markets, promotes motorisation of traditional fleets,

provides assistance for life saving equipment on fishing

boats and exempts diesel for fishing boats from sales

tax to promote offshore fishing. Scientific advancement

is supported by Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fish-

eries Sciences University, Bidar with its College of Fish-

eries in Mangalore and Karnatak University Post Grad-

uate Centre at Karwar with Department of Studies in

Marine Biology and the Fisherman’s Guidance Bureau.

Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB) moni-

tors water resources in respect of water quality. Karna-

taka Biodiversity Board (KBB) is preparing inventories

of biodiversity of fisheries and habitat, fish breeding

centres and pursuing the establishment of fish sanctu-

aries. As of September 2011, seven inland fisheries

sanctuaries have been notified and nine more are in

the process of being recognised. The Karnataka State

Remote Sensing Application Centre (KSRSAC) helps in

providing GIS and satellite imagery based information

systems.

3.6.3. Issues

Some studies suggest a notable decline in Indian ma-

rine fish catch while in Karnataka, as Table 5 shows,

the trend is rather the opposite. Dr. Bhargava, Fisheries

Research Regional Centre, Vasco, attributes the deple-

tion of the pan-Indian catch to the increasing use of

mechanised boats and longer catch hours. In inshore

waters too small net mesh sizes result into extensive

catch of juveniles and their depletion. Compliance with

fishing holidays is also lacking but quantitative data in

support of this perception is not at hand.

In the coastal region, fishery also faces the problem of

pollution. Plastics in inshore waters are a serious threat.

The shore seine catch contains more than 50% of plas-

tic waste against 5-10% about five years back. Coastal

municipalities try curbing this menace but urban

floodwater washes huge quantities of plastics into the

sea. Fishermen tend to discard plastics netted on the

beach, awaiting the tides to return them into the sea. A

point of concern is also lack of hygienic conditions in

landing centres, fish markets and processing units.

3.6.4. Fresh water and estuarine fishery

Until now, 201 freshwater fish species belonging to

9 orders, 27 families and 84 genera have been record-

ed in Karnataka, of which 40 species are under threat.

Estuaries are ecologically sensitive areas. Their signifi-

cance and endemic fishes are well documented. Estua-

rine fish catches however are not systematically rec-

orded owing to the fact that the produce is typically

sold locally. Notable exceptions are clams that are ex-

tensively covered in the ‘Atlas of clam resources of Kar-

nataka’ published by Central Marine Fisheries Research

Institute (CMFRI). Fishing is done with traditional nets

and boats by fishermen and local people of all com-

munities. Landing centres do not exist here.

When the monsoons flood the rivers, dead and decay-

ing animal and plant materials along with faecal mat-

ters and the fertile top soil reaches estuarine regions.

During high tide the water flow from the river stops


60

temporarily in the estuary. At this time the detritus set-

tles in the estuarine bed. Also, mangroves hold the

flowing material with the help of their well-spread root

and shoot system. In addition, mangroves shed their

leaves into estuaries. Birds take shelter on mangrove

plants and drop faeces. The entire estuary therefore is

highly fertile. During low tide, some part of this materi-

al enters coastal waters and supports the growth of

plankton in inshore waters. The estuary is an important

food store for coastal organisms. A large number of

fishes and prawns breed here and larvae and juveniles

of several species are attracted by it, making it a nurse-

ry for fishes. The abundant availability of food attracts

both birds and wildlife to mangroves. A number of

migratory birds nest in estuaries.

Fishery in inland waters is restricted to 82 reservoirs

and 26,023 ponds with a water spread area of 267,000

ha and 293,000 respectively. The state has 26 estuaries

in addition to smaller creeks and backwaters covering

7,300 ha in Uttar Kannada, 1,900 ha in Udupi and

1,200 in Dakshina Kannada district. The Department of

Fisheries releases large numbers of seeds into the

freshwater bodies to provide sustainable resources to

dependent fishermen. 27 core fingerlings have been

released in 2010-11 while inland fisheries produced

1.86 lakh metric tons of fish.

3.6.5. Monsoon fishery

To promote breeding of fishes and safeguard sustaina-

bility of fishing, Government of India has banned

mechanised fishing for a period of 45 days during the

monsoon. During this season, only shore fishing and

fishing with traditional boats with outboard engines

are permitted. The district administration prevents ille-

gal ventures into the sea during this period. For fisher-

men, the monsoon season is the most difficult period.

Some find jobs as daily wagers. Those who can afford

spend the time repairing nets to prepare for the next

season.

In estuaries, clams are picked from small country boats

during the rains at low tide. Also fishing from banks is

common with cast nets, hook and line, gill and drag

nets. Fish is marketed in local areas and if the catch is

high it is taken to markets.

3.6.6. Brackish water aquaculture

Karnataka has about 8,000 ha of brackish water area

suitable for shrimp culture of which 3,500 ha are uti-

lised. Within the developed area a decline in produc-

tion has been observed and experiments are made to

assess the feasibility of introducing sea bass and other

suitable species. By introducing new commercial spe-

cies and increasing their extent, aquaculture can, to

some extent, compensate for the depletion in catch of

native species. In order to encourage scientific fish

farming in brackish waters, development agencies

were established at Karwar and Brahmavara. These

train farmers in shrimp culture, site selection and prep-

arations for obtaining financial assistance. Marine

Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) and

CMFRI are proactively promoting cage culture in the

open sea.

Aquaculture is one of the major causes of the destruc-

tion of mangroves. It is affecting the environment

mainly due to the use of antibiotics and releases of un-

treated effluents in water bodies. After a Supreme

Court verdict of 1996, environmental issues of aquacul-

ture are being addressed. Now licences are required

and 20 antibiotics and groups of pharmacologically

active substances commonly used in aquaculture have

been banned (refer Table 7). This is accompanied by

raising awareness of farmers and monitoring. Howev-

er, even though damages to mangroves, many of

which on private properties, are apparent, CRZ authori-

ties did not curb aquaculture. After the Aquaculture

Authority Act 2004 came into effect, a district level

committee was established and the Aquaculture Au-

thority documents mangroves while issuing aquacul-

ture licences.

Table 7: Substances banned in aquaculture by MPEDA

Banned substances in aquaculture

1. Chloramphenicol

2. Nitrofurans including Furazlidone, Nitrofurazone, Fural-tadone, Nitrofurantoin, Furyfuramide, Nifuratel, Nifurox-ime, Nifurprazine and all their derivatives

3. Neomycin

4. Nalidixic acid

5. Sulphamethoxazole

6. Aristolochia spp. and preparations thereof

7. Chloroform

8. Chlorpromazine

9. Colchicine

10. Dapsone

11. Dimetridazole

12. Metronidazole

13. Ronidazole

14. Ipronidazole

15. Other nitroimidazoles

16. Clenbuterol

17. Diethylstilbestrol (DBS)

18. Sulfonamide (except approved sultadimethoxine, sul-fabromomethazine and sulfaethoxypyridazine)

19. Fluoroquinolones

20. Glycopeptides

3.7. SAND AND SHELL MINING

Besides the destruction of mangroves and aquaculture,

sand and shell mining is a major cause of damage to

estuaries in all three coastal districts. Estuarine beds

have been encroached for sand and shell mining at

many places. Sand mining takes place in almost all estu-


61

Figure 7: A natural mangrove

Figure 8: Destroyed mangroves

-aries though salty sand is not suitable for construction.

GoI has recently permitted the removal of sand bars by

traditional coastal communities through manual meth-

ods. Approval is given taking into account setting and

circumstances yet the statutory monitoring of removals

is constrained by limited resources. The CRZ notifica-

tion of 2011 allows collection of material not available

outside the CRZ by traditional communities for poultry

and livestock feed supplements.

Table 8: Lime shell and silica sand mining in coastal Karnataka in metric tons/a

Year Lime shell Silica sand

2005-06 100,102 215,121

2006-07 64,189 195,126

2007-08 70,278 142,695

2008-09 63,396 137,930

2009-10 45,186 139,320

2010-11 14,896 50,931

Total in Mt/a 358,047 881,123

Adapted from Department of Mines and Geology

Although mining is undertaken in highly sensitive

breeding grounds for fish and shellfish, activities are

generally not monitored. Apart from highlighting the

significance of clam beds and seed resources, Karna-

taka’s estuarine biodiversity is not documented well

and the understanding of the significance of these

habitats is limited. Seashells are necessary for settling of

new clams and oysters and their removal would ad-

versely affect further settlements. This has been high-

lighted in research of CMFRI, Indian Institute of Science

(IISc) and Department of Marine Biology and Fisheries

College, Mangalore and was considered by Supreme

Court before permitting shell mining with certain con-

ditions. Conditions imposed are generally not observed

and the damage to estuaries continues.

3.8. BIODIVERSITY

3.8.1. Overview

The key threat to biodiversity is habitat destruction.

This is particularly high in the coastal region and

fuelled by sand and shell mining, the increasing spread

of urban areas, the expansion of agriculture and tour-

ism. Other pressure points are dredging, sea wall con-

struction, over fishing and damage to estuaries. KBB is

creating awareness of biodiversity and has prepared

people’s biodiversity registers (PBR) for various village

panchayats of coastal Karnataka. Sensitive areas are

also identified by KBB in order to propose their notifica-

tion as heritage sites. Western Ghats Task Force estab-

lished by GoK is monitoring the foothills covering the

coastal region and has done exemplary work for biodi-

versity protection. Some of the achievements include

identification of ecologically sensitive areas and fish

breeding grounds for their protection. A notable de-

velopment is also the introduction of green walls (refer

section 3.2.2) for the protection of dunes. If successful,

this project has the potential to make a significant and

sustainable contribution to the conservation of coastal

biodiversity.

Potential heritage site at the Kali estuary

In the Kali estuary region, five small zones have been iden-

tified as potential heritage sites, namely the Kalimata island,

Devbagh, Kanasagiri, the Sunkeri backwaters and Hana-

kon. With the help of local people, Kalimata island is pro-

posed to be protected as ‘Kali Mata Pavitra Vana’. Devbagh

is proposed to be developed as a mangrove germplasm

bank where 16 varieties of mangroves, including rare ones,

are found. Kanasagiri shelters 28 rare species of indigenous

and migratory birds, and has some old mangrove trees, fish

and salt ponds. The Sunkeri backwaters, which are a fish

breeding region has a scope for ecotourism while Hanakon

is rich in mangrove diversity. Since it is a hub of human

activity and majority of the land is privately owned, it may

not be possible to declare the entire estuary region as con-

servation zone.

Adapted from Nayak, V.N., Department of Studies in Marine Biology, Karnatak University, Karwar (undated).

Proposal submitted to KBB


62

Figure 9: Semi evergreen forest atop Netrani island — Adapted from KFD Honnavar Division

3.8.2. The case of Netrani island

A noteworthy hotspot of biodiversity is Netrani island

19 km off Murdeshwar in the Arabian Sea. The island is

composed of rocky outcrops and steep cliffs, surround-

ed by coral reefs and lagoons. The vegetation compris-

es semi evergreen forests, which are unusual for an

island, and shrubs. Local fishermen worship the deity

Jatekeshwara, located in a sacred grove at the island,

as their protector and provider of fish catch when in

despair (refer Figure 10). The age-old tradition of offer-

ing goats and chickens to the deity by merely leaving

them on this island is prevalent.

The island has a significant and unique biodiversity. It is

home to 400 nesting and breeding white-bellied sea

eagles, which are rare. Fourteen coral and four sponge

species were identified on this island. A total of 89 coral

associated fishes are recorded. Among these, 4 genera

and 27 species have been recorded for the first time on

the Indian coast. Of these, Cheilinus undulates and

Rhincodon typus are on the IUCN Red List. Small giant

clams (Tridacna maxima), a protected specie is also

reported. There are two caves, one filled with seawater

and suitable for shark breeding. The other houses very

rare edible nest swiftlets, which were so far believed to

be found only on the Andaman and Nicobar islands.

Considering the significance of the island, GoK issued a

preliminary notification for declaring the island a bio --

Figure 10: Worship of deity Jatekeshwara — Adapted from KFD Honnavar Division

diversity heritage site in 2010. However, the proposal

was dropped as defence authorities consider the is-

land’s naval shooing range as vital for national security.

It has been in use since six decades and is the navy’s

only shooting range on the west coast. It was decided

instead that KBB and the naval base would jointly pre-

pare a master plan for conservation of biodiversity of

the island. A public interest litigation (PIL) filed on the

issue in 2011 is pending in the Karnataka High Court.

3.8.3. Conservation of sea turtles

Sea turtles evolved more than 100 millions of years

ago. They treat the entire ocean as their feeding range

and travel long distances for nesting. Olive ridley turtles

are common in Karnataka and green turtles are also

occasionally seen. Sea turtles are protected under the

Wildlife Protection Act and find a place on the IUCN

Red List.

Between September and January, turtles visit the sandy

coast for laying eggs. They climb the beach a little be-

yond high tide line, dig a pit with their flippers, lay eggs

and cover them with sand. After 50 to 55 days the

hatchlings appear and move straight towards sea. This

journey however, is not simple, as eggs and hatchlings

need protection from humans, feral dogs, jackals, birds

and other predators. Karnataka Forest Department is

conserving sea turtles since 1984. Conservation appro-

Figure 11: Turtle breeding centre of KFD — Adapted from KFD Honnavar Division

Figure 12: Sea turtle at Haldipur — Adapted from KFD Honnavar Division


63

-aches focus on egg collection and their burial in places

that permit hatchlings a safe journey to sea. In-situ con-

servation requires greater effort as watchers need to

have a strict vigil over extensive nesting beaches dur-

ing day and night. Thousands of baby turtles found a

safe journey home due to conservation efforts. More

than 29,000 hatchlings were released by Range Forest

Office Bhatkal between 1984 and 2009.

3.9. TOURISM

Except for small patches, tourism in Karnataka’s coastal

region is not well developed. The coast has centres of

Hindu and Jain pilgrimages, including Gokarna, Mur-

deshwar, Udupi, Karkala, Mudabidri, Kumta and Shirali.

The beaches of Malpe, Murdeshwar, Maravanthe, Go-

karna and Kumta have spectacular mountains to the

east. Compared to the neighbouring Kerala and Goa,

the impact of tourism on the coastal and estuarine en-

vironment at present is small. Nevertheless, tourism has

become a factor in affecting the coastal region and the

sea adversely. Coasts are being altered to suit tourists.

Resorts adversely impact the sea and tourists often are

not aware that their behaviour causes harm. Even un-

der the guise of eco-tourism, some operators mislead

tourists into believing that efforts are made to preserve

nature through tourism while the intervention itself is

destructive. Demands of the tourism industry are be-

ginning to shape the coastline and turning natural ha-

vens into artificial territories. The presence of plastic

and solid waste is noticed in places of tourist interest,

and the lack of sewage treatment is aggravated by

tourism.

3.10. OTHER INTERVENTIONS

Recognising the gravity of transgressions of the coastal

zone and legal provisions, KSCZMA in its March 2011

meeting defined a range of actions to be taken. These

points indicate clarity on priorities as they stipulate

timeframes as well as agencies responsible. Action

points include:

Curbing unauthorised disposal of untreated efflu-

ent from industries and settlements (target April

2013), industrial waste, construction debris and fly

ash (April 2012);

Enforcing a prohibition on ports and harbours in

highly eroded areas (to be identified);

Preparation of a comprehensive plan for permitting

dwelling of traditional coastal communities be-

tween 100-200 m in CRZ III in consultation with

traditional coastal communities and incorporating

measures for disaster management;

Preparation of a revised Coastal Zone Management

Plan under development of requisite maps (April

2013) and obtaining MoEF approval (October

2013);

Advising MoEF on the need to amend the notifica-

tion by including permissibility of certain facilities to

safeguard livelihoods.

On a completely different footing, the Karnataka Urban

Development and Coastal Environment Project offered

co-benefits to the coastal zone. It aimed at meeting

basic human needs for the urban poor in water supply

and sanitation, solid waste management and slum im-

provement, curbing the ingress of sewage and domes-

tic waste into the sea. The project was implemented in

Mangalore, Ullal, Puttur, Udupi, Kundapura, Karwar,

Ankola, Bhatkal, Dandeli and Sirsi with a budget of INR

1,056 crore. Dissatisfaction with the underground

drainage constructed has been reported from Karwar,

Ankola and Bhatkal but in absence of data this cannot

be qualified. The project also included specific envi-

ronmental activities including but not limited to:

Conserving and developing flora and fauna habi-

tats;

Mangrove plantation in association with Depart-

ment of Forest, Ecology & Environment;

Promotion of ecotourism by developing necessary

infrastructure in association with Department of

Tourism.


In view of the fear of sea level rises on account of

global warming, it is necessary to study the possible

impact on the coastal region and define necessary

responses;

Urban encroachments into the CRZ require to be

addressed and require rehabilitation of populations

to achieve compliance with the notification;

Conversions of estuaries and backwater mangroves

into agriculture lands and aquaculture ponds need

to be evaluated to draw conclusions for a future

course of action and future guidelines;

The conversion of agricultural land within the CRZ

for commercial purposes must be curbed without

delay;

It is necessary to strengthen the Karnataka State

Coastal Regulation Zone Authority through greater

authority and resources, including recruitment of

sufficient personnel at district level;

Sharing of information and coordination between

government departments at district and state levels

needs to be improved. Departments concerned in-

clude Karnataka Forest Department, Department of


64

Fisheries, Department of Mines and Geology,

KSPCB, Department of Tourism, Department of In-

land Surface Transport and Department of Minor Ir-

rigation;

More vigilance is needed to ensure compliance of

urban local bodies, settlements, industries and oth-

er establishments with wastewater treatment re-

quirements emerging form the CRZ notification and

Water Act.

65

CHAPTER 3

WATER RESOURCES

AND MANAGEMENT

Chapter 3: Water Resources and Management

66


67

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 69

2. WATER RESOURCES ................................................................................. 69

2.1. SURFACE WATER .................................................................. 69 2.1.1. Rainfall .......................................................................................... 69 2.1.2. Rivers ............................................................................................. 69 2.1.3. Lakes and tanks .......................................................................... 72

2.2. GROUNDWATER .................................................................. 72

2.3. WATER BALANCE ................................................................. 72

3. PRESSURE POINTS .................................................................................... 72

3.1. WATER DEMAND ................................................................. 73 3.1.1. Overview ...................................................................................... 73 3.1.2. Agriculture .................................................................................. 73 3.1.3. Industry ........................................................................................ 74 3.1.4. Households ................................................................................. 74

3.2. DRINKING WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION .............. 75

3.3. GROUNDWATER DEPLETION ........................................... 75

3.4. WATER POLLUTION ............................................................. 77 3.4.1. Pollution sources ....................................................................... 77 3.4.2. Contamination of surface water ........................................... 78 3.4.3. Contamination of groundwater ........................................... 79

3.5. MINIMUM FLOW IN RIVERS ............................................... 80

4. CHALLENGES ............................................................................................ 80

4.1. GROUNDWATER DEPLETION ........................................... 80

4.2. DRINKING WATER DEFICITS .............................................. 80

4.3. WATER LOSS .......................................................................... 81

4.4. WATER AS ECONOMIC GOOD ......................................... 81

4.5. DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT ........................................ 82

4.6. WATER PRODUCTIVITY ....................................................... 82

4.7. THE WATER DICHOTOMY .................................................. 82

4.8. ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY AND INSTITUTIONAL CAPABILITY ............................................................................ 82

4.9. INTER-STATE WATER DISPUTES ........................................ 82 4.9.1. Cauvery water dispute ............................................................. 82 4.9.2. Krishna Water Dispute Tribunal ............................................ 82 4.9.3. Perspectives ................................................................................. 83

5. ACTIONS INITIATED ................................................................................. 83

5.1. WATER POLICY ..................................................................... 83

5.2. IRRIGATION ........................................................................... 83


68

5.3. DRINKING WATER SUPPLY ................................................. 83

5.4. WATER CONSERVATION .................................................... 83 5.4.1. People’s participation ............................................................... 83 5.4.2. Micro irrigation ........................................................................... 84

5.5. GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT .................................... 84 5.5.1. New legislation .......................................................................... 84 5.5.2. Watershed development ........................................................ 84

5.6. CONSERVATION OF RIVERS .............................................. 84

6. EMERGING INTERVENTION A REAS .................................................... 84

TABLES

Table 1: Estimated yield of water from river basins of Karnataka................................................................................................ 71

Table 2: Groundwater availability in Karnataka (2004) .................................................................................................................. 71

Table 3: Water balance of Karnataka under average conditions ................................................................................................ 72

Table 4: Sectoral water demand in Karnataka .................................................................................................................................. 74

Table 5: Drinking water sources by households in Karnataka (2001) ....................................................................................... 75

Table 6: Irrigated area by water source in Karnataka 2009-10 .................................................................................................... 75

Table 7: Sectoral groundwater draft and development (2006) ................................................................................................... 76

Table 8: Groundwater resources and infrastructure in Karnataka ............................................................................................. 76

Table 9: Classification of Karnataka’s watersheds ............................................................................................................................ 78

Table 10: Water logged, saline and alkaline affected land in irrigation projects .................................................................... 78

Table 11: Chromium excess values in Bangalore groundwater .................................................................................................. 79

Table 12: Allocation by Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal 2007 ................................................................................................. 82

FIGURES

Figure 1: Water availability of basins in Karnataka .......................................................................................................................... 70 Figure 2: Water resources: Drivers, pressures and impacts ........................................................................................................... 73 Figure 3: Sectoral water demand in Karnataka (2000)................................................................................................................... 74 Figure 4: Tungabhadra reservoir — A major irrigation project at Hospet................................................................................. 75 Figure 5: Categorisation of groundwater in Karnataka (2009) ................................................................................................... 77 Figure 6: Polluted Kengeri lake in Bangalore .................................................................................................................................... 78 Figure 7: Habitation with affected groundwater (%) ..................................................................................................................... 80 Figure 8: Wastage of water — A challenge for meeting demand ............................................................................................... 80 Figure 9: Water exists in nature, but access is difficult .................................................................................................................... 81 Figure 10: Extractions are quantifiable — Metered bore well in Jaipur ..................................................................................... 85

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69

1. INTRODUCTION

Life on earth depends on water. The increasing imbal-

ance between demand and supply has consequences

for health, ecology, economy and the social fabric of

society. India is more vulnerable in respect of water

than other nations because it supports 16% of the

world's population with only 4% of the available fresh

water on merely 2.4% of the world's land area.

International standards term countries with per-capita

water availability of less than 1,700 m3 as water

stressed. Below 1,000 m3 per year they are considered

water scarce. Right now India is on the threshold.

Availability of surface water declined from 2,309 m3 to

1,902 m3 per person between 1991 and 2001. Biswas

et al. (2010) estimated that by 2017, India will be water

stressed with a decline in per capita availability to

1,600 m3. Projections for 2025 show a further alarming

reduction to 1,401 m3

and by 2050 a mere 1,191 m3,

bringing India near the threshold of water scarce na-

tions (Kumar et al., 2005).

The status of water resources in Karnataka is not very

different from the country. The state accounts for

about 6% of the country's surface water. The pressure

on water is apparent in water supply, irrigation, un-

clean drinking water and illegal discharges of untreat-

ed sewage and industrial effluents. Water pollution is

preventing productive use, affecting mainly poor peo-

ple who rely on surface water for drinking. The increas-

ing water shortage and competitive demand of a

growing population paired with economic growth is

posing a challenge for water management, particularly

in respect of equitable access. Climate change will likely

exacerbate this challenge.

2. WATER RESOURCES

2.1. SURFACE WATER

2.1.1. Rainfall

The state comprises of ten agro-climatic zones. Rainfall

shows very high spatial and temporal variability. About

70% of the geographic area falls in arid and semi-arid

zones. Annual rainfall varies between 500 mm in the

northern region and around 4,000 mm in coastal re-

gions with an average of 1,151 mm. About two thirds

of the state receive less than 750 mm of rainfall.

Agumbe in the Sahyadri hills is ranked as India’s se-

cond highest rainfall location receiving about 7,600

mm per year. Karnataka has, on average, 55 rainy days

in a year during the monsoons. Monsoons however

have experienced some changes in recent years that

are attributed to climate change and variations in the

southern oscillation El Niño. In 2009 government

sources estimated the occurrence of droughts to be

once in four years. This has significant negative impacts

on farming and rural livelihoods.

2.1.2. Rivers

Karnataka has seven river systems. Together with their

tributaries they form a catchment of 191,773 km2. The

state accounts for about 6% of the country's surface

water resources. The Western Ghats are a major divide

for river basins. Rivers flowing westward into the Ara-

bian Sea carry 40% of the state’s surface water and

those flowing eastward 60%. The availability of water

from these river basins is estimated to be 7,663 thou-

sand million cubic feet per annum (TMC/a) of which

45% (3,475 TMC/a or 98 billion m3/a) can be economi-

cally utilised. The state can utilise only 40% of the po-

tential (1,690 TMC/a or 48 billion m3/a) because the

west flowing rivers cannot be harnessed (refer Table 2

on page number 71).

WATER RESOURCES AND MANAGEMENT AT A GLANCE

Water balance Sectoral demand (2000)

Rain and other gains 236 billion m3/a Household 1.65 billion m

3/a

Evapo-transpiration 110 billion m3/a Agriculture (irrigation) 31.43 billion m

3/a

Releases to sea and other states 109 billion m3/a Industry 1.35 billion m

3/a

Input over output 18 billion m3/a Power sector 1.50 billion m

3/a

Surface water Others 1.50 billion m3/a

Economically available 98 billion m3/a Irrigation

Present utilisation 48 billion m3/a Water consumed 31.43 billion m

3/a

Groundwater Groundwater thereof (absolute) 9.7 billion m3/a

Replenishable 15.9 billion m3/a Groundwater use by quantity 31%

Available 15.3 billion m3/a Groundwater use by net area 37%

Present utilisation (absolute) 10.7 billion m3/a Gross irrigated area 41.0 lakh ha

Present utilisation (relative) 70% Net irrigated area 33.9 lakh ha

Irrigation thereof 9.7 billion m3/a Gross irrigated area as share of cultivable area 32%

Domestic, industry thereof 0.97 billion m3/a


70

Figure 1: Water availability of basins in Karnataka


71

Table 1: Estimated yield of water from river basins of Karnataka

River system Catchment area Economically

available (TMC/a) Share

Utilisation (TMC/a)

Share km

2 Share

1. Godavari 4,405 2.3% 49.97 1.4% 22.37 1.3%

2. Krishna 113,271 59.1% 969.44 27.9% 1,156.00 68.4%

3. Cauvery 34,273 17.8% 425.00 12.2% 408.62 24.2%

4. West Flowing Rivers 26,214 13.7% 1,998.83 57.5% 0 0

5. North Pennar

13,610 7.1% 32.00 0.9% 103.31 6.1% 6. South Pennar

7. Palar

Total in TMC/a 3,475 1,690

in billion m3/a 98 48

Adapted from Department of Water Resources (2010)

Table 2: Groundwater availability in Karnataka (2004)

District

Annual recharge in HAM/a Natural dis-charge in

HAM/a

Net water availability in

HAM/a Monsoon season Non-monsoon

Total Rainfall Other Rainfall Other

1. Bagalkote 18,558 14,634 4,362 6,774 44,329 1,526 42,802

2. Bangalore Rural incl. Ramanagara

16,317 15,129 6,538 8,397 46,381 2,143 44,239

3. Bangalore Urban 4,568 7,638 2,384 3,071 17,661 892 16,769

4. Belgaum 60,987 57,595 6,752 23,891 149,225 5,450 143,775

5. Bellary 27,547 17,745 7,618 12,700 65,610 2,135 63,476

6. Bidar 35,293 4,550 989 2,221 43,054 2,128 40,926

7. Bijapur 43,164 4,471 6,474 3,158 57,267 2,606 54,661

8. Chamarajanagar 19,072 12,716 6,911 4,070 42,768 1,612 41,156

9. Chikkamagalur 23,355 13,051 8,481 5,882 50,768 2,212 48,556

10. Chitradurga 32,492 11,824 8,296 8,403 61,016 2,921 58,094

11. Dakshina Kannada 43,990 2,165 4,021 4,567 54,743 2,689 52,054

12. Davanagere 26,535 17,401 1,959 15,578 61,472 1,861 59,610

13. Dharwad 24,129 1,720 3,607 1,437 30,894 1,499 29,395

14. Gadag 13,265 3,514 4,074 3,753 24,605 1,074 23,532

15. Gulbarga incl. Yadgir 70,528 10,917 7,498 3,671 92,615 4,131 88,484

16. Hassan 20,488 19,395 7,925 6,612 54,421 2,238 52,183

17. Haveri 21,302 12,936 4,747 3,529 42,515 1,845 40,670

18. Kodagu 21,029 2,065 5,607 1,117 29,818 1,099 28,720

19. Kolar incl. Chikkaballapur 29,168 12,803 8,346 11,232 61,550 2,487 59,063

20. Koppal 20,252 25,028 3,676 23,070 72,025 1,876 70,149

21. Mandya 11,733 36,375 5,766 11,805 65,679 1,275 64,404

22. Mysore 19,850 11,380 8,810 2,902 42,942 1,799 41,143

23. Raichur 21,247 20,754 3,941 21,940 67,883 1,525 66,358

24. Shimoga 44,268 28,926 3,386 12,003 88,584 3,729 84,855

25. Tumkur 33,990 33,189 12,688 17,125 96,993 3,976 93,017

26. Uttara Kannada 67,640 1,727 1,819 3,239 74,425 3,660 70,765

27. Udupi 46,284 1,363 2,839 2,945 53,431 2,629 50,803

Total in HAM/a 817,051 401,012 149,515 225,095 1,592,673 63,013 1,529,660

Total in billion m3/a 8.71 4.01 1.50 2.25 15.93 0.63 15.30

Adapted from Asian Development Bank (2009). Scoping Study for CDTA: Integrated Water Resource Management in Karnataka; TA RSC-C91761 (India)


72

2.1.3. Lakes and tanks

A portion of water demand is met from lakes and

tanks. Karnataka has about 37,000 traditional tanks

with a potential command area of 685,000 ha. About

60% of these are on the southern plateau, 25% in the

Malnad region and 15% on the northern plateau. Most

of them (50%) have a command area of 4 to 20 ha and

38% have less than 4 ha. Only 11.4% have a command

area greater than 20 ha. Besides traditional tanks, there

are about 20,000 irrigation tanks in the state with an

irrigation potential of 6.5 lakh ha. Tanks alone serve

nearly 80% of the minor irrigation potential. The state

also has about 1,100 other minor surface irrigation

structures that include barrages, bridges-cum-barrages,

moles in river courses (anicuts) and pick-ups for lift irri-

gation. The relative contribution of tanks in the irriga-

tion potential since 1951 has declined with the devel-

opment of surface water irrigation and the shrinking of

tanks owing to encroachment and siltation. Urban are-

as including Bangalore have a large number of lakes

and tanks for impounding monsoon runoff to meet

drinking water needs. The city alone has presently 201

water bodies, 96 of which are perennial.

2.2. GROUNDWATER

Though groundwater is considered ubiquitous, it is not

uniformly available. Weathered hard rocks account for

97% of the aquifers, the great majority being granite

(90%) and the remainder Deccan trap basalts. Alluvial

coastal flood plains account for only 2% of aquifers and

other formations for just 1%.

Tube and bore wells irrigate a net area of 12.5 lakh ha,

contributing 37% to the state’s net irrigated area (refer

Table 6). As detailed in Table 2, the replenishable

groundwater is 15.9 billion m3 and annual groundwa-

ter availability 15.3 billion m3. As is discussed in section

3.1.2 in more detail, the groundwater draft stands at

10.7 billion m3 out of which 91% is for irrigation alone.

The increasing dependence on groundwater has al-

ready led to a 70% of groundwater development

against 58% in the country.

2.3. WATER BALANCE

Estimates have shown that water availability varies sig-

nificantly between northern and southern regions of

the state. An indicative water balance for the state, as

presented at Table 3, shows that water availability is

highly limited. The state receives 92% of water through

rainfall and 8% from the upper riparian state Maha-

rashtra, totalling to 236 billion m3 per year. About 50%

of this is lost in evaporation from the soil and transpira-

tion of plants. This is generally referred to as evapo-

transpiration. Input stands less than 18 billion m3 per

year over the aggregate output. This implies that with

growing water uses, the state will face water deficits

and is unlikely able to meet future agricultural, indus-

trial and domestic water requirements. However, a

thought can be given to the possibilities of utilising

water of west flowing rivers but potential ecological

costs must be closely considered. Construction of dams,

irrigation projects, land use change, encroachment of

river beds, deforestation, diversion of water from rivers,

groundwater extraction, channel dredging have af-

fected water balances of rivers and other water bodies

in recent years.

3. PRESSURE POINTS

Water is linked to nearly every human activity. The

pressures on water, which are chiefly over-utilisation

and pollution, have numerous sources. Likewise, insuf-

ficient or polluted water impacts not only the ecosys-

tem but a wide range of human activities. Figure 2

provides an overview over the main drivers, pressures

and their inter-linkages.

Table 3: Water balance of Karnataka under average conditions

Flow Quantity in million m3/a Share

Input Precipitation over Karnataka 218,323 92%

Expected flow from upper riparian’s (Maharashtra) 18,159 8%

Total input 236,483 100%

Output Evapo-transpiration from forests 45,754 20.9%

Evapo-transpiration from non-forest and non-agricultural land 18,955 8.7%

Evapo-transpiration from rainfed agriculture 27,172 12.4%

Evapo-transpiration attributable to irrigated agriculture 19,046 8.7%

Evapo-transpiration total 109,727 50.2%

Water release to Andhra Pradesh 31,407 14.4%

Water release to Tamil Nadu 7,607 3.5%

Water release into Arabian Sea 70,000 32.0%

Water release total 109,014 49.8%

Total output 218,741 92.5%

Excess of input over output in million m3/a 17,741 7.5 %

Adapted from Asian Development Bank., 2009


73

3.1. WATER DEMAND

3.1.1. Overview

Especially for groundwater, reliable current data for

withdrawals by different sectors are not available. The

best available estimate for the year 2000, considering

both surface and groundwater, combined with a pro-

jection for future demand is presented at [Table 4: Sec-

toral water demand in Karnataka]. The state is facing

water shortages due to depletion, degradation and

poor management of water resources. Scarcity of wa-

ter is likely to limit future economic growth unless it is

adequately managed as emphasised by Karnataka’s

State Water Policy, 2002. Access to adequate water for

agricultural, industrial and domestic uses are competi-

tive in nature. Agriculture, the state’s largest livelihood

provider, continues to require the major portion of wa-

ter. At the same time, demand from other sectors is

rising persistently. Domestic supplies are already falling

short of requirements even though they account for

only a small portion of the demand.

3.1.2. Agriculture

Agriculture is the biggest consumer of fresh water and

irrigation accounts for about 84% of utilisable water.

The demand is projected to rise from 1,110 TMC/a

Figure 2: Water resources: Drivers, pressures and impacts


74

(31 billion m3/a) to 1,356 TMC/a (38 billion m

3/a) be-

tween 2000 and 2025, driven primarily by the growth

of the population coupled with demand for agricultur-

al products. Groundwater contributes 9.7 billion m3/a

or 31% of the irrigation water (refer section 3.3). By

contrast, 37% area is irrigated with groundwater. The

share of agriculture in the water demand is expected

to decline from 84% to 73% by 2025 (refer Table 4).

Physical limitations and imbalances in water availability

between basins and regions impede meeting rising

demands. Secondly, the rapidly growing demand for

water in other sectors will compete with agriculture.

Given the perspective that supply will be increasingly

constrained, water productivity — that is crop yield per

drop of water — needs to be increased. Inefficiency in

water management is inflating the demand, resulting

in inequitable distribution and underutilisation of the

irrigation potential. Unauthorised use of irrigation wa-

ter in excess of allotments, particularly in the head

reach, and illegal pumping from canals are depriving

farmers of their due share at tail-end and lower

productivity here. Variability in precipitation and the

feared emergence of climate change poses a serious

threat to a prevalent rain-fed agriculture. The contin-

ued exploitation of groundwater by farmers is a logical

consequence. It offers control over water supply after

short gestation periods with highly subsidised or free

power.

42 irrigation projects in the state have been completed

so far, 55 projects are ongoing and 14 new projects are

on the anvil. A number of so-called multipurpose dams

have been constructed. These are equipped with pro-

visions for irrigation, hydropower generation, flood

control and water supply. Major dams include Krishna-

raja Sagara, Tungbhadra, Ghataprabha, Bhadra, Lin-

ganamakki, Narayanapur, Malaprabha, Kabini, Hema-

vathy, Harangi, Supa, Vanivilasa Sagar, Almatti and

Gerusoppa. Medium range dams are built exclusively

for irrigation.

While demand for further irrigation persists, augment-

ing additional irrigation potential is limited by serious

constraints. The State Water Policy 2002 envisages the

creation of an ultimate irrigation potential of 45 lakh ha

under major, medium and minor irrigation projects. In

addition 16 lakh ha will be created through the devel-

opment of groundwater sources. The state has suc-

ceeded in enhancing gross irrigated area from 16% in

1980-81 to 32% in 2009-10. Gross irrigated area rose to

41.0 lakh ha and net irrigated area to 33.9 lakh ha.

About 37% of irrigated area is irrigated by groundwa-

ter. The districts of Raichur, Mysore, Mandya, Bellary,

Davanagere and Gulbarga benefited significantly from

canal irrigation. In Shimoga, Hassan and Tumkur dis-

trict tanks dominate irrigation while bore wells are pre-

dominant in Tumkur and Belgaum.

3.1.3. Industry

Karnataka is the fifth most industrialised state in India.

Demand for water for industrial uses has been pro-

gressively mounting with the rapid expansion of the

economy. Present water demand of the industry is es-

timated to be 47.6 TMC/a (1.4 billion m3/a) which may

rise to 125 TMC/a (3.5 billion m3/a) by 2025. Industrial

groundwater drawings are estimated to account for

3.6% of the total groundwater utilisation. In absence of

sufficient and reliable surface water, industrial devel-

opment in many parts of the state and particularly

Bangalore, which is the growth centre, is destined to

rely largely on further exploitation of groundwater.

3.1.4. Households

In the year 2000 Karnataka’s households consumed an

estimated 58 TMC/a (1.7 billion m3/a). Domestic de-

mand for water is growing persistently, primarily driven

by rapid urbanisation and compounded by population

Table 4: Sectoral water demand in Karnataka

Sectors 2000 Projection for 2025

TMC/a billion m3/a Share TMC/a billion m

3/a Share

Agriculture 1,110.1 31.43 84.0% 1,356.0 38.40 73.3%

Households 58.2 1.65 4.4% 91.6 2.59 5.0%

Power 52.9 1.50 4.0% 65.2 1.85 3.5%

Others 52.9 1.50 4.0% 211.4 5.99 11.4%

Industry 47.6 1.35 3.6% 125.1 3.54 6.8%

Total 1,321.4 37.42 1,850.1 52.39

Adapted from Planning Commission, 2007

Figure 3: Sectoral water demand in Karnataka (2000)


75

growth. Planning Commission (2007) projects house-

hold consumption to rise to 92 TMC/a (2.6 billion m3/a)

by 2025. In this light World Bank’s (2010) estimate that

70% of the population of developing countries will live

in cities by 2050 highlights a concern to reckon with.

Domestic water in the state accounts for only 4.4% of

the total water demand.

3.2. DRINKING WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION

Domestic requirements are estimated by considering

the human population as well as household-

dependent livestock. Human requirements are general-

ly approximated as 150 litres per capita a day (LPCD) in

rural areas and 200 LPCD in urban areas. For livestock

25 litres per day per head are considered based on the

cattle and buffalo population. Per capita availability of

water varies significantly for urban and rural popula-

tions. Of 208 cities and townships in the state, 54%

receive 200 LPCD. Drinking water supply is significantly

better in urban areas where 78% of households have

access to tap water compared to 48 % of rural house-

holds (refer Table 5). The precarious state of water

supply is also afflicted with poor quality of water in

many rural areas. Consequently, many rural women

and children walk long distances to fetch water for

daily needs from wells and streams. It is estimated that

35% of the approximately 27,000 villages in the state

are served by wells, 9% by mini-water supply schemes

and 56% by a mix of piped water supply and hand

pump schemes. Drinking water schemes comprise of 2

lakh hand pumps and bore wells, 28,874 piped water

supply schemes and 20,845 mini water supply

schemes. Of the nearly 60,000 rural habitations cov-

ered by such schemes, 38% receive 55 LPCD or more.

Sanitation in both rural and urban areas is precarious.

According to 2005 data of Government of Karnataka,

82.5% and 24.7% of rural and urban households re-

spectively have no access to toilets. Further, 64.6% and

19.0% of rural and urban households respectively are

not connected to sewers. Assuming an urban popula-

tion of 37% of Karnataka’s 61.1 million and 100 litres of

sewage per person per day, cities and townships of the

state generate approximately 2,260 million litres of

sewage per day. Only 80% is collected and much less

treated. Only 36 out of 218 urban local bodies have

underground drainage (UGD) and the adequacy of

many of these is questioned.

3.3. GROUNDWATER DEPLETION

The net availability of groundwater declined from 16.3

billion m3/a to 15.3 billion m

3/a between 1992 and

2004 (refer Table 2 or Table 8). There is growing dis-

parity between exploitation and replenishment. Rising

from 4.1 billion m3/a to 10.7 billion m

3/a (refer Table 7

Table 6: Irrigated area by water source in Karnataka 2009-10

Sources Irrigated area lakh ha Share of

net area Gross Net

Canals 14.47 11.05 32.6%

Tanks 2.15 1.96 5.8%

Wells 4.79 4.25 12.5%

Tube and bore wells 14.74 12.52 36.9%

Lift irrigation 1.33 1.06 3.1%

Other sources 3.48 3.07 9.1%

Total in lakh ha 41.0 33.9


Figure 4: Tungabhadra reservoir — A major irrigation project at Hospet

Table 5: Drinking water sources by households in Karnataka (2001)

Source of water Rural Share Urban Share Total Share

Tap 3,236,000 48.5% 2,790,000 78.4% 6,025,000 58.9%

Hand pump 1,530,000 22.9% 220,000 6.2% 1,750,000 17.1%

Tube well 609,000 9.1% 267,000 7.5% 876,000 8.6%

Well 1,038,000 15.6% 230,000 6.5% 1,269,000 12.4%

Tank, pond or lake 101,000 1.5% 10,000 0.3% 111,000 1.1%

River or canal 105,000 1.6% 7,000 0.2% 112,000 1.1%

Spring 28,000 0.4% 2,000 0.1% 31,000 0.3%

Any other 28,000 0.4% 31,000 0.9% 58,000 0.6%

Total 6,675,000 3,557,000 10,232,000

Adapted from Karnataka Human Resource Development Report 2005


76

or Table 8) groundwater drafts nearly tripled in this

period. With a net availability of 15.3 billion m3/a,

groundwater development in Karnataka has reached

an alarming 70%. Irrigation is by far the largest con-

sumer of groundwater. An estimated 37% of the net

irrigated area (compare section 3.1.2) is irrigated by

groundwater. It contributes 31% or 9.7 billion m3/a

(refer Table 7) of the 31 billion m3/a of irrigation water

(compare Table 4).

The state has 8.6 lakh irrigation wells (dug, shallow and

deep-wells) of which 94% have electric pumps to draw

groundwater. Table 7 identifies seven districts (marked

in red) that draw groundwater beyond replenishment.

About 124 of Karnataka’s 176 taluks reached exploita-

tion levels above 70%. Over-exploitation of groundwa-

Table 7: Sectoral groundwater draft and development (2006)

District

Annual groundwater draft in HAM/a Number of bore wells

Groundwater development Irrigation

Domestic, industrial

Total

1. Bagalkote 35,962 3,416 39,378 38,189 92%

2. Bangalore Rural incl. Ramanagara

72,223 3,336 15,559 46,701 171%

3. Bangalore Urban 31,470 1,557 33,027 13,980 197%

4. Belgaum 121,666 8,818 130,485 100,318 91%

5. Bellary 23,740 4,182 27,921 23,369 44%

6. Bidar 19,826 3,279 23,105 26,990 56%

7. Bijapur 31,028 4,617 35,646 54,314 65%

8. Chamarajanagar 34,597 2,162 36,760 26,007 89%

9. Chikkamagalur 20,087 3,243 23,330 24,638 48%

10. Chitradurga 55,844 3,633 59,477 50,099 102%

11. Dakshina Kannada 27,623 3,792 31,415 41,278 60%

12. Davanagere 42,656 3,176 45,832 43,226 77%

13. Dharwad 9,580 1,526 11,106 9,433 38%

14. Gadag 19,966 2,136 22,102 9,915 94%

15. Gulbarga incl. Yadgir 19,447 5,618 25,065 33,653 28%

16. Hassan 31,152 5,709 36,861 47,344 71%

17. Haveri 26,247 2,870 29,117 24,584 72%

18. Kodagu 6,699 1,547 8,246 1,383 29%

19. Kolar incl. Chikkaballapur 110,918 4,405 115,323 61,526 195%

20. Koppal 31,400 2,379 33,779 28,407 48%

21. Mandya 19,649 4,065 23,714 38,828 37%

22. Mysore 19,923 3,915 23,838 26,901 58%

23. Raichur 10,102 3,141 13,243 11,673 20%

24. Shimoga 23,943 3,198 27,141 26,408 32%

25. Tumkur 96,635 5,965 102,600 111,718 110%

26. Uttara Kannada 15,212 2,241 17,452 27,016 25%

27. Udupi 17,138 2,654 19,792 29,804 39%

Total in HAM/a 974,731 96,581 1,071,312 977,702 70%

billion m3/a 9.7 0.97 10.7

Extraction beyond recharge in % 91% 9% 100% Legend:

Adapted from Central Ground Water Board, Government of India, 2006

Table 8: Groundwater resources and infrastructure in Karnataka

Resource profile

Replenishable groundwater 15.9 billion m3/a

Net groundwater availability 15.3 billion m3/a

Groundwater draft 10.7 billion m3/a

Groundwater development 70%

Lifting infrastructure

Number of bore and open wells 10.0 lakh

Number of electric pump sets 15.1 lakh

Stations with falling groundwater 380 of 500

Failed wells in the state 10%


77

ter exacerbates the concentration of pollutants such as

hardness, iron, pH, nitrate and total dissolved solids

(TDS). Rapid depletion of groundwater in 56 water-

sheds encompassing 5,692 villages of 35 taluks and 10

districts are observed by Department of Mines and Ge-

ology. Over-exploitation has resulted in 3 lakh dug

wells drying up. Measures need to be taken to arrest

further exploitation.

3.4. WATER POLLUTION

3.4.1. Pollution sources

Surface and groundwater of the state is under increas-

ing pressure with rising contamination levels of biolog-

ical, toxic, organic and inorganic pollutants. The main

sources are industrial and domestic effluent (so-called

point sources) and non-point sources such as agricul-

tural run-off carrying agro-chemicals, municipal waste

Figure 5: Categorisation of groundwater in Karnataka (2009) — Adapted from Department of Mines and Geology (2010)

Groundwater block classification

Safe: Utilisation of groundwater below 70% without significant long term decline in the pre- or post monsoon period.

Semi-Critical: Utilisation of groundwater be-tween 70% and 90% with significant decline in long term groundwater either in the pre- or post monsoon period.

Critical: Utilisation of groundwater between 90% and 100% significant decline in groundwater trend either in the pre- or post monsoon period.


78

and human faeces from open defecation. Surface and

groundwater has been widely rendered unsafe for

human consumption, in some cases even unsuitable

for irrigation and industrial uses. The damages of water

pollution are pervasive in nature and include damage

to land, biodiversity and agricultural corps associated

with enormous losses in terms of human health, liveli-

hoods and increasing health costs.

It is found that a number of industries fail to comply

with water treatment standards. Untreated or insuffi-

ciently treated effluents appear to find their way into

adjoining rivers or lakes as pollution levels indicate. It is

further suspected that some industries release effluents

through dried up bore wells directly into the ground.

Mines and ore processing were found to discharge

water contaminated with toxic substances causing

widespread land, surface and groundwater pollution in

Bellary and Kemmangundi. Mining industries have dis-

charged tailings in Bellary, Chitradurga, Chikkamaga-

lur, Tumkur, Belgaum, Bagalkot and Bijapur districts. As

discussed in section 3.2, Karnataka’s townships gener-

ate approximately 2,260 million litres of sewage per

day. As explained in section 3.2, only 80% is collected

and much less treated. Only 36 out of 218 urban local

bodies have underground drainage and the adequacy

of many of these is questioned.

3.4.2. Contamination of surface water

Surface water bodies particularly rivers and lakes are

highly polluted with increasing pollution loads from

agricultural discharge, industrial effluents and sewage.

Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB) as-

sessed water quality, sediment and biological samples

in the Tunga, Bhadra and Tungabhadra rivers in 2006-

07. The analysis reveals that in the Tunga river, one of

three sample locations is ‘moderately polluted’ and two

‘slightly’. In the Bhadra river, two of the four sampling

stations are ‘moderately polluted’ and another two

‘slightly’. In the Tunganhadra river, seven of the nine

monitoring stations were classified as ‘moderately pol-

luted’ and one as ‘slightly’. It is inferred that these rivers

have become outlets for untreated or insufficiently

treated wastewater from industries and households.

Between 2009 and 2010 highly polluting (or Red cate-

gory) establishments in Karnataka regulated by KSPCB

were investigated by Environmental Management &

Policy Research Institute (EMPRI). The study identified

13,125 operating Red establishments, including 2,881

industries, 6,391 heath care establishments, 293 mines,

1,616 stone crushers and 1,944 local bodies. Taken

together these were found to consume about 11,000

million litres of water per day (approximately 3.4 billion

m3 per year). Considering that industrial water con-

sumption was estimated to be 1.4 billion m3/a in 2000

(refer Table 4) this finding pertaining to the year 2010

appears reasonable in terms of magnitude. Red estab-

lishments account for the majority of water consump-

tion and possibly pollution. A point worth noting is

that the same establishments claim to generate only

Table 10: Water logged, saline and alkaline affected land in irrigation projects

Command area development authority (CADA)

Affected area in ha

Water logged Saline Alkaline Total

Tungabhadra Project 35,851 52,019 8,346 96,215

Malaprabha & Ghataprabha Projects 33,093 15,547 595 49,235

Cauvery Basin Project 247 2,717 7,862 10,825

Upper Krishna Project 30,765 17,218 11,614 59,597

Bhadra Reservoir Project 9,690 5,525 9,838 25,053

Irrigation Project Zone 2,938 157 154 3,249

Total 112,584 93,182 38,408 244,174

Adapted from Water Resources Department, 2010

Figure 6: Polluted Kengeri lake in Bangalore

Table 9: Classification of Karnataka’s watersheds

Categorisation Area in

km2

No. of watersheds

Share of geographic

area

Safe 111,935 127 58%

Semi-critical 16,764 17 9%

Critical 7,347 10 4%

Over-exploited 56,619 80 29%

Total 192,664 234 100%

Adapted from Department of Mines and Geology, 2010


79

270 million litres of sewage per day and 596 million l/d

of effluent. While the significant discrepancy between

input and output could suggest that 92% of water

consumed goes into products manufactured, it is

feared that vast quantities are discharged unmoni-

tored. The study also identified 28 so-called ‘gross pol-

luters’ among effluent generators who release more

than 100 kg of biological oxygen demand (BOD) per

day. Red establishments release an aggregate of

64,000 kg/d of BOD and 190,000 kg/d of chemical

oxygen demand (COD), some of which is known to

enter water bodies.

The state faces soil erosion in 60% of the cropped area

with major environmental problems such as water

logging, salinity and alkalinity. This has highly affected

soil health in Tungabhadra, Upper Krishna, and Mal-

aprabha-Ghataprabha project areas (refer Table 10).

KSPCB has analysed water quality of selected rivers and

found that the majority of stretches adjoining to urban

areas is severely polluted indicating significant dis-

charges of insufficiently treated or untreated industrial

and domestic wastewater. Rivers are also loaded with

agricultural run-off consisting of high concentration of

chemicals linked to the used of fertilisers and pesticides.

3.4.3. Contamination of groundwater

Department of Mines & Geology’s study ‘Groundwater

hydrology and groundwater quality in and around

Bangalore city’ of 2011 drew attention to the fact that

a range of toxic pollutants associated with industrial

activities are present in Bangalore’s groundwater. Hex-

avalent chromium above limits was detected in 51% of

sampling sites around industrial areas and excess zinc

in as many as 96%. These alarming findings firmly point

at the possibility that untreated industrial effluent from

metal surface coating industries enters the groundwa-

ter. The suspicion lingers that dry bore wells may be

used to hide illegal discharges. The route of entry

needs to be ascertained in order to take action. The

prevention of water pollution in the state has not been

much of a regulatory success.

The over-exploitation of groundwater is causing con-

centrations of pollutants such as hardness, iron, pH,

nitrate and total dissolved solids (TDS) to rise. Continu-

ous exploitation without adequate recharge is likely to

exacerbate this problem. About 25 of Karnataka’s 234

watersheds have serious water quality problems ac-

cording to the recent analysis of groundwater by De-

partment of Mines and Geology. Groundwater is pol-

luted with excess concentration of fluoride, arsenic,

iron, nitrate and salinity due to both anthropogenic

and geogenic (natural) factors. Nitrate pollution mainly

originates from agricultural fertiliser use and discharge

of faecal material. Over-exploitation of groundwater

along with the infiltration of brackish water has caused

salinity in groundwater aquifers. Arsenic, which is con-

sidered as source of skin cancer and skin pigmentation,

is found in areas where gold mining has been preva-

lent or still is. Excessive fluoride in groundwater can

cause fluorosis leading tooth decay and crippled

bones. There are incidents of health effects of contam-

inated groundwater use in the state. About 37% of

habitations suffer from groundwater contamination

including excess fluoride (10.3%), brackishness (7.87%),

excess nitrate (7.2%) and excess iron (11.7%). Ground-

water in these villages is contaminated with fluoride

above 1.5 mg/litre, total dissolved groundwater salts

above 1,500 mg/l, nitrate above 100 mg/l or iron

above 1 mg/l in excess of limits defined.

These findings were largely confirmed by a study

commissioned under the National Rural Drinking Wa-

ter Programme. More than two lakh water samples

were tested by Panchayat Raj Engineering Department

Table 11: Chromium excess values in Bangalore groundwater

Groundwater sampling locations mg/l

Desirable limit 0.05

Bommanahalli, Viratnagar 0.58

Peenya 2nd

Stage, Adrahalli Main Road 1.53

Peenya 2nd

Stage, Adrahalli Main Road 1.84

Peenya 2nd

Stage, Doddana Industrial Estate (1) 0.13

Peenya 2nd

Stage, Doddana Industrial Estate (2) 0.11

Peenya 2nd

Stage, Rajagopal Nagar 10.15

Peenya 2nd

Stage, Ramaiah Extension 0.11

Peenya 3rd Phase 13.20

Peenya 3rd Phase, 10

th Main (1) 0.50


th Main (2) 0.27


th Main (3) 0.89

Rajajinagar Industrial Area, Reshma Dyeing 0.10

Rajajinagar Industrial Town, Anu Polymers 1.28

Rajajinagar Industrial Town, Swadesh Industrial Supplier (1)

4.07

Rajajinagar Industrial Town, Swadesh Industrial Supplier (2)

9.89

Srigandha Kaval, Kavisals Layout 0.31

Srigandhanagar, Hegganahalli (1) 2.63

Srigandhanagar, Hegganahalli (2) 5.59

Yellahanka New Town 10.43


80

(PRED). Findings reveal that more than 30% of Karna-

taka’s citizens are consuming non-potable water, put-

ting their health at risk. In many rural areas high salt

levels were found while fluoride levels were found to

be five times above permissible limits. Urban ground-

water samples were found to be contaminated pre-

dominantly by chemicals. Paradoxically, in some cases

water samples, taken deep in the ground showed

higher contamination levels compared to those taken

from shallow sources.

3.5. MINIMUM FLOW IN RIVERS

In rivers, minimum flows are not presently maintained.

They are important to sustain the environmental bal-

ance and aquatic life in the dry season and also to

avoid the concentration of pollutants. The lack of suffi-

cient flow is also affecting hydropower generation in

the state every summer. Minimum flow requirements

may be achieved through linking of rivers basins. A

National River-Linking Project (NRLP) is mooted and

widely debated. While linking offers arguably better

distribution of available resources, there are significant

concerns about undesirable socio-economic and eco-

logical consequences, the magnitude of which in re-

spect to benefits is at the centre of discussion (refer

section 4.9.3).

4. CHALLENGES

4.1. GROUNDWATER DEPLETION

Over-exploitation of groundwater is a result of the fail-

ure to regulate access. Subsidies for tube wells and

electricity for farmers encouraged exploitation with

little or no safeguards, entrenching a nexus between

energy and water. Exploitation has exceeded recharge

in several areas. In the light of globalisation, corporate

demand for water is likely to increase, competing with

societal needs. This is linked to ill-defined property

rights of groundwater. Legal provision regarding

groundwater property rights could help ensure sus-

tainable use. Therefore, consistent monitoring and

regulation of groundwater development is required to

promote efficiency, equity and sustainability. Recharg-

ing of watersheds through artificial means needs to be

further promoted. Construction of percolation tanks,

silt removal and rehabilitation of tanks can, to some

extent, arrest the drastic decline of groundwater levels.

Realising the gravity of the problem, the central gov-

ernment has come out with Groundwater Recharge

Master Plan fund for groundwater recharge in affected

states. At state level, implementation of the largely

awaited and newly enacted Karnataka groundwater

Act, 2011 has commenced (refer section 5.5.1).

4.2. DRINKING WATER DEFICITS

Growing demand, the depletion of resources, over-

exploitation of groundwater and the deteriorating

quality of drinking water are key concerns. Increasing

migration and urbanisation has become an established

trend. Karnataka’s population has reached 61.1 million

(2011) with an urban share of 37%. Declining per capi-

ta availability of fresh water for drinking needs has im-

pacted health and welfare of urban and rural popula-

tion. The dependency on bore and tube wells in-

creased from 39% to 50% in the state. Bore wells are

an important source of drinking water in rural Karna-

taka and the large scale mining of groundwater for

irrigation has significantly reduced the quality of water.

Excess levels of fluoride, arsenic, iron, nitrate and chlo-

ride in bore well water affect more than 1,538 villages.

Further, the pollution of surface water with chemical

fertilisers and pesticides and industrial and domestic

discharges into water bodies are adverse to human

health and impose high costs on society.

About 63% of women and female children above 5

years are engaged in fetching water from publicly

owned drinking water sources, sometimes over long

distances. This affects the attendance of school-going

girls. People are increasingly depending on markets for

Figure 7: Habitation with affected groundwater (%) — Adapted from Department of Mines & Geology, 2007

Figure 8: Wastage of water — A challenge for meeting demand


81

meeting drinking water needs particularly from private

water suppliers. The demand for packaged water is on

the increase due to health concerns, odour or discol-

ouration of groundwater drawn and limited trust in

the quality of water supplied by municipalities. Accord-

ing to the Bureau of Indian Standards, Karnataka has

200 bottled water manufacturing industries. Private

appropriation of water has resulted in looting of

groundwater in the absence of regulation of ground-

water access.

4.3. WATER LOSS

Much water in the state is ‘lost’ before reaching tail end

farmers because of the dilapidated conditions of irriga-

tion canals. This is reflected in high levels of so-called

non-revenue water (NRW). Losses are detrimental to

the financial health of water utilities and tend to re-

duce not just the quantity of revenue supplies but also

the quality of water. Water is lost through leaks (real or

physical loss) and theft or metering inaccuracies (ap-

parent losses). Non-revenue water is usually measured

as the volume of water lost as share of the net water

supplied. Bangalore has about 48% of water unac-

counted for due to leakages and possibly theft.

In irrigation projects losses are typically expressed per

kilometre of the distribution network per day. Poor lin-

ing of canals causes seepage. Canal maintenance and

management is impeded by poor cost recovery and

lack of support for modernisation of dilapidated canals

resulting in insufficient reach of water to tail end farm-

ers. Many head reach irrigated lands by contrast battle

with problems associated with excess water: Water

logging, salinity and alkalinity. This has not only result-

ed in poor yields affecting farmer livelihoods but also

cost for the exchequer for land reclamation. Upgrading

irrigation infrastructure combined with scientific water

management practices and water rates requires atten-

tion.

4.4. WATER AS ECONOMIC GOOD

Water scarcity is growing with increasing population

and growing demand for water from all sectors of the

economy. Consequently the per capita availability of

water in parts of the state is low and dependent on the

season. The growing scarcity of drinking water in cities

is reflected in increasing economic value of water re-

sources (Zerah, 2000). Water can be stored, transport-

ed, packaged and sold. However, governments have

largely failed to assign significance to the economic

aspects of water supply in policy frameworks. Demand

estimates are based on projections of the growing

population but the impact of water pricing on the de-

mand has not received much attention yet. Demand is

inversely related to its price. Supply augmentation is

given higher priority than demand management result-

ing in the emergence of a ‘low-level-equilibrium-trap’

(Reddy, 1999). Considering the growing water scarcity,

the failure to incorporate demand-side management in

water policies is likely to lead to failures in water man-

agement.

The emergence of a water markets in the 1970s has

placed emphasis on the utilisation of surface and

groundwater resources amidst increasing demand for

irrigation, industrial and domestic needs. The growing

water market is depriving small and marginal farmers

and weaker sections of society of water access. Water

sharing under community ownership rights has been

broken with the growth of groundwater development.

Unauthorised use of canal water in command areas is

rampant. Farmers in the tail end regions of canals fall

short of anticipated supplies. It is necessary to intro-

duce water markets for allocation and sharing of scarce

water by groups of farmers. This could well reduce

groundwater dependence. Farmers should be provid-

ed with tradable groundwater rights with regulated

prices for optimal exploitation of water.

Figure 9: Water exists in nature, but access is difficult


82

4.5. DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT

Demand-side management of water helps to operate

within limits of supplies. Unfortunately, supply en-

hancement strategies dominate water resource plan-

ning in developing countries over demand manage-

ment opportunities. India and Karnataka are no excep-

tion here. Under these circumstances efficiency in wa-

ter utilisation is difficult if not impossible to achieve.

Developing countries typically lack the capacity to

evolve market-based instruments for making water

access efficient and equitable. As the state is entering

an era of severe water shortage, there is an urgent

need to develop demand-side approaches to reduce

consumption to meet the demand of all sectors.

4.6. WATER PRODUCTIVITY

Excessive use of surface water for irrigation is driven by

low user charges compared to groundwater extrac-

tion. Water logging is common in irrigation command

areas and encourages growing of crops unsuitable for

respective agro-climatic regions. Limiting irrigation to

meet just the crop water requirement will help judi-

cious use of available canal water. The integration of

so-called blue and green flows and the concept of vir-

tual water transfers could help achieving sustainable

development.

4.7. THE WATER DICHOTOMY

The declining trend in the economic contribution of

water resources has occurred due to both physical and

economic water scarcity. It resulted in insufficient use,

poor management, declining water productivity, and

increasing environmental and economic costs. Obvi-

ously, the outcome is a growing imbalance between

water needs and supply capabilities. Inefficiency in wa-

ter use and management is mainly caused by market

failure. Poor property rights and improper allocation

have further complicated operationalising water poli-

cies.

4.8. ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY AND INSTITUTIONAL CAPABILITY

Achieving economic efficiency of water supply is not

likely in the near future. A number of countries of the

world have been afflicted with water distress and

mounting water production and supply costs.

Niemczynowicz (1996) observes that ‘water-related

problems in cities are already enormous, and further

degradation is expected. Water shortage is a growing

problem and delivery of safe drinking water cannot be

assured’. However, improvement in economic efficien-

cy depends on institutional capability, reliability, finan-

cial sustainability, environmental sustainability and af-

fordability. Economic efficiency in case of urban water

supply should also reflect the goal of supplying potable

water all day round (24/7) and providing access to all.

Improvement of the economic efficiency depends on

evolving effective water pricing mechanisms taking

into account the ability of households to pay. Econom-

ic status influences the peoples’ willingness to pay for

improvement in access to and quality of water. Water

pricing, therefore, needs to achieve two objectives

simultaneously: Recovery of the production cost and

provision of efficient and reliable supply services. With-

out the provision for better water supply services, mere

increases in water tariffs alone are unlikely to achieve

this.

4.9. INTER-STATE WATER DISPUTES

4.9.1. Cauvery water dispute

Karnataka has reached a stage where it cannot signifi-

cantly enhance the utilisation of rivers as inter-state

water disputes are dragging developmental activities.

Sharing of water from the Cauvery river among the

riparian states has evolved into a long-standing con-

tentious issue which by itself is indicative of the grow-

ing scarcity of water and the socio-economic and polit-

ical ramifications of water shortages. The Cauvery Wa-

ter Disputes Tribunal in its judgment in 2007 allocated

a certain share of water to each party on the basis of

50% dependability and 270 TMC/a (7.7 billion m3/a) to

Karnataka (refer Table 12). This limits the further aug-

mentation potential for the state.

4.9.2. Krishna Water Dispute Tribunal

Sharing of water of the Krishna river between Maha-

rashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh has been a

contentious issue for the last 43 years. In 2010, the

Krishna Water Dispute Tribunal announced a water-

sharing formula valid until 2050. It allocated a total of

2,578 TMC/a (73.0 billion m3/a) to all three states of

which Karnataka is entitled to 911 TMC/a (25.8 billion

m3/a). The state is also permitted to stock additional

water in the Almatti dam by raising its height by five

metres to 524 metres.

Table 12: Allocation by Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal 2007

Beneficiaries Cauvery basin

area in km2

Water allocated

in TMC/a Share

Kerala 2,930 30 4.1%

Karnataka 36,240 270 36.5%

Tamil Nadu 48,581 419 56.6%

Punducherry 149 7 0.9%

Environmental protection - 10 1.4%

Inevitable loss into the sea - 4 0.5%

Total 87,900 740


83

4.9.3. Perspectives

These water disputes have economic and political rami-

fications, extending to delays in the completion of irri-

gation and drinking water projects. A proposal to over-

come water scarcity among the states through the Na-

tional River-Linking Project (NRLP) is presently mooted

and widely debated. It seeks to transfer surplus water

from Himalayan rivers to the more deficient peninsular

rivers. Even though this ambitious plan is expected to

reduce imbalances in water availability in the country,

economic and environmental concerns are mounting.

Critics hold that the project is not cost effective and

environmentally ruinous, while pointing at water sav-

ing as better alternative for irrigation and other uses

(refer section 3.5).

5. ACTIONS INITIATED

5.1. WATER POLICY

Karnataka’s State Water Policy 2002 aims to achieve:

Providing drinking water of 55 litres per capita and

day (LPCD) in rural areas, 70 LPCD in towns, 100

LPCD in the city municipal council areas and 135

LPCD in city corporation areas;

Creating an ultimate irrigation potential of 45 lakh

ha under major, medium and minor irrigation pro-

jects facilitating the creation of an additional irriga-

tion potential of 16 lakh ha;

Improving the performance of all water resources

projects;

Improving productivity of irrigated agriculture by

involving users in irrigation management;

Harnessing the hydropower potential in the state;

Providing a legislative, administrative and infrastruc-

ture framework to ensure fair and equitable distri-

bution and utilisation of water resources.

5.2. IRRIGATION

The state has steadily and assertively pursued an in-

crease in irrigated area since the 1950s. However,

there are huge gaps between expenditure incurred

and revenue recovered. The state has invested INR

3,371 crore in 2008-09 of which INR 2,586 crore has

been invested in major and medium irrigation schemes

and INR 785 crore in minor irrigation. However, agri-

cultural development is hindered with delays, con-

straints in harnessing the irrigation potential created

and limited expansions. Some irrigation projects are

languishing for years in wait for allocation of funds to

absorb the rising cost of construction.

Wasteful use of irrigation has caused land degradation

through water logging, salinisation and acidification.

As a consequence, the degradation of irrigated land

has created uncertainties of yields and imposed high

cultivation costs requiring more fertilisers, which in turn

degrade the land even further.

5.3. DRINKING WATER SUPPLY

The Bharat Nirman Policy aims at building rural infra-

structure across India. It made impressive achievements

in enhancing rural water supply especially in areas af-

fected by water contamination. Even though tap water

access in the state has risen, people continue to rely on

tube wells. People have shown some inclination to-

wards accepting private participation in drinking water

supply. It is important to treat water as both public and

private good and the onus of water conservation

should not burden government alone. Shared respon-

sibilities between people and government will make

community based water supply projects more effective.

Karnataka’s Jal Nirmal project follows a participatory

approach that strengthens decentralisation and em-

powers local governments. The community is enabled

to take control of implementation, operation and

maintenance of water supply and sanitation facilities in

rural areas. The project has brought drinking water to

700 gram panchayats in 11 of the state’s 30 districts.

This model will be extended to cover all areas where

quality and quantity of water supply is a concern. Un-

der the total sanitation campaign, some districts have

been successful in providing household latrines. Expe-

rience gained will be used in other areas of the state.

As discussed in section 3.4, the problem of water con-

tamination affects many villages. Government under

the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission has

taken up several steps to deal with the problem of ex-

cess fluoride in drinking water. De-fluoridisation plants

have been established in 200 villages and water filters

have been supplied to individual household at subsi-

dised rates in fluoride affected villages. Also about

1,000 rooftop rainwater harvesting systems were con-

structed by Department for Panchayat Raj and Rural

Development over the last eight years in four districts

where fluoride and chlorine content rendered water

unfit for consumption.

5.4. WATER CONSERVATION

5.4.1. People’s participation

Knowledge sharing helps stimulating water conserva-

tion. Peoples’ participation is essential for efficient wa-

ter resource management. Achieving efficiency in wa-

ter management, especially in view of the alarming

status, has become indispensable. Water resource


84

management needs to be practiced by integrating

demand side management.

5.4.2. Micro irrigation

The mounting scarcity of water has reflected in increas-

ing adoption of water saving techniques such as drip

and sprinkler irrigation. It is observed that this method

has aided not only water conservation but also im-

proved the productivity of crops and reduced the cost

of cultivation. In 2001 the state had a significant

66,300 ha under drip irrigation. Area under sprinkler

irrigation has increased from 41,900 ha in 1998 to

125,000 ha in 2005. The state with its large rain-fed

arable land needs micro irrigation and is presently

providing 75% subsidy to farmers’ adoption drip or

sprinkler systems. It is understood however that the

theft of sprinkler pipes has become a deterrent. In view

of this concern Karnataka State Action Plan on Climate

Change (2012) proposes an eradication of the market

for stolen pipes through re-distribution of existing sub-

sidies on micro irrigation so as to bring farmer’s net

cost of distribution pipes below the black market cost.

5.5. GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT

5.5.1. New legislation

Rising concerns about diminishing groundwater re-

sources prompted the legislation of the Karnataka

Groundwater (Regulation and Control of Development

and Management) Act, 2011. Through the newly con-

stituted Groundwater Authority, the act seeks to regu-

late access and exploitation of groundwater. Permis-

sions are required for operating existing bore wells,

drilling new bore wells and drawing water for wa-

ter‐intensive crops in certain notified areas. These can

be refused if stipulated conditions are not met. The act

also stipulates watershed management, rainwater har-

vesting and groundwater recharge in ‘worthy’ areas to

be notified.

5.5.2. Watershed development

Commissioned in 2001 for a design period of eight

years, the Karnataka Watershed Development Project

(KWDP), known as Sujala, is implemented in seven dis-

tricts. The project covers 516,000 ha of land spread

over 77 sub-watersheds, 1,270 villages benefiting near-

ly 4 lakh households. The project seeks to improve the

resource base and productive potential of watersheds.

In the process community and institutional arrange-

ments are strengthened through participatory in-

volvement of stakeholders, particularly beneficiaries. It

offers investment support to vulnerable groups for in-

come generation activities.

A budget of INR 500 crore has been earmarked for

groundwater development under the Jalasiri Pro-

gramme for the three-year period from 2010 to 2012.

Recognising the urgent need for groundwater re-

charge, the Water Resources Department proposes the

construction of 200,000 recharge structures per an-

num for a period of five years with particular focus on

over-exploited and critical watersheds. Around 6,000

recharge structures have been constructed every year

by the department with an annual fund of INR

100 crore. Close to 56,000, groundwater recharge

structures have been created in 2009-10 by Depart-

ment for Panchayat Raj and Rural Development with a

budget of INR 530 crore. Another 90,000 structures

had been planned for 2010-11. With a budget of less

than INR 15 crore per annum the Department of Mines

& Geology is also said to have constructed 1,200

groundwater recharge structures.

5.6. CONSERVATION OF RIVERS

Under the National River Conservation Plan (NRCP)

eight towns of Karnataka have been selected for initiat-

ing action on pollution prevention of major rivers. In

this context Karnataka Urban Water Supply and Drain-

age Board (KUWSDB) is providing underground drain-

age (UGD) and sewage treatment plants (STPs) in se-

lected townships.


Groundwater protection

Soil and moisture conservation measures need to

be further strengthened. Planting of trees helps re-

taining moisture and improve soil nutrients,

bunding and planting around arable land has to be

Ancient knowledge in today’s rulings

A ruling of the Supreme Court with reference to water

conservation: “… our ancestors were not fools. They knew

that in certain years there may be droughts or water

shortages for some other reason, and water was also

required for cattle to drink and bathe in etc. Hence they

built a pond attached to every village, a tank attached to

every temple, etc. These were their traditional rainwater

harvesting methods, which served them for thousands of

years. Over the last few decades, however, most of these

ponds in our country have been filled with earth and

built upon by greedy people, thus destroying their

original character. This has contributed to the water

shortages in the country. Also, many ponds are

auctioned off at throw-away prices to businessmen for

fisheries in collusion with authorities/gram panchayat

officials, and even this money collected from these so

called auctions are not used for the common benefit of

the villagers but misappropriated by certain individuals.

The time has come when these malpractices must stop.”


85

encouraged, agro-forestry, social forestry, and also

planting of trees in public and waste lands need to

be taken up to enhance both conservation of soil

and also enhancing groundwater recharge;

As the state is entering an era of severe water

shortage, there is an urgent need to quantify the

extent of this problem by taking into account both

supply and demand-side approaches to meet water

demand sustainably for all sectors;

The Water Act requires significantly better en-

forcement, particularly in respect of industries some

of which are believed to discharge untreated or in-

sufficiently treated effluent. This would require sig-

nificant strengthening of regulatory mechanisms

and institutional capacities.

Drinking water and sanitation

Groundwater quality does not meet drinking water

standards in many districts of the state. While re-

charge through rainwater harvesting and water-

shed development helps reducing contamination,

quality assessment and treatment before consump-

tion remain essential for safeguarding the health of

rural citizens presently affected by contamination;

Drinking water is increasingly considered an eco-

nomic commodity owing to its growing scarcity.

Market forces can help rationalise the consumption

and water efficiency. But left to themselves market

forces cannot ensure equitable access to safe drink-

ing water by all section of society. New paradigms

are needed to deal with both supply-side and de-

mand-side management of this essential common

good;

Rapidly growing urban areas require adequate wa-

ter and sanitation infrastructure to mitigate the

otherwise ensuring high social and economic cost.

Adequate sanitation remains to be provided to the

majority of rural households;

Water utilities need to be held accountable for

drinking water quality at consumer end. Drastic and

systematic improvements are needed to provide

potable water to piped households to reverse the

trend that water is purified by utilities and then

again by consumers;

Following the example of Bangalore, rainwater

harvesting should be made compulsory for all new

buildings in urban areas in the state.

Agriculture

Water conservation programmes need to be inte-

grated with peoples’ participation such as Neeru-

Meeru in Andhra Pradesh. Better performance of

agriculture in terms of productivity depends on ef-

fective water management and equitable utilisa-

tion;

Cropping patterns suitable for agro-climatic zones

should be adopted. Emphasis should be placed on

the cultivation of crops with low water intensity;

Electricity subsidies for farmers need to be critically

reviewed and reduced to rationalise both the use of

groundwater and the use of electricity by setting

incentives for savings;

Sprinkler and drip irrigation require massive promo-

tion to reduce the water intensity of agriculture

while safeguarding productivity.

Conservation of water bodies

Strengthen the enforcement of the Water Act, par-

ticularly in respect of urban local bodies who permit

sewage to enter water bodies;

To safeguard water bodies, a buffer zone of 100

metres (instead of presently 30 metres) around

lakes and the banks of the perennial rivers should

be reserved. This zone should be developed as ex-

clusive greenbelt;

The recommendations of the 2011 report of the

committee constituted by the High Court of Karna-

taka for conservation of lakes should be referred to.

Figure 10: Extractions are quantifiable — Metered bore well in Jaipur


86

87

CHAPTER 4

AIR AND NOISE

Chapter 4: Air and Noise

88


89

CONTENTS

1. AIR QUALITY MONITORING AND STANDARDS ..................... 91

1.1. NATIONAL AIR QUALITY MONITORING PROGRAMME .............................................................. 91

1.2. NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS ................................................................ 92

2. AIR QUALITY STATUS.................................................................... 92

2.1. BANGALORE ............................................................... 92 2.1.1. Current levels ................................................................... 92 2.1.2. Seasonal behaviour ....................................................... 93

2.2. OTHER CITIES .............................................................. 93

3. AIR POLLUTION SOURCES .......................................................... 94

4. IMPACT ON HEALTH .................................................................... 96

4.1. OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NOX) ................................. 96

4.2. SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO2) .......................................... 96

4.3. CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) ...................................... 96

4.4. OZONE (O3)................................................................. 96

4.5. PARTICULATE MATTER (PM) .................................... 97

4.6. VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCS) ....... 97 4.6.1. Hydrocarbons .................................................................. 97 4.6.2. Benzene (C6H6) ............................................................... 97 4.6.3. Hexachlorobenzene ...................................................... 98 4.6.4. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ............................ 98 4.6.5. Photochemical smog .................................................... 98 4.6.6. Industrial smog ............................................................... 98

4.7. AIR TOXINS .................................................................. 98

4.8. CONTROL MEASURES ............................................... 99

5. NOISE POLLUTION........................................................................ 99

5.1. ORIGIN AND IMPACT ................................................ 99

5.2. REGULATIONS ............................................................ 99

5.3. NOISE POLLUTION LEVELS .................................... 100

6. EMERGING INTERVENTION AREAS ....................................... 100


90

TABLES

Table 1: National Ambient Air Quality Standards effective from November 2009 ................................................................ 91 Table 2: Annual average concentration of criterion pollutants in other cities of Karnataka for 2008-09 ...................... 94 Table 3: Ambient air quality standards with respect to noise (2000) ......................................................................................... 99 Table 4: Night time noise levels before and after Deepavali in 2010 ..................................................................................... 100

FIGURES

Figure 1: Annual averages of ambient air quality in µg/m3 at Graphite India Ltd. ................................................................ 92

Figure 2: Annual averages of ambient air quality in µg/m3 at Amco Batteries ...................................................................... 93

Figure 3: Ambient air quality under NAMP in Bangalore in 2009-10 ........................................................................................ 93 Figure 5: Seasonal behaviour of RSPM at Amco Batteries ............................................................................................................. 94 Figure 6: Sampling locations of source apportionment study of TERI (2010) ......................................................................... 95 Figure 7: Sources of NOX in pollution loads ....................................................................................................................................... 95 Figure 8: Sources of PM10 in emission loads ....................................................................................................................................... 95 Figure 9: A mobile health hazard .......................................................................................................................................................... 95 Figure 10: Air pollution — Traffic police taking precaution ........................................................................................................... 96 Figure 11: Burning garbage near Begur lake in Bangalore .......................................................................................................... 98 Figure 12: Emission test for vehicles in Bangalore ........................................................................................................................... 99

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91

1. AIR QUALITY MONITORING AND STANDARDS

The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 of

India describes air pollutants as ‘Any solid, liquid or

gaseous substance (including noise) present in the at-

mosphere in such concentration as may or tend to be

injurious to human beings or other living creatures or

plants or property or environment’. The condition of air

quality in the surroundings is the ambient air quality.

Pollutants cause damages to the natural environment

and the atmosphere. Air pollution directly affects peo-

ple with asthma, lung infections and heart diseases.

Higher levels of pollution in the air are linked to de-

creases in the lung function and increases in heart at-

tacks. Long term exposure to atmospheric air pollution

may lead to cancer and damage to immune, respirato-

ry, neurological and reproductive systems and in ex-

treme cases, can even cause death.

1.1. NATIONAL AIR QUALITY MONITORING PROGRAMME

In India the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) co-

ordinates the air quality monitoring regime through its

nationwide programme known as National Air Quality

Monitoring Programme (NAMP). With the assistance of

26 State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) in respective

states, five Pollution Control Committees (PCCs) in un-

ion territories with the National Environmental Engi-

neering Research Institute (NEERI, a CSIR Research lab),

CPCB is monitoring ambient air quality through 363

stations in 139 cities across the country as of Novem-

ber, 2009. The parliamentary consultative committee

on environment, while reviewing the monitoring of air

quality felt the need for increasing the number of mon-

itoring stations to 1,000 by 2010. Regular monitoring

stations need to be commissioned in proportion to the

population density, traffic density and industrial densi-

ty. Many more online stations need to be established to

get real time information of the spatial distribution of

pollution and areas of acute pollution. But a mere 30

stations could be added during 2006-08. Many of these

are still not online.

Monitoring equipment is generally imported. They are

designed for colder climates and may not efficiently

perform under tropical conditions, which have differ-

ent problems to deal with, such as corrosion and dust.

The standard gases used to calibrate gas analysers are

also imported which many times reach expiration dates

before use leading to faulty data output.

Under the Environment Surveillance Programme, CPCB

has undertaken the task of development of monitoring

protocols and the infrastructure needed for monitoring

and enforcement of the ambient air quality norms. It

undertakes inspections of various industrial units under

the 17 categories to verify compliance to the pre-

scribed standards. While the absence of trained per-

sonnel and weak inter-agency coordination have often

been cited as the main reasons for laxity in monitoring

and implementing the standards, there are several

other factors that could be hampering the enforce-

ment of laws including opposition from industries.

The Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB) is

monitoring ambient air quality under NAMP in 14

monitoring stations at Bangalore and other six major

towns in the state. Six of them are in industrial areas,

six in residential, rural and other areas and two in sen-

sitive areas. KSPCB has also commissioned two Contin-

uous ambient air quality monitoring stations

(CAAQMS), one at City Railway Station and another at

Saneguruvanahalli, Bangalore. The stations are operat-

ing 24 hours 365 days and the data generated sent to

CPCB by e-mail every day.

Table 1: National Ambient Air Quality Standards effective from November 2009

Pollutant Time

weighted average

Concentration in ambient air

Notified ecolog-ically sensitive

areas

All other areas

Sulphur dioxide (SO2), µg/m

3

Annual

24 hours

20

80

50

80

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), µg/m

3

Annual

24 hours

30

80

40

80

Particulate mat-ter (PM10), µg/m

3

Annual

24 hours

60

100

60

100

Particulate mat-ter (PM2.5), µg/m

3

Annual

24 hours

40

60

40

60

Ozone (O3), µg/m

3

8 hours

1 hour

100

180

100

180

Lead (Pb) µg/m3

Annual

24 hours

0.50

1.0

0.50

1.0

Carbon monox-ide (CO), µg/m

3

8 hours

1 hour

02

04

02

04

Ammonia (NH3), µg/m

3

Annual

24 hours

100

400

100

400

Benzene (C6H6), µg/m

3

Annual 05 05

Benzo () py-rene (BaP) - par-ticulate phase only, ng/m

3

Annual

01 01

Arsenic (As), ng/m

3

Annual 06 06

Nickel (Ni), ng/m

3

Annual 20 20

Notes: Annual arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year at a particular site taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform intervals. 24 or 8 or 1 hourly values, to be compiled over 98% of the time in a year. 2% of the time they may exceed the limits but not on two consecutive days of monitoring.


92

1.2. NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) set

limits for air pollutants with an adequate margin of

safety to protect public health, vegetation and proper-

ty. There were seven parameters, namely, sulphur diox-

ide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOX), ozone (O3), particu-

late matter (PM), lead (Pb), carbon monoxide (CO) and

ammonia (NH3) notified under the Air Act, 1981 and

the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. These are

known as air quality criterion pollutants. Under NAMP,

CPCB and KSPCB regularly monitor only four viz., sul-

phur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOX), suspend-

ed particulate matter (SPM) and respirable suspended

particulate matter (RSPM) which are less than 10 μg in

weight, commonly called PM10.

Keeping in view the increasing vehicular population,

industrial growth and hazardous air pollutants (HAP),

the Government of India has revised the National Am-

bient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) (refer Table 1) in

2009. The earlier distinction between industrial and

residential areas has been abolished entitling citizens

everywhere in India to the same quality of air. From the

previous NAAQS to the one’s notified in 2009, it is ap-

parent that the focus has shifted from SPM to RSPM

(PM10 and PM2.5).

2. AIR QUALITY STATUS

2.1. BANGALORE

Basic data pertaining to the four air criterion pollutants

from 2001 to 2010 are available on a daily basis from

KSPCB and CPCB for six monitoring stations in Banga-

lore and monthly and annual average data for other

towns in Karnataka for 2010-11.

2.1.1. Current levels

Annual average data for three pollutants for the loca-

tions of Graphite India and Amco Batteries for the year

2006-07 to 2010-11 are presented in Figure 1 and Fig-

ure 2. At Graphite India, the average annual values are

mostly within the limits for SO2 and NOX. However the

pollution levels for RSPM exceeded limits in every year,

the maximum being 194 μg/m3 in 2006-07. At Amco

Batteries, SO2 and NOX were well within the limits but

RSPM was much higher for most of the years. The am-

bient air quality at Victoria Hospital is exceeding the

limits for sensitive areas. However, when compared to

the previous year of reporting, air quality has marginal-

ly improved. At Peenya and KHB Yelahanka stations

SO2 and NOX were well within the limits but RSPM ex-

ceeded the limits here as well.

The annual average concentrations of pollutants ob-

tained from the Continuous Ambient Air Quality Moni-

toring (CAAQM) during 2010-11 indicates high levels

of NOX (83 µg/m3) at City Railway Station. However,

RSPM (61 µg/m3) was found marginally exceeding the

limit. All parameters were within the National Ambient

Air Quality Standard limits at S.G. Halli.

Figure 3 presents the pollution levels along with the

standards for all six stations for the year 2009-10. The

levels of SO2 and NOX appear to be well under control.

RSPM is positively a concern as it exceeded the maxi-

mum limit of 60 μg/m3

in four out of six stations (67%).

SO2 and NOX levels are decreasing. The decreasing

trend may be due to interventions that have taken

place in recent years such as the reduction of sulphur

in diesel, use of cleaner fuel such as LPG and imple-

mentation of Bharat Stage III and IV emission norms for

new vehicles and commensurate fuel quality. The fluc-

tuation at the same time may also reflect the exponen-

tial increase in number of vehicles and traffic conges-

tions.

Figure 1: Annual averages of ambient air quality in µg/m3 at Graphite India Ltd. — Adapted from KSPCB Draft Annual Report 2010-11


93

RSPM levels exceed the NAAQS 2009 levels since 2007

in all areas in Bangalore. Fluctuating trends have been

observed during other periods. Even though various

measures have been taken to mitigate particulate mat-

ter levels, the exponential increase in number of diesel

vehicles, the continued presence of 2-stroke vehicles,

resuspension of traffic dust are the causes for the in-

creasing trend.

2.1.2. Seasonal behaviour

For the purpose of comparing the seasonal behaviour,

the average quarterly values of RSPM for a four-year

period 2001-04 and 2006-09 were compared for Amco

Batteries and Graphite India (Figure 4 and Figure 5).

While seasonal or monthly values have not been speci-

fied under the NAAQS, annual limits have been used

as reference. At Graphite India the trend has wors-

ened, which is most pronounced in the summer and

winter season, both of which are dry. At Amco Batter-

ies, RSPM concentrations show the same seasonal

trend but have reduced from the earlier to the recent

sample presented. During the winter season, the aver-

age mixing height is lower as compared to other sea-

sons and atmospheric dispersion is typically at a mini-

mum and therefore pollutants will not be as widely

dispersed. The lower average mixing height in winter

reduces the volume of the troposphere available for

mixing, leading to higher concentrations. Calm condi-

tions in winter result in less dispersion of pollutants.

The monsoons result in large amounts of precipitation,

high wind velocities and changes in the general wind

direction. Precipitation reduces atmospheric pollution

via associated wet deposition processes. Further wind

velocities will allow for pollutant transport away from

sources and increase mixing.

2.2. OTHER CITIES

Data from other monitoring stations in Karnataka is

very limited. Hence only annual average values are

presented (Table 2). The data is surprisingly similar to

Bangalore. While the concentrations of SO2 and NOX

are within the NAAQ standards in all the locations, the

levels of RSPM exceed the limits in four out of eight

(50%).

Figure 3: Ambient air quality under NAMP in Bangalore in 2009-10

Figure 2: Annual averages of ambient air quality in µg/m

3 at Amco Batteries — Adapted from KSPCB Draft Annual Report 2010-11


94

3. AIR POLLUTION SOURCES

Ambient air quality data generated over the years re-

veal that particulate matter is exceeding the permissi-

ble levels at many locations, particularly in urban areas.

Air pollution problems are complex due to multiplicity

and complexity of air polluting sources e.g. industries,

automobiles generator sets, domestic fuel burning,

road side dust, construction activities, etc. A cost-

effective approach for improving air quality in polluted

areas involves the identification of emission sources

and an assessment of the extent of their contribution.

Source apportionment studies help in identifying

sources and the extent of their contribution.

Source apportionment studies have been initiated in six

cities Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore, Pune and

Kanpur. The studies focus on apportionment of fine

particulates (PM10 and PM2.5) that are most critical. Be-

sides, separate projects on development of emission

factors for vehicles and emission profiles for vehicular

as well as non-vehicular sources have also been taken

up which would provide necessary inputs.

The scope of source apportionment studies includes

the preparation of emission inventories, monitoring of

ambient air quality for various pollutants (SPM, PM10,

PM2.5, SO2, NOx, CO, HC, VOC, etc.) at 7 to 10 selected

locations with different land use and the application of

dispersion models to assess the contribution from vari-

ous sources. Details of the projects are available in the

report of Central Pollution Control Board (2010). The

Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) was entrusted

with the responsibility of carrying out the source ap-

portionment study for Bangalore.

Air quality monitoring was carried out in seven loca-

tions in Bangalore representing a wide range of envi-

ronment such as kerbsides (Central Silk Board and Vic-

toria Road), residential areas (Domlur and Kam-

manahalli), industrial areas (Peenya) hospitals (Indira

Ghandi Institute of Child Health) and a reference loca-

tion in the outskirts (Kanamangala) as illustrated at

Figure 6.

Figure 5: Seasonal behaviour of RSPM at Amco Batteries

Figure 4: Seasonal behaviour of RSPM at Graphite India

Table 2: Annual average concentration of criterion pollutants in other cities of Karnataka for 2008-09

Name of town No. of

samples RSPM SO2 NOx

Mandya 1,782 65.9 15.0 21.0

Hassan 1,944 49.0 4.3 20.5

Mysore bus stand 1,872 45.0 14.3 18.8

Mysore KSPCB 1,854 43.0 13.4 18.7

Mangalore Baikampadi

945 57.2 7.4 6.3

Hubli Rani Channamma

1,764 92.0 3.0 12.0

Dharwad Lakka-manahalli

1,512 99.0 3.0 13.0

Gulbarga Govt. Hospital

1,656 71.0 2.5 13.7

NAAQS limit (Annual average)

- 60.0 50.0 40.0

Ambient air quality at breathing level in Bangalore

KSPCB monitored ambient air at breathing level (1.5

meters above the ground) at four traffic intersections in

2009:

City Railway Station in the Majestic area;

BTM Circle near Central Silk Board;

Badami House near Corporation Circle;

Malleswarm 11th Cross (Yathiraja Mutt).

Monitoring was carried out for 24 hours twice a

week.The levels of SO2, NOX, CO, PM2.5 and PM10 were

1.5 to 5 times higher than NAAQS limits in all the four

traffic intersections. PM2.5 and PM10 were analysed for 42

toxic and metallic elements while the number of

elements in PM2.5 ranged from 18 to 23, that for PM10

ranged from 22 to 25 in the four intersections. Metal

content was 6 to 35% in PM2.5 and 21 to 60% in PM10. The

total weight of 18-23 elements present in the ambient

fine particles in PM2.5 was 21-25 μg/m3 and that of 22-25

elements in PM10 was 71-143 μg/m3.

Adapted from KSPCB Annual Report 2009-10


95

Transport is contributing 42% of PM10 in the ambient

air. The sector contributes another 20% by way of dust

on road sides that is re-suspended because of

transport. The next largest contributors of PM10 are in-

dustries (14%) and construction activities (14%). As far

as NOX is concerned, the transport sector is 68% of its

emissions.

The violation of standards for some of the pollutants

and their health effects in general is discussed in sec-

tion 4. Chapter 5: Health may also be referred in this

regard.

Figure 9: A mobile health hazard — Adapted from Karnataka State Pollution Control Board Annual Report 2008-09

Figure 7: Sources of NOX in pollution loads — Adapted from TERI (2010). Air quality assessment, emission inventory and

source apportionment study for Bangalore city

Figure 6: Sampling locations of source apportionment study of TERI (2010) — Adapted from TERI (2010). Air quality assessment, emission inventory and source apportionment study for Bangalore city

Figure 8: Sources of PM10 in emission loads — Adapted from TERI (2010). Air quality assessment, emission inventory and

source apportionment study for Bangalore city


96

4. IMPACT ON HEALTH

4.1. OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NOX)

NOX is a collective term used to refer to two kinds of

oxides of nitrogen: Nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen diox-

ide (NO2). Globally, quantities of nitrogen oxides pro-

duced naturally by bacterial and volcanic action and

lightning far outweigh anthropogenic (man-made)

emissions. Anthropogenic emissions are mainly due to

fossil fuel combustion, i.e. power generation and

transport. Other atmospheric contributions come from

non-combustion processes, like nitric acid manufacture,

welding and the use of explosives.

In the source apportionment studies cited at section 3,

NO2 values are close to the standards at traffic loca-

tions across the three seasons, NO2 concentrations

however violate the standards at kerbside locations,

Central Silk Board and Victoria road in some seasons.

Health effects: Exposure to nitrogen oxides beyond

certain levels causes respiratory infection and impairs

lung function and increased susceptibility for others

with existing respiratory illnesses.

4.2. SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO2)

SO2 is a colourless gas. It reacts on the surface of a vari-

ety of airborne solid particles, is soluble in water and

can be oxidised within airborne water droplets. The

most important sources of SO2 are fossil fuel combus-

tion, smelting, manufacture of sulphuric acid, conver-

sion of wood pulp to paper, incineration of refuse and

production of elemental sulphur. Coal burning is the

single largest man-made source of SO2 accounting for

about 50% of annual global emissions, with oil burning

accounting for a further 25-30%.

With reference to section 3, among the gaseous pollu-

tants SO2 concentrations are well within limits at all

seven air quality monitoring locations in Bangalore

during all seasons.

Health effects: High concentrations of sulphur dioxide

(SO2) can result in breathing problems with asthmatic

children and adults who are active outdoors. Short-

term exposure has been linked to wheezing, chest

tightness and shortness of breath. Other effects associ-

ated with longer-term exposure to sulphur dioxide in

conjunction with high levels of particulate soot include

respiratory illness, alterations in the lungs' defences

and aggravation of existing cardiovascular diseases.

4.3. CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)

Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless and taste-

less gas that is slightly lighter than air. It is an interme-

diate product through which all carbon must pass

when combusted with oxygen (O2). The major source

of atmospheric CO are petrol engines. Smaller contri-

butions come from processes involving the combustion

of organic matter, for example in power stations and

waste incineration.

With reference to section 3, CO concentrations gener-

ally violate prescribed standards at all locations except

at Domlur. CO and ozone (O3) show consistent diurnal

variations on many days.

Health effects: Carbon monoxide enters the blood-

stream through the lungs and reduces oxygen delivery

to the body's organs and tissues. The health threat

from carbon monoxide even at low levels of exposure

is most serious for those who suffer from cardiovascu-

lar diseases, such as angina pectoris. At much higher

levels, carbon monoxide can be poisonous. Even

healthy people may be affected. Visual impairment, re-

duced work capacity, reduced manual dexterity; poor

learning ability and difficulty in performing complex

tasks are all associated with exposure to carbon mon-

oxide.

4.4. OZONE (O3)

O3 is the tri-atomic form of molecular oxygen. It is a

strong oxidising agent and hence highly reactive. In

the lower atmosphere, ground-level ozone is found.

Motor vehicle exhausts and industrial emissions, petrol

vapours and chemical solvents as well as natural

sources emit NOX and volatile organic compounds

(VOCs) that help form ozone. Ground-level ozone is

the primary constituent of smog. Sunlight and hot

weather cause ground-level ozone to form in harmful

concentrations in the air. Desirable ozone occurs natu-

rally in the stratosphere approximately 20 to 30 kilome-

tres above the Earth's surface and forms a layer that

protects life on Earth from the Sun's harmful rays.

With reference to the study cited in section 3, it was

observed that ozone (O3) concentrations are higher at

the background location and residential localities.

Health effects: Ozone is a powerful respiratory irritant

during warm weather. Symptoms include shortness of

breath, pain during deep breaths, wheezing and

Figure 10: Air pollution — Traffic police taking precaution


97

coughing. Ozone exposure has been linked to reduce

body’s resistance to infection. Long-term, repeated ex-

posure to high levels of ozone may lead to large reduc-

tions in lung function, inflammation of the lung lining

and so-called lung ‘sunburns’.

4.5. PARTICULATE MATTER (PM)

Particulate matter is emitted from a wide range of

sources, the most significant primary sources being

road transport, construction, mining, quarrying and in-

dustrial combustion. Natural sources are less apparent

but include volcanoes and dust storms. Particulate mat-

ter can also be formed by the transformation of gase-

ous emissions such as oxides of sulphur and nitrogen

and VOCs.

Of particular concern are suspended particulate matter

(SPM) and the respirable fraction below 10 µg, com-

monly referred as respirable particulate matter (RSPM)

or PM10. With reference to the study cited in section 3,

seasonal variance of PM10 exceeded set annual limits in

five out of seven (71%) monitoring stations.

Health effects: Particulate soot, especially fine particles

have been linked to tens of thousands of premature

deaths every year. It also is associated with increased

emergency room visits, asthma attacks, decreased lung

function and other respiratory problems. Those most at

risk include the elderly, people with cardiopulmonary

disease such as asthma, and children.

4.6. VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCs)

VOCs comprise a wide range of individual substances,

including hydrocarbons, halocarbons and oxygenates.

All are organic compounds and sufficiently volatile to

exist as vapour in the atmosphere. Methane is an im-

portant component of VOCs, its environmental impact

principally related to its contribution to global warming

and to the production of ozone in the troposphere.

4.6.1. Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons tend to exist as extremely volatile liquids.

Hydrocarbons are emitted from petrol evaporation, in-

complete combustion and from leakages of natural gas

distribution systems. Oxygenates arise from vehicle ex-

hausts and atmospheric chemical reactions. Evapora-

tion of solvents used in paints or industrial degreasing

processes also cause release of hydrocarbons, oxygen-

ates and halocarbons to the atmosphere.

4.6.2. Benzene (C6H6)

C6H6 is a colourless, clear liquid. It is fairly stable but

highly volatile, i.e. it readily evaporates. About 80% of

man-made emissions come from petrol-fuelled vehicles.

This results from both the benzene content of petrol

and its partial combustion. A further 5% comes from

the handling, distribution and storage of petrol and

approximately 1% from oil refining. Emissions also

come from benzene-producing and handling indus-

tries, the burning of wood and other organic material,

and the use of benzene as a laboratory reagent. Ben-

zene is a confirmed carcinogen and its use is prohibited

Going to school may not be healthy

Children are much more prone to health risks as they do

not have a fully developed immune system. Their rate of

respiration is twice that of adults and thus more

susceptible to toxicity of airborne diesel particles, vapours

and gases. Each school bus can emit as much pollution as

120 cars per year. Over 90% of school buses run on

diesel, emitting tons of smog-causing compounds and

cancer-causing soot. Children on diesel school buses are

exposed 5-15 times more to air toxins than the rest of the

population. These exposures pose 20 to 40 times more

risk of cancer. While school buses are the safest mode of

transportation we must also make it the healthiest way to

reach school.

Big trucks are a major source of smog, of toxic chemical

pollution and fine particle soot. Trucks emit pollution

equivalent to as much as 120 to 150 cars when their

permitted levels can be only one tenth of that. Non-road

diesel engines, such as construction equipment,

bulldozers and portable diesel generators do not have to

comply with the same pollution standards of diesel trucks

and buses used on our roads.

Most polluted cities

As many as 51 Indian cities have extremely high air pollu-

tion. Patna, Lucknow, Raipur, Faridabad and Ahmedabad

are topping the list. MoEF (2007) identified 51 cities that

do not meet prescribed RSPM levels.

According to the report, Gobindgarh in Punjab is the

most polluted city and Ludhiana, Raipur and Lucknow

hold the next three positions. Faridabad on the outskirts

of Delhi is the 10th

most polluted city, followed by Agra,

the city of the Taj Mahal. Ahmedabad is placed 12th

,

Indore 16th

, Delhi 22nd

, Kolkata 25th

, Mumbai 40th

,

Hyderabad 44th

and Bangalore stands 46th

in the list.

Angul, home to National Aluminium Company (NALCO),

in Odisha is the 50th

polluted city of the country.

City Toxic releases per year

(in tons)

Jamshedpur 2.76

Washington DC, USA 19.7

Gargaon 2.3

Beijing, China 6.9

London, UK 6.2

Kolkata 1.8

Delhi 1.6

Faridabad 1.6

Bangalore 0.8

Adapted from Ministry of Environment and Forest GOI, September 2007and ICLEI study, New Scientist, Dec 2009


98

or restricted in many countries, especially in respect of

occupational exposure.

4.6.3. Hexachlorobenzene

Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) is a highly persistent envi-

ronmental toxin that degrades slowly in air and conse-

quently undergoes long-range atmospheric transport.

Long-term low-level exposures to HCB may damage a

developing foetus, cause cancer, lead to kidney and

liver damage and cause fatigue and skin irritation.

4.6.4. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or PAHs, are a group

of chemicals commonly found in particulate matter (or

smoke and soot) released from waste burning. They

are formed from the incomplete combustion of certain

materials. Some PAHs are carcinogenic.

4.6.5. Photochemical smog

Smog’s unpleasant properties result from the irradia-

tion of sunlight on unburned gasoline emitted by au-

tomobiles and other combustion sources. The products

of photochemical reactions include organic particles,

ozone, aldehydes, ketones, peroxyacetyl nitrate, organ-

ic acids and other oxidants.

4.6.6. Industrial smog

This type of smog is created by burning coal and heavy

oil that contain sulphur impurities in power plants and

industrial plants. Smog consists mostly of a mixture of

sulphur dioxide and fog. Suspended droplets of sul-

phuric acid are formed from some of the sulphur diox-

ide, and a variety of suspended solid particles. While

standards for SO2 exist, none exist for smog given that

it is not an emittant by itself.

4.7. AIR TOXINS

Toxic air pollutants also known as hazardous air pollu-

tants (HAP) refer to poisonous substances as a group.

Toxic air pollutants include metals, other small particles

and gases. One example is the chemical benzene

found in petrol. Others include mercury, dioxin, asbes-

tos, cadmium, toluene and chromium. They are emit-

ted by cars, buses, trucks and a variety of industrial

sources including electric power plants.

Dioxins and dioxin like compounds are a group of 30

highly toxic chlorinated organic chemicals. They are

produced naturally in small quantities but are primarily

the result of human activity. They can be produced

through industrial processes such as chlorinated chem-

ical manufacturing and metal smelting. The largest

quantified source of dioxin emissions is the uncon-

trolled burning of household waste. Dioxins are classi-

fied as persistent, bio-accumulative and toxic pollutants

(PBTs). PBTs are long-lasting substances that can build

up in the food chain to levels that are harmful to hu-

man and ecosystem health.

With reference to the study cited at section 3, signifi-

cant concentrations of chloride were observed at most

monitoring locations. Higher levels were observed for

elements such as Na, Fe, Ca, and Mg in all three sea-

sons. Al, Si and Zn were also observed at certain loca-

tions in different seasons.

Health effects: People exposed to toxic air pollutants at

sufficient concentrations and durations may have an

increased chance of getting cancer or experiencing

other serious health effects. They may damage the im-

mune system, as well as cause neurological, reproduc-

tive (e.g. reduced fertility), developmental, respiratory

and other health problems. In addition, some toxic air

pollutants such as mercury can deposit onto soils or

surface waters where they are taken up by plants and

ingested by animals and are eventually entering the

food chain. Inhaling fumes that contain benzene could

increase the risk of getting cancer.

Toxic emissions from uncontrolled waste burning

Burning of waste refers to the burning of household

trash on street corners, municipal waste dumps or

open pits. Household waste includes food, plastics and

vegetable trimmings. Air emissions from burning

thrash are released directly to the atmosphere without

being treated or filtered. Burning waste in the open air

can produce many air pollutants including highly toxic

substances like dioxin, particulate matter, volatile or-

ganic compounds, carbon monoxide, polycyclic aro-

matic hydrocarbons, hexachlorobenzene and ash.

Waste burning also produces ash, which can contain

toxic metals such as mercury, lead, chromium, and ar-

senic. These metals can be toxic when ingested. Rain

can wash the ash into the groundwater and surface

water, contaminating drinking water and vegetation.

Figure 11: Burning garbage near Begur lake in Bangalore — Adapted from Citizen Matters, 21

st January 2011

http://bangalore.citizenmatters.in


99

Of particular concern are the high moisture content

and the consequently low combustion temperatures,

proliferating incomplete combustion and high carbon

monoxide contents.

Health effects: Dangerous health conditions can be

caused by inhaling or ingesting even small amounts of

these pollutants. Small children, the elderly, or people

with pre-existing respiratory conditions can be especial-

ly vulnerable to some of these pollutants.

4.8. CONTROL MEASURES

A variety of pollution control techniques significantly

reduce the gases emitted into the air, including scrub-

bers that use a liquid spray to neutralise acid gases and

filters to remove tiny ash particles. To reduce waste,

operators can deploy controlled burning processes

such as combustion or incineration. In addition to re-

ducing volume, they offer the possibility of converting

water into steam for heating systems or generation of

electricity. Incineration facilities can also remove mate-

rials for recycling. Burning waste at extremely high

temperatures also destroys chemical compounds and

infectious bacteria. Residual ash is non-hazardous be-

fore being landfilled. About 10% of the total ash

formed in the combustion process is beneficial for uses

such as daily cover in landfills and road construction.

Figure 12: Emission test for vehicles in Bangalore

5. NOISE POLLUTION

5.1. ORIGIN AND IMPACT

Ambient noise is present in every urban setting of the

country. Its baseline is usually defined by movement of

cars, buses, carriers, motorcycles and rickshaws.

Against this background noise there is the sound of

blowing horns, DG sets, loud speakers, fire crackers

and industries.

High levels of noise have deleterious effects on human

health and the psychological well-being of people. It

can cause hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus

which leads to forgetfulness, severe depression and at

times panic attacks, hearing loss, sleep disturbances

and other harmful effects. Noise has detrimental effects

on animal life and health. It causes stress, increases risk

of mortality and can change the delicate balance in

predator–prey detection and avoidance. This can also

result in the reduction of usable habitats. The impact

may lead to extinction of some endangered species.

The well-known case is the death of certain species of

whales caused by noise pollution emanated by the

loud sound of military sonars.

It is considered necessary to regulate and control noise

producing and generating sources with the objective

of maintaining the ambient air quality standards in re-

spect of noise.

A National Committee on Noise Pollution Control has

been constituted to advise Central Pollution Control

Board in noise pollution related matters. At national

level, CPCB is the nodal agency for its implementation.

In Karnataka, KSPCB oversees the implementation of

ambient air quality in respect of noise.

5.2. REGULATIONS

Noise was included in the definition of air pollutants

under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,

1981. The same was followed by the notification of

ambient noise standards under the Environment (Pro-

tection) Act, 1986 and the Air Act, 1981. The Noise Pol-

lution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000 have been

notified with amendments in 2006.

As per the act, the state government shall categorise

zones for the implementation of noise standards and

take measures to ensure that existing noise levels do

not exceed the ambient air quality standards specified

under these rules. In reality there is no clarity about

which zone an area belongs to and in absence of clari-

ty on such fundamentals, enforcement remains elusive.

Table 3: Ambient air quality standards with respect to noise (2000)

Category Limits in dB(A) Leq

6 am – 9 pm 9 pm – 6 am

Industrial area 75 70

Commercial area 65 55

Residential area 55 45

Silence zone 50 40


100

Rules under the Factories Act 1948 prescribe maximum

permissible noise exposure levels for work areas. Fur-

ther, noise standards have been defined for motor ve-

hicles, diesel generators above 1,000 kVA and even fire

crackers.

5.3. NOISE POLLUTION LEVELS

With the assistance of CPCB, continuous ambient noise

monitoring stations were installed by KSPCB near its

two offices at Peenya Industrial Area, near Madiwala

lake and at a sewage treatment plant near Marathahal-

li during 2010-11. Prior to that noise was monitored in

isolated instances, often in the context of studies and

typically with rather limited coverage. Due to the ab-

sence of data on noise levels, the initiation of action on

perceived high levels is difficult.

Noise monitoring in 2008 and 2009

Ambient noise level monitoring was carried out by

CPCB Bangalore in Mathikerae, Malleswaram and Raja-

jinagar on a normal day and during Deepavali celebra-

tions in 2008 and 2009. There was a decrease in noise

level during Deepavali 2009 in comparison to 2008. In

comparison to normal day a 10 decibel increase has

been noticed at Rajajinagar but there is no noticeable

increase at Mathikerae. The noise levels were much

higher in all the places even on normal days.

Noise monitoring in 2010

KSPCB monitored noise at six locations in Bangalore

and 13 other cities in Karnataka during normal days

and Deepavali celebrations.

Table 4: Night time noise levels in cities other than Bangalore at Deepavali in 2010

Cities Noise levels in dB(A)

Before Deepavali After Deepavali

Bagalkote 61 59

Bellary 62 103

Bidar 62 82

Chitradurga 60 78

Davanagere 63 70

Dharwad 60 66

Karwar 43 48

Kolar 63 84

Koppal 45 52

Madikere 59 68

Mysore 56 71

Raichur 56 64

Shimoga 58 75

In Bangalore, noise levels observed are as follows:

Commercial area (Cubbonpet): 72 and 78 dB(A) Leq

during night time. The measured values exceed the

prescribed limit of 55 dB(A) before and during

Deepavali;

Residential Areas: AECS Layout: 74 and 85 dB(A) Leq

and Vijayanagara Club: 64 and 73 dB(A) Leq during

night time. The measured values exceed the

prescribed limit of 55 dB(A) before and during

Deepavali;

Sensitive area (Indiranagar ESI Hospital): 64 and 68

dB(A) Leq during night time. The measured values

exceed the prescribed limit of 50 dB(A) before and

during Deepavali.


Infrastructure and manpower of KSPCB is to be

strengthened to take up the challenge of

monitoring air quality and noise through a

significantly expanded network. Training field level

and laboratory staffs in handling new equipment,

using appropriate methods in data collection and

periodical inspection. Monitoring stations are to be

set up in all industrial towns in the state and

pollution norms should be enforced;

Deficiencies in the quality of data need to be

addressed. There is lack of availability of continuous

and complete data. There should be easy online

accessibility of data for all the monitoring stations

both at the state and national level;

There is no regular monitoring and control of noise

pollution, particularly from vehicular horns. This

may be because as per law, only officers of the rank

above the Deputy Superintendent of Police are

empowered to monitor and control noise pollution.

The government should set limits for noise levels of

horns and rigorously enforce compliance. Citizens

should be empowered to report violations of air

and noise pollution norms to authorities. An

environmental portal (web site) dedicated to report

these offences should be created and made public.

Heavy penalties should be imposed on violations;

The public and waste handler should be educated

on the usefulness of segregating organic (non-

combustible) waste at the source, the health effects

of toxic emissions from burning of household waste

and measures to mitigate air and noise pollution;

Electronic media, particularly television and radio

should be effectively used to foster such awareness

among citizens. It should be made obligatory on

the part of both government controlled and private

channels to transmit 20% of their advertisement

time on socially relevant themes free of charge. If

required, an appropriate legislation should be

enacted to that effect.

101

CHAPTER 5

HEALTH

Chapter 5: Health

102

Chapter 5: Health

103

CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS

1.1.1.1. INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 105105105105

2.2.2.2. AIR POLLUTIONAIR POLLUTIONAIR POLLUTIONAIR POLLUTION ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 105105105105

2.1.2.1.2.1.2.1. PRESSURESPRESSURESPRESSURESPRESSURES.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 105105105105

2.2.2.2.2.2.2.2. HEALTH IMPACTHEALTH IMPACTHEALTH IMPACTHEALTH IMPACT ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 106106106106

2.3.2.3.2.3.2.3. IMPACT STUDIESIMPACT STUDIESIMPACT STUDIESIMPACT STUDIES ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 107107107107

2.4.2.4.2.4.2.4. EMERGING INTERVENTIOEMERGING INTERVENTIOEMERGING INTERVENTIOEMERGING INTERVENTION AREASN AREASN AREASN AREAS ................................................................................ 108108108108

3.3.3.3. NOISENOISENOISENOISE ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 108108108108


3.2.3.2.3.2.3.2. HEALTH IMPACTHEALTH IMPACTHEALTH IMPACTHEALTH IMPACT ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 109109109109


4.4.4.4. WATERWATERWATERWATER .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 109109109109


4.2.4.2.4.2.4.2. IMPACT STUDIESIMPACT STUDIESIMPACT STUDIESIMPACT STUDIES ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 110110110110

4.3.4.3.4.3.4.3. HISTORY OF RECENT INHISTORY OF RECENT INHISTORY OF RECENT INHISTORY OF RECENT INTIATIVESTIATIVESTIATIVESTIATIVES .................................................................................................... 111111111111


5.5.5.5. WASTEWASTEWASTEWASTE ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 111111111111

5.1.5.1.5.1.5.1. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTMUNICIPAL SOLID WASTMUNICIPAL SOLID WASTMUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW)E (MSW)E (MSW)E (MSW) ............................................................................................ 111111111111

5.2.5.2.5.2.5.2. BIOBIOBIOBIO----MEDICAL WASTE (BMW)MEDICAL WASTE (BMW)MEDICAL WASTE (BMW)MEDICAL WASTE (BMW) ............................................................................................................................ 112112112112

6.6.6.6. ANIMALANIMALANIMALANIMAL THREATSTHREATSTHREATSTHREATS ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 113113113113

6.1.6.1.6.1.6.1. RABIESRABIESRABIESRABIES ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 113113113113

6.2.6.2.6.2.6.2. ANIMAL BIRTH CONTROLANIMAL BIRTH CONTROLANIMAL BIRTH CONTROLANIMAL BIRTH CONTROL .................................................................................................................................................... 113113113113

6.3.6.3.6.3.6.3. PET DOG LICENCEPET DOG LICENCEPET DOG LICENCEPET DOG LICENCE ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 113113113113

6.4.6.4.6.4.6.4. EMERGING INEMERGING INEMERGING INEMERGING INTERVENTION AREASTERVENTION AREASTERVENTION AREASTERVENTION AREAS ................................................................................ 113113113113

7.7.7.7. CLIMATECLIMATECLIMATECLIMATE CHANGECHANGECHANGECHANGE ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 113113113113

8.8.8.8. HEALTHHEALTHHEALTHHEALTH CARECARECARECARE INFRASTRUCTUREINFRASTRUCTUREINFRASTRUCTUREINFRASTRUCTURE ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 114114114114

9.9.9.9. EMERGING INTERVENTIOEMERGING INTERVENTIOEMERGING INTERVENTIOEMERGING INTERVENTION AREASN AREASN AREASN AREAS .................................................................................................................................................................................... 114114114114

9.1.9.1.9.1.9.1. AIRAIRAIRAIR ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 114114114114

9.2.9.2.9.2.9.2. NOISENOISENOISENOISE .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 114114114114

9.3.9.3.9.3.9.3. WATERWATERWATERWATER ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 116116116116

9.4.9.4.9.4.9.4. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTMUNICIPAL SOLID WASTMUNICIPAL SOLID WASTMUNICIPAL SOLID WASTEEEE ................................................................................................................................................ 117117117117

9.5.9.5.9.5.9.5. BIOBIOBIOBIO----MEDICAL WASTEMEDICAL WASTEMEDICAL WASTEMEDICAL WASTE .................................................................................................................................................................................... 118118118118

9.6.9.6.9.6.9.6. ANIMAL THREATSANIMAL THREATSANIMAL THREATSANIMAL THREATS................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 119119119119

Chapter 5: Health

104


Table 1: Health care infrastructure ........................................................................................................................................ 114


Figure 1: Pyramid of health effects ........................................................................................................................................ 107

Figure 2: Trends of acute respiratory infections in India ................................................................................................ 107

Figure 3: An uncovered drain – A source of infection .................................................................................................... 110

Figure 4: Cattle feasting on uncollected garbage in Bangalore .................................................................................. 112

Chapter 5: Health

105

1.1.1.1. INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

Health is multifactorial. The factors which influence

health lie both within the individual and externally in

the society in which he or she lives. It is a truism to say

that what man is and to what diseases he may fall vic-

tim depends on a combination of two sets of factors;

his genetic factors and the environmental factors to

which he is exposed. The term environment implies the

external factors – living and non-living, material and

non-material – surrounding man. The key to human

health lies largely in his environment. In fact, much of

man's ill-health can be traced to adverse environmental

factors such as water pollution, soil pollution, air pollu-

tion, poor housing conditions, presence of animals and

insect vectors of diseases which pose a constant threat

to human health. The term "environmental sanitation"

has been defined by WHO as "the control of all those

factors in man's physical environment which exercise

or may exercise a deleterious effect on his physical de-

velopment, health and survival".

In the past, sanitation was centred on the sanitary dis-

posal of human excreta. Even now, to many people

sanitation still means the construction of latrines. The

actual meaning of the term sanitation includes every-

thing that controls the environment with a view to

prevent disease and promote health. Water supply,

sanitation, hygiene and health are closely related. In-

adequate quantities and quality of drinking water, lack

of sanitation facilities, and poor hygiene cause millions

of the world’s poorest people to die from preventable

(primarily diarrheal) diseases every year. Women and

children are the main victims.

Environmental hazards are responsible for about a

quarter of the total disease burden worldwide. 13 mil-

lion deaths annually are due to preventable environ-

mental causes. More than three million children under

five die every year from environment-related causes

and conditions. This makes the environment one of the

most critical contributors to the global toll of more than

ten million child deaths annually. Diarrhoea kills an

estimated 1.6 million children every year, caused

mainly by unsafe water and poor sanitation. Indoor air

pollution associated with the widespread use of bio-

mass fuels kills nearly one million children annually,

mostly as a result of acute respiratory infections. Better

environmental management could prevent 40% of

deaths from malaria, 41% of deaths from lower respira-

tory infections, and 94% of deaths from diarrheal dis-

ease.

The ideal way to measure the health impacts of envi-

ronmental pollution in a given area is to conduct pro-

spective epidemiologic studies by following a large

cross-section of people over a long period of time.

These studies should measure pollution concentra-

tions, individual exposure levels, ill health and death, as

well as other factors, such as nutritional status, smoking

habits, and family history of disease. Due to high costs

and time involved, very few such studies have been

carried out so far, and all such studies have been car-

ried out in the developed countries.

2.2.2.2. AIR AIR AIR AIR PPPPOLLUTIONOLLUTIONOLLUTIONOLLUTION

2.1. PRESSURES

The term air pollution signifies the presence of sub-

stances in the ambient air that are generated by activi-

ties of man in concentrations that interfere with hu-

man health, safety or comfort or are harmful to vegeta-

tion and animals. Air pollution, both indoor and out-

door, is a significant cause of health problems world-

wide. Urban and rural outdoor environments contain

infections, allergens, irritants and chemical toxins that

can reduce the quality of life and cause disease. Air

pollutants include:

� Tobacco Tobacco Tobacco Tobacco smokesmokesmokesmoke generates a wide range of harmful

chemicals and is a major cause of ill health, as it is

known to cause cancer, not only to the smoker but

affecting passive smokers too. Other effects for the

HEALTH AT A GLANCE

� Better environmental management could prevent

40% of deaths from malaria 41% of deaths from lower respiratory infections 94% of deaths from diarrheal diseases

� A water quality analysis of 33,667 villages revealed:

23% Bacteria

17% Presence of excess fluoride

4% Total dissolved salts

25% Total hardness

28% Iron and

10% Nitrate beyond permissible limits

� Karnataka’s health infrastructure consists of

Medical colleges 36 Referral hospitals 57 City family welfare hospitals 2 Rural dispensaries 176 Ayurvedic hospitals 122 Unani hospitals 13 Unani dispensaries 51 Homeopathic hospitals 20 Homeopathic dispensaries 42

� A recent study in Kaiwarar village of Chikkaballapur district re-vealed that out of 416 school going children

24% had dental fluorosis,

11.4% genu vulgum

20.9% goiter

10.3% xerosis of the conjunctiva

100% of children tested passed fluorides in the urine and

90% of drinking water samples contained high levels of fluoride

Chapter 5: Health

106

smoker as well as passive smoker include burning

sensations in the eyes or nose, throat irritation,

bronchitis, severe asthma, and a decrease in lung

function.

� Biological Biological Biological Biological pollutants pollutants pollutants pollutants are mostly allergens of natural

origin that can cause asthma, hay fever, and other

allergic diseases.

� OzoneOzoneOzoneOzone exposure makes our eyes itch, burn, and

water and it has also been associated with increase

in respiratory disorders such as asthma. It lowers

our resistance to colds and pneumonia.

� Oxides of nitrogenOxides of nitrogenOxides of nitrogenOxides of nitrogen can make children susceptible to

respiratory diseases, especially in winter.

� Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon monoxidemonoxidemonoxidemonoxide ((((COCOCOCO)))) combines with haemoglo-

bin to lessen the amount of oxygen that enters our

blood through our lungs. The binding with other

haeme proteins causes changes in the function of

the affected organs such as the brain and the car-

diovascular system, and also the developing foetus.

It can impair our concentration, slow our reflexes,

and make us confused and sleepy.

� Sulphur Sulphur Sulphur Sulphur dioxidedioxidedioxidedioxide ((((SOSOSOSO2222)))) in the air is caused due to

combustion of fossil fuels, all of which contain some

sulphur. SO2 in the air leads to diseases of the lung

and other lung disorders such as wheezing and

shortness of breath. Long-term effects are more dif-

ficult to ascertain as SO2 exposure is often com-

bined with that of suspended particulate matter.

� SSSSuspended particulate matteruspended particulate matteruspended particulate matteruspended particulate matter (SPM(SPM(SPM(SPM)))) consists of

dust, fumes, mist and smoke. The main chemical

component of major concern is lead, others being

nickel, arsenic, and those present in diesel exhaust.

These particles when breathed in, lodge in our lung

tissues and cause lung damage and respiratory

problems.

Regional Occupational Health Centre prepared the

“National Environmental Health Profile and Compara-

tive Health Risk Assessment for Bangalore City” for the

period 2003-04. The study assessed human health risk

associated with air pollution, water pollution and solid

and hazardous waste management. It also evaluated

environmental concerns on the basis of human health

risk and economic risks. The study focused on three

distinct locations in Bangalore with different environ-

mental and socio-economic patterns: a residential area

(J.P. Nagar), a commercial area (Anand Rao Circle) and

an industrial area (Whitefield). Annual averages show

that suspended particulate matter (SPM) levels were

found above the limit of 140 µg/m3 notified prior to

the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

2009, for commercial and residential areas but within

the limits for industrial areas of 360 µg/m3. Respirable

suspended particulate matter (RSPM) levels were

higher than the pre-2009 limits set by in all three areas.

Parthenium as pollutantParthenium as pollutantParthenium as pollutantParthenium as pollutant

Parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus L.) is a weed of

worldwide occurrence. While extreme summer and winter

climates are unfavourable for the plant, it is relatively

drought tolerant, temperature insensitive and has no seed

dormancy. This weed entered India with imported food

grains and spread from Kanyakumari in the South to

Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. However, the

spread excludes the Western Ghats and areas covered with

ice. It is primarily a wasteland weed growing abundantly in

uncared vacant lands, graveyards and backyards, along

agricultural fields and railway tracks. It dominates over

other species and can grow throughout the year if soil

moisture is available. Parthenium may produce about

3,000 million pollens per square meter. The pollens are

light and are easily carried away over long distances. The

weed has potential of producing as high as 1.54 lakh seeds

per square metre and a single plant can produce about

10,000 to 25,000 seeds.

The weed is a health hazard to humans as well as animals.

In human beings, it can cause contact dermatitis, eczema,

allergic reactions on the sole, allergic papules, bronchitis

and asthma in sensitive persons. Airborne pollen may

cause severe and allergic rhinitis. In livestock, accidental or

compulsive grazing of the weed in the absence of green

forage during summer or its grazing by stray and domestic

animals may result in allergic reactions and acute toxicity

leading to death. The weed when consumed causes fever

and swollen udder in cows, hyper sensitivity in rabbits,

ulceration in buffaloes, horses, donkeys, sheep and goat.

2.2. HEALTH IMPACT

Air pollution has both acute and chronic effects on

human health. Health effects range from minor irrita-

tion of eyes and the upper respiratory system to

chronic respiratory disease, heart disease, lung cancer,

and death. Air pollution has been shown to cause

acute respiratory infections in children and chronic

bronchitis in adults. It has also been shown to worsen

the condition of people with pre-existing heart or lung

disease. Among asthmatics, air pollution has been

shown to aggravate the frequency and severity of at-

tacks. Both short-term and long-term exposures have

also been linked with premature mortality and reduced

life expectancy.

It is challenging to measure health parameters to un-

derstand the impacts of air pollution. In many develop-

ing countries, vital statistics and cause of death data

are not routinely collected or are not reliable. Clinical

data is also unreliable because of differential access to

health services and awareness of health problems. Mul-

tiple sources of health care, varying quality of services,

poor diagnosis, and poor record keeping further com-

plicate the study of health impacts. Air pollution and

health linkages, although uncontested, are not well

proven. The biological mechanisms through which air

pollutants affect health are not fully understood and

Chapter 5: Health

107

there is limited epidemiologic research on air pollution,

limited mostly to the developed countries with very

different pollution levels, exposure patterns, and under-

lying population characteristics than in developing

countries.

Air pollution can affect both the respiratory and car-

diac systems. The health effects of air pollution can be

seen as a pyramid, with the mildest but not common

effects at the bottom of the pyramid, and the least

common but more severe at the top of the pyramid.

The pyramid demonstrates that as severity decreases

the number of people affected increase.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 1111: Pyramid of health effects: Pyramid of health effects: Pyramid of health effects: Pyramid of health effects

2.3. IMPACT STUDIES

� A prospective study conducted by John M. Peters et

al. from University of Southern California upon

6,000 children living in 12 south Californian com-

munities of varying ambient air pollution pro-

files revealed that children’s lung function growth

was adversely affected by air pollution, new cases

of asthma and asthma exacerbations were associ-

ated with ambient air pollution levels, and school

absences from acute respiratory illnesses followed

rises in ozone levels.

� A cross-sectional study conducted by Bart Ostro

upon children (Sample size [n]=1080) living at vary-

ing distances from high-traffic roads in the San

Francisco Bay area, a highly urbanised region in

Alameda County characterized by good regional air

quality due to coastal breezes, found that highest

risks of asthma were among those living within

75 m of a freeway/highway and those exposed to

very high levels of nearby traffic density and it also

provided evidence that even in an area with good

regional air quality, proximity to traffic is associated

with adverse respiratory health effects in children.

� In a study conducted by Manuel Pastor Jr, Rachel

Morello and James Sadd to look at air pollution im-

pacts on health using several diverse methodolo-

gies found that ambient air pollution is associated

with lower birth weight and preterm birth.

� An ongoing cohort study conducted by Micheal

Lipsett of over 100,000 California teachers looking

at air pollution and cardiovascular diseases found

strong and consistent associations of particulate

matter less than 2.5 microns in diameter not only

with total and cardiopulmonary mortality, but also

with incidence of heart attacks and stroke.

� A study conducted by Analitis et al. in 2006 found

that an increase in particulate matter less than 10

microns by 10 µg/m3 has been reported to cause

0.76% excess deaths from cardiovascular causes

and 0.58% excess mortality from respiratory dis-

eases.

� An epidemiological study carried out by Chittranjan

National Cancer Institute (CNCI), Kolkata, an

autonomous body under Ministry of Health and

Family Welfare, assessed air pollution related respi-

ratory symptoms of residents of Delhi and the de-

gree of lung function impairment in persons

chronically exposed to city’s air. The study revealed

that residents of Delhi had 1.5 times greater preva-

lence of upper respiratory symptoms. The preva-

lence of lower respiratory symptoms was 1.8 times

higher. Lung function was reduced in twice the

number of individuals compared with the number

of individuals in the control group.

� A cross-sectional study conducted by Agarwal et al.

in New Delhi revealed that children living in areas

Figure Figure Figure Figure 2222: Trends of acute respiratory infections in : Trends of acute respiratory infections in : Trends of acute respiratory infections in : Trends of acute respiratory infections in IndiaIndiaIndiaIndia

Chapter 5: Health

108

of high atmospheric pollution had significantly

lower serum vitamin D indicators and significantly

higher parathyroid hormone and alkaline phos-

phatise levels when compared with age matched

children from low pollution areas.

� A cross-sectional study conducted by Awasthi et al

in Lucknow upon 664 children aged between 1

month and 4.5 years revealed that airborne particu-

late matter, SO2 and cooking fuels were associated

with increased respiratory symptoms, increased du-

ration of symptoms or both.

� A cross-sectional study conducted by Kamat et al

upon 1,545 matched subjects revealed that respira-

tory symptoms and cardiac diseases appeared to

occur more commonly in more polluted areas.

� A cross-sectional study conducted by Kumar et al. in

Hyderabad upon 216 adult males revealed a higher

prevalence of respiratory problems associated with

higher levels of SO2 and NO2.

� A time series study conducted by Pande et al. in

New Delhi upon over 10 million people revealed

that emergency room visits for acute asthma,

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and

coronary events increased by 21%, 25% and 24%,

respectively on days with higher levels of pollution.

� The Regional Occupational Health Centre’s 2003-

04 study for Bangalore looked at respiratory mor-

bidity and found that symptoms related to respira-

tory diseases such as cough in the morning, bring-

ing up phlegm on most days as much as three

months of the year was noticed especially among

smokers in industrial areas. 19% of the women in

the age group of 45+ years in industrial areas suf-

fered from respiratory disease symptoms. It was also

observed that pulmonary function test values were

uniformly lower among all the age groups of peo-

ple living in commercial areas when compared with

those living in residential and industrial areas. It was

found that a higher number of children from com-

mercial areas missed school because of illnesses as

compared to industrial and residential areas. This

finding appears surprising as industrial areas are

generally considered to pose a greater risk. But it is

often overlooked that commercial areas often have

a considerably more dense traffic.

� Morbidity trends in respect of acute respiratory in-

fections in India increased more or less steadily over

the past decade. No data specific to Karnataka is

available and the actual burden cannot be extrapo-

lated or presumed.

2.4. EMERGING INTERVENTION AREAS

� Health impact studies due to air pollution are re-

quired to be undertaken in the polluted areas to es-

tablish the baseline data on health impacts/risks in

different parts of Karnataka taking into account

studies undertaken earlier by different organiza-

tions in other parts of the country. Possibilities to

find manifestations of various diseases attributable

to air pollution may be explored. In particular, hu-

man habitations and vulnerable groups such as

children and senior citizens living close to industrial

or commercial areas, and taxi/bus drivers, traffic po-

licemen, road side vendors, shopkeepers etc. are

required to be covered under environmental health

assessment studies. Such studies would assist in es-

tablishing the disease burden in different areas in

the state.

� As many studies found particulate matter to exceed

limits, it would be desirable to investigate the health

impacts to gain a better understanding on how

control of emissions can be made more effective.

� Stricter emission norms for particulates and gaseous

pollutants (e.g. limit for lead, mercury, benzene,

polyaromated hydrocarbon (PAH) based on health

impacts are required for which Ministry of Environ-

ment and Forests (MoEF) and Central Pollution

Control Board (CPCB) may review existing limits

and notify the revised limits based on health crite-

ria.

� Environmental health impact studies due to noise,

electro-magnetic radiations may also to be under-

taken.

� Indoor air pollution and health impact studies

should be undertaken specially covering women

and children including review of existing interven-

tions.

� There is a need to emphasise the well-known tru-

isms that vehicles should be maintained in good

conditions, that adulterated fuel should not be used

and that the use of LPG and CNG as fuel can re-

duce air pollution.

3.3.3.3. NOISENOISENOISENOISE

3.1. PRESSURES

Noise is unwanted sound. It is dependent on percep-

tion and therefore subjective while noise levels can be

measured objectively. It is now recognised as serious

public health problem evidenced by the various effects

resulting from acute and chronic exposure. Sources of

noise pollution include automobiles, industries, air-

crafts, railways, domestic noise, music and entertain-

Chapter 5: Health

109

ment and cultural events like Deepavali and Ganesha

festivals. The prevention and control of health impacts

due to noise is complicated by the fact that it is a mul-

tidisciplinary problem, involving considerable intersec-

toral coordination by all concerned stakeholders, not to

mention active community participation.

World Health Organization’s guidelines recommend a

night time average level suitable for undisturbed sleep

from 35-30 dB(A), including a peak night time maxi-

mum of 45 decibels. In Bangalore noise levels ranging

from 71-111 dB(A) in traffic zones, 51-69 dB(A) in resi-

dential areas, 72-98 dB(A) in industrial zones and 86-

102 dB(A) at the airport were found. Noise was attrib-

uted mainly to vehicular movement in high traffic

zones, followed by airways and industries.

3.2. HEALTH IMPACT

Noise exposure can have both auditory and non-

auditory effects. Auditory effects include auditory fa-

tigue and noise induced hearing loss which may be

acute and chronic. Non-auditory effects include inter-

ference with speech, decreased work efficiency, physio-

logical changes like a rise in blood pressure, intracranial

pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate and sweating. Less

known findings are that noise may cause a narrowing

of pupils, affect colour perception and reduce night

vision.

According to Kryter, noise causes the heart output to

decrease with fluctuations in arterial blood pressure

and decrease in the diameter (vaso-constriction) of

peripheral blood vessels. Studies indicate that blood is

thickened by excessive noise. Eosinophilia (a symptom

of allergy), hyperglycaemia (abnormally high blood

sugar), hypokalaemia (abnormally low level of potas-

sium in the circulating blood leading to weakness and

heart abnormalities) and hypoglycaemia (abnormally

low blood sugar) are caused by alteration in the blood

due to noise. Though noise studies have been under-

taken for Karnataka, there are limited field level studies

providing concrete epidemiological evidence to under-

stand the magnitude of noise induced hearing loss or

effects of noise.

� A study was carried out among 200 male volun-

teers, divided into two groups. The study group

was exposed to noise levels of more than 80 dB(A)

for more than 8 hours a day for a period of 6

months, working in the steel and hammer industry,

whereas the control group was working under

normal conditions. Various autonomic function

tests like heart rate, blood pressure were carried out

in both the groups. The study group showed sig-

nificant increase in both resting and standing heart

rate as well as rise in diastolic blood pressure. Thus,

noise presents as a significant health hazard. It is

recommended that maximum allowable duration of

exposure should be reviewed and strictly followed.

� A recent study has been undertaken on noise fre-

quency effects on physical, physiological, and psy-

chological systems of the working community of six

major industries in Mysore. Out of 93 respondents,

84 were observed to be sensitive to noise while

36% were found to be suffering from hearing prob-

lems. 16% workers were of the opinion that they

had a slight hearing problem after being exposed

to noise levels above 85 dB(A). Only 33% of the re-

spondents used earmuffs while the presence of

noise — and possibly the need for protection — was

acknowledged by nearly all. Workers were regularly

being exposed to noise of dominant low-and mid-

octave band frequencies and symptoms reported

include unusual pressure on the eyeball, awaken-

ing from sleep at night, neckpain, chronic fatigue,

repeated headache, backache and repeated ear

pulsation.


Strategies for prevention and control of noise pollution

are well known. Surveillance, implementation and

compliance however need to be strengthened for im-

proving the present situation. Other important inter-

vention areas include:

� Planned urbanisation with clearly established zones

of different risks to separate residential zones from

commercial and industries areas.

� Development of designated green belts.

� Defining limits for noise level of vehicle engines and

horns and introduction verification of compliance

through inclusion in the compulsory 6-monthly

emission test.

� In loud areas such as main thorough fares, double

glazed windows can be used to reduce noise pene-

tration into the buildings provided ventilation can

be sacrificed.

� Enforcement of noise limits in urban spaces and

workplaces.

In the midst of all implementation, monitoring and sur-

veillance of noise levels and health related disorders

across the community and in high-risk groups is essen-

tial.

4.4.4.4. WATERWATERWATERWATER

4.1. PRESSURES

The health burden of poor water quality is enormous.

It is estimated that around 37.7 million Indians are af-

Chapter 5: Health

110

fected by waterborne diseases annually; 1.5 million

children are estimated to die of diarrhoea alone. The

problems of chemical contamination are also prevalent

in India as 195,813 habitations in the country are af-

fected by poor water quality. While traditional diseases

such as diarrhoea continue to take a heavy toll, 66 mil-

lion Indians are at risk due to excess fluoride and 10

million due to excess arsenic in groundwater. Water

quality is affected by both point and non-point sources

of pollution. These include sewage discharge, dis-

charge from industries, run-off from agricultural fields

and urban run-off. Water quality is also affected by

floods and droughts and can also arise from lack of

awareness and education among users.

Interventions for providing safe drinking water can

become ineffective in the absence of improved sanita-

tion. In order to provide access to sufficient quantities

of safe water, the provision of facilities for a sanitary

disposal of excreta, and improving hygiene is of utmost

importance. The ways and means by which water is

collected also has an impact on its quality. It is essential

to have a clean surrounding at the source to prevent

contamination. Open drains and disposal of solid

waste near sources of water may lead to presence of

ammonia and coliform bacteria in water sources. Thus

prevention of water contamination at source is neces-

sary to ensure the potability of supplied water.

National Family Health Survey 2005-06 reported that

71.2% of the urban population in the state has access

to piped drinking water and 82.7% have access to toi-

lets. The survey also reported that 12.4% of children

under 3 years had diarrhoea within the past two

weeks of the survey date in urban areas and 38.5% of

them had received oral rehydration solution. A recent

paper holds that across India 30% of urban and 90% of

rural households depend on untreated surface or

groundwater.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 3333: An uncovered drain : An uncovered drain : An uncovered drain : An uncovered drain –––– A source of infectionA source of infectionA source of infectionA source of infection

Potential drivers of pathogens in waterPotential drivers of pathogens in waterPotential drivers of pathogens in waterPotential drivers of pathogens in water

New environmentsNew environmentsNew environmentsNew environments

� Climate shifts and deforestation

� Water resources development projects such as dams

and irrigation

� Water-cooled air conditioning plants

� Changing industrial and agricultural practices

� Increasing number of humanitarian emergencies

New technologiesNew technologiesNew technologiesNew technologies

� Water resources development projects such as dams

and irrigation

� Water-cooled air conditioning plants


Changes in human behaviour and vulnerabilityChanges in human behaviour and vulnerabilityChanges in human behaviour and vulnerabilityChanges in human behaviour and vulnerability

� Demographic changes

� Increasing size of high risk populations

� Deliberate and accidental release of pathogens to water

� Increasing number of humanitarian emergencies

SSSScientific advancementscientific advancementscientific advancementscientific advancements

� Inappropriate and excessive use of antibiotics


� Improved methods of detection and analysis

� Inappropriate use of new generation insecticides

Department of Rural Development and Panchayat Raj,

Government of Karnataka commissioned a water qual-

ity analysis of 154,491 water samples of 33,667 vil-

lages/settlements for 14 major parameters. Samples

reflected the contamination of groundwater with bac-

teria (23%) and presence of excess fluoride (17%), total

dissolved salts (4%), total hardness (25%), iron (28%)

and nitrate (10%) beyond permissible limits.

A field study revealed that 13% of constructed latrines

were misutilised and 3% non-utilised. It is significant to

note that misutilisation of latrines stands higher in Bi-

japur (69%), Gulbarga (56%) and Raichur (51%). While

in Raichur around 40% of the latrines were found to be

in use as bathrooms, in Gulbarga 34% were put to

other uses, which may well lead to an increase in the

incidence of gastroenteritis and worm infestation.

It is estimated that by 2020 India will become a water

stressed nation. Looking at Bangalore, the per-capita

availability of water is reducing with the rapidly grow-

ing population. Water shortage and urbanization

clearly have a harmful impact on human health. A

quantification of this aspect does not appear feasible at

this stage. However, it is certain that children below 5

years of age will be the most vulnerable group.

4.2. IMPACT STUDIES

� A morbidity study was conducted in Bangalore fo-

cusing on waterborne diseases (diarrhoea, polio-

myelitis, enteric fever and hepatitis A and E). Differ-

ences in the availability of latrines for houses and

Chapter 5: Health

111

hygienic handling of drinking water were found to

have a statistically significant impact (p < 0.05) on

the incidence of water borne diseases. This differ-

ence was attributed to the availability of latrines for

residents of NTI Layout while residents of An-

janappa Garden had to use community latrines;

� A recent study in Kaiwara village in Chikkaballapur

district shows that out of 416 school-going children

24.0% had dental fluorosis, 11.4% genu valgum,

20.9% goitre, 10.3% xerosis of the conjunctiva

while 100% of children tested had high levels of

fluorides in the urine. 90% of drinking water

samples contain high levels of fluoride. The study

proved that water-borne fluorosis is endemic in

Kaiwara. As protective measure against waterborne

infections, there has been a shift to groundwater

for drinking in this region over the past 10 to 15

years.

4.3. HISTORY OF RECENT INTIATIVES

� 2002: Nationwide launch of reforms in rural water

supply through the Swajaldhara scheme of Ministry

of Drinking Water & Sanitation;

� 2002: The National Water Policy is revised to accord

greater priority to serving villages that do not have

adequate sources of safe water and to improve the

level of service for villages classified as only partially

covered;

� 2002: India commits to the Millennium Develop-

ment Goals to halve the portion of people without

access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation

by 2015;

� 2004: All drinking water programmes are brought

under the umbrella of the Rajiv Gandhi National

Drinking Water Mission;

� 2005: The Bharat Nirman Programme for overall

development of rural areas by strengthening hous-

ing, roads, electricity, telecommunication, irrigation

and drinking water infrastructure is launched. The

target is to provide drinking water to 55,069 un-

covered habitations; those affected by poor water

quality and slipped back habitations based on the

2003 survey, within five years;

� 2007: The pattern of funding under the Swajald-

hara scheme changes from 90:10 centre-

community to 50:50 centre-state share. Contribu-

tions of the community are now optional.

The approach paper for the 11th Five-Year Plan calls for

a comprehensive approach which encompasses indi-

vidual health care, public health, sanitation, clean

drinking water, access to food and knowledge about

hygiene and feeding practice. It also states the need to

upscale schemes related to community management

of water reducing the maintenance burden and re-

sponsibility of the state. It is envisaged to provide clean

drinking water for all by 2009 and to ensure that there

are no slip-backs by the end of the 11th Plan. This ap-

parently has not been achieved.

Government of Karnataka framed the State Water Pol-

icy in 2002 and the Urban Drinking Water and Sanita-

tion Water Policy modelled on the National Water Pol-

icy 2002. The former emphases the use of surface wa-

ter for drinking as groundwater sources is either con-

taminated or vulnerable to over-extraction. The latter is

found to discriminate rural against urban populations

by differential targets for per capita water supply.


Ensuring access to safe drinking water has remained

unattained for both urban and rural populations. On

one side safe drinking water is essential for human

health, on the other untreated water constitutes the

major part as drinking water resources and pollution of

these is increasing rather than abating. The tremen-

dous present challenge here is viewed to exacerbate

further. This is compounded by the population growth.

It is difficult to overestimate this challenge. Access to

safe drinking water has to be made a key priority with

systematic implementation following suit in defined

timeframes.

5.5.5.5. WASTWASTWASTWASTEEEE

5.1. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW)

The generation of household waste increases as in-

come levels rises. Quantities generated depend on the

economic strata, dietary habits, lifestyles and living

standards. With the rise in urbanisation, areas available

for land filling are getting lesser and lesser. Toxic prod-

ucts from wastes disposed in landfill sites increasingly

leach into the groundwater. Natural decomposition of

wastes also produces explosive methane gas. Waste is

rather attractive to cockroaches, flies and rodents war-

ranting an effective disposal system. Waste collection

sites are fertile feeding and breeding grounds for cer-

tain species that often carry communicable diseases.

Apart from undesirable odours and appalling aesthet-

ics, disposal sites pose direct health hazards to humans.

Solid waste, if allowed to accumulate and not disposed

off properly typically cause the following environ-

mental impacts:

� Contamination of groundwater by leachate gener-

ated by waste dump;

� Surface water contamination by run-off from the

dump;

Chapter 5: Health

112

� Waste dumps favours fly breeding, attracts rodents

and pests;

� Generation of methane which is both inflammable

and at the same time a greenhouse gas;

� Nourishing of certain avian populations, particularly

crows;

� Transmission of disease through pests, stray animals

and cattle.

Taken together City Corporations, City Municipal Cor-

porations, Town Municipal Corporations and Town

Panchayats of Karnataka were generating an esti-

mated 8,825 tons of MSW per day, 6,778 of which are

being collected (75%) in 2004 (CCCChapter 12hapter 12hapter 12hapter 12:::: Waste Waste Waste Waste

ManagementManagementManagementManagement may also be referred in this regard). Re-

cent data from Karnataka State Pollution Control Board

(KSPCB) indicates that the total MSW generation in the

state is 6,500 tons per day. Open waste dumps are a

common site in urban areas. Studies linking human

health with prevalent management of MSW are not

available. It is however assumed that the lack of good

management of MSW in urban areas is having a tangi-

ble negative impact on human health.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 4444: : : : CCCCattle feasting on uncollected garbage in Bangaloreattle feasting on uncollected garbage in Bangaloreattle feasting on uncollected garbage in Bangaloreattle feasting on uncollected garbage in Bangalore

5.2. BIO-MEDICAL WASTE (BMW)

Bio-medical waste, also known as infectious healthcare

waste, is bio-hazardous with a potential to spread in-

fection. It also has a comparatively high potential for

formation and release of unintentionally produced per-

sistent organic pollutants (UP-POPs). BMW therefore

requires safe management throughout the life cycle in

order to safeguard public health and protect the envi-

ronment. Healthcare institutions (hospitals, health cen-

tres, primary health centres, community centres etc.)

generate large amounts of waste. An estimated 75% to

90% of the medical waste is classified as non-risk or

general healthcare waste. The risk however lies in the

infectious components mixed with it.

The disposal of wastes originating from healthcare es-

tablishments is likely to have adverse impact on both

human health and the environment. However, experi-

ences have shown that when this waste is managed

properly the risk to both human beings and environ-

ment is reduced to a very large extent. Improper man-

agement and disposal of medical waste may result in,

but not be limited to, the following ill effects:

� Organic portions decay, ferment and result in fly

and other pests breeding and spread of diseases;

� Injuries from sharps can spread infections, diseases

to health care personnel and waste handlers;

� Increased risk of infections to the medical, nursing

and other hospital staff;

� Poor infection control can lead to nosocomial infec-

tions like HIV, Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C etc.

amongst the patients and medical staff;

� Increased risk of diseases due to untreated hazard-

ous chemicals and drugs being handled by waste

handlers;

� Encouragement of recycling of disposables and

disposed drugs by repacking and reselling;

� Development of resistant strains of microorganisms.

� The effects on community and environment are

due to inappropriate disposal of healthcare waste

leading to soil, water and air pollution.

An audit conducted jointly by Karnataka State Pollution

Control Board and Department of Health & Family

Welfare, Government of Karnataka in 2008 among 220

health care facilities of 8 Municipal Corporations re-

vealed the following:

� Only 56 health care facilities are handing over their

bio-medical waste to common bio-medical waste

treatment facilities (CBWTFs) and 164 are neither

affiliated to any of these nor do they have their

own facilities to dispose the waste;

� 52 health care facilities have not obtained authori-

zation from KSPCB to generate and dispose BMW

as per stipulated requirements. Disposal systems are

in some state of development and full-scale imple-

mentation is currently pursued;

� According to Bio-Medical Waste (Management &

Handling) Rules, 1998, a town with a population

less than 5 lakh should have deep burial pit to dis-

pose bio-medical waste and there are standard

guidelines for constructing such facilities while the

audit report reveals that none of the deep burial fa-

cilities is according to these guidelines;

� In few districts even non-infectious waste is being

dumped in to the deep burial pit rendering it non-

digestible;

Chapter 5: Health

113

� In 15 government hospitals BMW is dumped unsci-

entifically in the backyard rendering it highly haz-

ardous to both human health and environment.

Although the audit above appears to paint a picture of

gross violations with legislation, the enforcement of

Bio-Medical Waste (Management & Handling) Rules,

1998, management of BMW is progressing measurably

in Karnataka. Collection and management through

approved common facilities is practiced by an increas-

ing number of health care facilities and uncomplicated

wherever economically viable. The government is pur-

suing a dual approach. On one hand the monitoring

system is tightened while the capacity of health care

facilities to handle BMW is being increased through a

targeted training initiative across districts since 2011.

6.6.6.6. AAAANIMAL THREATSNIMAL THREATSNIMAL THREATSNIMAL THREATS

6.1. RABIES

Rabies is a 100% fatal disease. In the year 2008, a total

of 17 confirmed rabies deaths were reported in Karna-

taka. However not all human rabies cases that occur

get reflected in statistics. Dogs act as a reservoir in a

majority (96%) of the cases. There are an estimated 2

lakh stray dogs in Bangalore alone, accounting for

more than 60% of the city’s dog population. Estimates

for other regions of Karnataka are not available. Data

from the Integrated Disease Surveillance Project reveals

that there are more than 1.5 lakh reported dog bite

cases in Karnataka in a year with more than 2,500

cases in any given week. In 2006-07 more than 27,000

dog bite cases were reported in Bangalore. Mandya,

Mysore, Kolar, Tumkur, Bidar and Belgaum are the

other districts that report high numbers of dog bite

cases. A large proportion (86%) of the dog bite victims

receive anti-rabies vaccination but very few receive

rabies immunoglobulin. Anti-rabies vaccines are made

available at health centres, dispensaries and referral

hospitals run by the government. However these vac-

cines are short in supply on many occasions. Anti-

rabies serum is scarce. Rabies cases are treated at the

Epidemic Disease Hospital (Isolation Hospital) situated

on Old Madras Road, Bangalore. This hospital is the

sentinel centre for rabies cases in Bangalore and also

neighbouring states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil

Nadu.

6.2. ANIMAL BIRTH CONTROL

Under the Animal Birth Control (Dogs) Rules 2001 and

Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 registered

animal welfare organisations can based on a complaint

by the public and in coordination with the civic au-

thorities, catch stray dogs and bring them to their cen-

tres where they are sterilized, de-wormed and adminis-

tered anti-rabies vaccine following which they are re-

leased back into the places from where they were

picked up. In Karnataka, as per the Karnataka Munici-

pal Act, By-Law No. 25 (Prevention of dangerous dis-

eases of animals and prevention of rabies) places the

responsibility of the control of stray dogs on the mu-

nicipal authorities. However, following the implemen-

tation of Animal Birth Control Rules, BBMP has signed

memorandam of understanding with animal welfare

organisations and entrusted the responsibility of the

control of stray dogs to them. Currently four of these

along with the Department of Animal Husbandry and

Veterinary Sciences are involved in the implementation

of the Animal Birth Control Programme in 10 zones of

Bangalore. A performance audit of the Animal Birth

Control Programme in Bangalore City by the Depart-

ment of Community Medicine, Kempegowda Institute

of Medical Sciences revealed inadequacies at the field

level in 2000-06. Besides inadequacies in the mainte-

nance of records, the audit brought to light that pre-

capture surveys of the dog population were not carried

out, that estimates by the BBMP were not rational and

that in a majority of cases dogs were not re-vaccinated

after one year.

6.3. PET DOG LICENCE

BBMP introduced a license system for pet dogs in 2001.

However, only for around 23% of Bangalore’s pet dog

population of 1.25 lakh licenses were issued.


Currently, there is no strategic plan that clearly evalu-

ates how many years it will take at the rate of how

many sterilizations per year to reach a target of zero

stray dogs. There is a need for careful planning and

development of a workable strategy in coordination

with animal welfare organisations to tackle this issue.

More such organisations should be encouraged to

work along with municipal authorities. Improvements

in the system for record maintenance, monitoring and

supervision of the programme are needed. Stocks of

vaccines should be made available at health centres.

Newer and more cost effective options for vaccine ad-

ministration like the intradermal technique should be

adopted on large scale. Strict and compulsory licensing

of pet dogs should be mandated. Health education

programmes on the prevention and care of dog bites

should be promoted by print and electronic media.

7.7.7.7. CLIMATE CHANGECLIMATE CHANGECLIMATE CHANGECLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change is a significant and emerging threat to

public health in India. According to some researchers,

it is projected to lead to submergence of coast-lines

Chapter 5: Health

114

and low-lying delta regions and emigration of people.

Furthermore, intrusion of seawater in the groundwater

coupled with increase in temperature can adversely

impact people whose main source of sustenance is

either agriculture or fishing. In addition, there may be

an increase in the risk of extreme environmental disas-

ters like cyclones and floods.

Limited research has been published investigating the

impact of climate change on human health. Changes

in the climate are expected to alter the distribution of

vector species such as mosquitoes. These would result

in a change or possibly an increase in the spread of

disease to new areas, including malaria. While the

timescales and magnitudes of climatic changes remain

uncertain, certainly these would impede the achieve-

ment of several of the Millennium Development Goals,

including those on poverty alleviation, reducing child

mortality, malaria and other diseases.

8.8.8.8. HEALTH CAREHEALTH CAREHEALTH CAREHEALTH CARE INFRASTRUCTUREINFRASTRUCTUREINFRASTRUCTUREINFRASTRUCTURE

The institutional facilities available in the state are indi-

cated in Table 1.

Table Table Table Table 1111: Health : Health : Health : Health care care care care infrastructureinfrastructureinfrastructureinfrastructure

Institution Number Institution Number

Medical colleges 36 Ayurvedic hospitals

122

District hospitals 17 Ayurvedic dispensaries

589

Referral hospitals 57 Unani hospitals 13

City family welfare centres

2 Unani dispensaries

51

Rural dispensaries 176 Homeopathic hospitals

20

Homeopathic dispensaries

42

Adapted from www.mohfw.nic.in/NRHM/State% 20Files/karnataka.htm accessed on Nov 1, 2011

9.9.9.9. EMERGING INTEREMERGING INTEREMERGING INTEREMERGING INTERVENTION AREASVENTION AREASVENTION AREASVENTION AREAS

9.1. AIR

Issue Mitigation options Stakeholders

Prevalence of asthma

� Evolving a policy for systematic reduction of pollutant levels with better coordination among the involved sectors

� Strengthening enforcement of the existing laws

� Generate data about health impact due to rise in pollutant levels by conducting environmental health risk assessment studies

� Increase awareness programmes among high risk groups

� Planning of new residential layouts with adequate greenbelts

� Pollution Control Board

� Department of Ecology & Environment

� Department of Health and Family Wel-fare

� Department of Town Planning

Incidence of acute respi-ratory Infec-tion among under five year olds

� Generate data on indoor air pollution

� Provision of smokeless chulas

� Alternate cooking fuels

� Encourage the development of green belts around schools and residential areas

� Strict implementation of existing emission testing standards



� Regional Transport Offices

9.2. NOISE

Issues Remedial measures Benefits/outcome Stakeholders

Quantitative measurement of noise levels is currently not backed by epi-demiological stud-ies/surveillance of health im-pacts of noise

� Surveillance for health impacts of noise pollution with identification and source apportionment in Karnataka

� Contracting independent epide-miological studies for situation analysis of noise pollution and health impacts

� Establishment of field level data

� Monitoring and surveillance of health indicators of noise pollution

� Epidemiological association be-tween noise levels and health im-pacts

� Guideline values for levels of noise reduction to correlate with expected benefits in health and costs for the same

� High risk mapping based on de-scriptive epidemiological studies and surveillance data


� Department of Health and Family Welfare


� Research institutes

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115


Lack of training in surveillance and screening for NIHL in cur-rent health sys-tem

� Intense capacity building of all safety officers, health officers, in-spectors in surveillance and screening for Noise-Induced Hearing Loss

� Trained manpower for future im-plementation



Compliance with existing regula-tions

� Strict enforcement especially in hot spots, new and upcoming projects in land development and industrialisation

� Increased compliance to limits specified under the law


Better manage-ment strategies for intense moni-toring of noise levels in the state

� Formation of public private part-nership models with qualified agencies for the same

� Collaboration with various public health institutes, private laborato-ries for the same

� Sourcing and adoption of alterna-tive cost effective technologies to enhance the scope and coverage of monitoring mechanisms

� Inventory of institutes of expertise in noise and health

� Database generation of noise lev-els

� Risk mapping of hot spots for noise pollution to operationalise high risk strategy



� Department of Transport

� BMTC, KSRTC



Unplanned ur-banisation

� Division of the city into zones of different risks

� Promotion of green belts

� Improvement in acoustic insula-tion of buildings

� Serve as measures of dampeners, isolation for control of health im-pacts of noise


� KHB

� BDA

� BMRDA

Vehicular traffic: increase in number, diver-sity. Compro-mise in quality monitoring of vehicles for sound

� Improvements in motor vehicle, operating condition, through en-forcement

� Surveillance of noise from vehi-cles

� Enhancement in traffic manage-ment mechanisms

� Decrease in significant percentage in noise pollution as it is a signifi-cant contributor in urban areas where density of population ex-posed is higher than rural


� BDA

� BMRDA

� Department of Transport

� BMTC, KSRTC

� Regional Transport Of-fices

Regulation in industries and railways

� Strict enforcement especially in industries especially for new and upcoming projects

� Isolation and enclosure meas-ures of high risk noise generating industries

� Occupational health and safety wing to focus on noise pollution by designation of officer in charge for monitoring purpose of pre-placement and, periodical examination of all workers and engineering measures to mini-mise the health impacts of noise pollution

� Monitoring of NIHL in population working in and living around in-dustries

� Health records of all workers in industries is valuable resource for epidemiological studies

� Decrease in significant percentage in health impacts as majority of clinically detectable health hazards

� Industries

� Department of Factories, Boilers, Industrial Safety & Health

� KIADB

Worker safety issues

� Health education of all workers in issues of personal protection, pre-placement and periodical ex-amination

� Monitoring mechanisms for us-age of personal protective de-vices

� Enhancement in technology for increasing compliance to usage of personal protective devices

� Enhanced capacity in issues of worker safety

� Technology refinement and adap-tation to enhance compliance to usage in personal protective de-vices

� Industries


� Department of Factories, Boilers, Industrial Safety & Health


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116

9.3. WATER


Quantitative measure-ment of water quality both bacteriological and chemical, is currently not backed by epidemi-ological stud-ies/surveillance of health impacts of water pollution. Water quality is affected by both point and non-point sources of pollution

� Surveillance for health impacts of water quality with source apportionment in Karnataka

� Contracting out independ-ent epidemiological studies in situation analysis of wa-ter quality and health im-pacts

� Reduced burden of morbidity and mortality due to water borne diseases

� Establishment of field level data

� Monitoring and surveillance of health indicators of water quality

� Epidemiological association between water pollution levels and health im-pacts

� Guideline values for levels of reduc-tion of water pollution to correlate with expected benefits in health and costs for the same

� High risk mapping based on descrip-tive epidemiological studies and sur-veillance data

� National Rural Drink-ing Water Quality Monitoring and Sur-veillance Programme





Problems of chemical contamination of groundwater are also prevalent in the state

� Intense capacity building of all safety officers, health of-ficers, inspectors in surveil-lance for chemical con-tamination of water


� Trained manpower for future imple-mentation





Compliance with exist-ing regulations

� Strict enforcement espe-cially in hot spots, new and upcoming projects in land development and industri-alisation


� Increased compliance with limits specified under the law


Better management strategies for intense monitoring of water quality in the state

� Collaboration with various public health institutes, pri-vate laboratories for the same

� Sourcing and adoption of alternative cost effective technologies to enhance the scope and coverage of monitoring mechanisms

� Database generation of water quality

� Risk mapping of hot spots for water pollution to operationalise high risk strategy

� Department of Mines & Geology





Stagnant water and other untreated water provide a habitat for mosquitoes and a host of other insects and parasites which cause different types of bacte-rial infections due to unplanned urbanisation

� Division of the city into zones of different risks

� Promotion of safe water distribution and quality monitoring


� Serve as measures of dampeners, isolation for control of health impacts of water pollution


� BDA

� BMRDA


� Urban Local Bodies

Water quality is also affected by lack of awareness and educa-tion among users. Lack of user involvement in maintaining water qual-ity and looking at other aspects like hygiene, environment sanitation, storage and disposal to maintain the quality of water resources

� Large scale awareness campaigns across the state

� Intense capacity building of all safety officers, health of-ficers, inspectors in surveil-lance for chemical con-tamination of water


� Improved awareness among the general population and trained man-power for future implementation

� Urban water utilities including BWSSB and KUWSDB



� Research and training institutes

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117


Lack of infrastructure for sanitary latrines in the state and lack of aware-ness of their use. Lim-ited resources of the state government to cover the entire state

� Creation of infrastructure ie., sanitary latrines espe-cially in rural areas

� Intense awareness cam-paigns in both rural areas and urban slums

� Monitoring and surveillance of the situation on a long-term basis.


� Epidemiological association between levels of sanitation and health im-pacts

� Urban water and sani-tation utilities including BWSSB



� Research and training institutes


� BDA

� BMRDA

9.4. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE


Inventory:

Lack of reliable municipal solid waste generation esti-mates

� Scientific studies to estimate the quality and quan-tity of MSW

� Scientific estimate of quantity and characteristic of waste

� Plan for final dis-posal mechanism

� NGOs working in the area of solid waste

� ULBs

� Research insti-tutes

Awareness:

Communication programmes for effective management of MSW have not been given adequate importance. Participation of the other stakeholders (waste genera-tors, NGOs, private entities) is minimal

� Intense capacity building of all stake holders

� Involvement of Resident welfare associations

� Enhanced com-munity participa-tion

� ULBs

� NGOs working in the area of solid waste

� Training insti-tutes

Service:

The process of collection, transportation and disposal of MSW is incomplete in most of the cities/towns. High organic content of MSW, in hot and humid climate leads to the rapid decomposition of the uncollected waste creating a health hazard. Contamination of MSW by biomedical and industrial hazardous waste is a growing concern

� Strengthening monitoring

� Improving collec-tion and transpor-tation

� Strict enforcement of existing legisla-tion

� Improved aesthet-ics

� Reduction in mor-bidities arising due to mismanagement of waste

� ULBs


Technology:

Waste is often disposed unscientifically, with crude open dumping in low-lying areas. MSW is also commonly deposited at dump-yards without ascertaining the suit-ability of the land for waste disposal leading to serious health and environmental. MSWM practices in India are employee intensive, with an estimated 50% of the total municipal staff engaged in these activities. The machin-ery and equipment used are mostly of outdated technol-ogy, and serve poorly in meeting the new demands

� Adoption of scien-tific final disposal techniques

� Mechanisation of collection and transportation of MSW

� Established scien-tific disposal meth-ods

� ULBs

Finance:

Despite accounting for a sizeable portion of the munici-pal budget - about 20% to 50%, the Urban Local Bodies are unable to provide effective services. Less than 10% of the total budget outlay of MSW is spent on the treat-ment and final disposal

� Conduct gap analysis for input (budget) and out-put (improvement in services)

� Improved collec-tion and transpor-tation system

� ULBs

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118

9.5. BIO-MEDICAL WASTE


Lack of standardisation of appropriate practices for bio-medical waste man-agement

� Drafting of standard oper-ating procedures at the health care institution level

� Standardization of practices across varied health care set-tings

� Even if there is attrition in health care personnel, stan-dard operating procedures will help in building the sys-tems



� Research and training insti-tutes

Presently there are very few Infection Control Committees and Waste Management Committees in hospitals

� Mandated presence of infection committees in all health care facilities with more than 50 beds

� Strengthened monitoring system

� Reduction in hospital ac-quired infections and inci-dences of antibiotic resistant microorganisms

� Health care institutions



Lack of trained personnel in many of the health care facilities. Trained person-nel if present were trained long ago and retraining or reorientation is very limited

� Mandatory presence of certified trained personnel in all health care settings with more than 50 beds, so that trained personnel can be utilized for training per-sonnel in other smaller health care facilities

� Creation of a resource pool of trained personnel

� Strengthening of existing systems





� Research and training insti-tutes

Lack of monitoring of nee-dle stick injuries in many smaller health care facili-ties

� Maintenance of a registry to record all needle stick injuries in all the health care facilities

� Incidence of needle stick injuries can be a proxy indi-cator for monitoring health care waste management sys-tem

� Reduction in incidence of Hepatitis B and HIV among health care personnel



There are limitations in the recording of quantum of waste generated; it is generally recorded at the health care facilities that have been registered with a common treatment facil-ity. However the waste generated is recorded in the form of number of bags generated and not in terms of kilograms of waste generated

� Maintenance of a waste management register at all points of generation in health care settings

� Estimation of different types of waste generated per bed per day

� Inventory of quality and quantity of each type of waste generated across var-ied health care settings

� Better planning of waste management systems

� Better decisions regarding adoption of final disposal technologies

� Pilferage of wastes from health care settings that have recycling value can be avoided



Segregation is practiced in many health care settings but with varied efficiency

� Regular training and re-taining of all categories of health care personnel

� It minimizes the quantity of infectious / hazardous waste

� Reduces chances of spread of infections

� Prevents injuries / transmis-sion of infection



Insufficient immunization status of health care per-sonnel against Hepatitis B and Tetanus

� Improved workers safety and health



Chapter 5: Health

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9.6. ANIMAL THREATS

Issue Remedial measures Benefits/outcome Stakeholders

Inadequate solid waste management

� Establishment of a system for collection, segregation of different categories of waste and their appropri-ate disposal in all districts (refer to above)

� Decrease in the stray dog population near residential areas thus weakening the epidemiological association between the animal host and disease

� Municipal authorities

� Panchayats

Non availability of rabies vaccines and immu-noglobulins

� Ensuring the availability of adequate quantities of ra-bies vaccine at the primary level and immunoglobulin at referral centres

� Ensuring that every reported case of dog bite gets appro-priate medical care

� Municipal authorities


Lack of awareness among general public

� Development of a strong public health campaign to increase awareness among the general public about dog bites and their remediation

� Adequate first aid measures to dog bite cases

� Adequate health-seeking behaviour among the public for dog bite cases

� Decrease in indiscriminate disposal of solid waste


� Ministry of Information and Broadcasting

� Media

Inadequate licensing of pets

� Strict enforcement of the existing dog licence sys-tem in Bangalore.

� Increase in the percentage of licensed pets

� BBMP


� Department of Veterinary Services

Chapter 5: Health

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121

CHAPTER 6

AGRICULTURE AND

HORTICULTURE

Chapter 6: Agriculture and Horticulture

122


123

CONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTS

1.1.1.1. INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 125125125125

2.2.2.2. PRODUCTION TRENDSPRODUCTION TRENDSPRODUCTION TRENDSPRODUCTION TRENDS ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 125125125125

3.3.3.3. DROUGHTS AND FLOODSDROUGHTS AND FLOODSDROUGHTS AND FLOODSDROUGHTS AND FLOODS ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 126126126126

4.4.4.4. ENVIRONENVIRONENVIRONENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNSMENTAL CONCERNSMENTAL CONCERNSMENTAL CONCERNS ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 127127127127

4.1.4.1.4.1.4.1. SOIL EROSIONSOIL EROSIONSOIL EROSIONSOIL EROSION ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 127127127127

4.2.4.2.4.2.4.2. CHEMICAL FERTILISERSCHEMICAL FERTILISERSCHEMICAL FERTILISERSCHEMICAL FERTILISERS AND PESTICIDESAND PESTICIDESAND PESTICIDESAND PESTICIDES .................................................................... 129129129129

4.2.1. Fertilisers .................................................................................. 129

4.2.2. Pesticides ................................................................................. 129

4.3.4.3.4.3.4.3. DECLINE OF AGRODECLINE OF AGRODECLINE OF AGRODECLINE OF AGRO----BIODIVERSITYBIODIVERSITYBIODIVERSITYBIODIVERSITY ........................................................................................................................ 130130130130

4.4.4.4.4.4.4.4. IRRIGATIONIRRIGATIONIRRIGATIONIRRIGATION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 131131131131

4.5.4.5.4.5.4.5. BIOLOGICAL AIR POLLUBIOLOGICAL AIR POLLUBIOLOGICAL AIR POLLUBIOLOGICAL AIR POLLUTIONTIONTIONTION ........................................................................................................................................................ 132132132132

4.6.4.6.4.6.4.6. AGRICULTURE AND GLOBAGRICULTURE AND GLOBAGRICULTURE AND GLOBAGRICULTURE AND GLOBAL WARMINGAL WARMINGAL WARMINGAL WARMING .................................................................... 132132132132

5.5.5.5. PROSPECTSPROSPECTSPROSPECTSPROSPECTS ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 133133133133

5.1.5.1.5.1.5.1. ORGANIC FARMINGORGANIC FARMINGORGANIC FARMINGORGANIC FARMING ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 133133133133

5.2.5.2.5.2.5.2. OPPORTUNITIES FOR HOOPPORTUNITIES FOR HOOPPORTUNITIES FOR HOOPPORTUNITIES FOR HORTICULTURERTICULTURERTICULTURERTICULTURE ............................................................................................ 133133133133

5.3.5.3.5.3.5.3. DRYLAND FARMINGDRYLAND FARMINGDRYLAND FARMINGDRYLAND FARMING ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 134134134134

5.4.5.4.5.4.5.4. CONTRACT FARMINGCONTRACT FARMINGCONTRACT FARMINGCONTRACT FARMING ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 135135135135

6.6.6.6. EMERGING INTERVENTIOEMERGING INTERVENTIOEMERGING INTERVENTIOEMERGING INTERVENTION AREASN AREASN AREASN AREAS ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 135135135135


124


Table 1: Production of major crops for year 2009-10 ................................................................................................................... 126

Table 2: Soil degradation status in Karnataka ................................................................................................................................. 128

Table 3: Fertiliser consumption in Karnataka .................................................................................................................................. 129

Table 4: Irrigation sources in Karnataka (2009-10) ....................................................................................................................... 131


Figure 1: Agro-climatic zones of Karnataka and their major crops .......................................................................................... 125

Figure 2: Food grain production (lakh tons) in Karnataka ......................................................................................................... 126

Figure 3: Drought occurrences in India ............................................................................................................................................ 127

Figure 4: Soil degradation in Karnataka ........................................................................................................................................... 128

Figure 5: Pesticide spraying .................................................................................................................................................................. 130

Figure 6: Earthworms .... ....................................................................................................................................................................... 131

Figure 7: Organically grown turmeric ............................................................................................................................................... 133

Figure 8: A mango nursery .................................................................................................................................................................. 134

Figure 9: Farm pond for storing surplus rainwater in Devigere ................................................................................................ 135


125

1.1.1.1. IIIINNNNTRODUCTIONTRODUCTIONTRODUCTIONTRODUCTION

For most of Karnataka’s rural population, agriculture is

the major occupation. A total of 124 lakh ha of land is

available for cultivation as per the Agricultural Census

of 2005-06, constituting 65% of the total geographical

area of the state. According to the 2001 Census, farm-

ers and agricultural labourers form 56% of the total

workforce of Karnataka. As shown in Figure 1, Karna-

taka is divided in ten agro-climatic zones based on a

range of criteria, including topography, elevation, rain-

fall and soil types. Agriculture in the state is heavily de-

pendent on the southwest monsoon and the extent of

arid land in the state is second only to Rajasthan. 32%

of net sown area (34 lakh ha) is irrigated. The state has

three agricultural seasons — kharif (July to October),

rabi (October to March) and summer.

The main crops grown here are rice, ragi, jowar, maize,

and pulses (tur and gram) besides oilseeds and a num-

ber of cash crops. Cashew, coconut, areca nut, carda-

mom, chillies, cotton, sugarcane and tobacco are

among the other crops produced in the state. Karna-

taka is the largest producer of coarse cereals, coffee

and raw silk among the states in India. Horticultural

crops are grown on 19 lakh ha and the annual produc-

tion is about 148 lakh tons. The income generated

from horticulture constitutes over 40% of income gen-

erated from the agriculture sector and it is about 13%

of the state's GDP in 2009-10. In floriculture, Karnataka

occupies the second position in India in terms of pro-

duction and 1.96 lakh tons of commercial flowers

(worth INR 48 lakh) were produced in 2009-10.

2.2.2.2. PRODUCTION TRENDSPRODUCTION TRENDSPRODUCTION TRENDSPRODUCTION TRENDS

Land and water are the two important natural re-

sources in the development of agriculture. The success

of agriculture mainly depends on proper and scientific

utilisation of these. Crop productivity is best reviewed

on a watershed basis where these resources interact in

1. North Eastern Transition Zone

Pulses, jowar, oilseeds, bajra, cotton and sugarcane

2. North Eastern Dry Zone

Rabi, jowar, bajra, pulses, oilseeds and cotton

3. Northern Dry Zone

Maize, bajra, groundnut, cotton, wheat, sugarcane and

tobacco

4. Central Dry Zone

Ragi, jowar, pulses and oilseeds

5. Eastern Dry Zone

(Ragi, rice, pulses, maize and oilseeds

6. Southern Dry Zone

Rice, ragi, pulses, jowar and tobacco

7. Southern Transition Zone

Rice, ragi, Pulses, jowar and tobacco

8. Northern Transition zone

Rice, jowar, groundnut, pulses, sugarcane and tobacco

9. Hilly Zone

Rice and pulses

10. Coastal Zone

Rice and sugarcane

Figure Figure Figure Figure 1111: Agro: Agro: Agro: Agro----climatic zones of Karnatakaclimatic zones of Karnatakaclimatic zones of Karnatakaclimatic zones of Karnataka and their major cropsand their major cropsand their major cropsand their major crops

AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE AT A GLANCE

Agriculture Horticulture

Net cultivated land (2009-10) 103.9 lakh ha Land occupied (2009-10) 19.0 lakh ha

Gross cultivated land (2009-10) 128.7 lakh ha Production (2009-10) 147.8 lakh t/a

Sown area irrigated (2008-09) 32% Contribution to state’s GDP (2009-10) 13%

Food grain production (2010-11) 139.8 lakh t/a Other aspects

Top soil lost annually 250 t/ha

N-P-K fertiliser use (2009-10) 20.6 lakh t/a


126

a synergetic manner. Table 1 furnishes the production

of different crops for the year 2009-10 in Karnataka.

Because major cultivated areas are rainfed, an

achievement of target productions is uncertain due to

seasonal variation in rainfall. According to Business

Line, sources in the state government have indicated

that severe drought and floods in parts of the state

caused major damage to crops in almost all districts

during 2009-10. They also said that the state's food

grain production was 108.0 lakh tons, against a target

of 118.4 lakh tonnes in 2009-10 on account of unfa-

vourable seasonal conditions. The overall food grain

output is expected to drop by 10 lakh tonnes. Major

reasons for the likely decline in the production are er-

ratic monsoon in early June and July and flash floods

at the end of the monsoon which destroyed standing

crops on vast tracts of lands in a dozen districts in north

Karnataka. Standing crops on about 22 lakh ha were

damaged due to flash floods in September-October

2007.

Recent trends indicate that though the performance of

Karnataka’s economy in terms of Gross State Domestic

Product (GSDP) has improved, growth in agriculture

has not been very satisfactory. The deceleration in ag-

riculture has been rightly recognised as the root cause

of rural distress that has surfaced in Karnataka as well

as in many parts of the country. From 2000 onwards,

agricultural production varied enormously on account

of droughts. By and large, rainfall determines the pro-

duction. Dryland practices and drought resistant culti-

vars have not helped appreciably to overcome the

problem of droughts. The trend in sown area indicates

that farmers have not stopped farming either. Reasons

for the decline of agriculture in Karnataka include:

� Agriculture is seen as a system for food self-

sufficiency alone;

� Shrinking land-man ratio;

� Depleting vegetative cover;

� Dwindling water resources;

� Decreasing productivity of land;

� High dependence on rainfall;

� Increasing cost of production;

� Poor capital formation in agriculture;

� Lack of economic understanding in the production

process;

� Inadequate state funding for research;

� Production for unknown markets;

� Poor forward market support;

� Lack of legal systems for using land as a capital con-

tribution.

3.3.3.3. DROUGHTS AND FLOODSDROUGHTS AND FLOODSDROUGHTS AND FLOODSDROUGHTS AND FLOODS

Karnataka ranks second, next only to Rajasthan in

terms of area prone to drought. Among its 30 districts,

23 are drought prone. During 2001 and 2004 it faced

drought in three consecutive years. Again, droughts

reoccurred in 2006-07, 2008-09 and 2009-10. The state

also faced unprecedented floods during 2009-10 in

major parts of north Karnataka.

Aberrant weather is a part of Indian agriculture and is

affecting its production. 32% of cultivated land is irri-

gated (2008-09). Droughts and floods are the result of

this aberrant weather making agriculture exceptionally

high weather sensitive. Floods, cyclones and storms

have their adverse potential in a decreasing order of

magnitude in view of limited area of occurrence. By

contrast, drought is extensive and prolonged when it

Table Table Table Table 1111:::: Production of major crops for Production of major crops for Production of major crops for Production of major crops for year 2009year 2009year 2009year 2009----10101010

Crop Production India Production Karnataka Share of the state

Rice 890.9 lakh t/a 38.8 lakh t/a 4.4%

Wheat 808.0 lakh t/a 2.6 lakh t/a 0.3%

Coarse cereals 335.5 lakh t/a 55.6 lakh t/a 16.6%

Total cereals 2,034.5 lakh t/a 97.0 lakh t/a 4.8%

Pulses 146.6 lakh t/a 11.0 lakh t/a 7.5%

Food grains 2,181.1 lakh t/a 108.0 lakh t/a 5.0%

Oilseeds 248.8 lakh t/a 9.00 lakh t/a 3.6%

Sugarcane 2,923.0 lakh t/a 322.9 lakh t/a 11.1%

Cotton 242.3 lakh bales/a 7.1 lakh bales/a 2.9%

Figure Figure Figure Figure 2222: Food grain production : Food grain production : Food grain production : Food grain production ((((lakhlakhlakhlakh tons) in Karnatakatons) in Karnatakatons) in Karnatakatons) in Karnataka ———— AdaptedAdaptedAdaptedAdapted from from from from Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2009Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2009Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2009Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2009


127

occurs. As a result drought is considered as the biggest

menace to agriculture among all weather related cri-

ses. Rathore (2005) mentioned that the concept of

drought varies from place to place depending upon

normal climatic conditions, available water resources,

agricultural practices and the various socio-economic

activities of a region.

There is no dependable method to forecast droughts.

The occurrence is understood only as and when it

takes place. Learning from hindsight, it is a practice to

map drought affected areas year after year for devel-

opmental planning. Drought is an insidious hazard of

nature which is considered by many to be the most

complex but least understood of all natural hazards.

4.4.4.4. ENVIRONMEENVIRONMEENVIRONMEENVIRONMENNNNTAL TAL TAL TAL CONCERNSCONCERNSCONCERNSCONCERNS

4.1. SOIL EROSION

Land is the most important basic natural resource. It is

a dynamic and complex combination of geology, to-

pography, hydrology, soil and flora and fauna and in-

fluences on every sphere of human activity. Different

sectors including agriculture, industries, infrastructure,

and power projects put forth competing demand for

land. Subsistence farming practices, accelerated soil

and water erosion, erratic rainfall, increasing popula-

tion, and the high density of the livestock population

have all contributed to unsustainable land use that has

led to degradation of this valuable resource in Karna-

taka.

Out of the total non-arable land in the state, 9.67% are

rock lands. A high proportion of rock lands is in dry

and coastal zones (about 15% each). Non-arable lands

are strongly gravelly in about 79% in the state and a

very high proportion (99.9%) is found in the dry and

transition zones (93.1%). About 27% of these lands

have high slopes. High proportions occur in the hills

(50.9%) and coastal zone (35.3%). Soils with less than

25 cm depth are found in dry (39.6%) and transition

zones (47.6%). Erosion is a problem associated with

non-arable land and 54.5% of non-arable land is se-

verely eroded. Severe erosion of non-arable lands is a

major problem particularly in the dry (73.6%) and tran-

sition zones (97.1%).

Six major types of soil are found in Karnataka in addi-

tion to 75 associations of subgroups. The major soil

types include red soils covering 37.2% of the geo-

graphical area followed by black cotton soil with

27.8%. Other major types are alluvial soils with 15.7%

followed by lateritic soil with 11.6%.

Soils have been degraded enormously by human ac-

tivities like intensive agriculture, over-grazing, defores-

tation, enhanced industrial growth and contamination.

Degradation of land due to poor soil and water con-

servation measures and lack of watershed approaches

has impacted the land in many ways. It is estimated

that nearly 250 tons of soil per ha is washed away an-

nually. Over-tillage and cultivation along the slopes

besides cultivating steep land are some of the causes

for soil erosion. Low infiltration and poor retention of

moisture also contribute to soil erosion. Yet the de-

mand for food and other agricultural products contin-

ues to soar. Soil erosion is second only to population

growth as the biggest environmental problem the

world faces in the modern age.

Land and forest degradation has caused severe soil

erosion in the maidan (plains) of Karnataka. The ob-

served average rate of sedimentation ranges between

2.2 to 23.6 hectare-metre/100 km2, whereas the

threshold level is between 0.3 to 4.3 hectare-

metre/100 km2. Most of the tanks have been silted up

to more than 30% of their capacities reducing their

command area by the same portion.

Soil and water erosion has caused soil fertility loss, thus

reducing its productive capacity. The soil structure, tex-

ture and moisture holding capacity are also affected.

The arid regions of the state where rainfall is low are

vulnerable to soil erosion. Removal of the top layer of

soil exposes the root zone to wind. Strong winds could

therefore uproot the trees as well as crops. This leads to

severe damage to farmlands reducing the farm yield

and income.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 3333: Drought occurrences in India: Drought occurrences in India: Drought occurrences in India: Drought occurrences in India


128

According to a study conducted by central and state

agencies in 2006-07, 15% of the geographical area of

the state witnessed severe and 51% moderate soil ero-

sion. In dry zones the study found soil erosion to be

severe in 62.5% of the area and moderate in 37%. Not

surprisingly, the loss of topsoil was most significant in

uncovered land in both cultivable and non-cultivable

categories. The study estimated the loss of yield be-

cause of soil erosion to be 140 kg per ha.

Table Table Table Table 2222:::: Soil degradation status in KarnatakaSoil degradation status in KarnatakaSoil degradation status in KarnatakaSoil degradation status in Karnataka

Kind of degradation Extent of degradation in ha

Total in ha Slight Moderate Strong Extreme

Water erosion 661,000 3,675,000 139,000 1,393,000 5,868,000

Salinity - - 600,000 30,000 630,000

Sodicity - - 10,000 - 10,000

Water erosion, compacting and crusting 420,000 472,000 - 49,000 941,000

2.2% 2.5% - 0.2% 4.9%

Water erosion and nutrient loss 55,000 47,000 30,000 - 132,000

0.3% 0.2% 0.1% - 0.6%

Note: Percent of the total geographical area Adapted from Karnataka State Natural Disaster Monitoring Centre, 2006

Figure Figure Figure Figure 4444: Soil degradation in KarnatakaSoil degradation in KarnatakaSoil degradation in KarnatakaSoil degradation in Karnataka


129

According to data provided by the National Remote

Sensing Agency (NRSA), 21 lakh ha (10.9%) of the

geographical area is classified as wasteland in Karna-

taka. In command areas, more than 10% of the irri-

gated area is affected by water logging. Though 38.3

lakh ha are forestland, 51% of these are either un-

wooded or have a mere scrub and thorn vegetation.

4.2. CHEMICAL FERTILISERS AND PESTICIDES

Fertilisers and pesticides of various types are used to

increase crop yield and reduce damage from insects

and diseases. As farmers began to use chemical fertilis-

ers and pesticides, these compounds gradually became

an intrinsic part of agricultural practices.

4.2.1. Fertilisers

Fertilisers are defined as any material, organic or inor-

ganic, natural or synthetic, which supplies chemical

elements required for the growth of plants. Synthetic

fertilisers typically contain compounds of nitrogen (N),

phosphorus (P2O5, generally abbreviated as P) and po-

tassium (K2O, abbreviated as K) providing three out of

the 17 essential elements for plant growth. Other less

commonly required elements for soil are sulphur, cal-

cium, magnesium, iron, copper, manganese, boron

and zinc.

As presented in Table 3, the total N-P-K nutrient con-

sumption decreased from 2000 to 2004 by 29%. This

was followed by a significant rise by 59% in 2010 com-

pared to the baseline in 2000. The N-P-K use ratio

changed slightly from 2.4:1.3:1 (2004-05) to 2.3:1.3:1

(2005-06). Consumption of fertilisers increased from

110.8 kg/ha in 2004-05 to 130.2 kg/ha during 2005-

06. Districts consuming more than 300 kg of N-P-K fer-

tilisers per ha in Karnataka are Bangalore Rural (483

kg/ha), Bellary (318 kg/ha), Mandya (371 kg/ha) and

Shimoga (313 kg/ha). Fertiliser application in excess of

crop requirement poses a threat to soil quality and the

quality of surface and groundwater. The per capita use

of fertilisers in the state is high in the command areas

of Krishna, Bhadra and Cauvery compared to dryland

farming practiced in the arid zones of the state.

Plants require nutrients in the soil to grow and produce

fruits and vegetables for consumption. These nutrients

are depleted due to overplanting, erosion and other

conditions. Replacing these nutrients helps in the effi-

cient use of soil and water resources. According to the

International Fertiliser Industry Association, farmers can

double or even triple their crop yields by using fertilis-

ers. Farmers also use manure products such as cow

dung, pig excreta and chicken droppings to fertilise soil

and increase yields. Though chemical fertilisers in-

crease food production all over the world, negative

effects on the environment have become inarguable.

Chemicals that compose fertiliser, such as nitrogen and

phosphorus, run off into waterways during the rainy

periods. These chemicals cause algal blooms in the wa-

ter which then die forming a blanket not allowing ex-

change of gases and light. This change kills fish and

disrupts the food supply to other animals that feed on

fish.

4.2.2. Pesticides

In Karnataka the use of pesticides to protect crops like

cotton, red gram and vegetables is prevalent. Over the

years the use of pesticides has changed due to several

reasons. Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) and

benzene hexachloride (BHC) have been banned and

integrated pest management is increasingly adopted.

Farmers use chemical pesticides to control or eliminate

insects and diseases that destroy crops and diminish

food supply. These compounds work very well in killing

insects that feed on the roots, leaves and stems of both

food crops and garden flowers. They can often mean

the difference between a healthy, expanding popula-

tion and malnutrition and death. Notwithstanding

these benefits, chemical pesticides are linked to a

number of illnesses including cancer, lymphoma, re-

productive abnormalities, endocrine disorders and

neurological problems. According to Science Daily,

scientists from University of California Los Angeles in a

study have discovered links between Parkinson's dis-

Table Table Table Table 3333:::: Fertiliser consumption in Karnataka Fertiliser consumption in Karnataka Fertiliser consumption in Karnataka Fertiliser consumption in Karnataka

Year Fertiliser consumption in Karnataka (lakh tons/annum)

Nitrogen Phosphorous Potash Total

2000-01 7.03 3.60 2.31 12.94

2001-02 6.71 3.60 2.18 12.49

2002-03 6.01 3.03 1.95 10.99

2003-04 4.93 2.40 1.86 9.19

2004-05 6.55 3.63 2.73 12.91

2005-06 9.85 4.96 3.25 18.06

2006-07 7.56 4.38 2.91 14.85

2007-08 7.92 3.93 3.43 15.28

2008-09 8.64 5.59 4.09 18.32

2009-10 9.63 6.30 4.66 20.59


130

ease and the use of two common pesticides, maneb

and parquet. Health experts are particularly concerned

about pesticide exposure of children because during

their growing years, they consume more food com-

pared to their body weight and are often in contact

with surfaces and soils where pesticide residues are

found. Pesticides also kill insects indiscriminately, de-

stroying insects that are beneficial to plants and an

important food source for other creatures.

4.3. DECLINE OF AGRO-BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is the multitude of life forms within a given

ecosystem. It is often used as a measure of the health

of biological systems. Intensive agriculture through

introduction of high yielding varieties (HYV) has re-

duced the area for traditional varieties in the state. This

has resulted in the extinction of a few local varieties.

There is an urgent need to preserve these local species

and varieties.

Traditional special varieties of paddy, banana, mango

and vegetables have a distinct quality, taste and aroma

with high nutritional value and disease resistance.

Among vegetables, mainly aubergine (brinjal), green

leafy vegetables, chilly, tuber crops like kesu (Colaca-

sia), okra (ladies finger) are having great diversity and

special significance. Also fruits such as jack fruit and

Carissa carandus should be preserved. Landraces of

many crops have provided the genes needed for pest

and disease resistance or for adaptation to poor soils,

drought and cold temperatures. Unfortunately, we are

losing pristine heritage sites with the change in cultiva-

tion practices.

However, since traditional agricultural systems were

finely interwoven with the social and cultural fabric of

villages, as also with forests and other ecological fea-

tures within which the villages existed, they could not

withstand the far reaching changes in land use, taxa-

tion, forest policy, and administrative structures

brought about by the colonial government in the 19th

and 20th centuries. These changes severely disrupted

traditional agriculture but even more dramatic changes

have come in the last few decades. With the advent of

the Green Revolution in the mid 1960s, a handful of

laboratory generated varieties have been promoted

over vast areas. Given certain inputs such as irrigation,

chemical fertilisers and pesticides, these varieties pro-

duce high yields (thus the somewhat misleading term

‘high yielding varieties’, or HYVs). It is understandable

that farmers who can afford such inputs, or who have

access to finance take enthusiastically to these varieties.

Agricultural schemes have also resulted in homogenis-

ing growing conditions, for example by surface irriga-

tion, so that where there was earlier a complex mosaic

of diverse micro habitats, there are now immense

stretches of uniform agricultural landscape. Inter-

cropping is replaced by mono-cropping, a wide diver-

sity of species is replaced by a handful of profitable

ones, and genetic diversity within the same crop spe-

cies is replaced by a narrow genetic range of financially

lucrative varieties. The net effect of these and other

practices has been a massive displacement of indige-

nous crop diversity, such that in the case of most crops

now, the majority of indigenous cultivars are no longer

grown.

The erosion of agricultural biodiversity threatens the

long-term stability and sustainability of agriculture itself,

in many ways. It erodes the genetic base on which sci-

entists are depending for continuous improvement of

crops. The majority of HYVs themselves have been de-

veloped from genetic material taken from traditional

varieties and wild relatives of crops. HYV hybrids are

not very long living. They tend to lose their viability and

productivity, or become increasingly susceptible to

pest/disease attacks within a few years. This necessi-

tates the infusion of fresh genetic material, which is

again obtained from existing traditional varieties or

from wild plants. But then the introduction of these

HYVs is itself a major cause of the erosion of traditional

crop diversity. Some of this diversity can be stored in

gene banks and accessed when needed but there is an

inevitable loss even in such storage, and the continu-

ous evolution of new varieties that took place on farms

are no longer happening.

The failure of a single HYV crop due to natural calami-

ties is a crippling blow for a farmer who has no other

crop to fall back on, unlike traditional agriculture

where some fall back crops were also grown. Some

degree of security against such eventualities can be

achieved through protective irrigation or crop insur-

ance. Several other effects of modern farming have

brought insecurity in the lives of farmers. For instance,

the traditional paddy field provided not only rice but

also fish, frogs, and other elements of biodiversity

which were an important part of the diet of several

communities, especially tribals. Modern paddy fields,

which require large amounts of chemical fertilisers and

Figure Figure Figure Figure 5555: Pesticide spraying : Pesticide spraying : Pesticide spraying : Pesticide spraying ———— A hA hA hA hazard for soil, groundwazard for soil, groundwazard for soil, groundwazard for soil, groundwaaaater ter ter ter as well as the sprayeras well as the sprayeras well as the sprayeras well as the sprayer


131

pesticides, are devoid of much of this biodiversity, with

a resultant loss of nutrition for farmers.

4.4. IRRIGATION

Irrigation is the largest water user worldwide. In Karna-

taka, 32% of cultivated land is irrigated as of 2008-09.

In the process of storing, diverting, transporting, irrigat-

ing, consuming and draining water, the natural hy-

drology of watersheds is changed significantly. These

changes impact the natural environment. River flows

are altered and reduced and sometimes depleted;

groundwater levels may be lowered by pumping or

raised by over-irrigation; wetlands may be created or

dry up. Drainage waters from agricultural lands are

usually of poorer quality than the applied water and

may carry both agricultural chemicals and naturally

occurring substances into groundwater, rivers, and

lakes. Although many of the environmental impacts of

irrigation are negative, irrigation plays a critical role in

providing food and fibre for our growing population.

Agriculture is the major user of freshwater, with a

world’s average of 71% of the water use. The benefits

of irrigation have resulted in lower food prices, higher

employment and more rapid agricultural and eco-

nomic development. The spread of irrigation has been

a key factor behind increasing grain production. But

irrigation and water resource development can also

cause social and environmental problems. Table 4 indi-

cates currently available data on irrigation.

Irrigation represents an alteration of the natural condi-

tions of the landscape by extracting water from an

available source, adding water to fields where there

was none or little before, and introducing man-made

structures and features to extract, transfer and dispose

of water. Irrigation projects and irrigated agriculture

practices can impact the environment in a variety of

ways. The impact of irrigation systems depends on the

nature of the water source, the quality of the water,

and how water is delivered to the irrigated land. With-

drawing groundwater may cause the land to subside,

aquifers to become saline or may accelerate other

kinds of groundwater pollution. Withdrawing surface

water implies changes to the natural hydrology of riv-

ers and water streams, changes to water temperature,

and other alterations to the natural conditions, some-

times deeply affecting the aquatic ecosystems associ-

ated with these water bodies.

Due to water shortages and also the cost of treatment,

contaminated wastewater is frequently used for irriga-

tion. In many places vegetable crops are irrigated with

sewage. The operation of irrigation water supply sys-

tems can affect the environmental performance of irri-

gated agriculture. The combination of low water qual-

ity and raising water tables will eventually lead to wa-

ter logging and salinity, threatening the sustainability

of existing irrigation systems. Proper attention to the

quality and amount of irrigation return flows is also

important in identifying and mitigating possible im-

pacts on receiving waters.

All irrigation water contains dissolved salts derived as it

passes over and through the land. Also rainwater con-

tains some salts. These are generally in very low con-

centration in the water itself. However, evaporation of

water from the dry surface of soils leaves the salts be-

hind.

Salinisation is especially likely to become a problem on

poorly drained soils when the groundwater is within 3

metres or less of the surface, depending on the soil

type. In such cases, water rises to the surface by capil-

lary action, rather than percolating down through the

entire soil profile, and then evaporates from the soil

surface. Salinisation is a worldwide problem, particu-

larly acute in semi-arid areas, which use large amounts

of irrigation water and are poorly drained.

Water logging usually results from overuse or poor

management of irrigation water. Lining and covering

of water conduits from storage dams to the point of

delivery improves water usage and at the same time

reduces the risk of a rise in the water-table in irrigated

areas.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 6666: Earthworms : Earthworms : Earthworms : Earthworms ———— A factory for vermicompostA factory for vermicompostA factory for vermicompostA factory for vermicompost

Table Table Table Table 4444: Irrigation sources in Karnataka (2009: Irrigation sources in Karnataka (2009: Irrigation sources in Karnataka (2009: Irrigation sources in Karnataka (2009----10)10)10)10)

Source Net

in lakh ha Gross

in lakh ha

Share of gross

irrigated area

Canals 11.05 14.47 35%

Tanks 1.96 2.15 5%

Wells 4.25 4.79 12%

Tube and bore wells 12.52 14.74 36%

Lift irrigation 1.06 1.33 3%

Other sources 3.07 3.48 9%

Total 33.90 40.96 100%

Adapted from Annual Season and Crop Report, Department of Economics & Statistics


132

GenetGenetGenetGenetiiiically modified (GM) crops cally modified (GM) crops cally modified (GM) crops cally modified (GM) crops ———— A contrary viewA contrary viewA contrary viewA contrary view

“In the recent debate on GM crops, a factor that has not

received adequate attention is that owing to the threat of

contamination, it is difficult for normal or organic crops to

remain free from the impact of GM crops once these have

been released. As the worldwide concern for food safety

grows, it is likely that there will be an increasing demand

for organically grown and normal crops which are not

contaminated by GM crops. GM is the first irreversible

technology in human history. When a genetically modi-

fied organism (GMO) is released, it is out of our control.

We have no means to call it back. We can insert a trans-

gene, but we cannot take it out again. Since GMOs are

self-replicating, releasing them might have dire conse-

quences for human and animal health and for the envi-

ronment and can change evolution".

In India, GM technology is employed in the cultivation of

Bt cotton which claims enhanced resistance to attacks by

bollworms. This has been done by using a gene of Bacillus

thurengiensis, a soil bacterium, and inserting it into the

cotton plant. Recent reports suggest a seeming break-

down in the level of resistance to bollworm in Bt cotton.

Although a similar approach was used to develop Bt brin-

jal, its release for commercial cultivation is not yet ap-

proved.

For consumers there is no way to differentiate between

ordinary and genetically modified food unless specifically

labelled. Genetic modification of crops is an untested

technology, which, in the worst case, can be inconceiva-

bly calamitous. Genetically modified seeds can pollute

local varieties, especially in open pollinated crops. In case

of indigenous brinjal there are different varieties with

different shapes and colours. Bt brinjal could eliminate this

diversity in the longer term.

Others concerns are allergenicity, gene transfer and its

consequences, and out-crossing (or mixing) of GM varie-

ties with conventional varieties. At the farmer’s level GM

crops pose a concern because of mono-cropping. Tradi-

tional farming by contrast promotes multi-cropping, even

in small land holdings, thus providing a basic food and

economic security against crop failures. A much voiced

concern is the high risk of losing traditional seed varieties

which are adapted to local conditions. Cultural traditions

and farming practices currently come together in aiding

the conservation of endemic seeds from generation to

generation.

GM agriculture could cause loss of agricultural and natu-

ral biodiversity, thus destroying our genetic heritage. As a

consequence, it has the potential of irreversibly wiping

out varieties of plants or entire species.

4.5. BIOLOGICAL AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution introduces chemicals, particulate matter

or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to

humans or other living organisms, or damages the

natural environment into the atmosphere. The group

of biological contaminants includes bacteria, molds,

mildew, viruses, animal dander and cat saliva, house

dust, mites and last but not least, pollen. There is a mul-

titude of sources of these. Pollens originate from plants;

viruses are transmitted by humans and animals; bacte-

ria are also carried by humans and animals but also soil

and plant debris. Apart from this waste or agricultural

residue burning is also a major contributors of air pollu-

tion in the state.

Allergic reactions occur only after repeated exposure to

a specific biological allergen. However, that reaction

may occur immediately upon re-exposure or after mul-

tiple exposures over time. As a result, people who have

noticed only mild allergic reactions, or no reactions at

all may suddenly find themselves very sensitive to par-

ticular allergens.

4.6. AGRICULTURE AND GLOBAL WARMING

Climate change and agriculture are interrelated, both

of which take place at global scale. Global warming is

projected to have significant impacts on conditions

affecting agriculture, including temperature, carbon

dioxide, precipitation and the interaction of these ele-

ments. These conditions determine the carrying capac-

ity of the biosphere to produce enough food for the

human population and animals. The overall effect of

climate change on agriculture depends on the balance

of these effects.

The agricultural sector is one of the driving forces of

greenhouse gas emissions. Emissions arise from the

decimation of carbon sequestration potential through

land use changes and the loss of permanent vegeta-

tion cover. In addition, the sector is a large consumer of

fossil fuel (irrigation, fertiliser manufacture) and con-

tributes directly to greenhouse gas emissions through

rice cultivation and livestock. Methane is released from

rice cultivations but also from ruminants (cattle) in a

process called enteric fermentation. Also nitrous oxide

is released when nitrogen fertilisers are applied be-

cause only a certain portion is absorbed in the growth

of plants. Soil receiving chemical fertilisers and biologi-

cally fixed nitrogen contributes to nitrous oxide emis-

sion in the processes of nitrification and denitrification.

Considering, only methane and nitrous oxide emis-

sions, agriculture accounts for 20.2% of Karnataka’s

greenhouse gas emissions or 16.2 million tons of CO2-

equivalent per year according to Bangalore Climate

Change Initiative - Karnataka (2011). In that, methane

releases from cattle account for the major share with

65%. However, it must be remembered that agriculture

also removes CO2 from the atmosphere in the process

of plant growth. It has been estimated that for organic

agriculture, the removal is about 3 tons of CO2 per acre

per year.


133

5.5.5.5. PROSPECTSPROSPECTSPROSPECTSPROSPECTS

5.1. ORGANIC FARMING

In organic farming crops are grown using natural

methods for maintaining soil fertility and pest control.

By contrast, conventional farming with its heavy use of

agrochemicals has a greater negative effect on the

environment. In comparison, organic farming produces

healthy crops while maintaining the quality of the soil

and the surrounding environment. Organic farming is

basically a holistic management system, which pro-

motes and improves the health of the agro-ecosystem

related to biodiversity, nutrient cycles, soil microbial

and biochemical activities.

Besides the well-known limitation of the availability of

farmyard manure and other organic forms of nutrients

in desired quantities, water availability also is an impor-

tant constraint for adoption of organic farming, par-

ticularly in arid and semi arid regions. The absence of

surplus rainwater for harvesting and long periods of

low soil moisture can limit the overall biomass produc-

tion for recycling, green leaf manuring and on-farm

composting. 5 to 10 tons of manure per ha is required

by most crops to produce yields at par with conven-

tional farming. Such level of input can only be achieved

in limited areas for specific crops. However, biomass

production during the off-season (without competition

with kharif crops) through legume cover cropping and

its incorporation in the soil can be another strategy to

increase organic matter availability. Since the overall

biomass production is linked to rainfall, the generation

of biomass through either composting or recycling

should be a major strategy in areas receiving rainfall of

750 mm or more per year. Areas with an annual pre-

cipitation between 300 and 750 mm need to depend

on farmyard manure as the principal source given the

significance of livestock here.

Recognising the threat of conventional farming to soil

fertility, Government of Karnataka has embarked on an

initiative promoting organic farming. In 2008 a com-

mittee for a State Level Organic Farming Mission with

‘progressive’ farmers as stakeholders was constituted.

174 organic farmer’s associations were selected

through which 53,000 farmers were brought under

this programme in the first year itself. Further 35,000

farmers were included in the next year. The pro-

gramme focuses on capacity building and provides

financial incentives. It is implemented across Karnataka

in 172 of the 176 taluks on an aggregate of 70,000 ha

of land. However, organically cultivated land under this

programme constitutes presently just about half a per

cent of the cultivated area. Around 1 lakh farmers had

reportedly adopted organic farming by 2011 and the

establishment of a network for marketing of organic

produce is reportedly underway. A larger scale expan-

sion of this important programme appears highly de-

sirable.

5.2. OPPORTUNITIES FOR HORTICULTURE

Karnataka occupies a prominent place on the horticul-

ture map of the country. Horticulture provides excel-

lent opportunities in raising the income of farmers even

in dry tracts. A significant shift towards horticulture is

evident in the state with an increase in area and pro-

duction. For instance, about 58,000 ha area has been

brought under horticultural crops through watershed

programmes. Horticulture provides higher unit produc-

tivities and offers fair scope for value addition. Karna-

taka, having the highest acreage under dry farming in

the country next only to Rajasthan, has a great poten-

tial to grow high value but less water demanding hor-

ticultural crops. Horticulture is found to have consider-

able prospects in the state. Reasons contributing to this

prospect include:

� Diverse agro-climatic conditions suitable for grow-

ing different types of fruits, vegetables, oil palm,

plantation and spice crops, medicinal, aromatic and

flower crops;

� The geographical location of the state offers good

prospects for marketing of horticultural produce in

other states as well as abroad;

� Abundant availability of waste and marginal lands

unfit for agriculture that can be utilised for cultiva-

tion of dryland horticultural crops;

� Institutionalised marketing through the Horticul-

tural Producers' Co-operative Marketing and Proc-

essing Society Limited (HOPCOMS), Karnataka Hor-

ticulture Federation (KHF) and Karnataka State Ag-

riculture Produce Processing & Export Corporation

Limited (KAPPEC);

� A strong network of nurserymen co-operatives.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 7777: Organically grown turmeric: Organically grown turmeric: Organically grown turmeric: Organically grown turmeric


134

5.3. DRYLAND FARMING

Agriculture in dry un-irrigated areas receiving less than

500 mm of rainfall is considered as dryland farming.

Drylands contribute 42% of the total food grain pro-

duction of the country. These areas produce 75% of

pulses and more than 90% of sorghum, millet, ground-

nut and pulses from arid and semi-arid regions. Rain

fed dryland farming will continue to play a dominant

role in agricultural production.

Besides being water deficient, drylands are character-

ised by high evaporation rates, exceptionally high day

time temperature in summer, low humidity and high

run off and soil erosion. The soil of such areas is often

found to be saline and low in fertility. As water is the

most important factor of crop production, inadequacy

and uncertainty of rainfall often cause partial or com-

plete failure of crops which leads to periods of scarci-

ties. Thus the life of humans and livestock in such areas

is difficult and insecure and the income of farmers very

low. Despite the continuous development of suitable

practices, the major challenge for farmers remains to

keep crops alive to get some economic returns from

the cultivation. The range of methods devised to aid

this is presented in the following:

� Crop selection: Crop varieties for dryland areas

should be of short duration though resistant, toler-

ant and high yielding which can be harvested

within rainfall periods and have sufficient residual

moisture in soil profile for post-monsoon cropping;

� Weather adjustments: Variation in yields are primar-

ily due to variations in rainfall. Aberrant weather

can delay the onset of the monsoon, cause it to

stop prematurely and leave long gaps of rainfall.

Farmers need to adjust the cropping schedule for

ensuring some production instead of total crop fail-

ure;

� Crop substitution: Crop varieties that are inefficient

in soil moisture utilisation, less responsive to pro-

duction input and potentially low producers should

be substituted by more efficient ones;

� Cropping systems: Resource utilisation can be in-

creased through inter-cropping and multiple crop-

ping. The cropping intensity would depend on the

length of the growing season, which in turn de-

pends on the rainfall pattern and the soil moisture

storage capacity of the soil;

� Fertiliser use: The availability of nutrients in drylands

is very limited due to low soil moisture. Therefore,

application of fertilisers should be done in furrows

below the seed. The use of fertilisers is not only

helpful in providing nutrients but also beneficial for

efficient use of soil moisture. A proper mixture of

organic and inorganic fertilisers improves moisture-

holding capacity of soil and increase during toler-

ance;

� Rain water collection: Efficient rainwater manage-

ment can increase agricultural production from dry-

land areas. Application of compost and farmyard

manure and raising legumes adds organic matter to

the soil and increase the water holding capacity.

The water not retained by the soil flows out as sur-

Table 5Table 5Table 5Table 5: Trends of major horticulture crops in Karnataka Trends of major horticulture crops in Karnataka Trends of major horticulture crops in Karnataka Trends of major horticulture crops in Karnataka

Crops

2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06

Area in lakh ha

Production in lakh t/a

Area in lakh ha


Area in lakh ha


Area in lakh ha


Area in lakh ha


Fruits 2.57 40.29 2.55 40.39 2.42 38.30 2.55 40.79 2.58 43.45

Vegetables 3.83 48.90 3.67 44.94 3.64 41.52 3.71 44.03 4.03 67.00

Spices 2.57 4.92 2.38 5.44 1.87 4.19 2.52 5.96 2.32 6.12

Plantation 6.69 3.12 7.02 3.5 7.29 3.79 7.31 4.96 7.34 4.07

Flowers 0.18 1.42 0.18 1.47 0.18 1.44 0.20 1.50 0.21 1.68

Medicinal and aromatic

0.02 0.12 0.01 0.08 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.07 0.02 0.17

Total 15.85 98.77 15.81 95.82 15.41 89.28 16.31 97.31 16.50 122.49

Adapted from Department of Economics and Statistics, 2008

Figure Figure Figure Figure 8888: A mango nursery : A mango nursery : A mango nursery : A mango nursery ———— A popular dryA popular dryA popular dryA popular dryland optionland optionland optionland option


135

face runoff. Excess runoff can be harvested in dug-

out farm ponds and used in times of severe stress or

for raising crops during winter;

� Watershed management: Watershed management

optimises the use of land, water and vegetation. It

can prevent soil erosion, improve water availability

and increase fuel, fodder and agricultural produc-

tion on a sustained basis. It also can help mitigate

some of the impacts of droughts and moderate

floods. Of the total cultivated dryland of 129 lakh

ha about 52 lakh ha (40%) have so far seen active

watershed development;

� Alternate land use: Not all drylands are suitable for

crop production. Same lands may be suitable for

range or pasture management and for tree farm-

ing, dryland horticulture or agro-forestry including

alley cropping. These can help generating off-

season employment, utilise off-season rain, prevent

degradation of soils and restore the ecological bal-

ance;

� Agro-forestry and dryland agriculture: Agro forestry

is the cultivation of crops along with forest trees.

The objective is to increase the farmer’s income and

sustain the environmental balance. Agro forestry, as

it provides fuel wood enables farmers to save ani-

mal dung and use it as manure.

In view of the importance of dryland farming for the

state, the government launched a dryland farming

support scheme under the name ‘Bhoo Chetana’ (land

improvement) in 2009. Limited to initially six districts, it

aims at increasing the productivity of rain-fed crops by

20% through soil testing based nutrient management

for eleven crops in a phased manner over four years.

Significant yield increases up to 44% for maize, 35-65%

for ragi, 32-41% for groundnut and 39% for soybean

were noted in 2009-10 itself. In 2010-11 the pro-

gramme was expanded to 16 districts, covering about

12 lakh ha of land, 8.7 lakh farmers in 5,030 villages. In

the 2011-12 budget speech a grant of INR 40 crore

was announced to extend Bhoo Chetana to all districts

of the state. While the scheme improves the land for

the purpose of farming, it does not enhance soil fertil-

ity. Very importantly however, the scheme is building

confidence in rain-fed dryland agriculture.

5.4. CONTRACT FARMING

The establishment of agro-based food industries has

increased the demand for agricultural produce. This

has spurned the emergence of contract farming as

alternative arrangement. It relies on timely supply of

agricultural produce while quantity, quality and price

are contractually agreed upon, usually at the time of

planting. Contract farming is not a recent phenome-

non. It can be traced back to the colonial period where

cotton and indigo were produced by Indian farmers for

English factories. Contracting firms provide credit, in-

put, farm machinery and technical guidance and retain

the right to reject produce that fails to meet standards

specified. Contract farming is viewed as a mutually

beneficial tool providing technology, extension services

and credit to farmers.

Contract farming generates gainful employment in

rural communities and income from assured prices and

markets. The concept somewhat neutralises the sea-

sonality associated with rural employment with

around-the-year agriculture-related activities, which in

turn could reduce migration from rural to urban areas.

It entails crop monitoring on a regular basis and free-

of-charge technical advice. For corporates, contract

farming ensures a dedicated supplier base, plannable

flow of input and protection from fluctuations in the

market price. A regulatory framework needs to be con-

ceived to protect farmers from potentially exploitative

practices.

While contract farming is a viable and beneficial busi-

ness model that can help mitigate rural development

deficits, it is likely to exacerbate environmental con-

cerns. It focuses prominently on mono-cropping and

hence advances the decline of biodiversity. And, so it is

feared, it replaces farmers’ attention on sustainable

practices with a strong client and profit focus.

6.6.6.6. EMERGING INTERVENTIOEMERGING INTERVENTIOEMERGING INTERVENTIOEMERGING INTERVENTION N N N AREASAREASAREASAREAS

� Bunding of slopes and land levelling before the

onset of monsoons;

� Water harvesting between rows by growing pulse

crops, runoff water should be collected in nearby

ponds for rescue irrigation;

� Deep summer ploughing followed by surface tillage

during and after the monsoons;

Figure Figure Figure Figure 9999: : : : FFFFarm pond for storarm pond for storarm pond for storarm pond for storinginginging surplus rainwater in Devisurplus rainwater in Devisurplus rainwater in Devisurplus rainwater in Deviggggereereereere


136

� Judicious use of fertilisers and plant protection

chemicals, especially when of synthetic origin;

� Selection of suitable crops and their varieties ac-

cording to their suitability to a particular region and

micro climate;

� Proper crop rotation with preferably at least one

legume every year. Intercropping of oil seeds and

pulses should be done with jowar, bajra and maize

for the purpose of making best use of soil and inter-

row moisture harvesting;

� For better seedbed soil moisture, soil should be

compacted with a plank or roller, especially for rabi

crops;

� Adopting integrated weed control measures;

� Inter-culture is a preferable option for mulching. It

can eliminate weeds and produces soil mulch that

reduces evaporation. If inter-cultural operations are

not possible, artificial mulches such as tree and

sugarcane leaves, uprooted weeds, saw dust can

be used to control evaporation of water from the

soil.

137

CHAPTER 7

LIVESTOCK

Chapter 7: Livestock

138


139

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 141

2. EROSION OF GENETIC DIVERSITY ............................................................ 141

2.1. PRESENT STATUS............................................................ 142

2.2. CAUSES ............................................................................. 142

2.3. NEED FOR CONSERVATION ....................................... 143

2.4. MITIGATION OPTIONS .................................................. 143

3. GRAZING OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS .......................................................... 144

3.1. PRESENT STATUS............................................................ 144

3.2. IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT .............................. 144

3.3. MITIGATION STRATEGIES ............................................ 145

4. LIVESTOCK AND GLOBAL WARMING ..................................................... 145

4.1. LIVESTOCK AS SOURCE OF GREENHOUSE GASES ............................................................................... 145

4.2. CAUSES ............................................................................. 146

4.3. MITIGATION STRATEGIES ............................................ 146

5. SLAUGHTERHOUSES AND THE ENVIRONMENT ................................... 147

5.1. PRESENT SITUATION ..................................................... 147

5.2. IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT .............................. 148

5.3. MITIGATION STRATEGIES ............................................ 149 5.3.1. Slaughtering ........................................................................ 149 5.3.2. Waste disposal .................................................................... 149

6. LIVESTOCK DISEASES .................................................................................... 151

7. EMERGING INTERVENTION AREAS ........................................................... 153


140

TABLES

Table 1: Livestock population of Karnataka (‘000) ........................................................................................................................ 142 Table 2: Conservation status of indigenous breeds ...................................................................................................................... 143 Table 3: Livestock methane emissions in India and Karnataka ................................................................................................. 146 Table 4: Utilisation of dung in Karnataka in 2010-11 ................................................................................................................... 146 Table 5: Biogas potential from livestock in Karnataka ................................................................................................................. 147 Table 6: Treatment standards for liquid slaughterhouse waste ............................................................................................... 148 Table 7: Recommended disposal methods...................................................................................................................................... 149 Table 8: Biogas potential from solid slaughterhouse waste in Karnataka ............................................................................. 151

FIGURES

Figure 1: Change in livestock population over 11 years ............................................................................................................. 142 Figure 2: Cattle population trends in the state .............................................................................................................................. 142 Figure 3: Krishnavalley cattle ............................................................................................................................................................... 143 Figure 4: Stages of composting .......................................................................................................................................................... 150 Figure 5: Rendering plant and meat bone meal ........................................................................................................................... 151 Figure 6: Bacterial livestock disease incidence in Karnataka ..................................................................................................... 151 Figure 7: Viral livestock disease incidence in Karnataka ............................................................................................................. 152


141

1. INTRODUCTION

The livestock sector plays a significant role in the Indian

economy. Income from livestock production accounts

for 15-40% of the total income of farm households. It

was reported that the contribution of agriculture to

India’s GDP has been steadily declining from 27.83% in

1994-95 to 17.62% in 2004-05 and it was 18.1% in

2010-11. In contrast, the contribution of the livestock

sector to agricultural GDP has been steadily growing

from 22.51% in 1999-2000 to 24.72% in 2004-05 and

further to 28% in 2010-11. The per capita consumption

of milk has grown by 31.81% in 2010-11 (96 kg in

2010-11 compared to 73.5 kg in 2000). The demand

for milk has been predicted to double and that of meat

would triple in India by 2020.

The average growth rate of consumption of foods of

animal origin increased at the rate of 4.48% for milk,

9.46% for sheep and goat meat, 3.32% for beef and

buffalo meat, 4.6% for chicken meat and 6.02 % for

eggs from 1993 to 2000. At an average growth rate of

4.9%, by 2020 the demand for milk was reported as

147.26 million tons, mutton and goat meat 12.72 mil-

lion tons, beef and buffalo meat 1.15 million tons,

chicken meat 0.81 million tons and eggs 2.58 million

tons.

Karnataka is endowed with a livestock population of

presently 30.7 million, which includes 10.5 million cat-

tle, 4.3 million buffaloes, 9.6 million sheep, 6.2 million

goat and 2.8 lakh pigs and 42.06 million domestic

poultry producing 5 million metric tons (Mt) of milk,

1,23,910 Mt of meat and 3,067.4 million eggs annually

(2010-11). The state ranks 10th and 3rd in the country

in milk and egg production, respectively. About 38% of

rural households have livestock or poultry. The annual

growth of the livestock sector was 5% with a contribu-

tion of 2.96% to the State GDP in 2009-10. The draft

Livestock Development Policy for 2010 of Government

of Karnataka focuses on augmenting farmers’ income

through an accelerated growth of the livestock sector;

aiming two fold increase in livestock production in next

8-10 years for meeting state and external demand by

means of increasing productivity and the quality of the

products.

Although India holds the first position in milk produc-

tion, the production per lactation was only 950 kg. In

order to meet the increasing demand for milk and milk

products, meat and meat products, there should be an

increase in either the number of animals or productivi-

ty or both. Eventually, the effect of such an increase in

population and production from livestock and allied

sectors on the environment will be harsh both in terms

of pollution and depletion of natural resources. Hence,

there is an urgent need for evolving policies and pro-

grammes both at state and national levels to meet fu-

ture challenges.

The concerns over environmental effects of livestock

production in India are of relatively recent in origin. It is

generally considered that the environmental impact of

livestock has more positive implications than negative

ones as the production system is still largely dominated

by rural crop-livestock smallholders. The emergence of

large scale industrial production units, declining graz-

ing resources coupled with indigenous cattle breeds,

increasing relevance of livestock towards climate

change etc. are of importance in the context of sus-

tainable production.

2. EROSION OF GENETIC DIVERSITY

Karnataka is blessed with livestock of considerable ge-

netic diversity in species with traits of adaptability to

withstand harsh environmental conditions. But recent-

ly there has been a sharp decline in the number of in-

digenous breeds of animals in the state. A good num-

ber of specialised traditional breeds adapted to specific

environments and cultures lost out to a small number

of modern commercial breeds. The conservation and

development of local breeds is an important and a

challenging task in sustaining genetic diversity.

LIVESTOCK AT A GLANCE

Livestock population Livestock production (2010-11)

Total population (As per livestock census 2007)

30.7 million Milk 5 million Mt/a

Cattle 10.5 million Meat 123,910 Mt/a

Buffaloes 4.3 million Eggs 3,067 million/a

Sheep 9.6 million Methane emission from livestock 0.625 million tons/a

Goat 6.2 million Biogas potential from livestock 4,316 million m3/a

Pigs 2.8 lakh

Domestic poultry 42 million


142

2.1. PRESENT STATUS

Hallikar and amrithmahal are indigenous draught

power cattle breeds of south Karnataka; khillar, krish-

navalley and Deoni are from the northern part of the

state. However, Malnad gidda is a dwarf breed of cattle

found in Malnad region. A glance at the state livestock

population reported in the last three livestock Censuses

(refer Table 1) revealed an increase in the livestock

population and a sharp decline for indigenous cattle

(refer Figure 1 and Figure 2). Some of the known cattle

breeds were on the verge of extinction. The number of

Krishnavalley, Deoni, Hallikar, Khillari cattle has come

down by 98%, 72%, 40%, 31%, respectively and their

respective population currently has been given as 880;

14,367; 749,356 and 122,447.

Amrithmahal, Khillar and Hallikar breeds are now un-

der conservation at government owned farms (refer

Table 2) and calves born are being distributed among

farmers. These indigenous cattle breeds have genes

that helped them for adaptation to local poor or low

quality forages; cope with heat, resist diseases and pest

and have many other unique qualities. Unfortunately

these qualities were not recognised during the cross

breeding programme for cattle development. During

this exercise the Krishanavalley breed was almost left to

extinction.

2.2. CAUSES

Under the cross-breeding programme for cattle

upgradation, the main focus was on exotic breeds.

Disease resistant and more economical indigenous

breeds were totally neglected, so much so, there

were 71 exotic bulls (Jersey and Holstein Friesian)

present in breeding and semen collection centres of

the state against 37 bulls of all indigenous breeds

(Hallikar, amruthmahal, Khillar and Deoni).

During the 20th century, research and develop-

ment in the commercial livestock sector revolved

around a small number of exotic breeds and result-

ed in a rapid leap in meat, milk or egg production.

Meanwhile, the genetic base of specialised tradi-

tional and regional stocks narrowed down due to

reduction in the effective population size as pro-

ducers shifted towards commercial breeds.

Unfortunately, no concrete plans were laid out for

cross-breeding which was practised involving fe-

males of best indigenous breeds as base popula-

tion. Thus, the genetic base irrevocably eroded be-

sides threatening the very existence of local breeds.

Figure 2: Cattle population trends in the state

Figure 1: Change in livestock population over 11 years

Table 1: Livestock population of Karnataka (‘000)

Livestock 1997 2003 2007 Change in (%)

1997-2003 2003-2007 1997-2007

Crossbred cattle 1,293 1,602 2,602 23.9% 62.4% 101.3%

Indigenous cattle 9,539 7,936 7,901 -16.8% -0.4% -17.2%

Total cattle 10,831 9,539 10,503 -12.0% 10.1% -3.0%

Buffalo 4,367 3,991 4,327 -8.6% 8.4% -0.9%

Total bovine 15,199 13,530 16,830 -11.0% 24.3% 10.7%

Sheep 8,003 7,256 9,558 -9.3% 31.7% 19.4%

Goat 4,875 4,484 6,153 -8.0% 37.2% 26.2%

Pigs 405 312 281 -23.0% -10.5% -30.9%


143

2.3. NEED FOR CONSERVATION

The management and conservation of genetic live-

stock resources is of prime importance to maintain

use and non-use values, preserve important com-

ponents of the cultural heritage or typical land-

scape or to preserve traits that can be of great value

in future.

A diverse genetic pool is essential for adapting to

unpredictable challenges that may arise in the fu-

ture; from climate change to emerging diseases.

As genetic diversity erodes, the capacity to sustain

and augment livestock productivity decreases along

with the ability to respond to challenging and

changing conditions.

From the environmental viewpoint, however, con-

servation and further development of diversity may

not always be exclusively beneficial. It remains to be

seen whether genetic imbalances contribute to en-

vironmental resilience or degradation. Unproduc-

tive cattle, regardless of being indigenous or exotic,

cause stress to the environment from multiple an-

gles.

Breeds like Deoni and Hallikar are conserved in cer-

tain government-owned cattle farms and mere

conservation strategies will not result in develop-

ment of these breeds. The continuous upgradation

and improvement of these breeds is thus crucial for

success of any conservation programme.

Severe erosion among indigenous germ plasm re-

sources of domestic animals has taken place during the

last ccouple of decades. Conservation of genetic cattle

resources, being a cost intensive affair, should start

from estimation of the members and distribution of

animal genetic diversity maintained in situ by farmers.

Based on the data thus obtained, the animals should

be classified into extinct, critical, vulnerable, endan-

gered, insecure and normal.

2.4. MITIGATION OPTIONS

In situ conservation in the form of live animals in their

original locations, in zoos, rescue stations (in vivo) or as

frozen sperms, oocytes or embryos (in vitro or ex situ)

should be attempted with following strategy:

Superior females and males from farmers’ herds

should be shifted to rescue stations;

Selective breeding programmes should be planned

utilising young bulls from elite cows;

Inbreeding shall be avoided by rotating available

bulls between farms;

Progeny testing could be a suitable tool as long-

term strategy;

Pride of Karnataka – Krishnavalley cattle

The recent survey conducted by National Bureau of

Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) in the breeding tracts

of the entire country revealed that the breeds such as

Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Krishnavalley, Ponwar and

Kherigargh were very few in numbers and are

endangered. Among them Krishnavalley is specific to

Karnataka. Krishnavalley is a medium sized breed and

performs well exclusively in black cotton soil areas where

other breeds do not. These animals appear to have a

relatively long productive life of up to 12 calvings and are

able to thrive well in hot climate. This breed was believed

to be distributed in the districts of Satara, Sangali and

Solapur in Maharashtra and Belgaum, Bijapur and

Raichur districts of Karnataka (Nivsarkar et al., 2000). But

a pilot survey conducted by Ramesha et al. (2001)

indicated a shift in the breeding tract from Maharashtra

and Karnataka exclusively to North Karnataka; in and

around the villages of Jamkhandi, Mudhol and Athani

taluks. However, the status of the population is alarming

and it requires immediate attention to develop and

implement a conservation strategy. Without such an

intervention the breed is likely to become extinct within a

few years (Aruna Kumara V.K. and Anand S.).

Figure 3: Krishnavalley cattle

Table 2: Conservation status of indigenous breeds

Place Breeds Herd

strength

Bull calves produced

per annum

Amrithmahal Cattle Breeding Station, Ajjampur, Chikmagalur district

Amrithmahal draught cattle

1300 100

Hallikar Cattle Breed-ing Station, Ku-nikenahalli, Tumkur district

Hallikar draught cattle

200 20

Khillar Cattle Breed-ing Station, Bankapur, Dharwad district

Khillar draught cattle

200 20

Adapted from Government of Karnataka


144

Farmers keeping indigenous cattle should be

awarded incentives.

3. GRAZING OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS

There is a steady decline in common grazing lands,

both in terms of area and quality. The qualitative de-

cline is due to improper management, unregulated

land use, over grazing and lack of reseeding of pas-

tures. Grazing intensity of livestock is a matter of seri-

ous concern in arid and semi-arid zones. The National

Environment Policy, 2006 of Government of India re-

ported that the most probable causes of land degrada-

tion were loss of forests and tree cover, unsustainable

grazing, excessive use of irrigation, improper use of

agricultural chemicals, diversion of animal wastes for

domestic fuel and disposal of industrial and domestic

wastes on productive land.

3.1. PRESENT STATUS

In 2005, the Livestock-Environment Interactions in Wa-

tersheds (LEAD) study of five semi-arid watersheds in

India revealed that common grazing land in most of

the villages studied were under various stages of deg-

radation. This finding was attributed to the fact that

grazing lands were used as open access resource

without any control on the intensity of use. In Karna-

taka, out of the total geographical area of 191,791 km2,

approximately 13,537 km2 (7.1%) was regarded as

waste land. Out of this 37.8 km2 is designated as de-

graded pasture or grazing land. Interestingly, these

lands were located only in three areas: Chitradurga

(19.8 km2), Mysore (13 km

2) and Udupi (5 km

2).

Though this accounted for only 0.02% of the total ge-

ographical area, the majority of land is under stress or

in the process of degradation.

Over-grazing and lack of good quality fodder are the

main reasons for degradation of forests and common

land. There were various fodder development pro-

grammes carried out in the state during the year 2009-

10 and as a result 220,172 hectares of land were

brought under fodder cultivation. In spite of this, the

production remained low compared to the require-

ment of livestock. Findings include:

Sheep and goats rearing communities shift their

locations depending on the availability of grazing

lands and are always in search of greener pastures;

In India cattle is mainly owned by the landless or

those having meagre land holdings. Consequently,

there is a greater dependence on common lands

and forests for fodder;

Indian farmers continue to keep good numbers of

non-descript breeds for draught power and manure

in place of dearer tractors and synthetic fertilisers;

In rain fed areas, the stocking rate is 1 to 5 adult

cattle units per ha against the permitted rate of 1. In

arid zones the stocking rates are 1 to 4 adult cattle

units per ha as against 0.2 to 0.4;

It is estimated that across India about 100 million

cows graze in forests against a capacity of 31 mil-

lion. The pastoral system is putting more pressure

on the limited land available. Crossbred cattle re-

quire high quality and larger amounts of fodder

which is an additional stress to both grazing and

cultivated land.

3.2. IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT

In grazing areas, if and when over used, physical

properties of soil and the ecosystem changed.

When vegetation covers declines, organic matter

content and infiltration capacity of the soil gets re-

duced. When soil layers are compacted by tram-

pling, porosity level of infiltration gets reduced.

Compaction occurs particularly in areas such as wa-

ter points where animals were concentrated;

Under heavy grazing pressure, plants may not be

able to compensate sufficiently for the phytomass

removed by grazing animals;

When soil is exposed due to over-grazing, carbon in

the soil will escape as carbon dioxide;

The degree of land degradation also has an effect

on the amount of water pollution. As plant cover is

reduced, the runoff increases and so does the

transport of nutrients into watercourses.

The problem is likely to worsen in the coming decades

since land for fodder production is decreasing. Feed

resources are competing with food crops for land. And

in this globalised, market dependent agro-economy,

the livestock sector has to compete for growing fodder

on good or arable land. Institutionally, grazing is

trapped between the Department of Animal Husband-

ry and Department of Agriculture and was eventually

neglected by both. It is predicted that by 2025, India

would face a deficit of 759 million tons of green fodder

and 162 million tons of dry fodder.

Karnataka’s feed resource availability on dry matter

basis is 21.1 million tons of dry fodder, 10.9 million tons

of green fodder and 2.9 million tons of concentrates as

of 2009-10. Though the extent of the deficit of feed

resources is yet to be assessed, the situation may not

be very different from that of the national scenario and

Karnataka may face shortage of fodder in the coming

years. Hence, in the absence of improved availability or

surveillance, continued overgrazing and land degrada-


145

tion is anticipated. In Karnataka about 83% of poor

people are dependent on these common properties for

grazing their animals. It has been a tradition in India to

have community pastures in each village, which has

been an important source of feed for cattle particularly

belonging to weaker sections like landless, small and

marginal farmers. But after abolition of this system, the

majority of these lands turned into wasteland due to

lack of proper maintenance. In India about 12 million

ha of land classified as permanent pasture and grazing

lands is lying waste. Out of 75 million ha under forest,

about half of this is under the threat of serious degra-

dation. Similarly, different other surveys reported 155

to 175 million ha land as wasteland.

3.3. MITIGATION STRATEGIES

Extensive fodder development schemes should

concentrate on waste and degraded lands of the

state. These lands were once vital for fuel and fod-

der production and have the potential to provide

for these again. In a project promoted by the BAIF

Development Research Foundation in Rajasthan, an

area of 320 ha was brought under silvipasture

through community participation. On average the

area produced 1.2 to 1.8 tons/ha of grasses in a

bad to average rainfall year. In addition silvipastures

supply fodder tree leaves and pods to meet feed

and fodder shortages through this natural re-

source. If 50% of wasteland was brought under sil-

vipasture it would be able to produce 200 million

tons of dry fodder. There is a need of focused pro-

grammes on regeneration, promotion of silvipas-

ture on wastelands, which will not only meet short-

age of feed and fodders but will give equal access

to the poor farmers and improve the environment

too.

Storage of fodder in silos is an excellent option to

ensure availability of fodder in drought prone areas

and in summers. The techniques of treatment of

straws and feed supplements should be promoted

as entrepreneurial activity rather than at farmer lev-

el.

Fodder production should be augmented to reduce

grazing of animals and thereby the loss of valuable

biomass from forests and other ecosystems. Fodder

production programmes should aim at selecting

crops and varieties, which produce highest quanti-

ties of nutrients per unit of land and time period;

hence a continuous search for improved varieties is

crucial. Shrubs and small trees (e.g. Gliricidia, Des-

manthus, Leucaena, Sesbania spp.) are a good and

inexpensive source of protein and minerals and can

be introduced between farm plots for multipurpose

utilities.

The development of new breeds and improvement

of existing indigenous breeds which thrive well on

limited resources is important also from a fodder

perspective.

There is a need to promote fodder crop production

through improved agronomic practices and im-

proved seeds. Though more than 120 varieties of

cultivated fodder have been developed, seeds were

not available because of lack of demand as a result

of poor extension. Hence, promotion of fodder

crops needs to be popularised through adequate

extension.

The present research focus is mainly on the cultiva-

tion of green fodder in irrigated areas but dryland

fodder or partially irrigated fodder crops should be

given greatest priority.

Agricultural extension to promote balanced feed,

feeding chaffed feed and proper storage of fodder

to avoid losses should also be emphasised.

An increase in the cattle population would put tre-

mendous pressure on the forest impacting its regener-

ative capacity. Because of its complexity and lack of

easily measurable land quality indicators, no realistic

estimation is available on the extent of land degrada-

tion due to over grazing. As a result, the magnitude of

livestock associated land degradation has not been

established yet.

4. LIVESTOCK AND GLOBAL WARMING

4.1. LIVESTOCK AS SOURCE OF GREENHOUSE GASES

The book “Livestock’s long shadow” argues that live-

stock is impacting the world’s climate owing to high

emission of greenhouse gases through digestive pro-

cesses of ruminants. Livestock was held responsible for

18% of greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions, a bigger

share than that of the transport sector. GHGs associat-

ed with livestock are methane (CH4) generated

through enteric fermentation, nitrous oxide (N2O) from

manure, carbon dioxide (CO2) from respiration and

expansion of arable land. CH4 has global warming po-

tential 21 times greater than that of CO2 and that of

N2O is 310 times as much. There is a significant spatial

variation in CH4 emissions from different countries indi-

cating that these are determined by production sys-

tems and regional characteristics. The assessment of

CH4 emissions however is a complex process.

India’s contribution to GHGs in 1994 was estimated to

be around 1,228 million tons of CO2-equivalent, which

increased to 1,728 in 2007. This includes 1,222 million


146

tons of CO2, 20.6 million tons of CH4 and 0.24 million

tons of N2O. Of the total CH4 produced in India emis-

sions by livestock are the highest (49% or 188 million

tons of CO2 eq.) followed by rice fields (23% or 86 mil-

lion tons of CO2 eq.). Methane produced from manure

accounted for 2.4 million tons of CO2 eq. Livestock are

the most important source of anthropogenic CH4 emis-

sions. Refer to Table 3 for information on share of CH4

emission by different species. The CH4 production with

respect to India and Karnataka was estimated based on

the 18th

Livestock Census in Table 3. The share of Kar-

nataka’s contribution to Indian CH4 from livestock is

about 5%.

4.2. CAUSES

Forage and fodder dependent feeding practices pro-

duce more hydrogen in rumen due to bacterial me-

tabolism for eventual production of methane. The an-

aerobic decomposition of organic material in livestock

manure also releases methane. This occurs mainly

when manure is managed in liquid form, in lagoons or

holding tanks. Methane emissions from livestock ma-

nure are influenced by a number of factors that affect

the growth of bacteria responsible for CH4 production,

including ambient temperature, moisture, storage time

and energy content of manure, which ultimately was

dependant on the diet.

N2O is generated by the microbial transformation of

nitrogen in soils and manures, and was often en-

hanced when available nitrogen exceeds plant re-

quirements, especially under wet conditions. The ni-

trogen in excreta returns to crops when it is used as

organic fertiliser or deposited on land. N2O is also gen-

erated when ammonia is applied on the soil as it re-

mains volatile.

Over-grazing leads to soil depletion resulting in the

release of CO2 from the soil. At present cattle dung in

the state is used mainly as manure and the efficiency in

utilisation is low. The manual removal of dung from

cattle sheds leads to considerable wastage. A majority

of farmers collect dung, urine and washings together

in a pit that in turn is flooded in cultivated lands and

thereby increases emission of GHGs. Refer to the Table

4 for information on the utilisation of dung in Karna-

taka.


Researchers around the globe suggest several strate-

gies to mitigate livestock related GHGs. Ideally these

strategies should be financially neutral, feasible at farm

level and acceptable by society. India is an agrarian

economy where animals are raised not only for their

produce but also for manure and draught power. Be-

sides, Indian animal husbandry also shares a cultural

bond. Hence, strategies need to be specific to the giv-

en contexts. For example, dietary modifications are a

better strategy for large farms compared to situations

where a farmer is having one or two cows. Important

dietary modifications recommended are:

Replacement of roughages with concentrates (re-

duction in methane formation in rumen);

Use of legume forage instead of grass (high intake

and digestibility);

Improve pasture quality;

Use of plant secondary compounds (tannins and

saponins) and plant extracts (rhubarb and garlic);

Use of fats and oils in the diet at the rate of 60-

70 g/kg dry matter. Lauric and myristic acids are

toxic to pathogens but the type, form and cost of oil

need to be considered before dietary use. Linseed

oil is emerging as a promising feed ingredient;

Use of organic acids like fumaric acid which acts as

hydrogen scavenger reducing CH4 production and

ionophores such as monensin which are antimicro-

bial.

Although several nutritional strategies have been rec-

ommended to reduce GHGs emission of livestock, fur-

ther research is needed in this area including the fol-

lowing:

Genetic improvement of livestock for producing

permanent and cumulative changes in perfor-

Table 3: Livestock methane emissions in India and Karnataka

India popula-tion in million

CH4 in million

t/a

Karnataka popula-

tion in mn

CH4 in million

t/a

Cattle 199.0 6.0 10.5 0.32

Buffaloes 105.3 5.7 4.3 0.23

Sheep and goat

212.1 1.0 15.7 0.08

Pig 11.1 0.01 0.28 0.0002

Total 527.6 12.7 30.8 0.625

Adapted from Livestock Census 2007. Data derived based on Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), (2006), Livestock’s

long shadow methodology.

Table 4: Utilisation of dung in Karnataka in 2010-11

Season Utilisation of dung in %

As manure Dung cake Other ways

Summer 83.89 15.33 0.78

Rainy 86.89 11.82 1.42

Winter 87.04 12.22 0.74

Overall 85.9 13.12 0.98

Adapted from Report on Integrated Sample Survey for estimation of production of milk, egg, wool and meat for the year 2010-11


147

mance, which in turn can help to reduce emissions

per kg of the product;

Selective breeding for increasing productivity to

achieve present level of production with fewer high

yielding animals;

Selection for fitness traits like lifespan, health and

fertility to reduce emissions by reducing wastage of

animals;

Direct genetic selection of animals for low CH4

emissions.

However, the above methods have limited applicabil-

ity. Hence, reducing their population and resorting to

high yielding animals can be seen only as a long-term

strategy for production. In addition, small farmers can-

not afford expensive dietary modifications. The most

tangible and cost effective solution therefore would be

to utilise CH4 generated as fuel source, e.g. biogas.

Dung along with domestic and slaughterhouse waste

can be used for compost making. And the use of ma-

nure in dry form would minimize CH4 production. Refer

to Table 5 for an estimate of the biogas potential that

could be produced from dung from animals in Karna-

taka.

Production of 4,316 million m³ of biogas per year (11.8

million m³/d) would capture 2,590 million m³ of CH4

per year and be equivalent to a reduction of GHGs

from the livestock of over 1.18 million tons of CO2 per

year (90 kg of CO2 equivalent to 1 tonne of treated

organic matter). The captured CH4 can be upgraded

and compressed for use as cooking gas and sold local-

ly. Biogas burns with a clear blue flame and has a tem-

perature up to 800°C and a calorific value of

5,650 cal/m3. Gujarat Energy Development Agency

reported that the daily requirement of fuel for 5 million

households was 1.2 million m³ of biogas. Accordingly,

11.8 million m³ of biogas could cater to 49.3 million

families of Karnataka per day. The slurry, sludge or resi-

due could be used as organic fertiliser in place of ni-

trogenous fertilisers which are the major source of N2O

in atmosphere. Digesters can also be used to compost

organic waste to generate CH4. Burning of biogas will

convert CH4 with a global warming potential of 21 to

CO2 having a potential of only 1.

5. SLAUGHTERHOUSES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

5.1. PRESENT SITUATION

In developed countries, the slaughter of food animals is

centralised. In India a large variety of slaughter sites

exist, varying from simple slaughter slabs to very mod-

ern slaughterhouses. Irrespective of size, many slaugh-

terhouses are insanitary and pose threats to health.

Manufacturing of animal products for human con-

sumption (meat and dairy products) or for other hu-

man needs (leather), leads inevitably to the production

of waste and often slaughterhouses discharge waste,

blood and untreated wastewater into the surround-

ings.

Karnataka produces 11,516 tons of beef, 5,727 tons of

buffalo meat, 26,048 tons of chevon, 42,545 tons of

mutton, 13,408 tons of pork and 24,666 tons of poultry

meat (2010-11). The availability of meat in India is 14

grams per day against the recommended value of 34

g/d of Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). It is

estimated that in the year 2020 Indian demand would

reach 147 million tons milk, 12.7 million tons mutton

and goat meat, 1.15 million tons of beef and buffalo

meat, 0.81 million tons chicken and 44 billion eggs. It is

also estimated that between 1993 and 2020 the de-

mand for livestock products would grow at a rate of

4.88% for milk, 13.7% for mutton and goat meat,

3.45% for beef and buffalo meat, 4.77% for poultry

meat, and 6.18% for eggs. Though India is endowed

with good assets of livestock wealth and though 70%

of the population consume meat, the meat industry is

among the neglected sectors in the country and Karna-

taka is no exception here.

Since the practice of consuming fresh hot meat, within

a few hours of animal slaughter is prevalent in India,

animals are taken to urban markets for slaughter and

eventual meat trade. While municipal slaughterhouses

established by local governments are often inade-

quate, a sizable number of animals are slaughtered at

unregistered, illegal slaughterhouses. Slaughtering of

Table 5: Biogas potential from livestock in Karnataka

Species Population

(million)

Excreta generated (kg/a/head)

Total dung (million t/a)

Biogas pro-duction

(million m³/a)

Cattle 10.5 7,000.00 73.52 2,940

Buffaloes 4.33 7,000.00 30.29 1,211

Sheep 9.56 87.50 0.84 50

Goat 6.15 85.00 0.52 31

Pig 0.28 2,491.00 0.70 48

Broilers 17.90 *1.25 0.27 16

Broiler pullet

1.98 6.35 0.01 1

Broiler parents

4.27 13.50 0.06 3

Layers 22.00 9.90 0.22 13

Total 106.43 4,316

Note: The estimation is done based on the average values of methane (CH4) liberated by dung from different species of animals.

* kg/lifetime/head

Adapted from Livestock Census 2007 and

Karnataka Hatchery Association


148

animals in retail meat outlets is common across cities,

towns and villages. While solid wastes are frequently

disposed at unauthorised landfills, in water bodies or

vacant land causing pollution, liquid waste finds its

own ways, especially in congested urban areas.

5.2. IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Deposition of untreated slaughter wastes in unsani-

tary landfills is responsible for causing severe envi-

ronmental damages. This includes the contamina-

tion of groundwater, pollution of waterways, toxic

residuals, unpleasant odours, possible fires and ex-

plosions due to the release of methane and release

of GHG emissions;

Effluent discharged from slaughterhouses contami-

nates water bodies and affects the aquatic fauna;

Unsafe disposal of untreated slaughter wastes also

constitutes a loss of biomass which otherwise could

be converted into a feed ingredient, biogas or

compost. It also nourishes the stray dog population;

The tropical climate of our country accelerates the

process of waste decomposition which could po-

tentially spread diseases to animals and humans.

Along with solid waste, slaughterhouses also generat-

ed large quantities of liquid waste which consists of

blood and carcass washings. The wastewater from

slaughterhouses therefore is not permitted to enter the

sewer system without pre-treatment so as to meet

sewage standards as per the Bureau of Indian Stand-

ards (BIS). Limits for effluent coming out of the slaugh-

ter house are indicated in Table 6.

Animal slaughter wastes also consist of non-edible of-

fal, stomachs/intestinal contents, dung, sludge from

wastewater treatment and bones. These are required

to be disposed through methods such as rendering,

controlled incineration, burial, composting, anaerobic

digestion and others depending on the quantity of

material generated. Refer to Table 7 for the estimated

waste generated in a slaughterhouse and the recom-

mended methods of disposal.

The courts of India, including the Supreme Court, have

taken a serious view on environmental pollution due to

slaughterhouses. In several cases, closure of existing

slaughterhouses and flaying units has been ordered. It

would be appropriate for the state government and

urban local bodies (ULB) to plan modernisation of

slaughterhouses in a systematic manner. Central Pollu-

Slaughtering of animals and meat industry

The meat industry in Karnataka is not organised and

there are no modern slaughterhouses or abattoirs in the

state. Annually about 40 lakh animals are slaughtered

and around 90,000 tons of meat produced.

In this regard the KSIIDC – IL & FS Project Development

Company Ltd. (KIPDC) has prepared a project proposal

for the Directorate of Municipal Administration (DMA)

with the following objectives:

Scientific and hygienic slaughter of animals;

Application of modern technology for

slaughterhouse management and pollution control;

More humane treatment of animals and minimizing

transportation;

Better by product utilisation and value addition

The project proposal envisaged the development of

modern abattoirs in 49 urban local bodies (ULBs) but the

scope was subsequently reduced to 47 ULBs. The

proposal is reportedly under active consideration of the

Government of Karnataka.

Adapted from Directorate of Municipal Administration Draft proposal 2011

Table 6: Treatment standards for liquid slaughterhouse waste

Category of slaughterhouse/unit Parameters Limit in mg/l

Large slaughterhouses (above 70 TLWK/day) BOD at 20°C 100

Suspended solids 100

Oil and grease 10

Medium and small slaughterhouses (up to 70 TLWK/day) BOD at 20°C 500

Meat processing units BOD at 20°C 30

a. Frozen meat

Suspended solids 50

Oil and grease 10

b. Raw meat from own slaughterhouse BOD at 20°C 30

Suspended solids 50

Oil and grease 10

c. Raw meat from other sources - Disposal screen and septic tank

Sea food industry BOD at 20°C 30

Suspended solids 50

Oil and grease 10

Adapted from Central Pollution Control Board, Schedule III, guideline 12 (i)


149

Table 7: Recommended disposal methods

Size of slaughterhouse Capacity per annum Daily waste generation Recommended method of

disposal

Large Large animals>40,000

6-7 t/d Rendering Small animals>600,000

Medium Large animals 10,001-40,000

2-6 t/d Rendering, anaerobic di-gestion or composting Small animals 100,001-600,000

Small Large animals upto 10,000

0.5-1 t/d Composting or burial Small animals upto 100,000

tion Control Board (CPCB) has issued draft guidelines

for the sanitation in slaughterhouses in1998. The Bu-

reau of Indian Standards (BIS) also defined basic re-

quirements of abattoirs vide ISO 4393:1979.


5.3.1. Slaughtering

Improvement of existing slaughterhouses: Moderni-

sation of slaughterhouses should be improved with

new equipment such as overhead rail system,

drainage and waste collection.

Banning of animal slaughter in unauthorised plac-

es: Existing unauthorised places should be regular-

ised with incentives to improve facilities for slaugh-

ter and waste disposal and after ensuring proper

sanitation.

Introducing rural abattoirs: The concept of rural

abattoirs emerges as practical option to reduce en-

vironmental pollution from insanitary slaughtering

and for efficient utilisation of edible and inedible by-

products. At present animals are transported to ur-

ban slaughterhouses from rural areas. Instead facili-

ties should be created for slaughtering in rural abat-

toirs to reduce the pollution in shandies and the

transport of live animals to urban centres. Rural

slaughterhouses could be built in places where the

treated waste produced could be used for recover-

ing wasteland. The funds now being allotted for re-

covering of waste could be used for management

of rural abattoirs. Wastelands could be used for

composting or even as landfill which could slowly

recover the soil organic matter.

5.3.2. Waste disposal

Creation of facilities for easy collection of animal

wastes in sheds, dung pits and burial pits for dead

animals in livestock markets;

Creation of collection compost pits in small abat-

toirs and rendering and effluent treatment in large

abattoirs;

Sanitation in slaughterhouses

Workers engaged in slaughtering, dressing etc. should

be well educated and trained in their respective

operations. Workers should have regular medical check-

up and be medically fit to handle meat. Dress code shall

be imposed to maintain cleanliness and hygiene.

Provision for continuous supply of water, electricity and

hygienic restrooms shall be made avialble. The floor of a

slaughterhouse must be impervious, of good quality

marbled slab/cement-tiles or good quality cement

concreting with paper gradient for draining

wastewater. Walls up to 1.5 to 2 metres from floor

should be surfaced with approved quality white glazed

tiles or other equivalent material. Suitable ventilation

through air conditioners, air circulators, exhaust fans

etc. should be provided.

Reception and stock of animals: Slaughterhouse shall

have ample space and adequate hygiene and pacific

conveniences for reception and stock of animals to

avoid injury or infection.

Ante-mortem inspection: Animals shall be subjected to

regular medical examination to identify infected and

diseased animals and have the same segregated from

healthy animals.

Slaughtering: Arrangements should be made in

slaughterhouses for humane slaughtering. No animal

shall be slaughtered in sight of the other. Body fluids

caused on slaughtering have to be drained properly as

recommended. No body fluids shall be splashed on

other animals being slaughtered or on meat being

skinned.

Meat skinning and washing: Dressing of meat should

not be done on floor. Adequate means and rust-free,

non-reactive tools have to be used in the process. Care

should be taken not to puncture intestine or other

condemned materials to avoid contamination of meat.

Dressed meats have to be refrigerated.

Handling by-products and condemned materials: The

slaughterhouse should have adequate mechanism and

tools for immediate separation of clean and dirty

sections. Hides and skins, horns, legs, hooves etc. should

be immediately disposed either through a closed wheel

barrow or chute with self-closing door.

Effluent: Wastewater of a slaughterhouse should be

subjected to appropriate treatement as given in Table 6

to meet the presecribe standard before it is discharged.


150

Providing fencing and security to control human

and animal access and establish separate areas for

animal wastes at landfills;

Establishment of composting plants in proximity to

rural slaughterhouses as inexpensive option for safe

disposal of slaughterhouse wastes as an alternative

to rendering. Composting is recommended as eco-

friendly treatment option. By-products are limited to

heat, CO2 and water. The resulting compost is free

from harmful pathogens, nutrient rich and can be

used as fertiliser. Slaughterhouse wastes and or

dead carcasses should be placed in a bin contain-

ing sawdust to create an ideal environment for bac-

terial growth. The time required for composting is

about 90 days. The various stages of composting

are given in Figure 4.

Rendering is a method suitable for treatment of

large amounts by-products. Three technologies are

widely used in developed countries: Open kettle

rendering, wet rendering and dry rendering. The

processes involve pre-breaking of waste, cooking,

sterilisation, fat removal, drying and finally milling

and bagging. Bones, organs and other soft tissues

are first converted into meat-cum-bone meal, dical-

cium phosphate and bicalcium phosphate. As these

are feed supplements they are mixed with major

other ingredients of plant origin for producing an-

imal feed. Presently the production of livestock feed

in India is based largely on cereals and oil cakes and

less on animal by-products. This resulted in a situa-

tion where, especially poultry, pig and fish are

competing with humans for cereals. The total re-

quirement of animal feed has been estimated at 37

million tons per annum. Processed slaughterhouse

waste material has the potential to replace 13 mil-

lion tons of these. For rendering mobile plants can

be used, which are suitable in the Indian context,

where the capacity of most slaughterhouses is

small.

Biogas plants to convert slaughterhouse wastes to

a source of energy is another good option. Anaer-

obic digestion is an ideal method for treating ani-

mal by-products while at the same time producing

energy in the form of methane and using digested

effluents as fertiliser for nutrient recovery.

However, slaughterhouse wastes are generally regard-

ed as difficult substrates for anaerobic digestion, mainly

Shandies — A source of environmental contamination

Livestock trade takes place in animal fairs and weekly

markets called shandies. A shandy may be meant

exclusively for trading sheep, cattle, goat or pig and

rarely for all species together. Shandies are very popular

in Karnataka wherein thousands of small ruminants and

hundreds of cattle, buffaloes and pigs of different ages,

breeds etc. were transacted for different purposes such as

breeding, growing and slaughtering.

These markets operate under the purview of Agricultural

Produce Marketing Committee (APMC) and a fee is

collected, but hardly any facility in the form of shelter,

drinking water or for waste disposal is in place. There is

substantial influx of livestock from the neighbouring state

of Andhra Pradesh to shandies in Karnataka and likewise

animals are also bought by farmers and traders from

Maharashtra, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The course of

trading makes the animals and men travel long distances.

Shandies lack basic amenities for collection and disposal

of dung and dead animals and the same has become a

source of environmental pollution and diseases brought

to shandies from different places. The parasitic load of the

soil and nearby water bodies would be heavy and

animals that graze there may get cross-infected.

Figure 4: Stages of composting


151

because of their typically high protein and lipid con-

tent. Protein degradation releases ammonia, which at

high concentrations is suggested to be inhibitory for

the process. Co-digestion with less concentrated or-

ganic waste types, such as manure or wastewater

could increase the biogas production compared to

dilute wastes. Setting up biogas plants along with rural

abattoirs would solve the issue of environmental pollu-

tion and it could provide valuable energy for house-

holds. The process results into a reduction of the para-

sitic load of sludge or slurry, thereby reducing the

spread of parasitic diseases to animals, water bodies

and the environment. If 1 ton of putrescible waste con-

sists of 77% water and 23% solids, the digester will

convert approximately 75% of the solids to biogas. The

maximum possible yield of biogas would be 400 m3.

However, in practice it is usually nearer to 100 m3.

About 20-50% of the energy thus produced would be

used to run the plant. Table 8 Provides an estimate for

the amount of biogas that could be produced based

on slaughtered animals in Karnataka as per Integrated

Sample Survey 2010-11.

6. LIVESTOCK DISEASES

The changing climate with altered feed resources

could act adversely on the general immune status of

animals leading to more incidences of diseases and

lower productivity. Extreme hot and cold climate exerts

pressure on animals, resulting in increased occurrence

of vector borne diseases due to beneficial breeding

conditions for arthropods, especially in tropical areas.

Many vector borne diseases such as blue tongue, rift

valley fever are already on rise.

Animal health care in the state is monitored by 364

veterinary hospitals, 1,941 veterinary dispensaries and

1,181 primary veterinary centres distributed across dis-

tricts. The systematic control of diseases is achieved by

mass vaccination through these institutions through

several central and state government schemes. In the

year 2010-11 vaccinations were administered against

diseases such as peste des petits ruminants (3,380,785),

foot and mouth disease (11,031,174), rabies (42,770),

sheep and goat pox (2,241,391), Ranikhet disease

(6,955,547), fowl pox (7,681), haemorrhagic septicae-

mia (5,684,163), black quarter (813,081), anthrax

(351,038), and enterotoxaemia (8,189,449)1.

Figure 6: Bacterial livestock disease incidence in Karnataka

1Report on Integrated Sample Survey for estimation of production of

milk, egg, wool and meat for the year 2010-11

0

200

400

600

800

1000

2000-01

2004-05

2009-10

Haemorrhagic Blue Black Anthrax Entero septicaemia tongue quarter toxaemia

Figure 5: Rendering plant and meat bone meal

Table 8: Biogas potential from solid slaughterhouse waste in Karnataka

Species Animals Solid waste (stomach, intes-

tine, inedible parts) in t/a Liquid waste (blood) in t/a

Water used in t/a

Total liquid waste in t/a

Biogas million m

3

Sheep 25,92,607 18,044 2,566 64,815 67,381 9.38

Goat 16,75,141 9,045 1,005 41,878 42,883 4.70

Cattle 1,11,155 4,001 917 8,336 9,253 2.08

Buffaloes 53270 1,917 439 3,995 4,434 1.00

Pigs 2,79,324 3,754 729 27,932 28,661 1.95

Poultry 1,73,70,114 2,605 937 34,740 35,678 1.35

Total 39,369 6,595 1,81,698 1,88,293 20.47

Note: Calculated based on the number of animals slaughtered in

Karnataka in 2010-11

Adapted from Report on Integrated Sample Survey for estimation of production of milk, egg, wool and meat for the year 2010-11


152

The Animal Disease Surveillance Scheme reported out-

breaks of anthrax (17), black quarter (248), blue

tongue (58), enterotoxaemia (143), foot and mouth

disease (564), haemorrhagic septicaemia (224), peste

des petits ruminants (18), Rabies (4) and sheep and

goat pox (101) in the year 2010-11 in Karnataka. Refer

to Figure 7 for the outbreak of diseases between 2000-

2010.

There is a sharp decline in the incidence of common

diseases which reflects the success of vaccination pro-

grammes. But there is also an increase in occurrence of

blue tongue and enterotoxaemia. The increase in oc-

currence of blue tongue is an indication of increase in

the vector population. Rabies needs more attention

since the number of stray dogs is increasing. The total

number of rabies vaccine doses dispensed from the

Institute of Animal Health and Veterinary Biologicals,

Bangalore was about 68,900 in the year 2009-10

which is less than the 72,800 of the previous years. The

existing Animal Disease Surveillance System plays an

important role for public health with regard to food

safety and zoonoses. There are several diseases which

are transmitted from animals to man (zoonotic diseas-

es) and it is well known that some parasites which in-

fect animals spend an intermediate stage in humans,

ruining human health severely. The larvae of these

parasites are voided in soil or water bodies by infected

animals and human beings are infected from the envi-

ronment.

Transmission of zoonotic diseases from soil contaminated with dog faeces

Canine hookworms and roundworms attract zoonotic importance because they can cause visceral and cutaneous larva

migrants in humans. Incidence of these diseases in humans is directly proportional to the extent of contamination of soil

with infective stages of the parasite. Human in contact with contaminated soil through, for example playing children are

highly vulnerable to ancylostoma and toxocara infections. Placid et al (2002) recorded the level of soil contamination with

infective stages of these parasites as given below.

Parasitic load of soil samples

Place No. of

samples Toxocara eggs (+)

Ancylostoma eggs (+)

Animal shelter 50 14 8

Campus of University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore 74 16 8

City Veterinary Hospital, Bangalore 44 10 6

Playgrounds 40 8 -

Total 208 48 (23%) 22

Out of 208 samples evaluated, 23% were positive for toxocara eggs, 10.6% for ancylostoma and 2.9% for both. Prevalence

of both toxocara and ancylostoma eggs was identified across all sampling locations. The stray dog population is high in

each of these. Even though the soil is mainly contaminated by stray dogs, the risk of cross-infections on pet dogs taken out

for a walk is significant. Infected dogs would be shedding infective stages of larvae on the soil thereby increasing the

chances of human infections. The control of the stray dog population is an important task that needs more attention.

Figure 7: Viral livestock disease incidence in Karnataka


153


Slaughterhouses

Building rural abattoirs;

Modernisation of existing slaughterhouses;

Banning of unauthorised slaughter of animals.

Disposal of solid slaughter wastes

Disposal of slaughterhouse waste using compost-

ing (small amounts), rendering (large amounts) or

by installation of biogas plants;

Sensitising rural populations on the use of cow

dung in dry form rather than using it in liquid form

to reduce GHGs;

Production of biogas from cow dung and slaugh-

terhouse as effective strategy for reducing GHG

emissions and in reducing environment contamina-

tion from the disposal of waste.

Fodder development

Focus fodder development schemes on waste and

degraded lands and development of drought re-

sistant fodder crops which can be cultivated with-

out irrigation;

Preservation of produced fodder in form of silage

throughout the state.

Livestock population

Genetic improvement in productivity of livestock to

achieve greater production with less number of

high yielding animals and selection for fitness traits

like lifespan, health and fertility to reduce GHG

emissions;

Introduction or development of high yielding

breeds of cattle on concentrate feeding can be

adopted as a long-term strategy for reducing both

GHG emissions and grazing;

Conservation of indigenous breeds of cattle either

by upgradation or by improving the productivity by

means of progeny testing and selective breeding or

mere conservation in insitu (home tract), exsitu (oo-

cyte or embryo) or invivo (live animals in rescue sta-

tions or zoos).


154

155

CHAPTER 8

INDUSTRY

Chapter 8: Industry

156

Chapter 8: Industry

157

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................. 159

2. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ......................................... 160

2.1. INDUSTRIAL POLICY ............................................... 160

2.2. KIADB ......................................................................... 160

2.3. KSSIDC ........................................................................ 160

2.4. SPECIAL ECONOMIC ZONES ................................ 160

2.5. KSIIDC ......................................................................... 160

2.6. KEONICS .................................................................... 161

2.7. DEPARTMENT OF FACTORIES, BOILERS, INDUSTRIAL SAFETY AND HEALTH…………………..161

2.8. SUVARNA KARNATAKA DEVELOPMENT CORRIDOR PROGRAMME .......................... …………161

3. RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT ............................ ...161

3.1. AIR POLLUTION ....................................................... 162

3.2. WATER POLLUTION ............................................... 162 3.2.1. Water use versus wastewater generation ........ 163

3.2.2. Effluent generation and treatment ...................... 163

3.2.3. Effluent disposal ......................................................... 164

3.2.4. Indicators of water pollution .................................. 164

3.3. HAZARDOUS WASTE ............................................. 165

3.4. PRESSURE ON LAND AND WATER ..................... 165

4. COMPLIANCE OF '17 CATEGORY' INDUSTRIES .......... 166

4.1. SUGAR ....................................................................... 166

4.2. DISTILLERIES ............................................................. 166

4.3. PHARMACEUTICALS ............................................... 168

4.4. PULP AND PAPER .................................................... 168

4.5. CEMENT..................................................................... 168

4.6. DYES ........................................................................... 169

4.7. FERTILISERS ............................................................... 169

4.8. THERMAL POWER ................................................... 169

4.9. ALUMINIUM ............................................................. 169

4.10. CLOR-ALKALI ............................................................ 169

4.11. IRON AND STEEL ..................................................... 170

4.12. PETROCHEMICALS .................................................. 170

4.13. OIL REFINERIES ........................................................ 170

5. EMERGING INTERVENTION AREAS ............................... 170

Chapter 8: Industry

158

TABLES

Table 1: Index of Industrial Production of Karnataka against 100 in the base year 1999-2000 ..................................... 159 Table 2: Trends of registration of new industrial units in Karnataka ....................................................................................... 160 Table 3: Dedicated sectoral zones proposed .................................................................................................................................. 161 Table 4: Establishments under the consent process on March2011 ....................................................................................... 162 Table 5: Water consumption and wastewater generation of operating Red establishments 2009-10 ....................... 163 Table 6: BOD and COD of effluent treatment plants of Red establishments in 2009-10 .................................................. 163 Table 7: Water quality of Byramangala tank fed by the polluted Vrishabhavathi river .................................................... 164 Table 8: Bommasandra Industrial Area (30 groundwater samples in two sets) .................................................................. 164 Table 9: Operating ’17 category’ industries in Karnataka 2009-10 ......................................................................................... 166 Table 10: Water consumption and waste generated by 131 operating ‘17 Category’ industries ................................. 167

FIGURES

Figure 1: Industrial areas of Karnataka ............................................................................................................................................. 161 Figure 2: SO2 emissions from DG sets of Red establishments in Mt/a in 2009-10 .............................................................. 162 Figure 3: polluted Kariobbanahalli Lake at Peenya Industrial Area ......................................................................................... 163 Figure 4: Effluent treatment of 101 ‘17 category’ industries in 2009-10 ............................................................................... 164 Figure 5: Effluent discharge into the Vrishabhavathi river in Bangalore Rural district ...................................................... 164 Figure 6: Disposal of effluents by ‘17 category’ industries in 2009-10 .................................................................................. 164 Figure 7: Disposal of effluents by other industries in 2009-10 .................................................................................................. 164 Figure 8: Surface and groundwater pollution in mg/l (refer Table 7 and Table 8) ............................................................ 165 Figure 9: Spent oil generation declared sets by Red establishments in Mt/a in 2009-10 ................................................ 165

Chapter 8: Industry

159

1. INTRODUCTION

Karnataka is among the top five industrialised states in

the country. The rapid development of industries and

technology clusters in Karnataka has created signifi-

cant job opportunities. Karnataka tops the chart of

well-to-do states with the fastest growing income per

person by 9.28% at INR 21,899 for the financial year

2006 (Swati Gupta, 2008).

During 2001-05, industrial investment was INR 62,141

crore creating 8,15,000 jobs. That went up to INR

1,63,751 crore providing employment to 2.2 million in

2007-08. Karnataka has over 2,000 operational indus-

tries in the IT and IT enabled services employing over

5.5 million professionals. About 50% of India’s SEI-

CMM1 level 5 certified companies are located in Banga-

lore itself. Bangalore is among the five largest technol-

ogy hubs in the world. In 2009, Karnataka’s share in

the county’s software exports was above 35% accord-

ing to Confederation of Indian Industry (CII).

Karnataka has a strong industrial base. In 2008–09, 44

so called ‘mega’ projects with an investment of at least

INR 50 crore each were approved with a total invest-

ment of INR 105,266 crore. Unprecedented invest-

ments have surged along with the population pressure

too.

Four Technology Resource Centres of MSME Develop-

ment Institute, Government of India located at Banga-

lore, Mangalore, Gulbarga and Hubli are helping small-

scale industries (SSIs) to upgrade and modernise tech-

nology. The centres assist in identifying suitable pro-

cess technology and developing linkages with tech-

nical and research institutions in the state. More than

150 sectors are covered and individuals and organisa-

1 Software Engineering Institute – Capability Maturity Model

tions interested to provide or seek information may

register with MSME Development Institute, Bangalore.

A key indicator for industrial growth of the organised

sector is the Index of Industrial Production (IIP) pub-

lished by Central Statistical Organisation (CSO), Ministry

of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Govern-

ment of India. The IIP indicates the volume of industrial

production compared to a reference year in three key

sectors, namely mining, manufacturing and electricity

generation. Karnataka’s IIP stood at 186 in 2009-10

with 100 as reference in 1999-00. Sector-wise indices

for the period from 2007-08 to 2009-10 are presented

in (Table 1).

Mining registered the highest growth of 38.0% fol-

lowed by electricity (15.8%) and manufacturing (8.5%).

All the three sectors registered a higher growth in

2009-10 compared to the two preceding years. The

overall growth of these three sectors was 11.3% in

2009-10. The compound annual growth rate (CAGR)

for the decade for the organised industry was about

9% whereas it was 13.9% for mining, 6.2% for manu-

facturing and 6.5% for electricity.

Table 1: Index of Industrial Production of Karnataka against 100 in the base year 1999-2000

Sector Weight 2007-08* 2008-09* 2009-10*

Mining 41.36 224.6 241.22 332.76

Manufacturing 785.7 158.71 167.45 181.63

Electricity 172.93 146.22 146.33 169.43

General Index 1,000 158.98 166.85 185.77

Note : * Provisional figures Adapted from Economic Survey of Karnataka 2010-11, Directorate of

Economics & Statistics, 2010

INDUSTRY AT A GLANCE

Industries Karnataka estimate including cottage and seasonal enterprises (KASSIA, 2008) 650,000 units

Micro, small and medium; registered with Dept. of Industries & Commerce (2011) 413,354 units

Large scale industries; registered with Dept. of Industries & Commerce (2010) 618 units

Under the consent process of KSPCB (2011, refer Table 4) 16,354 units

Classified as ‘Red’ thereof (2011, refer Table 4) 3,387 units

Registered as factories (2011) 12,956 units

Number of industrial areas developed by KIADB 132

Industrial area developed by KIADB 40,000 acres

Growth of per capita income (2006) 9.28%

General index of industrial production (IIP) in 2009-10 (with base 1999-00 being 100) 185.77

Compound annual growth rate (CAGR) for the decade 9.0%

for mining 13.9%

for manufacturing 6.2%

for electricity generation 6.5%

Chapter 8: Industry

160

2. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

2.1. INDUSTRIAL POLICY

Karnataka’s Industrial Policy 2009-14 aims to attract

investment of INR 3,00,000 crore (3,000 billion) and

generate employment of 10 lakh (1 million). It retains

much of the previous policy 2006-11 while providing

new instruments indicative of a broader and more di-

versified approach to industrial development. It focuses

prominently on capacity building and sets systematical-

ly higher incentives for backward zones to address re-

gional imbalances that have resulted into exceptionally

high growth of urban agglomerations and out-

migration from underdeveloped regions.

Karnataka Industrial Policy 2009-14

Investment subsidy for micro, small and medium

enterprises with higher incentives for Zone 1, 2, 3;

Waiving of conversion fees for conversion of agricultural

into industrial land for Zone 1, 2, 3;

Exemption from entry tax on plant and machinery for

export oriented units for all zones;

Interest free loans on VAT for large and mega projects

for Zone 1, 2, 3;

One-time subsidy of up to 50% for setting up of effluent

treatment plants. Ceiling: INR 100 lakh in Zone 1, 2, 3;

and INR 50 lakh in Zone 4;

In part subsidy of employees state insurance and

provident fund for new establishments in the six districts

with the lowest human development index;

50% subsidy for SMEs for rain water harvesting systems

(ceiling INR 1 lakh), waste water recycling (ceiling INR 5

lakh) and zero discharge processes (ceiling INR 5 lakh)

for all zones

10% subsidy for SMEs for energy conservation and use

of renewable energy (ceiling INR 5 lakh) for all zones.

Adapted from Department of Industries and Commerce (2009). Industrial Policy 2009-14

A noteworthy aspect of the policy is that it promotes a

wide range of preferential industry sectors while con-

sidering certain other sectors ineligible to incentives

and concessions. Ineligible sectors include mining, dis-

tilleries, dye manufacturing, brick and lime kilns, fertilis-

er mixing and manufacture of tobacco products.

Though the policy does not assign reasons, most ineli-

gible sectors are large water consumers and effluent

dischargers or have a high potential of causing direct

harm to human health. Also the promotion of effluent

treatment plants (ETPs) and energy efficiency articu-

lates concern for the environment amidst a vision of

growth. Unlike other concessions, environmental in-

centives are provided across Karnataka irrespective of

the stage of development.

Table 2: Trends of registration of new industrial units in Karnataka

Sectors 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11

Food products 98 55 97 75

Paper and paper products

10 21 24 31

Metals and alloys 34 20 49 65

Chemicals 32 32 48 30

Transport and equipment

0 25 54 57

Textiles 22 19 28 82

Wood and wood products

7 6 19 18

Others 509 532 668 653

Total 712 710 987 1,011

Adapted from Department of Planning, Programme Monitoring and Statistics: Economic Survey of Karnataka 2011-12

2.2. KIADB

Karnataka Industrial Areas Development Board (KI-

ADB) is a infrastructure agency of Government of Kar-

nataka, set up under the Karnataka Industrial Areas

Development Act of 1966. Till date KIADB has formed

132 industrial areas across the state and acquired land

for nearly 400 single unit complexes so as to provide

for balanced industrial development in all regions.

2.3. KSSIDC

Karnataka State Small Industries Development Corpora-

tion Limited (KSSIDC) promotes the development of the

small-scale industry (SSI) sector by providing industrial

sheds, procurement channels and distribution of raw

materials and management guidance to entrepre-

neurs. The corporation has a network of 24 depots for

raw material distribution in the state. It has acquires

land in and around Bangalore and in other districts for

the construction of sheds and plots development as to

suit needs of SSI units.

2.4. SPECIAL ECONOMIC ZONES

Special Economic Zones are being established to en-

courage exports and to attract foreign direct invest-

ment (FDI). The State Policy for Special Economic Zones

2009 provides a package of incentives.

2.5. KSIIDC

Karnataka State Industrial and Infrastructure Develop-

ment Corporation (KSIIDC), established in 1964, have

been instrumental in the industrialisation of the state,

especially in the large and medium sectors. It assisted

135 start-up ventures through equity participation to

the extent of INR 118 crore. KSIIDC has also extended

financial assistance in the form of debt to core sector

industries such as steel, cement, mining and textiles

Chapter 8: Industry

161

and modern sectors including information technology,

aviation and tele-communication.

2.6. KEONICS

Karnataka State Electronics Development Corporation

Limited (KEONICS) has been established in 1976 to

promote and develop the electronics and allied indus-

tries. KEONICS has been recognised as nodal agency of

the Government of Karnataka for the promotion of IT

and IT enabled services (ITES) and development of IT

infrastructure, parks, cities and related activities in the

state. KEONICS is currently involved in the setting up of

IT parks in tier 2 cities such as Hubli, Gulbarga, Bel-

gaum, Mysore, Shimoga and Mangalore to encourage

young entrepreneurs in the IT and ITES sectors. In addi-

tion, KEONICS provides training services in computer

applications and hardware, medical transcriptions

through its training centres and 276 franchisee centres

in the districts of the state.

2.7. DEPARTMENT OF FACTORIES, BOILERS, INDUSTRIAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

The Department of Factories, Boilers, Industrial Safety

and Health is a statutory regulator of industries classi-

fied as factories by the Factories Act. It enforces law

pertaining to boiler safety, occupational health and

safety, and labour welfare. As of March 2011, the state

has 12,956 registered factories employing an estimated

13 lakh workers. Based on the latent accident potential

1,048 of these factories are classified as ‘hazardous

units’ and 79 as ‘major accident hazard units’. The de-

partment focuses on the prevention of accidents and

industrial disasters through training of workers and

creation of awareness amongst industrialists.

2.8. SUVARNA KARNATAKA DEVELOP-MENT CORRIDOR PROGRAMME

Under the Suvarna Karnataka Development Corridor

Programme, KIADB took up development of five major

industrial zones or corridors. 35,272 acres of land have

been identified for the project in five areas:

Bidar – Gulburga – Bellary – Hiriyur;

Tumkur – Honnavar via Shimoga;

Chitradurga – Mangalore via Shimoga – Udupi;

Chitradurga – Hospet – Koppal – Raichur;

Chitradurga – Hospet – Bagalkot – Bijapur.

The government also proposed to dedicated sectoral

industry zones for ten sectors. A significant part of

these zones fall into the areas earmarked for the Su-

varna Karnataka Development Corridor.

Table 3: Dedicated sectoral zones proposed

Industry Districts

Steel Bellary, Koppal, Bagalkot, Haveri, Gadag and Raichur

Cement Gulbarga, Bagalkot, Chitradurga, Bel-gaum and others

Food processing Bangalore Rural, Kolar, Belgaum, Gadag, Koppal, Shimoga, Bagalkot, Bijapur, Da-vanagere, Mandya and Dharwad

IT, biotechnolo-gy

Mysore, Mangalore, Hubli, Dharwad, Belgaum, Shimoga, Gulbarga, Kolar and Mandya

Automobile Ramanagara, Shimoga, Dharwad and Kolar

Readymade garments

Bangalore Rural, Tumkur, Kolar, Mandya, Belgaum, Bidar, Dharwad and others

Sugar and co- generation

Bidar, Belgaum, Bagalkot, Shimoga and Mandya

Pharmaceutical, biotechnology

Bangalore, Mysore and Hassan

Power genera-tion

Raichur, Bellary, Bijapur and Chitradurga

Media and en-tertainment

Bangalore Rural and Ramanagara

Adapted from Department of Factories, Boilers, Industrial Safety and Health, 2010

Figure 1: Industrial areas of Karnataka

3. RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT

Industrial pollution has a significant impact on envi-

ronmental resources. According to the Economic Sur-

vey of Karnataka 2011-12, Karnataka State Pollution

Control Board (KSPCB) regulates currently about

Chapter 8: Industry

162

46,000 operating establishments through the consent

process. This includes 16,354 operating industries,

3,387 of which are classified as ‘Red’ or ‘highly pollut-

ing’. Among Red industries, 143 are classified under

the ‘17 categories’ according to KPSCB’s Annual Report

2009-10 on account of their large environmental im-

pact.

Table 4: Establishments under the consent process on March 2011

Type of establishment

Category Operating Yet to be commis-sioned

Industry Red 3,387 632

Orange 3,325 501

Green 9,642 2,097

Stone crushers Red 1,628 291

Mines Red 360 148

Telephone towers Green 10,327 92

Local bodies Red 220 0

Coffee estates Red 2,347 2

Health care estab-lishments

Red 12,366 41

Hospitality Red 25 17

Orange 91 24

Green 589 113

Layouts Green 25 1,448

Infrastructure: Apartments, educa-tional and commer-cialestablishments

Red 100 305

Orange 2 0

Green 746 1,277

Others: Banks, marriage halls, of-fices with DG set

Green 1,301 140

Total 46,481 7,128

The Economic Survey of Karnataka 2010-11 pointed

out that monitoring is poor and compliance with the

provisions of the Water, Air and Environmental (Protec-

tion) Act is weak. In a study, Central Pollution Control

Board (CPCB) found industrial areas in Mangalore and

Bhadravati to be ‘critically polluted’ while areas in Rai-

chur, Bidar and Peenya in Bangalore were assessed as

‘severely polluted’.

3.1. AIR POLLUTION

Ambient air quality of Bangalore is compromised and

concerns are voiced in other urban centres as well. This

decline of air quality is attributed to rapid growth of

the population, economy, industry and vehicular popu-

lation. Under the provisions of the Air Act, 1981 and

the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, National Am-

bient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are set for air pol-

lutants with adequate margin of safety to protect pub-

lic health, ecosystems and property. Both CPCB and

KSPCB monitor air pollutants, which is discussed in de-

tail in Chapter 4: Air and Noise.

Environmental Management & Policy Research Insti-

tute (EMPRI) inventorised Red category establishments

in Karnataka in 2009-10. The pertaining study released

in 2011 estimates that ‘17 category’ industries produce

82 Mt/a of SO2 through diesel generators while other

industries and local bodies produce around 150 Mt/a.

(refer Figure 2).

Figure 2: SO2 emissions from DG sets of Red establishments in Mt/a in 2009-10

Besides air pollutants and noise, industrial production is

responsible for carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions while

coal-based thermal power plants leave a trail of flyash

attendant with problems of disposal and safe use, heat

(affecting vegetation in 25-30 km radius) and noise in

the neighbourhood. According to the Karnataka State

Action Plan on Climate Change, 1st Assessment (2012),

cement and iron and steel industries account for 28%

of Karnataka’s CO2 emissions and the power sector for

49%.

3.2. WATER POLLUTION

According to KSPCB’s Annual Report 2009-10, 136 of

Karnataka’s 143 operating ‘17 categories’ industries are

law compliant with respect to effluent treatment. This

also means that about 5% of Karnataka’s largest water

users – namely sugar industries and distilleries – do not

meet standards prescribed by law and thus pollute

water bodies. This aspect is assessed in detail in (sec-

tion 4).

17 category industries,

82

Other industries,

150

Stone crushers, 2

Mines, 4 HCE, 43

Local bod. & others,

151

Coal and carbon

It is estimated that when a ton of coal is used in a steel

plant, 2.75 tons of CO2 are emitted. A. Garg and

associates from IIM Ahmedabad and D. Ghosh from

Centre de Sciences Humanities, New Delhi indicate that

70% of India’s coal consumption is used for power

generation and that 75% of total CO2 and 63% of SO2

emissions are contributed from the Indian power sector.

Chapter 8: Industry

163

Table 5: Water consumption and wastewater generation of operating Red establishments 2009-10

Sectors categorised as Red Number of es-tablishments

Total water consumption

kl/d

Unit average kl/d

Total effluent & liquid waste

generation kl/d

Unit average kl/d

Red industries of the 17 categories 131 9,782,241 74,674 265,316 2,025

Other Red industries 2,750 1,019,301 371 301,882 110

Stone crushers 1,616 2,610 2 - -

Mines 293 30,790 105 1,257 4

Health care establishment 6,391 55,873 9 13,627 2

Local bodies & others 1,944 174,605 90 14,097 7

Total 13,125 11,065,420 596,179

Adapted from Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute (2011). Inventorisation of Red Category Industries in Karnataka

3.2.1. Water use versus wastewater generation

EMPRI (2011) estimates the water consumption of Kar-

nataka’s 2,881 Red category industries to be nearly 11

billion litres per day. 88% of that is used by 131 indus-

tries belonging the ’17 categories’ alone (refer Table 5).

The average Red category industry requires around

370,000 litres of water per day and the average ’17

category’ industry requires about 75 million litres. The

study also shed light on a significant discrepancy be-

tween water consumption and declared discharge of

industries (refer in Table 5). The aggregate discharge of

all kinds of establishments (596,179 kilo litres per day)

accounts for less than 6% of the entire water consump-

tion. While this could suggest that 95% of water re-

quired is actually consumed by products manufac-

tured, it is feared that vast quantities of discharges go

unreported and unmonitored.

3.2.2. Effluent generation and treatment

EMPRI (2011) estimated that roughly half of the entire

wastewater of Red establishments of 596 million litres

per day is generated by those 131 industries belonging

the ’17 categories’ alone (refer Table 5).

The study also identified 28 so called ‘gross polluters’

among effluent generators that discharge more than

100 kg of biological oxygen demand (BOD) per day.

More than 64,000 kg/d of BOD is produced by all es-

tablishments, 96% of which is contributed by the ’17

categories’. In case of chemical oxygen demand (COD)

the total is nearly 190,000 kg/d (refer Table 6).

The study also found that among 101 industries of the

’17 categories’ that generate effluent, 83 treat it in an

effluent treatment plant (ETP) on site and only 8 rely

on common effluent treatment plants (CETP). This ap-

Table 6: BOD and COD of effluent treatment plants of Red establishments in 2009-10

Effluent and liquid waste management 17 category industries

Other industries

HCE Local bodies

& others Total

Biological oxygen demand (BOD)

Number of TPs with requisite data 71 211 20 23 325

BOD average (arithmetic) in mg/l 1,568 130 28 113 1,839

BOD average (weighted) in kg/d 874 10 1 2 887

BOD total in kg/d 62,053 2,195 16 45 64,310

Number of gross polluters 28 5 0 33

Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

Number of TPs with requisite data 37 108 8 15 168

COD average (arithmetic) in mg/l 7,506 356 83 377 8,322

COD average (weighted) in kg/d 4,913 43 0.6 6 4,963

COD total in kg/d 181,792 4,659 5 90 186,546

Adapted from Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute (2011). Inventorisation of Red Category Industries in Karnataka

Figure 3: Polluted Kariobbanahalli Lake at Peenya Industrial Area

Chapter 8: Industry

164

pears logical as the quantities to be treated would in

most cases make on site treatment economic and pref-

erable, even if only the logistics are considered.

Figure 5: Effluent treatment of 101 ‘17 category’ industries in 2009-10

3.2.3. Effluent disposal

EMPRI (2011) found that 67% of the ‘17 category in-

dustries use treated water for gardening (irrigation)

while 22% have adopted process reuse. In case of oth-

er industries, only 52% use treated water for gardening

while process reuse is reported by 30%.

Figure 6: Disposal of effluents by ‘17 category’ industries in 2009-10

Figure 7: Disposal of effluents by other industries in 2009-10

3.2.4. Indicators of water pollution

Sources of pollution need to be assessed and prioritised

based on sources and impact. Industries and municipal

effluents are sources that affect the quality of water

and life itself. These need to be estimated at the source

Table 7: Water quality of Byramangala tank fed by the polluted Vrishabhavathi river

Hardness TDS Ca Mg NO3 SO4 Fe Chlorides

435 1,120 90.4 68.4 6.3 23.5 0.44 172

R. Madhusudhan, H.R. Radha, A.A. Jahagirdar,. 2007

Table 8: Bommasandra Industrial Area (30 groundwater samples in two sets)

Hardness TDS Ca Mg NO3 SO4 Fe Chlorides

878 1,367 225 78.3 65.1 174 1.1 533

63 30 53.3 36.7 60 6.7 10 20

D.S.S. Murthy, B.S Shankar, M.T Maruthesha Reddy, 2007

in water bodies receiving wastewater. Agricultural

runoff and leachate from landfills is also noticed as pol-

lutant in the groundwater quality.

The data indicates that both the tank water and the

samples from most wells and bore wells are not pota-

ble for one reason or the other. In particular, tank wa-

ter is high in total dissolved solids (TDS), iron, heavy

metals and faecal matter. All this is due to pollution

from both urban and municipal sources. More than

73% samples of groundwater were reported to be non-

potable with high values of hardness, nitrates, calcium,

magnesium, chlorine and TDS. A shocking observation

is that 60% of samples had toxic levels of nitrate, some

between 50 to 300 mg/l whereas the safe limit accord-

ing to Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), USA is

10 mg/l while IS 10500 stipulates 45 mg/l as desirable

limit and 100 mg/l as permissible in case no alternative

source of drinking water is available. Nitrates are from

agricultural run-off and industrial pollution from the

area.

River quality monitoring is also carried out by KSPCB to

curb industry discharge of effluents outside their prem-

ises It is reported that after a few hundred metres of

the effluents joining the stream or river, the dilution is

bringing the water to B or C grade in CPCB surface

water classification scheme.

In ETP 82%

In STP/ETP 10%

In LWTP 0%

In CETP 8%

Into public sewer

1%

Into river or nalla 4%

Process reuse

(treated water only)

28%

Irrigation (treated

water only) 67%

Into public sewer 16% Into river or

nalla 1%

Process reuse

(treated water only)

30%

Irrigation (treated

water only) 52%

No data 1%

Figure 4: Effluent discharge into the Vrishabhavathi river in Bangalore Rural district

Chapter 8: Industry

165

It is yet along way for zero effluent discharge of indus-

tries. Water recycling and on-site reuse is being advo-

cated and some industries have been adopting some

measures in view of water shortages and purchase

cost.

3.3. HAZARDOUS WASTE

According to the Annual Report 2009-10, KSPCB has

granted consent for operation (CFO) to 2,800 hazard-

ous waste generating industries. Their operation has

been assessed as compliant with the provision of the

Hazardous Waste (Management & Handling) Rules.

The aggregate quantity of hazardous waste generated

by these is around 122,000 metric tons per annum.

64% of this is classified as recyclable or re-processable.

EMPRI (2011) found that the 2,881 Red industries in

Karnataka generate about 6,000 tons of spent oil per

year based on self-declarations (refer Figure 9).

3.4. PRESSURE ON LAND AND WATER

Among other industries, Karnataka has a significant

number of sugar industries, distilleries, pharmaceutical

industries, thermal power plants and paper mills. Taken

together, they account for significant use of water re-

sources. There is more in the offing with 1,500 acres

earmarked in Gulbarga for another thermal power

plant, and other projects envisaged across the state.

It is estimated that the current 132 state-developed

industrial areas with 40,000 acres would expand fur-

ther covering an area of nearly 90,000 acres. Also hy-

dro-electrical projects require areas in the forests. For

Karnataka, an estimate of the industrial area require-

ment indicates that the districts of Kolar, Bangalore

Rural and Urban, Tumkur, Mysore, Ramanagara and

Raichur would require 2,000 to 4,000 acres each for

future industrial development. The water requirements

in these districts are also high ranging from 10 million

litres per day (MLD) to 25 MLD. Thus, a total of more

than 5,000 crore are required for expansion of these

industrial areas with land and water facilities.

According to Chandra Bhushan’s CSE report (2010)

currently around 0.7 million hectares of land is occu-

pied by six sectors, namely power, steel, cement, alu-

minium, paper and pulp and fertilizes. Projecting a

growth trajectory of 8%, an additional 1.0-1.3 million

hectare of land will be required by these in the next 20

years. This also that the extent of land needed by these

sectors in the next 20 years will be far higher than

what they have acquired in the last 60 years.

Pollution from paper industries

Paper mills generate varieties of pollutants depending

upon the type of the pulping process used. The raw

wastewater consists of 80–90 mg/l suspended solids and

1,010–1,015 mg/l dissolved solids. BOD and COD range

from 200–210 and 1,120–1,160 mg/l respectively.

Aerobic treatment of raw effluent leads to significant re-

ductions in suspended solids (25–30 mg/l) and total dis-

solved solids (360–390 mg/l). Small amounts of copper,

cadmium, iron, lead, nickel, and zinc can be removed after

treatment. However, in most cases, the effluent quality is

not fit for discharge into rivers or on agricultural fields.

Figure 9: Spent oil generation declared sets by Red establishments in Mt/a in 2009-10

17 category industries,

959

Other industries,

5058

Stone crushers,0

Mines, 75

HCE, 972

Local bod. and others,

1060

Figure 8: Surface and groundwater pollution in mg/l (refer Table 7 and Table 8)

Tank mean

Groundwater

Chapter 8: Industry

166

4. COMPLIANCE OF ‘17 CATEGORY’ INDUSTRIES

Based on directions of CPCB, KSPCB classifies 17 Red

industry sectors that have substantial resource con-

sumption and environmental impact under the ‘17

categories’. The Annual Report 2009-10 of KSPCB iden-

tifies 159 of them in Karnataka. 16 of these have closed

down and the remaining 143 are regulated by the

board. Under mandate of CPCB, EMPRI inventorised

Red category industries in Karnataka in 2009-10 includ-

ing the ‘17 categories’ based on original records of

KSPCB. The study, which was released in 2011, identi-

fies however that only 131 of such industries are oper-

ating (refer Table 9). EMPRI’s study identified 12 indus-

tries less than KSPCB, presumably because it consid-

ered only operating industries irrespective of the con-

sent status.

Based on records and sample inspections EMPRI as-

sessed their resources consumption, waste generation

and compliance with legislation. Conclusions from this

are discussed in the following.

’17 category’ industries are mandatorily required to

comply with process specific stipulations formulated by

CPCB under a charter termed Corporate Responsibility

for Environmental Protection (CREP). Though CREP

compliance is not enshrined in law, KSPCB is able to en-

Table 9: Operating ’17 category’ industries in Karnataka 2009-10

Industry sector

’17 category’ industries in Karnataka

KSPCB Annual Report 2009-10

CPCB study by EMPRI 2011

1. Sugar 39 38

2. Distilleries (without sugar) 17 16

Distilleries (with sugar) 15 13

3. Pharmaceuticals 35 29

4. Pulp and paper 3 4

5. Cement 14 17

6. Dyes and dye intermediates 3 2

7. Fertilizers 3 2

8. Thermal power plants 6 5

9. Aluminium 1 1

10. Chlor-alkali (caustic soda) 1 1

11. Integrated iron and steel 1 1

12. Petrochemicals 1 1

13. Oil refinery 1 1

14. Pesticides 1 0

15. Copper smelters 0 0

16. Zinc smelters 0 0

17. Leather tanneries 2 0

Total in Karnataka 143 131

Adapted from KSPCB: Annual Report 2009-10; EMPRI (2011), Inventorisation of Red category industries in Karnataka

force these stipulations by making compliance manda-

tory for according consent for operation. The assess-

ment rated quantifiable key criteria stipulated under

CREP for each industry. Compliance averages were

calculated for each sector with lowest compliance in

cement industries (59%) and highest in dyes, alumini-

um and oil refineries (100%). The overall average of

compliances was 85%.

4.1. SUGAR

Karnataka ranks 3rd

place in the contribution of sugar

industries in the country. The crushing capacity of fac-

tories varies from 2,500 to 7,500 tons of cane per day

(TCD). Godavari Sugar Mills Ltd., Ugar Sugar Works

Konjalgi Sugars Ltd., Mysore Sugar Company and Ban-

nari Amman Sugar Ltd. crush around 5,000 TCD.

Sugar industries in Karnataka are spread over in

15 districts with Bagalkot and Belgaum accounting for

about 50% of the 38 operating units. The generation of

wastewater has to be less than 100 litres per ton of

cane crushed. However, a few of them discharge

130 to 200 litres per tonne of cane. Three units dis-

charge effluents to either local nallas or to a valley

nearby. One of the units lets off the treated effluent to

river Bhadra. Emission compliance is given in five in-

dustries and nil in another five. However, all have to

comply with controlling particulate matter to less than

150 mg/m3. The average compliance with CREP was

found to be 72%.

4.2. DISTILLERIES

Distilleries without sugar

There are 16 operating distilleries without attached

sugar cane processing. 85% of them compost the

waste. Concentration and incineration is satisfactory in

one unit while not adopted in others. The spent wash

is non-toxic but is highly polluting because of high

BOD and COD with high dissolved solids and organic

matter. Bio-methanation of spent wash has been

adopted by 72%. The quantity of spent wash varies

from around 2,500 to 4,500 litres.

The primary treatment of spent wash through bio-

methanation and recovering methane at economic

cost is a concern for both industries and KSPCB from

the point of control of pollution. Of the three methods,

BOD reduction (up to 90%) and biogas production

(over 25,000 m3/d) is highest with up-flow anaerobic

sludge blankets (UASB) reactors.

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Chapter 8: Industry

168

]

Lower capital investment and reduced power con-

sumption are advantages in this technology. Further

studies are desirable on methods. In 2009-10 the aver-

age compliance with CREP of these 16 industries was

found to be 88%.

Distilleries and sugar

There are 13 distilleries combined with sugar manufac-

turing in Karnataka. 22% of factories are not starting

their ETP one month before crushing as required un-

der CREP. The wastewater limit of 100 litres of

wastewater per ton of cane crushed is not achieved by

28%. Composting with press mud is followed in 79% of

cases. Compliance with the spent wash bio-

methanisation requirement is 74%. In four factories

spent wash is bio-methanated but, not fully used for

irrigation. In one case it is let into a nalla. However,

only in two factories, bio-methanated spent wash con-

formed to standard BOD of less than 2,500 mg/l at the

terminal manhole while no clear trend has emerged

for the rest. 86% of factories have high efficiency

scrubbers and have less than 150 mg/m3

of particulate

matter. Concentration and incineration is adopted by

87% factories. The average compliance with CREP of

these 13 industries was found to be 83% in 2009-10.

4.3. PHARMACEUTICALS

There are 29 pharmaceutical industries under the

’17 categories’ in Karnataka. Compliance with segrega-

tion of waste streams into high and low TDS, toxic

waste and inorganic waste was found to be 55%. De-

toxification of high COD waste streams is provided for

in four factories and partially in others. In some cases,

instead of detoxification of high COD waste, it is treat-

ed through multiple effect evaporation (MEE) process.

The water fraction is purified through reverse osmosis

and used for cooling and in boilers. The residue is

treated as HW and either incinerated or sent to the

Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facility (TSDF) for

hazardous waste near Bangalore. Hazardous waste is

appropriately handled in 93% of the cases. The control

of emissions is with 95% at a similar level. In 2009-10

the average compliance with CREP among all 29 oper-

ating industries was found to be 68%.

4.4. PULP AND PAPER

There are four pulp and paper manufacturing indus-

tries in Karnataka. Conformity with discharge limits of

absorbed organic halogen was found to be 50% only.

Two industries have fully complied with the stipulation

of integrating limekilns to limit air pollution while in the

other two cases the construction is in progress.

Wastewater discharge is less than 140 m3/t of paper in

three industries and one of them is recycling and reus-

ing wastewater bringing generation down, to less than

120 m3/t. In one case treated effluent is let into the

Bhadra river. The average compliance with CREP

among all four operating industries was found to be

69% in 2009-10.

4.5. CEMENT

Karnataka has 17 operating cement manufacturing

units. In terms of production, Karnataka occupies the

7th

rank in the country producing around 16 million

tons per year while the installed capacity is 44 million

tons. The state’s limestone deposits are about 17,253

million tons, around 23% of India’s reserves of 76,464

million tons. Potential districts for establishing cement

industries are Belgaum, Bellary, Bijapur, Chitradurga,

Dharwad, Gulbarga, Hassan, Shimoga, Tumkur and

Uttara Kannada.

Cement plant emissions need to be less than 100

mg/Nm3

and be situated at least 5 km away from ur-

ban boundaries. Compliance with this stipulation was

found to be 91%. One is at the centre of the town and

receiving complaints. One of them has no sprinklers

and work is in progress in one industry. Not one plant

re-uses petroleum coke as fuel. While advisable, coal is

cheaper and hence used in cement kilns. The frequent

tripping of electrostatic precipitators is to be minimised

through interlocking with the process. This require-

ment is met on average by 65%. A policy defining per-

missible SO2 and NOX emissions is yet to be finalised

while fugitive emission control was assessed to be in

place 80%. In the manufacturing process, ten industries

Environmental cost of paper making

The better recovery of lignin from paper and pulp

industries with alcohol solvent, bio-pulping and ozone

bleaching is a desirable improvement. A ton of newsprint

to be manufactured takes away 17 trees, 7,000 litres of

water and leaves chemicals and organic pollutants of

50% of wood wastes. Of about 300 million tons of paper

produced in the world, 30% is used for printing and

writing and 15% for newsprint. We are losing 1.5 million

hectares of forestland annually

Productive use of spent wash from distilleries

Spent wash need not be considered as a pollutant. For

every litre of alcohol produced, 12 litres of spent wash

emerges. This is around 1,200 million litres per year in

Karnataka and 35 billion litres in the country. It could be

made eco-friendly if used as liquid manure, applied to

problematic soils or converted to good compost. These

are useful if tied up with crop production programmes.

Bio-methanation is the industrial option for substituting

fossil fuel in automobiles and use of purified gas of

methane for power generation. Newer innovations await

explorations in distilleries.

Chapter 8: Industry

169

are utilising industrial solid waste and eight even haz-

ardous waste. In four cases no generation of any haz-

ardous waste is recorded. The co-generation of power

by utilising heat is achieved only in three plants fully. In

2009-10 the average compliance with CREP among all

17 operating plants was found to be 59%.

4.6. DYES

Karnataka has only two dye operating manufacturers.

The stipulation of salt recovery does not apply because

dye intermediaries are not manufactured. However,

industries have complied with all other stipulations.

This includes installation or upgradation of incinera-

tion, monitoring of groundwater, handling of

wastewater and reuse of treated wastewater.

Wherever possible, spray drying is done instead of salt-

ing to minimise the load on ETPs. Preventing emission

of volatile organic compounds (VOC) has to be done

with purpose-designed storage tanks with a blanketing

system as phenols are involved. Scrubbing systems for

SOX and NOX have been upgraded in both factories.

The resulting average compliance with CREP among

them was therefore found to be 100%.

4.7. FERTILISERS

There are only two fertiliser manufacturing units in

Karnataka. The one at Mangalore is naptha based, us-

ing 7.0 m3

of water per ton of urea. The other one at

Koppal does not produce urea and hence not much

effluent is generated. There are 20 compliance criteria

for fertiliser manufacturers and the sector compliance

was assessed to be 78% overall.

The Mangalore plant changed over from chromate to

non-chromate systems, mechanical oil skimmers are

used and groundwater is monitored well. Effluent is

discharged into a green belt in summer and into the

sea during the monsoon. Particulate matter emissions

from the urea prilling tower are 50-90 mg/Nm3. SO2

emissions are monitored and below 2 kg per ton of

acid produced. The Koppal plant has no sulphuric acid

plant.

4.8. THERMAL POWER

There are five thermal power plants in Karnataka that

use coal and one unit using Corex gas combined with

coal. These plants produce around 7,500 million tons

of fly ash per year, most of which is used for making

bricks, manufacturing cement and to a small extent as

soil conditioner by farmers. Reduction of particulate

matter to less than 100 mg/Nm3 is a challenge current-

ly being tackled at unit 8 of the Raichur plant, which is

using washed coal from dedicated mines. Plant stand-

ards for emission of SO2 and NOX have been set.

Though opacity meters have been installed in all

plants, monitoring is not done continuously in unit 8 of

Raichur. The stack height is 220 m. Data on coal wash-

eries is not available for three units while 100% adher-

ence is seen in the other two. In the expansion unit at

Raichur, 80% of raw coal is supplied from private agen-

cies and mixed with 20% imported coal from Australia

or China. There is a requirement for disposal of ash to

abandoned coalmines and two units meet this to 50%

while no data is available for the others. Four units are

providing dry ash free of cost outside the premises. The

new unit at Raichur is supplying dry ash to Associated

Cement Companies (ACC) Limited and to local brick

manufacturers. As per new guidelines, units can sell up

to 80% of dry ash through a tender process. The use of

fly ash based bricks has been promoted particularly by

the Public Works Department (PWD). There is no de-

mand for bottom ash which is hence left out of recy-

cling and merely land filled. The Fly Ash Mission, a

technology project promoted by Government of India

since 1994, has setup the Centre for Ash Utilisation

Technology & Environment Conservation in Raichur.

The average compliance with CREP among all five op-

erating plants was found to be 94% in 2009-10.

4.9. ALUMINIUM

Karnataka has are operating aluminium industry under

the ’17 category’ industries. Out of the 12 criteria stipu-

lated under CREP, only one is applicable to this unit

(phasing out of wet disposal) and met in full compli-

ance. Other criteria do not apply on account of discon-

tinuation of aluminium smelting in 1992.

4.10. CLOR-ALKALI

Karnataka’s single caustic soda manufacturer achieved

a compliance average of 94%. Mercury (Hg) is the key

concern here. Mercury bearing effluent is completely

recycled. Hence a mercury analyser is not required al-

beit installed. In cell-room ventilation gas, mercury is

with 80 mg/t of product well within the standard of 1

g/t. The caustic de-mercurisation system leaves less

than 0.08 g/t while the permissible limit is 0.1 g/t. In

hydrogen gas mercury is reduced to 0.1 g/t while per-

missible limit is 0.5 g/t. In the distillation of ETP sludge

Pollution potential of fertilisers

Manufacture of fertilisers involves heat generation, pollu-

tion of the ambient atmosphere and surface and

groundwater pollution. More than 60% of applied N and

P fertilizers are not taken up by crops but are transmitted

to surface water-bodies or leached down. Eutrophica-

tion of surface water renders it high in BOD. N2O releas-

es from soils in particular contribute 4% to 5% of CO2

equivalent emissions with an average use of 14 million

tons of fertilisers in India.

Chapter 8: Industry

170

and residues mercury is recovered. Drum filter sludge is

stabilised by adding self-development reagents that

bring down mercury content to 0.01 mg/l. Mercury

consumption is reduced to 18 to 23 g/t of product

from the standard of 50 g/t. Releases to the atmos-

phere have mercury concentrations of less than 1 g/t

of product, the permissible limit being 2 g/t. An atten-

tion area is that disposal pits of the salt washery need

to be capped.

4.11. IRON AND STEEL

Karnataka is the 3rd

largest producer of steel in the

country, producing 10.7 million tons per year. The state

has the 2nd

largest ore reserves in India. Karnataka has

16 integrated steel plants only one of which comes

under the ’17 categories’ and 72 sponge iron units

producing 17.7 million tons. Several districts have been

earmarked for further development of steel industries

including Bellary, Koppal, Bagalkot, Haveri, Gadag and

Raichur. 50,000 ha have already been acquired for

steel industries in Bellary, Koppal, Raichur, Chitradurga

and Tumkur.

Karnataka’s only ’17 category’ steel plant achieves full

compliance with CREP standards. Visible emissions are

controlled by de-dusting and meet stipulations for leak-

ing doors, lids and off-take. Eight bag filters reduce fu-

gitive emissions by 100%. Coal is directly injected. Steel

melting shop and blast furnace slag is utilised by ce-

ment industries. Tar and ETP sludge are incinerated

while hazardous waste is inventoried as per rules. Wa-

ter consumption is reduced to 2.6 m3/t compared to 5

to 8 m3/t. Discharge standards are met with a 5-stage

BOD plant. Except for cyanide and phenol, there is

continuous monitoring of stacks through an online

monitoring system. Quarterly reports are made regard-

ing efficacy of pollution control. Energy of top blast

furnace gas is recovered through a top pressure recov-

ery turbine. Coal is imported from Australia to minimise

the generation of fly ash.

4.12. PETROCHEMICALS

Karnataka’s single petrochemical industry under the

’17 industries’ is located in Raichur. It achieves 88%

compliance with CREP stipulations. During initial hours

of rain, oil is separated in the storm water by oil skim-

mers. Effluent quality is analysed every month. To con-

trol COD and persistent organic pollutants, boiler blow-

down effluents are treated. Likewise scrubber effluent

is collected in a surface storage tank and treated to

recover maleic anhydride. While there is no co-

generation in one unit, waste heat is recovered for

thermal power. No carcinogenic or halogenated com-

pounds are handled in this plant. The plant is regularly

self-assessed and audited.

4.13. OIL REFINERIES

Karnataka’s only oil refinery is in Mangalore and

achieves complete compliance with CREP stipulations.

Low NOX burners are used in heaters, flare losses are

minimised with continuous monitoring through CCTV

by a dedicated Energy Conservation Cell. NOX and SOX

emissions are monitored through a calibrated system.

Further water is desalted for recycling. ‘Oil catchers’ are

available to deal with spills. Tie-ups with coast guards,

the port trust and other authorities in this respect have

been effective.


Environmental audits are not conducted in a sys-

tematic way and the majority of small-scale enter-

prises and the entire unorganised sector is left out

completely. Not only expertise is needed for audits

to become effective but also institutional mecha-

nisms. The aim should be also to compare the per-

formances in different sectors and on yearly basis;

Industrial areas need special attention. Of concern

is the large number of private industrial areas prom-

inent in Bangalore, a fact that indicates that the ex-

tent of areas developed by the state is insufficient.

Common facilities for waste handling and effluent

treatment do not exist in most areas, which would

have benefited especially small-scale enterprises;

Compliance with regulation across the gamut of

industries is an exceptional challenge considering

the large number of industries and the constraints

of KSPCB to deal with this magnitude. This is appar-

ent in the fact that the great majority of industries

are not regulated through the consent process. The

mere record of observations does not serve the in-

tended objectives of monitoring. Periodical results

indicating trends should be distributed to industries

as to how they fare in pollution control;

Highest priority should be accorded to monitoring

of water pollution and identification of pollution

sources in water bodies and the groundwater to

curb further deterioration of water quality;

There is no process for registration of industries

across sectors for government agencies to ascertain

their existence, location and operational focus. The

present system where Department of Factories and

Boilers deals with factories defined by law, Depart-

ment of Industries and Commerce depends on vol-

untary registrations and KSPCB deals only with con-

sent cases, produces highly inconsistent data that

fails to capture the magnitude of Karnataka’s indus-

try base and prevents effective environmental

management and planning.

171

CHAPTER 9

MINING AND QUARRYING

Chapter 9: Mining and Quarrying

172


173

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 175

2. MINING OPERATIONS ................................................................ 177

2.1. HISTORY .................................................................... 177

2.2. CASE PROFILES ........................................................ 177 2.2.1. Gold mining in Raichur............................................ 177 2.2.2. Kolar Gold Fields ........................................................ 178 2.2.3. Limestone mines and Shahbad

quarrying ..................................................................... 178 2.2.4. Granite quarrying ...................................................... 179 2.2.5. Sand extraction in riverbeds and

banks ............................................................................. 179

2.3. ILLEGAL EXPORTS ................................................... 180

2.4. THE CASE OF BELLARY .......................................... 180

3. IMPACT OF MINING.................................................................... 182

3.1. AIR POLLUTION ....................................................... 183

3.2. WATER RESOURCES ............................................... 183

3.3. LAND DEGRADATION ........................................... 184

3.4. LOSS OF FLORA AND FAUNA ............................. 184

3.5. NOISE ......................................................................... 185

3.6. DEGRADATION OF ROADS .................................. 185

3.7. SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS ................................ 185

4. RECLAMATION ............................................................................ 185

5. LEGISLATION AND RULINGS .................................................... 186

5.1. LEGISLATION ........................................................... 186

5.2. IMPORTANT RULINGS ............................................ 187

6. EMERGING INTERVENTION AREAS ....................................... 187

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174

TABLES

Table 1: Export of iron ore .................................................................................................................................................................... 180 Table 2: Findings and recommendations on mining in Bellary of the ICFRE EIA of 2011 ................................................ 182 Table 3: Findings and recommendations on air quality of NEERI’s Bellary EIA of 2004 ................................................... 183 Table 4: Findings and recommendations on water of NEERI’s Bellary EIA of 2004 ........................................................... 183 Table 5: Findings and recommendations on land of NEERI’s Bellary EIA in 2004 .............................................................. 184 Table 6: Findings and recommendations on flora and fauna of NEERI’s Bellary EIA of 2004 ........................................ 184 Table 7: Findings and recommendations on noise of NEERI’s Bellary EIA of 2004 ............................................................ 185 Table 8: Findings and recommendations on socio-economics of NEERI’s Bellary EIA of 2004 ...................................... 185

FIGURES

Figure 1: Spatial distribution of minerals .......................................................................................................................................... 175 Figure 2: Mineralogical deposits ......................................................................................................................................................... 176 Figure 3: Ancient gold working in Raichur district ....................................................................................................................... 177 Figure 4: Limestone mining on agricultural land in Gulbarga district ................................................................................... 178 Figure 5: Health impact of arsenic in Raichur district ................................................................................................................... 178 Figure 6: 30-feet sand mine in the banks of river Uttara Pinakini in 2003 ............................................................................ 180 Figure 7: Topography of the Sandur-Hospet region .................................................................................................................... 181 Figure 8: Legal and illegal mining areas in Bellary........................................................................................................................ 181


















175

1. INTRODUCTION

Mining is the extraction of useful minerals from the

earth. In open-cast mining the topsoil is removed from

the surface of the earth to access the underlying ore.

Minerals at greater depth are mined underground.

Deposits are approached through horizontal tunnels

from vertical shafts. Mining aims at economic extrac-

tion with a traditionally limited concern for environ-

mental impacts. Society has generally been tolerant of

the damaging impacts of mining. With the recent in-

crease of environmental awareness however public

concern about damages has grown substantially. Soci-

etal acceptance of visual impacts and scarred land-

scapes is dwindling. The public is conscious about the

deposition of dust particle of ore and waste on all hori-

zontal surfaces in mining areas. The presence of crush-

ers and grinders within the mining areas aggravate the

situation. Mining in general affect the existing land,

water and air system. Noise is another serious concern,

especially when mines are located near human and

wildlife habitats. Besides leaving large excavations and

waste dumps, mining also leads to a rapid conversion

of land for roads, housing projects, townships, admin-

istration, and stockyards for preliminary processing of

ore. But unlike other industries, mining operations are

largely reversible except for the mineral extraction. Af-

fected land can be returned to better land uses alt-

hough it is seldom achieved in Indian practice.

MINING AND QUARRYING AT A GLANCE

Mining areas by district Karnataka’s share of national mineral resources

Bellary 18% Limestone 30% Vanadium ore 78%

Uttara Kannada 11% Granite 25% Magnetite iron ore 74%

Kolar 11% Manganese 22% Tungsten ore 42%

Chitradurga 10% Corundum 19% Titaniferrous magnetite 33%

Primary gold 17% Asbestos 38%

Haematite iron ore 11%

Mineral

Bag

alk

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Ban

galo

re

Belg

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Bella

ry

Bid

ar

Bijap

ur

Ch

am

ara

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ar

Ch

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alla

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Ch

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ag

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itra

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Da

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an

nad

a

Da

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Dh

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ad

Ga

da

g

Gu

lbarg

a

Ha

ss

an

Ha

ve

ri

Ko

dag

u

Ko

lar

Ko

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al

Man

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a

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Raic

hu

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Ram

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Ud

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Utt

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Kan

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Bauxite

China clay

Feldspar

Chromite

Dolomite

Dunite pyroxinite

Fire clay

Gold

Iron ore (hematite)

Iron ore (magnetite)

Kyanite

Limestone

Magnesite

Manganese

Ochres

Quartz/ silica-sand

Quartzite

Talc/ steatite/ soap-stone

Variety of granites

Figure 1: Spatial distribution of minerals — Adapted from Indian Mineral Year Book 2009


176

Though the wealth of minerals is more or less evenly

distributed over Karnataka, four districts are accounting

for more than 50% of mining areas: Bellary (18%), Ut-

tara Kannada (11%), Kolar (11%), and Chitradurga

(10%). Iron ore, limestone, manganese and gold ac-

count for more than 75% of the area under mining.

The forest cover in the state comprises of about 22% of

its geographic area. Some forests such as in Western

Ghats and Bellary-Hospet area also bear minerals. Be-

tween 1980 and 2005 around 7,558 hectares of forest

land was mined, accounting for approximately 8% of

forest land diversions in India. A major share of mining

leases pertains to forest land. For example 36% of min-

ing leases in Chitradurga district, 66% in Bellary and

96% in Chikkamagalur are in forest areas. Karnataka

has a distinction of being the main gold producing

state of the country. The state is the sole producer of

felsites and a leading producer of iron ore, chromites,

and dunite. Karnataka holds 78% of India’s vanadium

ore; 74% of the magnetite iron ore; 42% of the tung-

sten ore; 33% of the titaniferrous magnetite; 38% of the

asbestos; 30% of the limestone; 25% of the granite,

22% of the manganese; 19% of the corundum; 17% of

the primary gold; 13% of the kyanite; and 11% of the

hematite iron ore resources.

Figure 2: Mineralogical deposits — Adapted from Department of Commerce & Industries, 2010


177

2. MINING OPERATIONS

2.1. HISTORY

The existence of manganese ore in the Sandur hills of

the then Madras presidency was first documented by

Captain T.J. Newbold in 1839. Other mineral findings

were published by R. Bruce Foote in 1895. In 1907

General Sandur Mining Company acquired monopoly

rights for mining manganese and iron ores for 25 years

against a royalty of 6 annas per ton of manganese (ap-

prox. 36 paise) and ½ anna per ton of iron ore (approx.

3 paise) towards revenue of Sandur state.

According to Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM), there were

5,650 quarry leases for minor minerals over an area of

4,626 hectares in Karnataka in 2005. However the total

number of quarries and the extent would be much

higher, as Karnataka does not account for leases in

patta lands as per Mysore Land Revenue Code, 1888.

In 2005 there were 568 mining leases for major miner-

als over an extent of 21,247 hectares.

2.2. CASE PROFILES

2.2.1. Gold mining in Raichur

Archaeological evidence confirms the presence of

more than 300 ancient gold workings in the Maski-

Hutti schist in Raichur district between the end of 3rd

and the 1st millennium BC. The more recent Hutti Gold

Mine of the erstwhile Nizam has a depth of 200 metres.

This mine started in 1889, was closed in 1920 and reo-

pened in 1937. Figure 3 shows ancient and present

mining locations in the Map. Since the workings are

underground there is no adverse impact on air or noise

in the area. But a recent study reported significant

amounts of arsenic in groundwater which drastically

affects the health of the local population.

In 76 of 318 samples arsenic values exceeded the per-

missible limit of 0.01 ppm. Excess values were found in

45 villages of Lingasugur, Deodurga, Sindhanur and

Manvi taluks in which ancient workings and dumps of

tailings are known to have existed. Arsenic in the

groundwater is of natural origin though. Smelter dust

however aggravates the problem as it plays a signifi-

cant role in the redistribution of arsenic and provides

Figure 3: Ancient gold working in Raichur district — Adapted from Anirban Gupta, 2010


178

additional avenues for its entry into water bodies and

ultimately the food chain. When the arseno-pyrite of

tailings with a fineness of 300 mesh is exposed to the

atmosphere, it oxidises, causing the formation of acids

and releases of complex compounds into ground and

surface water. For the first time arsenic dermatitis

linked to arsenic water contamination has been diag-

nosed in Karnataka. No systematic survey has been

carried out in the state so far. A detailed investigation

and continuous monitoring of groundwater samples

appears warranted.

At the instance of the Department of Mines & Geology,

the Department of Rural Development and Panchayat

Raj has taken up a separate scheme for the supply of

safe drinking water to these villages under World Bank

scheme and Hutti Gold Mines Limited is also contrib-

uting funds for the above project as part of its corpo-

rate social responsibility (CSR) works.

2.2.2. Kolar Gold Fields

In the past gold was produced only by public sector

undertakings. Bharat Gold Mines Limited (BGML) oper-

ated Kolar Gold Fields (KGF) in southeast Karnataka

until it closed business in March 2001. Arsenic contents

in drinking waters of bore wells in the vicinity of tail-

ings of the abandoned mine have been reported to be

above permissible limit in 2010. The 75 abandoned

shafts have created a large underground reservoir

holding nearly 5,000 million litres of water. A study of

Department of Mines & Geology found arsenic, chro-

mium and cadmium in this reservoir to exceed permis-

sible limits and contaminants are feared to leach into

the groundwater, which is the town’s primary source

of drinking water. Surprisingly, an earlier analysis of the

shaft water in 2005 concluded that the samples do not

contain heavy metals or arsenic. A more comprehen-

sive study covering all of the approx. 200 bore wells

appears warranted. A strategy needs to be evolved to

ensure that citizens of Kolar Gold Fields are protected

from contaminants.

2.2.3. Limestone mines and Shahbad

quarrying

Limestone, used mainly as raw material in the manu-

facture of cement, is a major mineral leased under min-

ing lease provisions. Shahbad stone by comparison is

layered limestone used as building material. It is li-

censed under quarry lease provisions for minor miner-

als. Limestone has been mined and quarried in Gulb-

arga district for more than five decades. At present ac-

tivities spread over five taluks namely Chincholi, Sedam,

Chitapur, Shahpur and Jewargi. In two of these taluks

a number of large cement industries are located. There

are 221 mines and quarries in operation in the region.

Leases given cover an area of 2,652 hectares across 41

villages. The landscape of the region has changed as a

consequence and not for the better because small

quarries rarely rehabilitate.

About 40% of the limestone processed ends up as solid

waste. The rejects and waste of especially small quar-

ries and processing units is disposed rather randomly

on roadsides or waste lands. On agricultural land lime-

stone dust increases the pH value of the soil and re-

duces soil fertility. Productivity of crops such as maize,

wheat, groundnut, horse gram, jowar is estimated to

be reduced by 30 to 50% after commencement of min-

ing activities in proximity. As shown in the Figure 5

large-scale mining of limestone in Gulbarga is held re-

sponsible for spoiling large tracts of fertile agriculture

land.

Figure 4: Health impact of arsenic in Raichur district

Figure 5: Limestone mining on agricultural land in Gulbarga district — Adapted from Centre for Science and Environment,

2008


179

According to Department of Mines and Geology, how-

ever, the majority of mining leases in Gulbarga district

is held by cement industries and lease holders have

taken sufficient measures to control pollution in mining

and transportation.

2.2.4. Granite quarrying

Of Karnataka’s geographical area of 191,791 km2,

granite terrain covers about 92,000 km2. Ornamental

varieties with shades of pink, red, black, multi-coloured,

grey, yellow and green are found in 185 km2 thereof.

Major granite producing districts are Ramanagar, Ban-

galore Urban, Chamarajanagar, Koppal, Raichur, Has-

san, Bellary and Tumkur.

According to a study carried out by Bangalore Univer-

sity in Kanakapura, land degradation is the major im-

pact of granite quarrying. Of the once 500 quarries in

the taluk on government, forest and patta lands only

255 quarries were operational in March 2009. Work in

other quarries has been abandoned for unspecified

reasons, leaving behind craters of sometimes gigantic

proportions as closure plans are not mandatory for

quarries. The possibility of making of closure plans

mandatory needs to be seriously considered by the

government to control associated damages.

Because of by-products, granite quarrying is often ac-

companied by jelly or stone crushing units which gen-

erate substantial amounts of dust and noise. About

2,266 stone crushers operate in Karnataka, 1,479 of

which are working in quarry lease areas. Workers who

have been on the job for more than ten years were

found to be suffering from silicosis, a disease caused by

chronic exposure to air-borne dust from the units. The

dust spreads up to 500 metres and deteriorates the

surrounding soils. The need to control dust in drilling,

blasting and crushing operations is well recognised.

Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB) has

been prevailing on crushing units to adopt air pollution

control measures through suction units with dust fil-

ters. Practical experiences however have shown that

particulates are highly abrasive, destroy ducts and

equipment within a matter of months, rendering dust

control unviable and the investment wasted. Prescrib-

ing control measures of this kind, as would be required

under the Air Act, appear unfeasible under these cir-

cumstances.

Considering the lack of success with better control of

crushing units, Karnataka High Court directed the

Government of Karnataka in 1998 to identify safe

zones for stone crushers and shift units there within six

months. Studies were commissioned to identify safe

zones, concluding that no such safe zones could be

identified considering the conditions stipulated. In view

of the practical difficulty with the execution of the or-

der, Government of Karnataka approached the Su-

preme Court seeking relaxation of norms so that safe

zones could be identified. The Supreme Court upheld

the ruling and in March 2011 ordered closure of all

stone crushing units in the state until safe zones are

identified (refer to 5.2). As per the Supreme Court and

High Court directions, the government has issued the

Karnataka Regulation of Stone Crushers Act 2011 on

January 05, 2012. The draft rules for implementation of

the law is under consideration.

Further as per Supreme Court order of February 27,

2012 (SLP No. 19628-19629/2009) environmental

clearance is made mandatory for sanction and renewal

of minor mineral quarry leases of less than 5 ha too.

Guidelines for control measures for stone crushers

have however been notified, including the following

provisions:

Appropriate water sprinkling for the site to reduce

the dust from all dust generation areas;

Minimum five rows with a minimum 50 metres

wide green belt of tall growing leafy trees to be

planted around the crusher plant area to minimise

dust and improve aesthetics;

Workers to use respirators during working period

and conducting of regular health check-ups;

Containment of dust to minimise fugitive dust emis-

sions;

Creation of suitable walls or barricades to prevent

dust from blowing out of the premises;

Roads inside the crusher premises to be metalled

and water sprinkled;

Transportation of jelly powder to be undertaken

covering the trucks with tarpaulin.

2.2.5. Sand extraction in riverbeds and

banks

The impact of sand extraction in riverbeds and

riverbanks on groundwater was investigated by Uni-

versity of Agricultural Sciences in 2005. The study fo-

cused on the river Uttara Pinakini in Gowribidanur ta-

luk of Kolar district. Though the Department of Mines

and Geology restricted sand mining to three feet, ex-

cavations were found to reach a depth of up to 40 feet

here. The study concludes that sand extraction has a

significant impact on groundwater levels. Water levels

in bore wells, open wells, and filter point wells in vicini-

ty of sand mining had declined measurably. Taking the

failure of wells as indicator, the study found the failure

rate in filter point wells to be 152% higher compared to

the same type of well in areas not sand mined. In open

wells and bore wells failure rates were still significant

with 48% and 36% respectively. Well failure has been

found to reduce with distance from sand mined

streams.


180

The effects of sand mining are also felt on the banks of

river Tungabhadra where groundwater levels have

been found to be depleted while sand mining contin-

ues unabated. Considering the recurrent droughts in

that region, some farmers are reported to have aban-

doned farming and taken to sand mining as an alterna-

tive livelihood, which is likely to exacerbate the prob-

lem in the long run. In order to mitigate the negative

impacts of sand mining on the environment, the De-

partment of Mines & Geology has proposed a draft

Sand Policy for Karnataka, in January 2011. As per the

draft, sand mining and sale will be entrusted to the

Public Works Department (PWD). The mining in patta

lands, manufacture of filter sand and use of machiner-

ies in water spread areas is banned. Improvements can

be expected if the policy is implemented in letter and

spirit.

2.3. ILLEGAL EXPORTS

It has come to the notice of the government that the

quantity of iron ore exported from the state in recent

years has exceeded the permitted quantity. Table 1

detailed exports against the permitted quota for the

past 7 years.

As shown, more than 3 crore tons of iron ore has been

exported during the last 7 years in excess of the per-

missions. This matter has been subject of intense public

debate and a detailed investigation by the Karnataka

Lokayukta who submitted its final report in July 2011.

2.4. THE CASE OF BELLARY

Today the iron ore mines of Bellary district are in the

focus of the globalised mining industry. It is an export

Figure 6: 30-feet sand mine in the banks of river Uttara Pinakini in 2003 — Adapted from Hemalatha A.C. et al., 2005

Table 1: Export of iron ore

Year Permitted quantity in t/a Actual exported quantity in t/a Difference in t/a

2003-04 25,27,001 45,76,964 20,49,963

2004-05 64,51,665 1,16,91,183 52,39,518

2005-06 92,99,600 1,14,71,092 21,71,492

2006-07 60,55,833 1,08,00,478 47,44,645

2007-08 89,73,490 1,47,34,538 57,61,048

2008-09 76,64,125 1,10,60,251 33,96,126

2009-10 60,71,482 1,31,99,419 71,27,937

Total export in excess of the permitted quantity in tons 3,04,90,729

Adapted from Department of Mines & Geology


181

Figure 7: Topography of the Sandur-Hospet region — Adapted from Mineral Exploration Corporation Ltd, 2006

Figure 8: Legal and illegal mining areas in Bellary — Adapted from Department of Mines & Geology, GoK


182

hub where thousands of tons of iron ore were export-

ed every single day through the ports of Mangalore,

Karwar, Goa and Chennai until July 26, 2010, when

the export of iron ore was banned in Karnataka. 86%

of the Karnataka’s iron ore reserves are in this district.

Open cast iron ore mines are spread over 18,000 hec-

tares including encroachments, dumps and mine-

roads. Officially the district has 99 mines of which 58

are functioning. But the 2011 Karnataka Lokayukta

report on illegal mining identifies 1,047 cases of patta

land mining on which Department of Revenue has

initiated legal action. Illegal mining is spread over 9,941

hectares (55% more than leased) in 44 villages across

Bellary, Hospet and Sandur taluks (also refer to 5.2).

Consequent to the orders of the Supreme Court of In-

dia, dated August 05, 2011 Indian Council of Forest

Research and Education (ICFRE) conducted a macro

level EIA study of Bellary district in collaboration with

Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and Forest Survey of In-

dia (FSI) and other domain specialists. Key findings and

recommendations of this assessment published in No-

vember 2011 are presented in Table 2.

Illegal digging of float ore in private patta lands is the

direct result of the export boom of iron ore fines to

China starting in 2000 and the commencement of

sponge iron plants, more than 30 presently, in 2002.

Float ore is processed in sponge iron plants. The term

digging refers to the common practice of workers to

dig small quantities of iron ore on the surface by hand.

Some small farmers affected by years of drought

cashed in on the boom by leasing agricultural land for

a period of one year for small amounts of INR 25,000

to 30,000 per acre. After float ore was dug to a depth

of 5 to 8 feet, the pits were left unfilled. In this condi-

tion neither crop can be grown nor is further mining

viable. Left in this state, farming on such land will re-

main impossible. In villages like Bujanganagar and

Laxmipur, however, where topsoil is thick, land has

been successfully reclaimed and crop is growing again.

Mines and Geology Department has indicated that

float ore mining on patta land was encouraged to con-

vert the non-agricultural lands for agricultural purpos-

es.

3. IMPACT OF MINING

Mining has an adverse environmental impact. The ex-

traction of finite non-renewable natural resources is

unsustainable in principle. The magnitude of pollution

accompanying mining activities depends on the type

of mineral, the method of extraction, emissions from

beneficiation plants, processing plants, scale and area

of the mine, geological and geomorphologic and land-

use management of overburden of operations. A neg-

ative impact of mining – both legal and illegal – is felt

Table 2: Findings and recommendations on mining in Bellary of the ICFRE EIA of 2011

Findings Recommendations

During 2000-11, 8.9 km2 of forest area has

been converted to other uses. Significant

damage to environment has been caused

by small lease holders which includes en-

croachment of adjoining areas;

The ambient air quality (AAQ) has deterio-

rated coinciding with substantial increase in

iron ore production. The levels as moni-

tored by KSPCB have either exceeded or

are at alarming levels;

Surface as well as groundwater quality has

been observed to have deteriorated coin-

ciding with presence of heavy metals like

iron (Fe), manganese (Mn) as well as fluo-

ride;

Socio-economic changes indicate an in-

crease in fallow land due to low productivity

of agricultural and tree crops; sharp in-

crease in mining related diseases like acute

diarrhoea and respiratory diseases contrib-

uting 42% of the total health problems in

the mining taluks and an increase in the

number of road accidents resulting from

poor road conditions;

Mining operations have adversely affected

the floral and faunal diversity in the district.

An independent assessment of ore reserves in individual mines should be car-

ried out and environmental safeguards rigorously imposed.

Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM) should keep intergenerational equity while giving

consent for mining, as ores are finite resources. The primary aim of mining

should be to meet domestic needs;

In order to allow recuperation, extraction of ore from excessively mined areas

should be regulated to compensate for excess removal;

The minimum viable area for mining should be maintained, which can be any-

where between 25 ha to 50 ha;

A wildlife conservation plan including medicinal plants and butterfly conserva-

tion should be a part of the rehabilitation arrangement;

Restoration of environmental damage through safety zones with a green belt

around the periphery of the lease area;

Constitution of a state level committee under the chairmanship of the Chief

Secretary, Additional Chief Secretary or Secretary (Environment & Forests) with

membership of relevant departments and regional offices. Chief Conservator of

Forests (CCF) to oversee the performance of the district level task force;

Crushing plants must be covered to control dust emission. Covered conveyor

belts to be made compulsory for transportation of iron ore in all mines;

A Sustainable Mining Development Fund (SMDF) should be created in the dis-

trict for amelioration of forest and environmental damage due to mining;

The state government should strengthen the district level land use planning

process in Bellary.


183

on forests, agricultural lands, air, water, roads and the

socio-economic conditions of local people.

NEERI in its 2004 assessment of iron ore mining in Bel-

lary concluded that there is an imperative need to de-

velop and stipulate guidelines to keep these issues un-

der reasonable control. Key aspects of proposed guide-

lines include the stipulation of a size of at least 10 hec-

tares for mines, a ban on disposal of over-burden on

hill-slopes, the creation of common dumping sites and

afforestation in non-mining area around mine lease

areas and in watersheds prone to erosion.

3.1. AIR POLLUTION

Airborne particulate matter is the main air pollutant

associated with mining. Fine solid particles from drill-

ing, blasting and mining are scattered across wide are-

as and habitations by the wind. Transportation of ore

by road adds to the problem significantly. Also mineral

dressing processes, especially dry crushing and grind-

ing, add to pollution. Particles that have a diameter less

than 5 microns are most dangerous to the human

health. The smaller the diameter of a particle, the long-

er it takes to settle on the ground and the farther it

tends to spread.

NEERI conducted an environmental impact assessment

(EIA) for a study area of 1,700 km2 spread over Sandur,

Hospet and Bellary taluks. Air, water, land and noise

were seasonally assessed. Particulate matter was found

to be above permissible limits in all sampling stations of

the Sandur basin. Major causes are the transportation

of iron ore on semi-permanent roads and winds of

high velocity in winter and summer. The recommenda-

tions of the report as presented at Table 3 remain as

valid today as they have been published in 2004.


Mining and ore beneficiation processes result in sus-

pended solids entering water courses in large quanti-

ties. Solids are washed off from waste dumps and float-

ing and leaching plant wastes in tailing disposal areas.

Turbidity and siltation of rivers, lakes and irrigation ca-

nals increases drastically. Increased water turbidity de-

creases light penetration, affecting the food chain of

aquatic ecosystems. Solids also have a negative direct

effect on fish, particularly crustaceans. The most severe

threat to water resources however are toxic metals and

acid draining off into water bodies from underground

and open cast mines. They originate from the oxidation

of primary minerals in the ore, particularly sulphide

Table 3: Findings and recommendations on air quality of NEERI’s Bellary EIA of 2004

Findings on air Recommendations

Mining lead to high concen-

trations of SPM (suspended

particulate matter) and

RSPM (respirable suspend-

ed particulate matter) above

permissible limits, which are

responsible for public health

problems, reduction of agri-

culture productivity and ad-

verse impact on wildlife.

Passive enclosures i.e. wind screens around dust emitting sources like active storage piles,

ore processing units, loading unloading operations at railway heads; covering of ore in trucks

with tarpaulin during transportation;

Wet suppression: Application of water or solution of chemical agents or micron sized foam to

dust emitting surfaces;

Establishment of alternative railway routes viz. Yeswantapur to via Ranjitpur to Narasingpur

and from Ranjitpur to Hospet to minimise road transport;

Establishment of a ropeway: Transport of ore and overburden from hills to plane from the N.E.

Block range to Hospet or other railway heads, and from Ramadurga and Kumaraswamy to

Yeswantanagar or Narasingpur;

Establishment of a green-belt in around mine lease areas with dust filtering trees and devel-

opment of strips of green-belt by the side of roads containing dust filtering trees.

Table 4: Findings and recommendations on water of NEERI’s Bellary EIA of 2004

Findings on water Recommendations

Unscientific mining lead to pollution and deterioration of valuable surface

and groundwater resources;

Adverse impact on agricultural production due to long-term use of polluted

irrigation water;

Pollution of spring water and which in turn has an adverse impact on wild-

life;

Disposal of industrial wastewater effluent in water bodies aggravating

pollution of water resources;

The average groundwater level was found to have decreased in Bellary

taluk from 5.5 to 3 metres in 20 years. Surprisingly it increased from 4.8 to

6 metres in Hospet taluk and from 6 to 6.5 m in Sandur taluk.

Ban on disposal of overburden on hill-slopes:

Stabilisation of overburdens and abandoned

mines through physical, chemical or biological

methods;

Construction of diversion channels, protective

bunds and check dams to avoid siltation of sur-

face water bodies;

In ore processing units, the water consumption

should be minimal and waste water should be

treated and reused;

Groundwater should be adequately treated and

disinfected to remove iron and fluoride.


184

minerals. In the process acids are formed and released

into ground and surface water together with metals

and other compounds.

Studies have confirmed the siltation of Tungabhadra

reservoir due to mining although only 15% of mines in

the area drain into its backwaters. Gradual siltation has

the capacity of the reservoir to decrease from 133

thousand million cubic metres (TMC) to 99 TMC, a loss

of 26%. The runoff from other mines is carried away to

Narihalla dam or Daroji tank were siltation has not

been assessed so far. However, since these water bod-

ies receive the larger portion of silt from the mines in

the hills above, they are feared to be at high risk.

NEERI found that pond water quality in mining areas

showed higher levels of turbidity, total dissolved solids

(TDS), total hardness, sodium, chlorides and sulphates.

Also groundwater emerged as area of grave concern

with high levels of conductivity (more than 1,000

µs/m), total hardness, total dissolved solids, chemical

oxygen demand (COD), chlorides, fluorides, iron, lead,

and in some cases manganese. All groundwater sam-

ples clearly show the impact of mining in the study

area. Especially the forest hilltops, underneath which

the ore lies, and adjacent lands are under pressure due

to deforestation for mines and to some extent grazing

and exploitation by local people. NEERI’s recommenda-

tions, available at Table 4 are as valid today as they

were in 2004.

3.3. LAND DEGRADATION

Land degradation is the most apparent environmental

impact of mining. Open-cast mining drastically reduces

the land use potential and renders the land unsuitable

for other uses unless it is restored and rehabilitated.

The degree of damage to land depends on the method

of overburden disposal, the topography, the nature of

the overburden, the mineral mined and very im-

portantly, rainfall. These variables also influence recla-

mation. In case of underground mining, subsidence of

the surface is the most apparent damage. Land degra-

dation is acute and highly visible through pits and

waste dumps that faintly remind of the original topog-

raphy. NEERI’s recommendations in 2004 available at

Table 5 retain their full validity.

3.4. LOSS OF FLORA AND FAUNA

For open-cast mines the land is completely cleared of

forest growth. Likewise the construction of necessary

approach roads involves substantial damages. Apart

from the nature of the ecosystem affected, the loss of

vegetation also depends on the scale of operations, the

Table 5: Findings and recommendations on land of NEERI’s Bellary EIA in 2004

Findings on land Recommendations

Land degradation due to non-restoration of abandoned

mine areas and overburden;

Leaching of pollutants and metals from overburden to sur-

face and groundwater bodies;

Improper disposal of overburden;

Agriculture production is reduced due to dust pollution.

Restoration and stabilisation of abandoned mines and overbur-

den;

Water conservation and soil erosion control programme should

be initiated through afforestation in hilly areas and social forest-

ry in watersheds;

Identification of common dumping sites in each mining area.

Predict the volume of overburden produced and the area re-

quired for its dumping in stacks. Slope of overburden stacks

should be maintained at 30% in order to increase infiltration and

reduce run-off.

Table 6: Findings and recommendations on flora and fauna of NEERI’s Bellary EIA of 2004

Findings on flora and fauna Recommendations

Mining leads to deforestation;

Medicinal plants from this area needs protection from human

activities;

Cattle grazing affected the re-growth of forest;

High velocity winds carry dust from overburden over long dis-

tances.

Deforestation should be limited to minimal area while pro-

specting. Compensatory afforestation in and around mine

lease area should be carried out using fast growing local

plants and exotic species. The dug out soil should be used

to cover overburden dumps and level abandoned mines for

plantation of trees. Afforestation measures to be widened

cover also areas outside mines and watersheds in areas

having higher erodibility;

Cattle grazing in forest should be restricted. Grasslands

and fodder trees should be developed;

Wind breaking vegetation belts should be developed

around stack yards to avoid dust pollution and siltation.


185

mining method and degree of mechanisation to be

adopted. Large-scale mining, especially in wildlife rich

jungle areas, results in the destruction of habitats and

migration. Bellary district for instance covers about

9,885 km2 of which 698 km

2 is forest land. 17.6% of the

total forest is dense forest mainly found in Sandur and

Hospet taluks. A total of 194 plant species have been

recorded in the Hospet-Sandur region, out of this 90

are tree species, 36 shrubs and 68 herbs. 61 plant spe-

cies or 31% found in this region have a medicinal val-

ue. NEERI’s recommendations in 2004 in this regard

present at Table 6 retain their full validity.

3.5. NOISE

Particularly drilling, blasting, loading and transporta-

tion, results in significant noise. Human habitations

located adjacent to surface mines, ore processing

plants and major haulage roads are especially subject-

ed to high levels of noise. NEERI’s recommendations

shown in Table 7 in this regard retain their full validity.

3.6. DEGRADATION OF ROADS

In Karnataka a very significant portion of mined ore is

transported by road. This has caused substantial dam-

age to the roads of Bellary district. Travelling the 30-km

taluk road from Sandur to Hospet requires about 3

hours for a motorised vehicle. Also roads, connecting

to the sea ports are severely damaged, namely Nation-

al Highway (NH) 17 to Mangalore, NH 48 to Goa and

Karwar and NH 63 connecting from Bellary and

Hospet. National highways are designed to carry single

rear-axle lorries with a permitted load of 16.2 tons and

multi rear-axle lorries with a load of 25 tons. To save

transportation cost lorries are routinely overloaded and

carry between 25 to 40 tons, resulting into a much

higher axle pressure than roads have been rated for.

3,000 to 4,000 overloaded lorries have been passing

NH 17 every day between 2002 and 2007. Road repair

has shown to be incapable of preventing further dam-

age beyond a lifetime of six months. The lack of a rail-

way line is very apparent. A track of about 35 km from

Hospet to Narasapur via Sandur could divert about

75% of quantities transported by road. NEERI in its

2004 assessment concluded that there is both a need

and an opportunity to address transport related issues

with the establishment of railways and ropeways for

transportation of ore and overburden (refer also

Table 3).

3.7. SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS

Considering the towering environmental problems of

mining, the socio-economic dimension of it is often

underestimated or even overlooked. Challenges

emerge from the fact that populations have to cope

with continued high levels of dust, declining agricul-

tural productivity, unprecedented cash inflows into the

community, a shifting of skills and, at the closure of

mines, the collapse of the newly established socio-

economic balance (also refer to Table 8). NEERI’s rec-

ommendations in this regard remain valid and the con-

sideration of the post closure scenario should be added

to these.

4. RECLAMATION

Environmental protection is stressed by the Indian

Constitution but statutory provisions for post mining

land restoration have not been framed until recently.

The Mines and Mineral (Development and Regulation)

Act, 1957 was amended in 1986, including for the first

time provisions in this regard. Further the Minerals

Concession Rules, 1960 were amended in 1987 and

the Mineral Conservation and Development Rules en-

acted in 1988. These prescribe safeguards for the con-

servation of topsoil, back filling of waste rock in exca-

vated areas and protection of waste dumps as well as

the preparation of a mine closure plan one year prior

to closure. In 2003 the development of mine closure

Table 8: Findings and recommendations on socio-economics of NEERI’s Bellary EIA of 2004

Findings on socio-economics Recommendations

Public health problems due to air and water pollution;

Many villages in this area having a quality of life below 0.4.

Appropriate management plan as already stated should be im-

plemented to reduce air and water pollution.

Table 7: Findings and recommendations on noise of NEERI’s Bellary EIA of 2004

Findings on noise Recommendations

Impact on community: Noise levels are above

limits in residential areas near roads due to traffic,

caused mostly by transportation of ore;

Impact on wildlife: avoidance behaviour.

Alternate railway routes, by pass roads, and/or ropeway to reduce

transport of ore by road;

Development of strip of green-belt containing noise attenuating trees

around mine lease areas and by the sides of roads.


186

plans was finally made prerequisite for grant of mining

leases for major minerals.

It is pertinent to quote Robert Wilson, Chairperson of

the London based metals giant Rio Tints Plc. in 1992 on

the rehabilitation of Mines “The environmental and

social costs of closing and rehabilitating old and aban-

doned mines around the world are likely to be in tril-

lion dollars, and far beyond the capability of mining

companies alone to deal with all’”. A recent estimate

puts rehabilitation costs in the USA alone (where regu-

lation is stricter than any other country) at USD 50-60

billion. The problem is much greater in countries where

legislations are not as comprehensive and implementa-

tion is weak. There are no estimates on how much it

would cost to rehabilitate abandoned mines in India

but the cost would likely be very substantial.

The available information on abandoned mines and

mine rehabilitation is sketchy. Five abandoned mines

covering an area of 6 hectares were reclaimed in 2004.

This took the total number of mines reclaimed so far to

45 covering an area of 645 hectares. Ministry of Envi-

ronment and Forests (MoEF) subsequent annual report

states “during the year, no abandoned mine has been

reclaimed and the cumulative figure remains at 53

mines covering an area of 660 hectares”. No infor-

mation about the kind of rehabilitation undertaken is

available in these reports, nor information about where

they are located.

Mine rehabilitation remains a largely ignored subject in

India. It was only in 2003 that mine closure plans were

made mandatory for obtaining leases and that too for

major minerals only. Coal mines are still not required to

have closure plans. What is still overlooked in this con-

text is that the closure of mines also impacts the socio-

economic fabric of dependent communities. Social im-

pacts tend to be as adverse as environmental impacts.

When a new mine is opened, traditional socio-

economical systems and cultural values see drastic

changes. Factor includes the migration of skilled work

force, infusion of cash income and modern amenities, a

change for existing hierarchies, customs and values. A

completely new way of life emerges in which tradi-

tional skills are lost and new ones acquired. The local

economy which would have depended on traditional

skills and dispersed livelihood opportunities becomes

over time centred around and dependent on a single

economic activity, i.e. mining. Closures of large mines

represent a pronounced socio-economic turmoil. Clo-

sure is not gradual but an immediate event and the

return to previous skills and livelihoods may no longer

be feasible in the new context and economy.

Information about abandoned mines in Karnataka is

scarce. Eight mines were closed between 2002-03 and

2004-05. It is not known how many were closed prior

to this although sources in the Department of Mines &

Geology estimate the land area of formerly closed

mines in Karnataka to be significant and a large num-

ber of mines were closed before the mine-closure plans

were introduced. Also a large number of Shahabad

stone quarries was abandoned that do not come un-

der the purview of the mine-closure plan.

Mine rehabilitation in Karnataka received impetus re-

cently through judicial intervention. A stay was or-

dered on all mining leases in Bellary district in connec-

tion with mining irregularities observed. Supreme

Court of India directed the development of a regional

or individual reclamation and rehabilitation plans for

mines of the district. A state level committee was con-

stituted for this task in August 2011. It has since pro-

posed to Government of Karnataka a framework for

the development of individual plans for each of the

124 affected mines in consultation with the owners

concerned. As the vacation of the stay depends on the

preparation – and possibly acceptance – of reclama-

tion and rehabilitation plans, the development of such

plans is likely to be treated at first priority by mine

owners also.

5. LEGISLATION AND RULINGS

5.1. LEGISLATION

The following legislation has a bearing of mining and

quarrying:

Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986;

Goverment committee to propose Reclamation &

Rehabilitation (R&R) plan

In compliance of the Supreme Court order of August 05,

2011, GoK constituted a committee to propose a R&R

plan for Bellary mines. The committee noted that large

mining areas were opened without having proportionate

dumping area resulting in lease holders disposing waste

material on steep slopes, causing havoc to adjoining for-

est areas and water regime. The reasons for mismanage-

ment identified were non-compliance with safeguards

provided in the orders of various authorities. It also noted

that mining plans approved by IBM were defective as

excess production was approved without sufficient infra-

structure and dumping space. Speaking of restoration

strategies, the report submitted by the committee em-

phasised that a complete restoration of the area may

never be possible. “Severe environmental changes are

likely to happen in the region, if the mining is continued

for several decades resulting in the disappearance of the

hill feature. The impacts of reduced size/disappearance of

the hill feature on rainfall, forests, agriculture and water

regime need to be carefully assessed” the committee

noted.

Adapted from Guidelines for preparation of Reclamation and Rehabilitation plan for the mines of Bellary District, GoK


187

Environmental (Protection) Rules, 1986;

Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation)

Act, 1957;

Mineral Concession Rules, 1960;

Mineral Conservation and Development Rules,

1988;

Karnataka Minor Minerals Concession Rules, 1994;

Granite Conservation and Development Act, 1999;

The Marble Development and Conservation Rules

2002.

Of particular relevance are the Mineral Conservation

and Development Rules, 1988. Their purview includes

storage and utilisation of topsoil, storage of overbur-

den, waste rock etc., reclamation and rehabilitation of

lands, precautions against ground vibrations, control of

surface subsidence and precautions against air and

noise pollution, discharge of toxic liquids and restora-

tion of flora. Government of India proposed the Mines

and Minerals (Scientific Development and Regulation)

Bill, 2009 to replace the present Mines and Minerals

Act, 1957. If this new bill is passed, several burning

problems would be addressed in the process.

The Granite Conservation and Development Act, 1999

has not been enacted in Karnataka yet. It includes pro-

visions for reclamation of abandoned quarries at par

with provisions governing mines. In 2009 Government

of Karnataka imposed compensatory afforestation and

an environment protection fee of INR 1.05 lakh per ha

on non-forest, patta and revenue land permitted for

mining/quarrying. Recently unearthed irregularities in

mining in Karnataka proved that the present imple-

mentation of legislation is inadequate. Through gross

irregularities are known to have occurred, there was

not a single reported conviction resulting in imprison-

ment for violation of mining regulations until 2011.

There are however a number of instances where mine-

owners were fined substantial penalties and leases

cancelled. This is an indication of the influence of the

mining lobby but also of the inadequacies in present

administration and law enforcement.

5.2. IMPORTANT RULINGS

On stone crushers

A stone crushing unit was operating adjacent to agri-

cultural land of three farmers of Mantrady village of

Karkala taluk. Dust generated by the crushing units

had affected crops and human health in the areas ad-

versely. After exhausting all remedies at local levels,

they submitted a writ petition to Karnataka High Court

(no. 17078/1997) seeking quashing of the crusher’s

consent granted by KSPCB. The High Court passed the

following order:

All stone crushing units to be shifted to safer zones

which are to be identified by the Government of

Karnataka and certified by KSPCB within a period of

one year from the date of judgment (July 10,1998);

The distance between two safer zones should not

be less than 50 km. A safer zone should not be less

than 2 km from to national highways, habitats,

temples, schools, and rivers; not be less than 1.5 km

from state highways, and not be less than 500 me-

ters from link roads;

A distance of at least 8 km is to be maintained to

municipal corporation boundaries, 4 km to district

headquarters, 2 km to taluk headquarters, and 1 km

from two villages, forest land or cultivated lands.

This order was confirmed by the Supreme Court in a

civil appeal in the year 2001. As directions have not

been implemented the Supreme Court in March 2011

extended the time for implementation by one year and

imposed a fine of INR 1 lakh on the Government of

Karnataka for filing a frivolous application (refer also

section 2.2.4).

On iron ore mining

On a written petition filed by an NGO regarding illegal

mining in Bellary district and its impact including de-

forestation and environmental degradation of the re-

gion, the Supreme Court on a Special Leave Applica-

tion (civil, no. 7366-7367/2010, April 29, 2011) ordered

suspension of operation of 19 mining leases in Hospet

and Sandur taluks. Further in the same case, the resur-

vey of 99 mining leases was ordered (May 06, 2011).

Supreme Court also entrusted the monitoring to a Cen-

tral Empowered Committee and took the Karnataka

Lokayukta report on illegal mining on record (also refer

section 2.4).


The recommendations of the 2004 NEERI report

retain their full validity and should be implemented

in order to mitigate the adverse impacts of mining

in Bellary (refer section 3);

The reclamation of mines post closure should be

made a mandatory component of the mine-closure-

plan;

There is no legal provision ensuring the reclamation

of abandoned quarries in Karnataka. Although the

centre legislated the Granite Conservation and De-

velopment Act, 1999 which has such provisions,

these have not been enacted in Karnataka yet. It is

suggested to incorporate these provisions in the

Karnataka Minor Minerals Concession Rules, 1994;


188

Shahabad stone does not presently come under the

purview of the Granite Conservation and Develop-

ment Act, 1999. In order to effect reclamatory

measures in Shahabad stone quarries which are ex-

tensively spread over Gulbarga district, an amend-

ment could be brought into the Karnataka Minor

Minerals Concession Rules, 1994;

In view of the high arsenic content in drinking wa-

ter in and around former and present gold mines, a

detailed investigation is necessary based on which

an action plan should be prepared to ensure supply

of safe drinking water to affected communities;

In consonance with the National Mineral Policy

2008, “mining operations shall not ordinarily be

taken up in identified ecologically fragile and bio-

logically rich areas. Strip mining in forest areas

should be avoided and it should be permitted only

when accompanied with comprehensive time-

bound reclamation programme”.

189

CHAPTER 10

TRANSPORT

Chapter 10: Transport

190


191

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 193

2. ROAD TRANSPORT ...................................................................... 193

2.1. MOTOR VEHICLES ................................................... 193

2.2. ROAD NETWORK .................................................... 193

2.3. TRAFFIC ..................................................................... 195 2.3.1. Travel demand ............................................................ 195 2.3.2. A look at Bangalore ................................................... 195

2.4. PUBLIC ROAD TRANSPORT ................................... 197

2.5. FREIGHT ..................................................................... 197

2.6. ISSUES AND OPTIONS ............................................ 197 2.6.1. Emissions ...................................................................... 197 2.6.2. Noise .............................................................................. 199 2.6.3. Other environmental concerns ............................. 200 2.6.4. Public road transport ................................................ 200 2.6.5. Urban transport planning ....................................... 201 2.6.6. LPG conversion ........................................................... 202 2.6.7. Bio-fuels ......................................................................... 202 2.6.8. Automobile technology ........................................... 202

3. RAIL TRANSPORT ......................................................................... 203

3.1. URBAN MASS TRANSPORT .................................... 203

3.2. REGIONAL TRANSPORT ......................................... 203

4. AIR TRAFFIC .................................................................................. 204

5. WATER TRANSPORT.................................................................... 204

6. EMERGING INTERVENTION AREAS ........................................ 205


192

TABLES

Table 1: Vehicle mix trends in Karnataka (in ‘000) ..................................................................................................................... 194 Table 2: Road network in Karnataka .............................................................................................................................................. 194 Table 3: Traffic composition in Bangalore (%) ............................................................................................................................. 195 Table 4: Desirable modal split for Indian cities by trips ............................................................................................................. 196 Table 5: Volume-capacity ratio of selected locations ................................................................................................................ 196 Table 6: Level of service and fuel consumption .......................................................................................................................... 196 Table 7: Distance covered and diesel consumption of freight transport ............................................................................ 197 Table 8: Schedule of adoption of emission norms for 4-wheelers ........................................................................................ 198 Table 9: Tightening emission limits for diesel and petrol ......................................................................................................... 199 Table 10: Resources for transporting 10,000 people over 1 kilometre ................................................................................ 200 Table 11: Projected passengers at Bangalore airport in millions ........................................................................................... 204 Table 12: Cargo trends at four minor ports (in thousand tons) ............................................................................................. 205

FIGURES

Figure 1: Karnataka’s vehicle growth trend ................................................................................................................................. 193 Figure 2: Incremental vehicle growth ............................................................................................................................................ 193 Figure 3: National Highway 4: Bangalore to Pune .................................................................................................................... 194 Figure 4: Vehicular growth in Bangalore ..................................................................................................................................... 195 Figure 5: A flyover eases traffic flow on Sankey Road .............................................................................................................. 195 Figure 6: Congestion — The new trademark of Bangalore ..................................................................................................... 196 Figure 7: Rural transport — Demand outstrips capacity ........................................................................................................... 197 Figure 8: Park & ride at Shanthinagar Bus Terminus ................................................................................................................. 201 Figure 9: The launch of Namma Metro ......................................................................................................................................... 203

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193

1. INTRODUCTION

Transport plays a crucial role in the economic devel-

opment. It provides utility of place and time to men

and material. Thus transport demand is linked closely

to the economy, its different sectors and their individu-

al growth rates. Transport demand consists of two ma-

jor components: Passengers and freight. Necessary and

convenient as it is, the downsides of transport are no

less compelling. Transport is the single largest source of

air pollution and noise in urban environments. It jeop-

ardises human health, causes accidents and occupies

and congests public places. The environmental impact

however depends much on the mode of transport and

the age of vehicles. It is not possible to meet the entire

mobility requirements through a single mode of

transport. Strategies should therefore aim at minimising

the environmental problems without compromising on

mobility needs.

2. ROAD TRANSPORT

2.1. MOTOR VEHICLES

The two factors influencing passenger movement are

population and vehicles. The vehicular population in

Karnataka increased from 36.9 lakh in 2001 to

99.3 lakh 2011, an increase by 169% (refer Figure 1).

This of course indicates the rapid pace of economic

advancement of the state. In 2010-11 more new vehi-

cles were registered than in the entire five-year period

between 1991 and 1996 (Figure 2).

In absolute terms, the growth of motorcycles is about

twice as much as all other categories together (refer

Table 1 on the next page). In relative terms however

two-wheelers are gradually declining in the vehicle

mix. This fate is also shared by auto rickshaws though

they clocked a six-year growth of 46%. This is however

24% below the average vehicle population growth of

70%. Cars are rapidly emerging and grow 19% faster

than the average vehicle population.

The age of the vehicle fleet determines two environ-

mentally relevant aspects: Fuel consumption and emis-

sions. Years ago the Mashelkar Committee estimated

that in Bangalore 7% of three wheelers, 9% of motor-

cycles, 36% of commercial vehicles and 91% of cars are

aged. This profile, however, would not do full justice to

the present situation as the number of vehicles has

tripled in the last decade. Although registration data is

TRANSPORT AT A GLANCE

Motor vehicles Road network (2009) 219,935 km

Karnataka 2011 99.3 lakh National highways thereof 1.8%

2001 36.9 lakh State highways thereof 9.5%

Bangalore 2011 37.9 lakh Major district roads thereof 21.8%

2000 13.4 lakh Village roads thereof 66.9%

Composition (2009) Rail network

Motorcycles 61% Railway track 3,089 km

Auto rickshaws 16% Bangalore Metro 33 km

Cars 12% Commissioned thereof 7 km

Buses 4% Airports (public) 6

Cycles 0.5% Domestic operations thereof 6

Road freight mileage (2009) 71.3 mn km/a International operations thereof 2

Figure 1: Karnataka’s vehicle growth trend — Adapted from Department of Transport 2012

Figure 2: Incremental vehicle growth — Adapted from Department of Transport 2012


194

available, the age profile of the vehicle fleet on the

road is elusive. Once registered, vehicles stay officially

registered even when decommissioned except in cases

of transfer of ownership out of the state. Most of the

state governments follow lifetime tax for passenger

vehicles. In India, there is no legal provision for denying

a vehicle fitness certificate on the basis of vehicle age.

In view of the need to take action on air pollution in

Bangalore, a government order was passed prohibiting

commercial vehicles older than 15 years. Implementa-

tion of this order has however proven difficult if not

impossible. And while the order has not been with-

drawn, it is not apparently acted upon.

2.2. ROAD NETWORK

Karnataka’s road network extends over about 220,000

kilometres as on March 2009 (refer Table 2). Between

2003 and 2009 road length increased by a substantial

64% in merely six years. There are variations in the

growth rates for different categories of roads. National

highways rose by 20.4%, state highways by a surpris-

ing 108.6%, major district roads by 78.5% and village

roads by 59.5%. In Karnataka 70% of the traffic is car-

ried by national highways. Even though national

highways grew by 254 km, its share in the road net-

work of the state declined from 2.8% to 1.8%. In the

same period the share of state highways rose from

7.3% to 9.5%. Though it appears that bottlenecks are

rapidly and progressively addressed, the number of

trips and the per capita trip rate have also risen sub-

stantially as a result of population growth, vehicular

growth and increase in the road network. The 111-km

Bangalore-Mysore Infrastructure Corridor is presently

under development. Land acquisitions for this major

public-private partnership (PPP) project have drawn

widespread criticism. And albeit these are compelling

indicators of rapid development, these go hand in

hand with environmental degradation.

Figure 3: National Highway 4: Bangalore to Pune

The carrying capacity of a road is defined primarily by

its width. Three major categories have been defined:

Single lane (3.75 metres), intermediate lane (5.5 m) and

two lanes (7 to 7.5 metres). A large part of the road

network in Karnataka is made up of single-lane roads

or narrower and much of the network is in poor condi-

tions. Nearly 45% of state highways are single lanes,

20% are intermediate lanes and only 25% are two

lanes in width. Among major district roads 75% are

single lane while 10% are wider. Almost all village

roads are single lane. From an emission point of view it

is desirable that major district roads have double lane

width and village roads 5 metres. Townships with

populations of 5 lakh should preferably develop by-

passes so that passing traffic is not required to enter

towns. This would minimise fuel consumption, emis-

sions as well as accidents.

Table 1: Vehicle mix trends in Karnataka (in ‘000)

Vehicle type

2003 2009 Six-year growth Vehicles

in ‘000 Share

Vehicles in ‘000

Share

Motor-cycles

3,557 73.0% 5,914 71.3% 66%

Cars 537 11.0% 1,018 12.3% 89%

Autos 189 3.9% 276 3.3% 46%

Buses 81 1.7% 142 1.7% 76%

Trucks 161 3.3% 302 3.6% 87%

Others 351 7.2% 638 7.7% 82%

Total 4,876 8,290 70%

Adapted from Planning, Program Monitoring and Statics Department, Government of Karnataka

Table 2: Road network in Karnataka

Road type

2003 2009

Length (km)

km per million population

Network share

Length (km)

km per million population

Network share

National highways 3,728 68.7 2.8% 3,982 75.9 1.8%

State highways 9,829 181.1 7.3% 20,905 347.1 9.5%

Major district roads 28,247 520.4 21.1% 47,836 852.7 21.8%

Village roads 92,258 1,699.7 68.8% 147,212 2,488.8 66.9%

Total 134,062 2,469.8 100% 219,935 3,764.4 100%

Note: Estimated population of Karnataka 54.28 million in 2003 and 59.15 million in 2009

Adapted from Department of Planning Development Review 2009 and Public Works, Ports & Inland Water Transport Department 2012


195

2.3. TRAFFIC

2.3.1. Travel demand

Travel demand assessment is a complex process. Pas-

senger trip rates (trips per person in a day) can be used

to estimate total travel demand at macro level. Actual

trip rates vary widely. In a demand study, T.V. Rama-

nayya and Ananta Ramaiah (1998) approximated trip

rate for urban areas as 1.0 trips per person per day and

0.15 for rural area. It projected a demand of 27.5 mil-

lion trips per day for the year 2009.

2.3.2. A look at Bangalore

Apart from rural connectivity, Bangalore deserves spe-

cial attention in respect of transport. The state capital

has evolved from a cantonment township into a full-

fledged cosmopolitan city and is witnessing tremen-

dous growth in industry, trade and commerce leading

to an exponential growth in the population and ex-

pansion of the city area. Traffic has become the primary

obstacle for achieving its primary purpose. The city is as

notorious today for its diurnal congestion of arterial

roads as it was famous for its parks in the 80s. Banga-

lore’s population rose from 5.7 million in 2001 to about

9.6 million in 2011. This unprecedented growth has

created severe strains on the infrastructure including

the transport network. Bangalore Metropolitan

Transport Corporation (BMTC) maintains an extensive

network of rather modern buses. This is complemented

by the Bangalore Metro which commenced operation

on the first stretch in 2011.

Figure 4: Vehicular growth in Bangalore

The road network of any city consists of arterial and

non-arterial roads. Arterial roads are normally designed

to the standards of state highways. Bangalore has a

network of 4,300 km of roads out of which only

252 km (6%) are arterial. National and state highways

entering the city add another 100 km (2%) to arterial

roads and these carry most of the vehicular traffic. The

road networking has not been systematically planned

but grew rather organically as today’s population and

city expansion had never been anticipated. Widening

of existing roads is an exceptionally cumbersome and

controversial affair that disturbs the environment

(felling of grown road side trees), the quality of urban

life and citizens who are required to surrender part of

their property. The recent development of outer, inner

and satellite ring roads is expected to provide some

respite to the current traffic woes. Traffic planning is

often left only with the choice of introducing more

one-way systems. The construction of underpasses and

flyovers is providing relief to the high density of traffic.

Figure 5: A flyover eases traffic flow on Sankey Road

Motorcycles, in terms of numbers but not necessarily

space, dominate traffic on most urban roads. Their

share rose from 56% to 61% between 2002 in 2009

(refer Table 3). This contrasts the state level trend

where motorcycles fell from 73% to 71% between

2003 and 2009 (refer Table 1). Reflecting common

knowledge, personal modes of transport (motorcycles

Table 3: Traffic composition in Bangalore (%)

Vehicle Type 2002 2009 Vehicle

occupancy

Person mobility Contribution

2002 2009 2002 2009

Motorcycles 56% 61% 1.2 67.2 73.2 18.7% 19.9%

Auto rickshaws 18% 16% 2 36 32 10.0% 8.7%

Cars 9% 12% 1.8 16.2 21.6 4.5% 5.9%

Buses 4% 4% 60 240 240 66.6% 65.3%

Cycles 1% 0.5% 1 1 0.5 0.3% 0.1%

Others 12% 6.5%

Total 100% 100% 360.4 367.3 100% 100%

Adapted from T.V. Ramanayya and K.M. Anantha Ramaiah (2009) B.Track Report


196

and cars) increased from 65% to 73% during the seven-

year period. It implies that preferences and affordability

are shifting increasingly to comfort and convenience.

At the same time their contribution to mobility has in-

creased from 23% to 26% in the seven-year period.

Thus an increase of 8% of personal vehicles has lead to

a mobility increase of only 3%. This underlines the need

of improving public transport. The desirable modal split

as per Central Pollution Control Board for different city

sizes is presented at Table 4. In India this share is gen-

erally not achieved due to inadequate fleet strength.

Table 4: Desirable modal split for Indian cities by trips

Populations in million

Mass transport

Bicycle Other modes

0.1-0.5 30-40% 30-40% 25-35%

0.5-1.0 40-50% 25-35% 20-30%

1.0-2.0 50-60% 20-30% 15-25%

2.0-5.0 60-70% 15-25% 10-20%

5.0+ 70-85% 15-20% 10-15%

Adapted from Central Pollution Control Board (2000)

Congestion

Transport planners often use density (vehicles per km)

as a norm to determine the carrying capacity of roads.

While this is quite suitable for specific locations, this

concept indicator cannot be measured at macro level.

Density varies from city to city and within a city. This is

normally measured as a ratio of demand and supply.

Demand relates to the current vehicular flow while

supply indicates the accommodation capacity of the

road network at the given location.

Congestion levels are determined through the vol-

ume to capacity (V/C) ratio. The ratio should be be-

low one. V/C ratios up to 0.5 indicate low congestion,

moderate congestion occurs at ratios between 0.5 to

0.75, heavy congestion between 0.75 and 1. Values

above one indicate severe congestion. Values up to 1.2

are tolerable under certain circumstances however,

such as the conclusion of a major public event. Any

value higher than that implies that roads are ‘dead’.

Table 5 presents V/C ratios for 15 major road sections

in Bangalore which speak quite well for themselves.

Unfortunately, these field observations are undated

and hence not younger than 2008.

The increase in traffic on arterial roads rises typically

faster than the gross population or vehicle growth. In

2011 therefore these values would have risen further

with the exception of Hosur Road where a new ex-

pressway flyover has been commissioned. Many more

intersections, which would have performed reasonably

in 2008 are subject to severe congestion today. Ban-

nerghatta Road for instance, from Jayadeva Hospital to

Meenakshi temple is now experiencing V/C ratios ex-

ceeding 1.6 during both morning and evening peak

hour.

From an environmental perspective, it is worth noting

the direct relationship between congestion levels and

fuel consumption (refer Table 6). Consequently, the

ambient air pollution of roads with high ratios is higher

and at V/C ratios of 2.0 and above, pollution levels

would be abnormally high, as even laymen can experi-

ence on Bangalore’s arterial roads.

Table 6: Level of service and fuel consumption

V/C ratio Indicative fuel consumption

Below 0.2 Normal (100%)

0.2 to 0.4 105%

0.4 to 0.6 110%

0.60 to 0.8 120 %

0.80 to 1.0 135%

1.2 and above 150%

Adapted from Transport Research Board USA, Capacity Manual 2010

Table 5: Volume-capacity ratio of selected locations

Name of the road V/C ratio

Mahatma Gandhi Road 1.11

Bull Temple Road 1.36

J.C. Road 1.81

Margosa Road 1.86

Infantry Road 1.88

Nrupatunga Road 1.94

Residency Road 1.96

Richmond Road 2.01

Old Madras Road 2.06

St. Mark's Road 2.09

(Old) Airport Road 2.34

Race Course Road 2.46

Sampige Road 2.61

Housur Road 2.62

Peenya Industrial Estate 2.94

Adapted from EMPRI (2009). State of Environment Report Bangalore 2008

Figure 6: Congestion — The new trademark of Bangalore


197

2.4. PUBLIC ROAD TRANSPORT

Karnataka’s public road transport is run by both public

and private players. While municipal and intra-state

transport it largely public owned, there is competition

in inter-state passenger transport between public and

private agencies. With a fleet of 15,421 buses in 2002,

the public sector provides the lion’s share in public

transport, constituting 89-90% of the state’s public

transport fleet. Apart from BMTC, Government of Kar-

nataka also runs Karnataka State Road Transport Cor-

poration (KSRTC), North-Western Karnataka Road

Transport Corporation (NWKRTC) and North-Eastern

Karnataka Road Transport Corporation (NEKRTC).

KSRTC for instance is operating 6,816 buses along

1,071 routes, covering a total 843 million km in 2009-

10.

By national comparison, Bangalore has achieved a

commendable level of public transport services. In

2009-10 BMTC operated a fleet of 6,046 buses carrying

4.2 million passengers per day on nearly 5,800 sched-

ules. In order to attract passengers that would normally

seek the convenience of private transport, BMTC is pur-

suing a wide introduction of modern air-conditioned

buses. Some 435 Volvo buses had been included by

March 2010 besides other modern buses of indigenous

manufacturers. Apart from the airport, these buses are

catering particularly to employees of the rapidly grow-

ing electronics, IT and business process outsourcing

industries.

2.5. FREIGHT

Trucks dominate the movement of freight. The number

of trucks has risen from 161,000 in the year 2003 to

310,000 in the year 2009 (refer Table 7). This increase

by 87% over a period of six years works out to an an-

nual growth rate of 11%, which is much higher than

the population growth rate of 3.5%. This indicates an

acceleration of trade and business activities in the state.

In 2006-07 the ratio between (heavy) trucks and light

commercial vehicles was 70:30. The movement of

freight by road is estimated to result into an aggregate

71 million road kilometres covered per annum (refer

Table 7). Given Karnataka’s 2011 population this works

out to about 1.16 km per person per year.

Till recently, petroleum products destined for Banga-

lore were transported from Mangalore in trucks, which

crossed the ecologically sensitive Western Ghats. An

underground pipeline of 364 km has been constructed

between the two cities for transporting petroleum.

Under full utilisation this pipeline is estimated to re-

place nearly 2.2 lakh tanker trips per year to transport

2.2 million tons of petroleum products.

2.6. ISSUES AND OPTIONS

2.6.1. Emissions

The transport sector, especially road and air transport,

contribute to air pollution. A comprehensive assess-

ment of pollution levels is discussed in Chapter 4: Air

and Noise. Vehicular air pollution depends on many

factors: The vehicle, the fuel, the driver and road condi-

tions. As far as the vehicle is concerned, emissions are

determined by the fuel composition, engine and fuel

injection type and maintenance, the conditions of fil-

ters or catalytic converters, vehicle age (older vehicles

have higher emissions), engine temperature (catalytic

converters work only when operating temperature is

reached) as well as the load carried. Other rather con-

textual determinants include congestion levels and

driving speed, the level of incline or decline, altitude. At

constant speed on an un-inclined plane fuel efficiency

is greatest somewhere between 70 and 100 kilometres

per hour, depending on the vehicle type. As a thumb

rule, petrol engines emit more carbon monoxide and

hydrocarbons, diesel engines emit more particulate

matter, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen. Carbon monox-

ide is the single biggest pollutant emitted by automo-

biles.

Table 7: Distance covered and diesel consumption of freight transport

Type of freight carrier

Number of vehicles Assumed mileage km/d

Distance covered in million km/a

Diesel consumption thousand l/a

2003 2009 2003 2009 2003 2009

Trucks 112,700 217,000 275 31.0 59.7 5,165 9,946

Light commercial vehicles 48,300 93,000 125 6.0 11.6 503 969

Total 161,000 310,000 37.0 71.3 5,669 10,915

Note: A consumption of 1 litre diesel per 6 km was assumed for trucks and 12 km for light commercial vehicles

Figure 7: Rural transport — Demand outstrips capacity


198

The quality of fuel affects engine performance and

adulterated fuel always results in higher emissions. Fuel

adulteration is not uncommon in Karnataka, especially

for commercial vehicles. Adulteration of fuel is directly

related to the price difference between diesel or petrol

and kerosene which is commonly used as substitute.

The fact that kerosene under the public distribution

system is subsidised increases the price difference and

hence increases the gain from adulteration. Consistent

monitoring is needed in the interest of reducing emis-

sions.

India notified emission limits for idle speed, back in

1989. These were replaced by mass emission limits in

1991 for petrol vehicles and a year later for diesel vehi-

cles. A Supreme Court ruling in 1999 provided the base

on which Government of India adopted the European

emission standards (Euro 1 at that time) in the year

2000 under the name India 2000. The Mashelkar

Committee report on auto fuels two years later provid-

ed the blue print for the further systematic roll-out of

more and more stringent emissions norms under the

name Bharat (refer Table 8). Each set of these is based

on corresponding set of European emission norms.

Emission limits prescribed are presented at Table 9.

Assuming that 50% of diesel vehicles conform with

Euro I standards, 40% with Euro II and 10% with Euro

III, a total of 277 tons of carbon monoxide emissions

per day are estimated to be emitted by heavy and light

commercial vehicles in Karnataka. The emission load

increases by about 10% every year. Compliance with

Bharat Stage III standards reduces emission levels by

50% compared to Stage I. The induction of new vehi-

cles will gradually increase the adoption of Stage III

standards albeit slowly. For already registered vehicles

the only hold is the strict enforcement of emission

standards through the six-monthly emission test.

Karnataka has about 460 certified emission test centres,

some 260 of which are in Bangalore. As per legal re-

quirements, the emissions of motor vehicles are to be

checked in six-monthly intervals. As of 2011, the results

of nearly half of Bangalore’s test centres transmit re-

sults to a central database of Department of Transport

and the number of centres participating in this online

network is understood to be expanding. It is not yet

clear what will be done with the data collected but as

it contains information not only on emissions but also

vehicle type, fuel and mileage it obviously offers enor-

mous potential for understanding vehicular emissions

in the state better. A shortcoming of present emission

testing practices is that particulate matter from 2-stroke

vehicles, predominantly auto rickshaws and aged mo-

torcycles are not monitored at all because standards for

the same have not been set (refer Table 9). It also ap-

pears insufficient to test petrol vehicle emissions solely

in idle-speed.

Pollution levels increase with the age of vehicles and

are rather high for vehicles 15 years or older. As dis-

cussed in section 2.1, a government order has been

passed prohibiting plying of commercial vehicles older

than 15 years in Bangalore but its implementation is

constrained. A compulsory technical fitness check

against essential criteria could be introduced to take

vehicles off the road that are not roadworthy from a

safety perspective. Such intervention would have a

positive impact on emission levels too. Another option

would be to curtail the validity of road tax to 15 years.

The systematic phase-out of old non-compliant vehicles

BMTC taking on air pollution

To control suspended particulate matter (SPM), BMTC has

equipped two of its Leyland buses with diesel particulate

filters on a trial basis. The filter which traps carbon soot

was jointly developed with Bharath Heavy Electricals Lim-

ited.

About 1,830 Parisara Vahini (environment stream) buses

were inducted between 2002 and 2008 to reduce sulphur

dioxide levels in the city’s ambient air. The now ubiquitous

blue-white buses have Bharat Stage II compliant engines

which run on diesel with a sulphur content of merely

0.25% at an additional cost of about INR 2 lakh per bus.

This cost also covers a range of other features to enhance

convenience.

Table 8: Schedule of adoption of emission norms for 4-wheelers

Emission norms Reference Effected Regional applicability

India 2000 Euro 1 2000 Entire India

Bharat Stage II Euro 2

2001 National Capital Region, Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata

April 1, 2003 Agra, Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Kanpur, Lucknow, Pune, Sholapur and Surat

April 1, 2005 Entire India

Bharat Stage III Euro 3 April 1, 2005

National Capital Region, Agra, Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Chennai, Hyder-abad, Kanpur, Kolkata, Lucknow, Mumbai, Pune, Sholapur and Surat

April 1, 2010 Entire India

Bharat Stage IV Euro 4 April 1, 2010

National Capital Region, Agra, Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Chennai, Hyder-abad, Kanpur, Kolkata, Lucknow, Mumbai, Pune, Sholapur and Surat

To be notified Entire India

Adapted from Wikipedia. Bharat Stage emission standards, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharat_Stage_emission_standards accessed May 14, 2012; Press Information Bureau (March 24, 2010). Bharat Stage-IV fuels-Petrol and diesel Launched in Delhi


199

in passenger- and freight transport assumes a priority

to reduce respirable particulate matter, which is of

grave concern.

2.6.2. Noise

Transport is probably the single largest source of noise

in urban India. It has been observed that in Bangalore,

where some data is available, actual levels exceed the

permissible level of 65 dB(A). Even during off peak

hours values recorded are above the permissible limit.

Continuous monitoring, which is not in place, may re-

veal that some locations experience excess noise levels

for 16-18 hours per day. In spite of its negative impact

on health and the quality of urban life in general, sur-

prisingly little attention is placed on reducing it. As pre-

vailing noise levels are discussed in Chapter 4: Air and

Noise, this chapter will limit itself to its relationship

with transport.

A car travelling at 20 km per hour emits 55 decibels

(dB) of rolling noise. This reaches 65 dB at 40 km/h, 75

dB and at 80 km/h and 80 dB at 100 km/h. Traffic

noise emanates from engines, especially while acceler-

ating, from the contact between tyres and roads and of

course horns, which are trained as extensively in Kar-

Table 9: Tightening emission limits for diesel and petrol

Year Standard CO HC NOX HC + NOX PM

Diesel: Trucks and buses in g/kWh

1992 - 17.3 - 32.6 2.70 - 3.70 - - -

1996 - 11.2 2.40 14.40 - -

2000 India 2000 4.5 1.10 8.00 - 0.36 (0.612)1

2005 Bharat Stage II 4.0 1.10 7.00 - 0.15

2010 Bharat Stage III 2.1-5.54 0.66 - 0.78 5.00 - 0.10 - 0.16

20102 Bharat Stage IV 1.5-4.0 0.46 - 0.55 3.50 - 0.02 - 0.03

Diesel: Light commercial vehicles (4-wheelers) in g/km

1992 - 17.30 - 32.60 2.70 - 3.70 - - -

1996 - 5.00 - 9.00 - - 2.00 - 4.00 -

2000 India 2000 2.72 - 6.90 - - 0.97 - 1.70 0.14 - 0.25

2005 Bharat Stage II 1.00 - 1.50 - - 0.70 - 1.20 0.08 - 0.17

2010 Bharat Stage III 0.64 - 0.95 - 0.50 - 0.78 0.56 - 0.86 0.05 - 0.10

2010 Bharat Stage IV 0.50 - 0.74 - 0.25 - 0.39 0.30 - 0.46 0.025 - 0.06

Diesel: 2- and 3-wheelers in g/km

2005 Bharat Stage II 1.00 - - 0.85 0.10

2010 Bharat Stage III 0.50 - - 0.50 0.05

Petrol: 4 wheelers below 3.5 tons in g/km

1991 - 14.3 - 27.1 2.00 - 2.90 - - -

1996 - 8.68 - 12.4 - - 3.00 - 4.36 -

1998 - 4.34 - 6.20 - - 1.50 - 2.18 -

2000 India 2000 2.72 - 6.90 - - 0.97 - 1.70 -

2005 Bharat Stage II 2.20 - 5.00 - - 0.50 - 0.70 -

2010 Bharat Stage III 2.30 - 5.22 0.20 - 0.29 0.15 - 0.21 - -

20102 Bharat Stage IV 1.00 - 2.27 0.10 - 0.16 0.08 - 0.11 - -

Petrol: 3-wheelers in g/km

1991 - 12.00 - 30.00 8.00 - 12.00 - - -

1996 - 6.75 - - 5.40 -

2000 - 4.00 - - 2.00 -

2005 Bharat Stage II 2.25 - - 2.00 -

2010 Bharat Stage III 1.25 - - 1.25 -

Petrol: 2-wheelers in g/km

1991 - 12.00 - 30.00 8.00 - 12.00 - - -

1996 - 4.50 - - 3.60 -

2000 - 2.00 - - 2.00 -

2005 Bharat Stage II 1.50 - - 1.50 -

2010 Bharat Stage III 1.00 - - 1.00 -

Note: 1For engines below 85 kW

2 13 selected cities only (refer Table 8)

Adapted from Dr. Mashelkar Committee (2002). Report on auto fuels; DieselNet. www.dieselnet.com/standards/in Accessed May 14, 2012


200

nataka as elsewhere in the country. Under the Central

Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Rules, 1999 the use of

so-called shrill and multi-tone horns has been banned.

But a definition of shrill does not exist and in this rule

unsurprisingly, is not enforced in a way that can be

termed systematic. In the year 2003 however 844 vehi-

cles were reportedly booked for noise pollution by the

Transport Department. Another notable source of

noise pollution are auto rickshaws with modified si-

lencers. Many owners of especially 2-stroke auto rick-

shaws share the belief that modifying silencers im-

proves engine performance or fuel efficiency. What it

certainly does is raise the noise of their 175-400 cm3

engines above the sound of four-wheelers with en-

gines thrice as large.

As cities grow, decibel levels soar given the weak en-

forcement of notified limits. Honking is exceptionally

difficult to address given that it is more of a custom

than a necessity. It would require recognition of noise

for what it is, which is akin to a cultural change. The

abolishment of non-standard horns however emerges

clearly as a feasible intervention area for curbing noise

at source. Other measures could include better man-

agement of un-signalled junctions and lane discipline

so as to provide less need for the use of horns, main-

taining greater distances between roads and buildings,

placing greater emphasis on greening of roadsides

which not only increases appeal but absorbs some

noise and ultimately the construction of noise barriers

(usually not quite feasible in urban environments) and

the replacement of ordinary windows through sound

proof ones (which obstructs ventilation). Noise requires

systematic assessment across cities and townships of

Karnataka, especially in Mysore, Mangalore, Hubli-

Dharward, Belgaum and Gulbarga.

2.6.3. Other environmental concerns

Soil best suited for constructing transport infrastructure

is also best suited for agriculture, as it is both stable and

flat. Therefore, transport infrastructure development

inevitably leads to the loss of productive soil for agricul-

ture. Not only is the soil covered by transport infra-

structure lost for other uses but also adjacent soil is

compacted and damaged by heavy machinery.

Transport infrastructure requires at least a partial clear-

ance of vegetation. This often leads to erosion of sur-

face soil as an indirect effect of construction. In some

cases, erosion may occur far from the transport infra-

structure that actually causes it, as a result of cumula-

tive impacts. Pollution of soils in close vicinity of roads

by chromium, lead and zinc may be a result of traffic.

These metals tend to remain in the soil for several hun-

dred years and cause damage to the soil micro-

organisms and vegetation. There is a need to quantify

these along with their effects for better understanding

and necessary responses.

There are three ways in which the transport sector

contributes to biodiversity loss: Direct damage, frag-

mentation and disturbance. Loss of habitat is an inevi-

table consequence of land use change for the con-

struction of infrastructure. However, by careful plan-

ning it is possible to minimise damage. If construction is

not carefully planned, especially in sensitive areas, it

can destroy or seriously damage natural eco-systems,

thus causing direct damage through loss of habitats for

sensitive plants and animals, which is the main cause of

biodiversity loss. Roads cause fragmentation of habi-

tats, preventing free movement of animals and ex-

change of genetic material. Habitat fragmentation

damages the stability and health of ecosystems and

can cause corridor restrictions resulting in man-animal

conflicts, such is frequently observed in the Western

Ghats. In other areas, the emissions and dust generat-

ed by road traffic settles on foliage. Road construction

also opens the ways for intruding species, disrupting

the ecological balance of ecosystems. Noise, lights and

run-off of undesirable compounds from roads cause

disturbances in the ecosystems and lower the repro-

duction rates of flora and fauna. Also water-based eco-

systems suffer disruptions caused by land transport

infrastructure. Erosion leads to the entry of fine earth

particles downstream, which affect fish habitats and

spawning grounds. Changes in water flow due to road

constructions have negative effects on plankton too by

upsetting food chains in the eco-system. Tree planta-

tions along roadsides can go a long way in reducing

the impact of road transport on the environment.

2.6.4. Public road transport

The benefits of mass transport are apparent from its

economics. A car would require nearly 400 litres of fuel

for commuting 10,000 people across a distance of

1 km compared to 40 litres consumed by a regular bus

for the same task. However, it is not only reliability and

pricing that influence the acceptance of public

transport. Citizens who can afford private transport

Table 10: Resources for transporting 10,000 people over 1 kilometre

Parameters Passenger

car

Public bus

Mini Regular Heavy Articulated Bi-articulated

Persons per vehicles 3 25 80 105 180 270

Vehicles needed 3,333 400 125 95 55 37

Area occupied (m2) 48,000 8,800 3,900 3,260 2,600 2,370

Fuel consumption (l) 400 120 40 38 31 34

Adapted from T.V Ramanayya (1995). Relative efficiencies of different modes; Working paper


201

look for convenience, transit points with safe car park-

ing lots and short interconnect waiting times besides,

dependable timings. This extends to well-maintained

bus shelters and pedestrian infrastructure that is safe to

walk. While several car-bus transit terminals have been

established in Bangalore and dependability and com-

fort is certainly on offer, pedestrian infrastructure and

bus interconnections continue to remain deterrents.

Door-to-door solutions would also require the availabil-

ity of transport on hire at exit points, such as auto rick-

shaws, which are willing and able to commute at noti-

fied rates.

In a recent study, Indian Institute of Management (IIM),

Bangalore assessed the demand and supply of three

corporations, namely BMTC, NWKRTC and NEKRTC.

The analysis indicates that the 2002 bus fleet of these

corporations need to be increased from 15,421 to

about 20,000 in 2009. However, even in 2011 this has

not been achieved. If more people are to use public

transport, the fleet size in Karnataka has to grow by

1,600 to 1,800 buses a year. This is in addition to re-

placement of obsolete buses which is about 7% to 8%

of the fleet.

Figure 8: Park & ride at Shanthinagar Bus Terminus

2.6.5. Urban transport planning

A substantial amount of economic growth in the state,

about 40%, is centred in and around Bangalore. It is

likely that the trend in vehicular growth will continue,

perhaps even at an accelerated pace. Rising incomes

are likely to induce people to purchase and utilise per-

sonalised transport. Statistics reveal that around 42% of

the vehicles in the state are in Bangalore. The annual

growth rate in traffic has far exceeded the annual

growth rate of the road network in the past two dec-

ades. National highways have experienced a 25% year-

on-year growth in traffic and for state highways this

number reached 35% while the road network expand-

ed on average by 3% per year. The absence of a fully

operational rapid transit system in Bangalore contrib-

uted to the high utilisation of private transport. This

trend poses a tremendous challenge for managing the

fallouts such as excessive diurnal congestion, accidents,

air pollution and noise resulting into a dramatic gen-

eral decline of the quality of urban life. While the city

has grown over the decades, the core areas of the city

have essentially stayed the same in terms of road infra-

structure. According to the Bangalore Traffic Police, the

city’s vehicle population is touching five million in

2011.

Reducing congestion levels through infrastructural

interventions entails long implementation periods,

large investment and enduring inconvenience for

commuters in the period of construction. In Bangalore,

existing bottle-necks on city roads have further wors-

ened because of the metro construction. It is obviously

desirable to reduce V/C ratios by increasing the share

of transport needs accommodated by public transport.

Traffic management could contribute to that through

the establishment of exclusive bus lanes during peak-

hours on the main arterial roads. These could provide a

favourable advantage to public transport in terms of

speed and help in its promotion. Enforcement would

however prove a tremendous challenge in absence of

which the concept would be bound to fail. Other op-

tions include an expansion of grade separation and the

pursuit of lane discipline on multi-lane thoroughfares

(slow traffic left). By virtue of nature, physical re-

strictions are easier to realise than behavioural chang-

es. Further intervention areas include synchronised

signals, the appropriate design of intersections and

pedestrian crossings and signage for road diversions

and route alternatives. Any measure that helps easing

the flow of traffic, reduces transport fuel consumption

and vehicular emissions. However, it must be kept in

clear view that better flowing traffic (lower V/C ratio)

will undoubtedly encourage more private transport. It

is further highly desirable to declare certain commercial

or otherwise sensitive zones as traffic free, encourage

walking, cycling and to promote car-pooling, a concept

that has achieved some success and visibility in Euro-

pean metropolitan cities.

These broad concepts are well known and Govern-

ment of Karnataka is actively pursuing the introduction

of proven as well as new concepts to improve the

movement of passengers and pedestrian through a

host of measures. To enhance institutional capacity

and leverage greater expertise in policy and planning,

GoK established Directorate of Urban Land Transport

(DULT under the Urban Development Department in

2007). It pursues an improvement of public transport

utility and acceptance, and the creation and improve-

ment of infrastructure for both pedestrians and cyclists.

The directorate has prepared traffic and transportation

plans for six cities and comprehensive mobility plans for

four other towns. It pioneered the concept of a rapid

bus transit systems in Karnataka which has since been

introduced in Bangalore, Mysore and Hubli-Dharwad.


202

In Bangalore, DULT is planning a bus feeder concept to

widen the reach of the metro. A Taskforce for Non-

motorized Transport monitors promotion of pedestrian

infrastructure and establishment of dedicated cycle

lanes. Feasibility studies for five cycle lanes in south

Bangalore have been forwarded to Bangalore Bruhat

Mahanagar Palike (BBMP) for implementation and two

traffic-free pedestrian-only zones have been proposed

as well. Non-motorised transport was hitherto exclud-

ed from transportation planning and policy. The im-

plementation of these plans can help creating urban

spaces for rediscoveries of qualities of life lost decades

ago. As of March 2011, Street Design Guidelines were

understood to be under preparation. They aim to es-

tablish concepts and standards for the design of junc-

tions, the width of pavements and a road hierarchy.

Besides transport planning, the directorate is building

capacities of urban local bodies (ULBs) as implement-

ing agencies. In view of the need for dedicated

transport research, GoK also established the Centre for

infrastructure, Sustainable Transport and Urban Plan-

ning (CiSTUP) hosted by Indian Institute of Science

(IISc) in 2009.

2.6.6. LPG conversion

LPG is a cleaner and hence preferable fuel option. Pet-

rol auto rickshaws registered in Bangalore from April

1991 have to be compulsorily retrofitted with bi-fuel

LPG kits. An action plan to convert these in a phased

manner is in force and GoK is offering a subsidy for the

required conversion kits. Around 90% of Bangalore’s

auto rickshaws are believed to have been converted by

March 2011 and new auto rickshaws would be denied

registration unless they are equipped with bi-fuel LPG

kits. 62 auto LPG dispensing stations are operating in

Karnataka, 47 in Bangalore and 15 in other towns.

While a 993-km CNG pipeline is being built from Maha-

rashtra to Karnataka for power generation projects, it is

uncertain whether the CNG is expected to enter the

vehicle fuel market. LPG has already made significant

inroads and a conversion from LPG to CNG would re-

quire additional modifications and entailing costs.

2.6.7. Bio-fuels

With the increase in the number of vehicles, India's

dependence on foreign oil continues to increase. There

is a need to consider and progressively integrate alter-

nate fuels. It is preferable that consumers have compet-

itive choices regarding fuel while the reduction of ve-

hicle emissions is being pursued. These choices should

include bio-fuels. Bio-fuels are based on plant products

as opposed to mineral oil. They are renewable alt-

hough not carbon-neutral as is sometimes projected

considering farming inputs, refining and transport.

Ethanol and bio-diesel are two prominent examples for

bio-fuels. Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) can be produced

through fermentation of grains, grasses, fruits and

vegetables. Fermentation converts carbohydrates of

plant origin into alcohol. The alcohol content is subse-

quently increased through distillation. For Karnataka

an opportunity lies in the fermentation of molasses, a

by-product of Karnataka’s large sugar industry. Up to a

certain portion, ethanol can be mixed with petrol and

used directly in petrol engines. For greater substitution

of petrol by ethanol, modifications of the engine are

recommended. Bio-diesel is produced from oil plants

such as sunflower, peanut, succulents such as jatropha

and legume such as pongamia, which has achieved

some prominence in Karnataka. Many successful exper-

iments have been conducted using straight vegetable

oils (SVO). However, most commonly methyl esters are

produced from vegetable oils through chemical reac-

tions. With modifications, diesel-powered cars can run

directly on unmodified vegetable oils.

India has a significant potential for producing bio-fuels

from non-edible oils. The Mashelkar Committee on au-

to fuels estimated in 2002 that at commercial scale the

cost of bio-fuel could be up to 40% cheaper than min-

eral oil products. Keeping a careful eye on possible

conflicts between agricultural energy production and

food security, Government of India has committed to

exploit the tremendous potential of bio-fuels keeping in

view the possibility of complementary agricultural earn-

ings. The National Bio-fuel Policy prepared by Ministry

of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) envisages a

20% substitution of diesel by bio-diesel in 2017.

Karnataka’s public transport sector has made advances

in the use of bio-fuels. In 2003, BMTC commenced a

pilot project in which two dedicated buses were

fuelled with 10% bio-diesel mixed to ordinary diesel.

The trial was successful and encouraged BMTC to ex-

pand the scale of operation to now 43 buses. Results

have shown a reduction of sulphur dioxide emissions

owing to the absence of sulphur in bio-diesel and less-

er carbon monoxide and particulate matter. This long-

term trial is understood to be continuing.

KSRTC has pioneered the use of straight vegetable oil

(SVO) blended with diesel. Pongamia oil began to be

used in 2003 and at present 81 buses are in operation.

A blend of 10% was arrived at by experimenting with

different ratios with the same engine. That ration pro-

vided significant emissions reductions in respect of PM,

HC and CO. It is projected by KSRTC that bio-fuel use

would progressively be introduced across its fleet. In

parallel, a blend of 7.7% ethanol with diesel is being

tested in five of the corporations’ divisions.

2.6.8. Automobile technology

Combustion technology has improved over the years

by making manufacturers adhere to stricter emission

norms. These include improvements in combustion

processes, treatment of exhaust gases with catalytic

converters and the use of cleaner fuels, with lower sul-

phur contents. However, these measures have virtually

no effect on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The use


203

of natural gas, alcohol fuels, and propane in petrol en-

gines is estimated to provide GHG reductions of 20-

30% while their use in diesel engines could increase

them slightly. Among two- and three-wheelers, two-

stroke vehicles are gradually replaced by four-stroke

ones. Two-stroke vehicles consume more fuel and

higher emissions. Four-stroke engines results in 35%

better fuel economy and reduction in hydrocarbon

emissions. GoK is providing INR 10,000 subsidy for re-

placement of two-stroke auto rickshaws with a four-

stroke ones. Raising the subsidy to INR 20,000 has

been under review as of March 2011. A catch is how-

ever that the two-stroke vehicle being replaced is not

scrapped but can – and should – be re-registered

elsewhere, proof of which is to be submitted for avail-

ing the subsidy. Bharat Stage II compliant vehicles re-

quires multi-point fuel injection. This is desirable espe-

cially for larger cylinders that require more fuel and

which stand to benefit from a better dispersion within

the combustion chamber.

Electric vehicles have found their way into the market,

led by the introduction of the Reva in 2001 and fol-

lowed by two-wheelers. Incidentally, India’s only indig-

enous electric car manufacturer is based in Bangalore.

However, electric vehicles have not yet garnered a siz-

able proportion of the market. This can be attributed to

shorter travel ranges, long periods required for refuel-

ling and lesser convenience and safety features com-

pared to their conventional siblings. It is anticipated

that the advancement of technology, especially in re-

spect of energy storage and lighter materials, could

propel electric vehicles into the fore. Currently manu-

facturers are working on advanced lead acid batteries,

lithium-ion and nickel-metal hydride batteries, which

could increase the range to over 150 km on a single

charge. Direct pollution from battery-run vehicles is

negligible. They are however not free from environ-

mental concerns. There are emissions from power

plants which generate the electricity that fuels them

besides the need to dispose of batteries that have short

life-cycles. In balance, these vehicles should be pro-

moted, possibly through concessions in road and sales

tax and as well as excise duties on batteries.

3. RAIL TRANSPORT

3.1. URBAN MASS TRANSPORT

The Bangalore metro rail commenced operation on its

first stretch of 7 km in October 2011. In totality, the

network will comprise of two routes, covering a total

distance of 33 km with 32 stations. The east-west corri-

dor will measure 18 km, the north-south corridor

15 km of which a total of 7 km will be laid under-

ground. All trains will be air-conditioned, consisting of

three coaches initially and six coaches in the future.

Initially, 166 trains will be running in each direction of

each corridor, each day.

With operation of the metro, a significant reduction in

vehicular traffic is expected, up to 30% by some esti-

mates. However, it is generally overlooked that the

expected reduction in congestion would also make

individual transport more attractive. While only the

future will tell what equilibrium will establish itself, the

possibility that the gain could be offset by new traffic

should be kept in mind. Once fully operational, the

metro will reduce the bus fleet requirement by an esti-

mated 30%.

All urban infrastructure projects on account of their

sheer size and complexity tend to be invariably accom-

panied by significant impacts on various components

of the ecosystem, both during the construction and

operation of the project. The nature of these impacts

could be either negative or positive. Therefore, a com-

prehensive environmental monitoring plan has been

prepared covering the construction and operation

phase cycle of two years of the metro rail project.

Figure 9: The launch of Namma Metro

3.2. REGIONAL TRANSPORT

Karnataka has 3,089 kilometres of rail track. For a long

time after independence, the railway network in the

state was part of the southern and western railway

zones headquartered respectively at Madras (now

Chennai) and Bombay (now Mumbai). The South

Western Railways headquartered at Hubli were created

in 2003 fulfilling a long-standing demand of the state.

Several parts of the state came under this new zone

while other parts remained under the administration of

the Southern Railways. Coastal Karnataka is covered by

the Konkan Railways, a project that is regarded as one

of the feats of Indian engineering and included the

construction of a bridge of length 2,023 metres across

the river Sharavathi at Honnavar and a tunnel of

length 2,960 metres at Karwar.

Bangalore, the capital city, is well connected to inter-

state destinations while other important cities and

townships are somewhat off inter-state tracks and

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Railway_(India)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Railway_Zone_(India)


204

schedules, a fact that was hoped could be changed

with the creation of the South Western Railways.

The limitations of Karnataka’s railway network are sev-

eral-fold. Several locations including the district capitals

of Chikkamagalur and Madikeri are not connected by

rail. A doubling of the single track between Bangalore

and Mysore, a line that receives very good patronage,

is yet to be completed. This not only limits the possibil-

ity of enhancing frequency, it also increases the risk of

accidents. Konkan Railways operating in the lands west

of the Western Ghats, has remained isolated from the

other two railway networks except for Padil, a minor

transit point near Mangalore. All in all, Karnataka’s has

16 km of railway track for every 1,000 km2

of geo-

graphical area. This is low when compared with Tamil

Nadu which has 30 km/1,000 km2.

Rail traffic accounts for short-lived but significant noise

emissions. Noise comes from the engines, the contact

between wheels and rails and whistle blowing. Fur-

thermore, when moving at high speed, aero-acoustic

noise exceeds all other sources. Another undesirable

effect are vibrations. They can cause damage to lightly

built structures near the track and cause sleep disturb-

ances in humans.

4. AIR TRAFFIC

The state carrier Indian Airlines started flying to Banga-

lore in 1953. Today Karnataka has six operating pas-

senger airports, namely Bangalore, Mangalore, Mysore,

Hubli, Belgaum and Toranagallu in Bellary district. Sev-

eral regional airports are planned to increase intra-state

connectivity. International flights however operate only

from Bangalore and Mangalore, which are also used

for domestic operations. Bangalore’s Devanahalli air-

port 35 km north of the city became operational in

2008 and is Karnataka’s largest airport and can handle

11 million passengers per year. A rail-bound high-

speed shuttle has been proposed. In 2010-11 Banga-

lore airport handled about 55,000 departures and arri-

vals, 5.6 million passengers and 109,000 tons of cargo.

Bangalore airport is a source of noise, which is notable

especially during nights when international aeroplanes

arrive and depart and other sources of sounds are

muted. One study reported noise levels of 86-102

dB(A) at the airport, which exceeds the limit permitted

for industrial areas (75 dB(A) in day time and 70 dB(A)

at night). This is not necessarily alarming however be-

cause the location of the airport has been selected,

inter alia, keeping in view the need to minimise dis-

turbances of the city. This may however spiral into a

conflict for new residential localities that have sprung

up near the airport and the attention this area receives

from real estate developers.

Table 11: Projected passengers at Bangalore airport in millions

Destination 2010-11 2014-15 2029-30

Domestic 8.9 13.6 43.3

International 2.2 3.6 12.2

Total 11.1 17.2 55.5

Adapted from Bangalore International Airport www.bengaluruairport.com accessed in 2011

5. WATER TRANSPORT

Karnataka has one major and ten minor ports. The ma-

jor port is the New Mangalore Port, an all-weather port

situated at Panambur. It handles crude oil for the only

refinery of the state. Minor ports are at Belekeri, Bhat-

kal, Hangarakatta, Honnavar, Karwar, Kundapur, Mal-

pe, Mangalore (old port), Padubidri and Tadri. Among

the minor ports, Karwar, Belikeri, Malpe and Mangalore

(old port) handle significantly more cargo albeit the

volume fluctuates unpredictably. The Karnataka Port

Policy envisages the development of at least three mi-

nor ports so as to make them more accessible. Be-

tween 2002 and 2009 the cargo handled by four se-

lected minor ports has almost doubled (refer Table 12).

Karwar port handles mainly petroleum products and

Belekeri iron ore, at least until 2011.

Port facilities seem inadequate in view of the several so-

called mega projects coming up in the state in power,

petrochemicals and steel. Further handling capacity

needs to be augmented. Both the Karwar and Belekeri

ports are not well linked to railway lines and thus place

an unduly high burden on road transport. On any typi-

cal day about 3,000 to 5,000 trucks will be visiting

these ports. The New Mangalore port has been devel-

oped into deep-waters to handle LPG, liquid cargo as

well as containers. Recent improvements made it one

of the largest LPG and iron ore handling ports of India.

The port also has a state-of-the-art cement handling

terminal. Mangalore is one of the two ports chosen to

build strategic reserves of crude oil. This is expected to

significantly increase the oil cargo handled by the port.

Ports require regular maintenance, mainly dredging to

clear siltation. The New Mangalore Port requires annu-

al dredging of 2-3 million m3/a of silt in the channel

and about 1 million m3/a in the lagoon. In the Karwar

port siltation is relatively low. Unscientific dredging can

have adverse impacts on the local eco-system in the

form of re-suspension of bottom sediments, accumula-

tion or dispersion of toxic substances, oxygen deple-

tion, reduced primary production, temperature altera-

tion, increased nutrient levels and bed load movement.

An area of concern is also marine pollution from ship-

ping vessels, especially but not only those carrying

crude oil. The Arabian Sea is a major route for oil tank-

ers to Asia and the Pacific region and seasonal tar-like

residues found on India’s west coast are suspected to

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysore


205

originate from these. Oil cargo accidents are a latent

possibility that could spell irreparable damage for the

fragile coastal ecosystem. Besides, the World Watch

Institute estimates that alien species of the order of

several thousand per day are transported in the ballast

water and spread once let out.

Table 12: Cargo trends at four minor ports (in thousand tons)

Port 2002 2009

Belekeri 1,750 1,908

Karwar 556 2,956

Mangalore (old) 182 88

Malpe 9 6

Total 2,497 4,958

Adapted from Department of Planning, Programme Monitoring and Statistics (2002 and 2009). Economic Survey of Karnataka 2001-02 and 2008-09; Department of Ports and Inland Water

Transport


Road transport

Public transport needs improvements in service

quality in order to attract commuters who are able

to afford private transport. This could be achieved

by decreasing travel time, especially in respect of

connections, reliability and convenience. Parking

facilities in proximity to peripheral stations in Ban-

galore could give a tremendous boost. Likewise,

adequate pedestrian infrastructure and accessibil-

ity of transport on hire at stops is essential for cre-

ating acceptable door-to-door solutions;

Road development and traffic management need

a long-term vision and strategic orientation. Solu-

tions have to be developed that envisage a certain

carrying capacity and how this can be maintained

through incentives, disincentives and better traffic

management;

Promotion of non-motorised transport (walking,

cycling) through establishment of adequate pedes-

trian infrastructure and dedicated cycle lanes as

being planned by Directorate of Urban Land

Transport (DULT);

Creation of vehicle free pedestrian-only zones as

being planned by Directorate of Urban Land

Transport (DULT);

Synchronisation of traffic signals along selected

urban transport corridors;

Consistent signage for route diversions and road

alternatives.

Air pollution and noise

Enforcement of the six-monthly vehicle emission

test and introduction of heavy penalties for de-

faulters;

Commercial 2-stroke vehicles and commercial ve-

hicles older than 15 years should be phased out to

reduce SPM and noise;

Systematic declaration of ‘No horn’ zones around

hospitals and schools and their strict enforcement

through penalties;

Establishment of a maximum permissible loudness

level [dB(A)] for vehicle horns, banning those ex-

ceeding this limit and conducting confiscation

drives linked to penalty for defaulters;

Devising an long-term driver awareness campaign

aiming at minimising the use of horns in non-

essential circumstances.

Fuel

Introduction of a heavier penalty for cases of fuel

adulteration;

Bio-fuels as share in petrol should be introduced in

line with the Karnataka Biofuel Policy;

Incentives should be devised or expanded to pro-

mote LPG, electric and hybrid vehicles. Stimulating

the demand for electric/hybrid cars would pro-

mote cleaner technology and make the area more

attractive for R&D.


206

207

CHAPTER 11

ENERGY

Chapter 11: Energy

208

Chapter 11: Energy

209

CONTENTS

1. BACKGROUND ................................................................................... 211

2. ENERGY SUPPLY ................................................................................. 211

2.1. AT A GLANCE ................................................................. 211

2.2. ELECTRICITY ..................................................................... 211 2.2.1. Installed capacity ................................................................. 211 2.2.2. Electricity supply .................................................................. 212

2.3. COAL ................................................................................. 213

2.4. PETROLEUM PRODUCTS .............................................. 213

3. PERSPECTIVES AND CHALLENGES ............................................... 214

3.1. ECONOMIC GROWTH .................................................. 214

3.2. ENERGY INTENSITY ........................................................ 214

3.3. DEMAND AND SUPPLY................................................. 215

3.4. ENERGY EFFICIENCY ..................................................... 216

3.5. TRANSMISSION ............................................................... 217

3.6. RENEWABLE ENERGY ................................................... 217

3.7. BIO-FUELS ........................................................................ 218

3.8. ENVIRONMENT .............................................................. 218 3.8.1. Fly ash generation .............................................................. 218 3.8.2. Greenhouse gas emissions .............................................. 219

3.9. INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY ........................................... 219

4. EMERGING INTERVENTION AREAS .............................................. 219

4.1. EXPANDING GENERATION CAPACITY ..................... 219

4.2. POWER SUPPLY QUALITY ............................................. 220

4.3. ENERGY EFFICIENCY ..................................................... 220 4.3.1. Demand side ........................................................................ 220 4.3.2. Supply side ............................................................................ 220

4.4. RENEWABLE ENERGY ................................................... 221

4.5. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ISSUES .............................. 221

Chapter 11: Energy

210

TABLES

Table 1: Energy use in Karnataka ....................................................................................................................................................... 212 Table 2: Installed generation capacity in Karnataka in 2009-10 ............................................................................................... 212 Table 3: Electricity generation of KPCL in mn kWh/a .................................................................................................................. 213 Table 4: Electricity supply in 2009-10 ................................................................................................................................................ 213 Table 5: Karnataka’s energy intensity ................................................................................................................................................ 215 Table 6: KPCL’s upcoming power projects capacity in MW ....................................................................................................... 216 Table 7: Progress of grid connected projects in the state (November 2010) ....................................................................... 218 Table 8: Fly ash generation in Karnataka in 2009-10 ................................................................................................................... 219 Table 9: CO2 emissions from energy in Karnataka ........................................................................................................................ 219 Table 10: Institutional capacity of the state .................................................................................................................................... 219 Table 11: Specific cost of power plants............................................................................................................................................. 220

FIGURES

Figure 1: Electricity generation of KPCL ........................................................................................................................................... 213 Figure 2: Installed generation capacity in Karnataka by type (November 2010) ................................................................ 213 Figure 3: Installed generation capacity in Karnataka by type (November 2010) ................................................................ 213 Figure 4: Kerosene — The major cooking fuel in rural areas ...................................................................................................... 214 Figure 5: Share of petroleum products ............................................................................................................................................. 214 Figure 6: Consumption trends of petroleum products in Karnataka ...................................................................................... 214 Figure 7: Past and projected GSDP of Karnataka .......................................................................................................................... 215 Figure 8: Tiding over power cuts — A mobile generator set in Bangalore ............................................................................ 215 Figure 9: Karnataka’s energy intensity in 2009-10 ........................................................................................................................ 216 Figure 10: Electricity demand projection in bn kWh/a ............................................................................................................... 216 Figure 11: Green energy — A solar water heating system in Bangalore .............................................................................. 218 Figure 12: Tapping renewable energy — Solar streetlights in Bangalore ............................................................................. 221

Chapter 11: Energy

211

1. BACKGROUND

Energy is a pre-requisite for economic growth. Access

to energy multiplies the ability of an economy to scale

up development. The growth of the modern industrial

age was fuelled by abundant supplies of energy from

fossil sources. Today however, the energy sector is in a

process of transformation. On one hand there is a

steadily rising demand, led especially by developing

economies. This trend is well reflected in Karnataka’s

growing demand. On the other hand the impact of

energy consumption on the environment and particu-

larly on the climate is well known. Conscious efforts are

being made to conserve energy. In Karnataka, energy

conservation is still at an infancy stage even though

the supply deficit is adding to the opportunity therein.

The situation is compounded by the fact that renewa-

ble energy, which offers clean and dependable alterna-

tives, is nowhere near large-scale deployment although

significant inroads have been made with smaller pro-

jects. For Karnataka energy is a challenge, a fact that is

unlikely to change in the near future.

Karnataka’s Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) is

growing at a Compounded Annual Growth Rate

(CAGR) of 7.0%. The last decade has seen brisk growth

in the services sector while overall growth was moder-

ate because of a near stagnancy of the agriculture sec-

tor. With Bangalore as information technology hub of

India, the contribution of services in the GSDP has risen

to over 57% while the absolute growth has been 8.4%

per annum. Equally impressive is the growth in manu-

facturing sector, which has recorded an absolute

growth of 9.5% per annum while its relative share in

the economy has increased from roughly 21% to

28.3% over the last decade.

The structure of GSDP has significant implications for

energy demand. Services-led growth leads to a lower

energy intensity as compared to a manufacturing sec-

tor-led growth. Changes in the structure of the econ-

omy also determine the energy demand trajectory.

Karnataka’s GSDP structure is changing with services

and manufacturing increasing while agriculture, in

relative terms, is decreasing. This is leading to a growth

scenario with lower energy intensities, although the

absolute demand for energy in Karnataka will continue

to rise.

2. ENERGY SUPPLY

2.1. AT A GLANCE

Karnataka has an installed power generation capacity

of 9,702 MW as of November 2010, not including cen-

tral government power plants. Thermal power consti-

tutes 30% of the installed capacity while hydropower

with 44% occupies presently the largest share. Wind

power reached a significant 17% and ranks fourth in

India. In 2009-10 a total of 42.6 billion (bn) kWh of

electricity was supplied, 26 bn kWh of which by Karna-

taka Power Corporation Limited (KPCL). Hydropower

generated more than 12 bn kWh, accounting for 29%

of the total electricity supply and for 47% of KPCL’s

output.

Coal constitutes 52% of Karnataka’s commercial prima-

ry energy and petroleum accounts for 38%. Among

petroleum products, diesel constitutes 47% of the de-

mand by energy content, LPG 13% and petrol 12%.

Biomass consumption is higher than all other forms of

energy taken together. Areas that require improve-

ment include expansion of generation capacity with

emphasis on renewables and low-carbon gas as inter-

im solution besides improving energy efficiency.

2.2. ELECTRICITY

2.2.1. Installed capacity

Excluding central government power plants, the in-

stalled power generation capacity of the state is 9,702

MW as of November 2010. This capacity consists of

5,976 MW (62%) owned by Karnataka Power Corpora-

tion Limited (KPCL) including plants operated formerly

by Visvesvaraya Vidyuth Nigam Limited (VVNL). An-

ENERGY AT A GLANCE

Power generation capacity Power generation

Total in 2009-10 9,702 MW Total in 2009-10 42,575 mn kWh/a

Coal 30% From KPCL 26,020 mn kWh/a

Hydro 44% From private 5,546 mn kWh/a

Wind 17% From central grid 10,974 mn kWh/a

CO2 emissions From other states 35 mn kWh/a

Total (multiple years) 58.8 mn t/a

Power generation 28.8 mn t/a

Transport fuel 8.4 mn t/a

Cooking fuels 3.6 mn t/a

Industry 18.1 mn t/a

Chapter 11: Energy

212

other 3,726 MW (38%) are owned by the private sector

(refer Table 2). In addition, the central government

operates the nuclear power plant at Kaiga whose in-

stalled capacity was enhanced to 880 MW in January

2011 by commissioning its fourth 220 MW reactor.

As of 2010, hydropower accounts for a very significant

44% in installed capacity, well exceeding the 30% of

thermal power plants. Wind energy constitutes a very

significant 17% of installed capacity and its rise from 97

MW in 2003 to 1,639 MW in 2010 is remarkable. Kar-

nataka holds the forth position in installed wind power

after Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Gujarat. However

its share in terms of power generation is far from being

as significant. Typical wind speeds allow operation only

at a fraction of rated capacities, resulting in a low load

factor.

Gas-based power generation in Karnataka is still ab-

sent. The situation can be expected to improve as a

natural gas pipeline is presently being built from Maha-

rashtra and the establishment of two power plants is

under preparation (refer section 3.3). A 220 MW barge-

mounted gas power plant is said to have been com-

missioned in 2001 by GMR Energy Limited off Manga-

lore coast and operated with naphtha until 2010 when

the company chose to relocate the plant to Kakinada in

Andhra Pradesh.

2.2.2. Electricity supply

42.6 bn kWh of electricity was supplied in Karnataka in

2009-10. The state-run KPCL generated 61% of it while

allocations from central generation capacities contrib-

uted 26%. The significance of private power genera-

tion, though accounting only for 13%, is vital consider-

ing that the overall supply fell still 13.2% short of peak

demand. Short term demand is expected to grow at

5.4%.

Table 1: Energy use in Karnataka

Fuel type Consumption Energy content

(GJ) % Excl. biomass

% Incl. biomass

Co

al

Coal (electricity) 11,742,073 Mt/a 206,341,097 22.50% 11.80%

Coal (non-electricity) 15,281,704 Mt/a 268,542,336 29.30% 15.30%

Total 474,883,434 51.70% 27.10%

Petr

ole

um

/cru

de

pro

cessin

g

Motor gasoline 859,700 Mt/a 38,513,700 4.20% 2.20%

Diesel 3,438,420 Mt/a 148,997,054 16.20% 8.50%

Kerosene 468,110 Mt/a 20,480,749 2.20% 1.20%

Naphtha 209,120 Mt/a 9,412,073 1.00% 0.50%

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) 885,020 Mt/a 41,871,181 4.60% 2.40%

Light diesel oil (LDO) 13,412 Mt/a 581,198 0.10% 0.00%

Furnace oil (FO) /Low Sulphur Heavy Stock 734,720 Mt/a 29,530,586 3.20% 1.70%

Bitumen 301,693 Mt/a 12,125,931 1.30% 0.70%

Lubes 49,421 Mt/a 1,986,375 0.20% 0.10%

Aviation turbine fuel (ATF) 364,000 Mt/a 16,306,837 1.80% 0.90%

Crude processing loss - 34,177,500 3.70% 2.00%

Total 353,983,184 38.60% 20.20%

Electricity other than coal thermal 24,781 mn kWh 89,212,176 9.70% 5.10%

Biomass 833,341 mn MJ 833,341,401 - 47.60%

Total excluding biomass 918,078,794 100% 52.40%

Total including biomass 1,751,420,195 100%

Adapted from 1)Correspondence with Karnataka State Office, Indian Oil Corporation Limited; 2)Karnataka Power Corporation Ltd; 3) Ramachandra T.V. et al (2007). Bio-energy potential mapping in Karnataka; Journal of Energy & Environment, Vol. 6, May 2007

Table 2: Installed generation capacity in Karnataka in 2009-10

Hydro Thermal Wind Co-generation and biomass Diesel Solar Total in MW

State-owned (KPCL) 3,637 2,220 5 0 108 6 5,976

Privately owned 609 709 1,634 774 0 0 3,726

Total in MW 4,246 2,929 1,639 774 108 6 9,702

Note: Excluding central generating capacity Adapted from Department of Planning, Programme Monitoring and Statistics (2011). Economic Survey of Karnataka 2010-11

Chapter 11: Energy

213

2.3. COAL

India’s power, steel and cement industry consume over

80% of the country’s coal. While Karnataka has a signif-

icant share of non-coal power generation, 42% of the

state’s coal consumption was attributable to power

generation in 2009-10. The state is further the third

largest producer of steel and seventh largest producer

of cement in India. Karnataka’s steel production of 10.7

million (mn) Mt in 2009-10 used an estimated 7.49 mn

Mt or 28% of the state’s coal. The cement industry ac-

counts for 8.21% of the state’s coal consumption.

Power generation of KPCL has virtually remained stag-

nant with a variation of just 2% within last four years.

Hydropower generation actually declined by 18% be-

tween 2007 and 2009. Reasons are to be seen in varia-

tions in rainfall, not a decline in generating capacity.

Table 3: Electricity generation of KPCL in mn kWh/a

Generation 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

Thermal 8,954 10,292 11,393 10,730 9,165 11,484 10,876 11,717 13,263

Hydro, Wind & Others

9,254 6,835 7,033 8,260 10,724 15,151 14,737 13,363 12,757

Total 18,222 17,127 18,426 18,990 19,889 26,635 25,613 25,080 26,020

Adapted from 1) Karnataka Power Corporation Limited. Generation Performance, updated in 2010 2) EMPRI. Manual for estimation of greenhouse gas removals and emission reduction In Beri Project.

Figure 3: Installed generation capacity in Karnataka by type

(November 2010)

Figure 2: Installed generation capacity in Karnataka by type

(November 2010)

Figure 1: Electricity generation of KPCL

In k

Wh/a

Table 4: Electricity supply in 2009-10

Source Type Units in mn kWh/a Share

KPCL

Hydro 12,249

26, 020 47.10%

Thermal 13,263

Diesel 492

Wind 13

Solar 3

Private 5,546 13.00%

Central 10,974 25.80%

Other states 35 0.10%

Total in mn kWh/a 42,575 100%

Adapted from Department of Planning, Programme Monitoring and Statistics (2011). Economic Survey of Karnataka 2010-11

In k

Wh/a

Chapter 11: Energy

214

Hydropower generated more than 12 bn kWh in 2009-

10, accounting for 47% of KPCL’s output and 29% of

the total electricity supply.

2.4. PETROLEUM PRODUCTS

Petroleum accounts for 38% of primary energy con-

sumption in Karnataka and grew at a compounded

annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.8% over the last seven

years. Among petroleum products, diesel constitutes

47% of the demand by energy content, LPG 13% and

petrol 12%. Industries are the major consumers of

naphtha, furnace oil (FO) and bitumen. Figure 5 shows

the portions of all petroleum products in terms of en-

ergy content while Table 1 provides a break-up of

quantities. Figure 6 shows the trend of fossil fuel con-

sumption for last 7 years.

3. PERSPECTIVES AND CHALLENGES

3.1. ECONOMIC GROWTH

The massive rise in energy demand from the develop-

ing world has sent prices of energy northwards in the

global energy market. From petroleum to coal, supply

chains are working close to their capacity to meet in-

creasing demand from developing markets. Securing

sufficient energy for its growth is a prime concern to-

day. Energy demand grows in tandem with the Gross

State Domestic Product (GSDP). Energy is closely linked

to the growth rate, albeit this linkage is less pro-

nounced in the growing services segment than in

manufacturing. Generation capacity is already inade-

quate and ensuring energy security to support further

growth poses considerable challenges.

Karnataka’s Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) in

2009-10 was estimated to be INR 1,898 bn. The GSDP

is growing at a compounded annual growth rate

(CAGR) of 7.0%. Figure 9 projects the growth of Karna-

taka’s economy for the next five years based on sec-

toral CAGRs. The ongoing change in the structure of

Karnataka’s economy is becoming more evident in pro-

jections. Agriculture is more or less stagnating while

services and manufacturing are growing, leading effec-

tively to a decline of the relative size of agriculture in

the state’s economy.

3.2. ENERGY INTENSITY

Presently Karnataka’s economy accounts for a demand

of 521 tons of oil equivalent (tOE) per mn USD (tOE/mn

Figure 6: Consumption trends of petroleum products in Karnataka

Figure 5: Share of petroleum products

Figure 4: Kerosene — The major cooking fuel in rural areas

Chapter 11: Energy

215

USD) of GSDP. The expectation of continued growth

has a direct bearing on Karnataka’s future energy re-

quirement, which will rise as well. This rise in demand

however will not be linear as the requirement for en-

ergy in each sector (or sectoral energy intensity) differs.

As shown in Table 5, the fast growing services sector

has the lowest energy intensity (319 tOE/mn USD). Ag-

riculture has an energy intensity of 540 tOE/mn USD

while that of manufacturing is 918 tOE/mn USD. While

the absolute demand for energy in the state will keep

increasing, the growth will be moderated by the faster

growth of services and the stagnation of agriculture.

The manufacturing sector will be the strongest driver

of energy demand.

Energy intensity in Karnataka is higher when com-

pared to advanced economies. This indicates that there

is significant scope for enhancing energy efficiency in

end-uses. However, the state average 521 tOE/mn USD

is lower than the national average of 616 tOE/mn USD

in 2006. Compared to the 1990 estimate of 697, total

energy intensity has come down by a considerable

25%. This indicates that energy end use efficiency has

significantly increased over the last two decades. By

comparison, the national value for energy intensity has

improved only by 14.4% from 1990 to 2006, making

Karnataka’s trend stand out as an achievement. This

trend is likely a result of the rapid expansion of the ser-

vices sector and Bangalore’s rapid emergence as IT and

business process outsourcing (BPO) hub.

3.3. DEMAND AND SUPPLY

Karnataka’s power deficit is 13.2% of the peak load

demand. However, estimates of the energy deficit vary

due to the fact that unmet demand tends to migrate to

alternatives such as diesel generators or is simply sup-

pressed. This results in loss of economic productivity. It

is estimated that each unit of unserved electricity to

industrial customers in Karnataka results in an econom-

ic loss of INR 6.25. Alternatively, the energy intensity of

Karnataka’s GSDP suggests that an economic value of

INR 7.47 is produced for every kWh of energy supplied.

The average energy deficit for the last 6 years stands at

3.4 bn kWh, translating into an economic loss of

INR 21 bn to the state economy. According to Central

Electricity Authority (CEA), electricity demand in Karna-

taka will grow by 56% in the next six years and reach

80 bn kWh per annum in 2016-17. Assuming, for con-

venience linear continuity of the projected growth,

2021 demand could reach 107 bn kWh/a, nearly 2.5

times of today’s demand.

Table 5: Karnataka’s energy intensity

Sector tOE/mn USD tOE/crore in INR

1990 2009-10 2009-10

Agriculture - 540 119.9

Manufacturing - 918.1 204

Services - 318.9 70.8

Total as weighted average

697 521.1 115.7

*Inter-banking Exchange rate INR 45 /USD as on March 31, 2010

Adapted from Ramchandra T.V., O.K. Subramaniam (1990). Energy requirements

and conservation potential in industrial sector in Karnataka

Figure 8: Tiding over power cuts — A mobile generator set in Bangalore

Figure 7: Past and projected GSDP of Karnataka

Chapter 11: Energy

216

KPCL has capacity additions of 7,814 MW in Karnataka

on the anvil, 39% of which are under construction.

Commissioning these would increase generation ca-

pacity to 151%. This number would reach 231% once

projects under preparation are also completed (refer to

Table 6). Additional plant capacities are estimated to

generate around 61 bn kWh per annum as compared

to 26 bn kWh/a generated in 2009-10. This would take

electricity generation of KPCL to 87 bn kWh/a while

the demand projected for 2016-17 is 80 bn kWh/a.

Upcoming additions are significant in terms of capacity.

They are also indicative of a historical shift with 3,000

MW, thermal power ranks only second. And not se-

cond to hydro, as one could expect but to gas. For the

first time KPCL is taking up gas-based power genera-

tion, enabled by the 993-CNG pipeline constructed by

Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) from Maharash-

tra to Karnataka. Commencement of the pipeline is

expected from 2014. Two gas-based power plants will

add 3,500 MW or 45% in upcoming power projects

(refer Table 6). For the 2,100 MW plant at Tadadi a pre-

feasibility report has already been completed, land has

been allotted and statutory clearances are being ob-

tained. A draft gas purchase agreement for the 1,400

MW Bidadi plant is understood to be under review. The

fact that gas-based power generation accounts for the

greatest share in upcoming power generation capacity

is a welcome mid-term solution. It permits rapid capaci-

ty expansion at lower CO2 emissions while the gradual

scaling up of renewables is being promoted.

3.4. ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Reducing demand by improving energy efficiency is an

acknowledged thrust area. Much is said and known

about it, yet little done as yet. Till date the magnitude

of Karnataka’s energy end-use efficiency potential is

estimated to be greater than present supply deficits.

Besides promoting renewables, Karnataka Renewable

Energy Development Limited (KREDL) is also the nodal

agency for energy conservation in the state. The Re-

newable Energy Policy 2009-14 has stipulated targets

for energy efficiency as well, which includes:

Saving 7,900 mn kWh of electricity per annum,

equivalent to an avoided generation capacity of

900 MW;

Making mandatory energy audits for industrial and

commercial installations above 500 kVA.

In March 2011, Karnataka introduced the ‘Belaku'

scheme under which power utilities will provide up to

four CFLs per household at INR 15 per lamp in ex-

change for incandescent bulbs of 40, 60 or 100 W. A

single selected merchant supplies the CFLs. Bangalore

Electricity Supply Company (BESCOM) has so far dis-

tributed 37 lakh CFLs for 10.6 lakh households in Kolar

and Bangalore Rural. Work is under progress in the

remaining ESCOM’s. Anticipated energy saving of the

scheme is estimated to be 3,000 mn kWh, nearly 38%

of the savings targeted in the Karnataka Renewable

Energy Policy 2009-14. This is hoped to reduce energy

imports, saving the state INR 940 annually. The scheme

makes economic sense as it quickly sets off the genera-

tion capacity that Karnataka is unable to build in the

near future. However, there are concerns related to the

Figure 10: Electricity demand projection in bn kWh/a

Table 6: KPCL’s upcoming power projects capacity in MW

Power generation projects

Present capacity

Under con-struction

Planned

Gas Tadadi Combined

Cycle Power Plant 2,100

Bidadi Combined Cycle Power Plant

1,400

Th

erm

al

Bellary Thermal Power Station: 2 + 3

600

Yeramarus Thermal Power Station

1,600

Edlapur Thermal Power Station

800

Hyd

ro

Nagjhari Power-House: Upgradation

30

Gundia Hydel Scheme

400

Shivanasamudra seasonal scheme

345

Ghataprabha project 20

Munirabad Hydel Power Station

10

Win

d

Wind energy projects 500

So

lar

Solar power plants: 3 9

Total in MW 5,976 3,039 4,775


Figure 9: Karnataka’s energy intensity in 2009-10

Chapter 11: Energy

217

fact that adequate disposal and recovery mechanisms

for CFLs which contain mercury have not been con-

ceived yet. This exacerbates an already existing prob-

lem of inadequate tube light recycling. Another anxiety

is that the subsidy scheme would create a vast demand

for the low-cost CFL whose quality and lifetime could

be inferior to branded products. Other and perhaps

more reliable products could thus be driven out of the

market while the reputation of CFLs as a whole may

decline. If subsidised CFLs begin to fail at scale, it is like-

ly that they would be replaced with low cost incandes-

cent bulbs rather than unsubsidised and now seeming-

ly expensive CFLs.

3.5. TRANSMISSION

There are typically wide distances between power

generation and the centres of consumption. The pic-

ture in Karnataka is no different. Transmission of elec-

tricity incurs substantial losses, depending on the state

of equipment installed. On average, transmission and

distribution losses (T&D losses) in India are 33%. Japan

and Germany achieve T&D losses as low as 4%. The last

reported figure for Karnataka was 23% and the state

aims to bring it down to 15% by 2013. Planned

measures would increase supply side efficiency by 10%

which would be an important step in mitigating the

power deficit in the state. Karnataka’s recent perfor-

mance on decreasing T&D losses has been encourag-

ing and it received praise from the centre on this ac-

count.

Government of Karnataka is implementing the central

government’s Restructured Accelerated Power Devel-

opment Programme, aiming to reduce aggregate

technical and commercial losses (AT&C losses) to 15%

over a period of 5 years. The programme seeks to re-

duce commercial losses by assisting electricity supply

companies (ESCOMs) in improving customer relation-

ship management, billing efficiency and institutionalise

the use of tools such as GIS mapping. To reduce tech-

nical losses, the programme supports renovation,

modernisation and strengthening of distribution. This

programme is implemented across all five ESCOMs in

Karnataka.

3.6. RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energy resources form another part of the

solution to address power demand, here through

clean technology offering long-term sustainability.

Apart from hydro sources, Karnataka has good poten-

tial for wind energy while solar energy forms the next

option. Under the Department of Energy, KREDL has

been established as specialised agency for administra-

tion and promotion of renewable energy in the state.

The development of renewable energy in the state is

enshrined in the Karnataka Renewable Energy Policy

2009-14. It aims at increasing the share of renewable

energy from 4,600 mn kWh in 2009 to 12,800 by

2014 mn kWh through a capacity addition of 6,600

MW of renewables. The policy also puts forward a solar

rooftop programme and a Green Energy Fund created

through a cess. Karnataka’s renewable energy poten-

tial was assessed as 10,000 MW for solar energy and

18,500 MW for other forms of renewable energy. The

present installed capacity of 2,987 MW is about 10% of

the potential.

With 1,608 MW of installed wind capacity, Karnataka

ranks fourth in India. With institutional support of

KREDL, Karnataka realised 12% of its wind potential.

However, only 5 MW or 0.3% of installed wind capacity

is owned by KPCL, the great majority being privately

owned. As Table 6 in section 3.3 shows, KPCL is now in

the process of adding 500 MW of wind capacity. In

absolute terms this number may not seem outstanding

but for KPCL it is a capacity addition by factor 100 in

respect of wind power. For the first time it is also a clear

indicator that the state is planning to invest massively

into wind power.

Highlights of the Karnataka Renewable Energy Policy 2009-14

Increase renewable energy power generation from 2,400 MW to about 6,600 MW by 2014 (nearly tripling generation within 5 years). This implies increasing the share of renewable energy in the electricity mix from 11.5% to 20% by 2014.

Saving 7,900 mn kWh of energy (equivalent to 900 MW of generation capacity) over the five-year period through effective measures of energy conservation and energy efficiency.

Creation of a Green Energy Fund through a cess of INR 0.05 per kWh for commercial and industrial consumers to generate about INR 55 crore annually.

How wind turbines work

Besides hydropower, wind turbines are the most mature technology compared to other renewable energy tech-nologies. In 2010 the national wind power capacity reached an impressive 13,065 MW which puts India at the fifth position in the world. The wind energy sector in India has shown a compounded annual growth rate of 50% during the last ten years, which makes it the fastest growing energy technology.

The technology itself is simple. A wind turbine consists of a usually tubular mast with a nacelle containing the generator driven by a large fiberglass rotor of usually three blades. The mast is high so as to position the rotor in greater wind speeds than those near the ground. Wind speed is crucial as power and energy output are proportional to its cubic power (P ~ v

3). And it is the out-

put that decides on the return on investment. The con-trol equipment is of great sophistication. It ensures con-tinuous adjustment of the nacelle orientation, rotor an-gel and synchronization of the generator with the grid being fed. Maintenance is chiefly limited to the mechani-cal components.

Chapter 11: Energy

218

Karnataka has notified a separate Solar Energy Policy

2011-16 in addition to Renewable Energy Policy in

2009. Solar Energy Policy in 2011 was introduced to

enable ESCOMs to fulfil their obligation of supplying

0.25% of energy from solar sources, fostering the instal-

lation of 200 MW of solar generating capacity. Accord-

ing to the notification, photovoltaic plants with capaci-

ty between 3 and 10 MW and thermal solar plants with

capacity of minimum 5MW will need to be installed. In

light of the policy KREDL is understood to have already

floated tenders for setting up 80 MW solar projects for

the year 2011-12.

Karnataka has also been proactive in implementing the

Ministry of New and Renewable Energy’s programme

for electrifying remote villages by 2012. Till date 18

villages and 44 hamlets have been provided with solar

photovoltaic systems. The government has also submit-

ted the proposal for electrifying another 21 hamlets for

electrification. Karnataka is also among the first states

to establish renewable energy purchase obligations

(RPO) for ESCOMs, captive power producers and large

open access users. The government had set an RPO of

7-10% for the period of 2009-10 and 2010-11.

In the context of the implementation of the Energy

Conservation Act, 2001, Government of Karnataka also

notified the mandatory use of solar water heaters in

2007. In the limits of municipal corporations, the notifi-

cation covers new hospitals, hotels, canteens, housing

complexes and residential buildings with a built-up

area of at least 600 ft2 on sites measuring 1,200 ft

2.

Rules and timeframes for existing buildings have also

been set. ESCOMs enforce the notification by making

solar hot water systems prerequisite for electricity con-

nections. BESCOM has gone a step further by provid-

ing a rebate of INR 0.5/kWh on connections with a

solar water heating system installed. The increased

deployment of solar water heaters is said to have

helped in reducing peak load demand.

3.7. BIO-FUELS

Government of Karnataka intends to achieve 10% of

blending of bio-fuel with petrol by 2017. However the

actual performance of various programmes to expand

bio-fuel use in state has been lagging behind targets.

Only 14 lakh of the targeted 23 lakh bio-fuel saplings

were planted in the state so far. A Bio-Fuel Task Force

has been set up to create a vision and increase coordi-

nation among the departments concerned, namely

agriculture, forest, and watershed and the district ad-

ministration to further bio-fuel plantation. As a result of

the policy, Karnataka State Biofuel Development Board

was established to facilitate bio-fuel promotion, fix min-

imum support prices for bio-fuel and utilize carbon

credits for bio-fuel projects.

3.8. ENVIRONMENT

3.8.1. Fly ash generation

Burning of coal generates large quantities of fly ash.

Improper disposal of fly ash leads to contamination of

drinking water, health hazards for humans and animals

that come in direct contact with the ash and it also

deposits on the surface of surroundings. In particular its

deposition on the surface of vegetation can be a health

hazard to cattle and other fauna that consume plants.

Therefore the mandatory use of fly ash in construction

materials such as bricks and tiles has been notified.

Power plant operators are required to provide fly ash

free of charge to users (cement, brick manufacturers)

as per central government directives. According to

Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB), the fly

ash generation of seven major plants monitored is

9,866 metric tons per day. Six of these plants disposed

fly ash in line with stipulated practices. Raichur Thermal

Power Plant’s utilisation however reached only 84%,

leaving a quantity of 856 Mt/d without adequate dis-

posal.

Table 7: Progress of grid connected projects in the state (November 2010)

Sector Potential

Projects allotted by government

Commis-sioned

No. MW No. MW

Wind 13,236 485 9,531 681 1,608*

Small hydro

3,000 458 2,655 71 617

Co-generation

1,500 59 16,923 31 669

Biomass 950 66 471 12 87

Solar 10,000 21 129 2 6

Total 28,686 1,089 13,909 797 2,986

*KREDL indicated the installed wind capacity to be 1,608 MW, contrary to the 1,639 MW reported by the Economic Survey of Karnataka 2010-11

Adapted from Karnataka Renewable Energy Development

Limited, http://kredl.kar.nic.in/ ProgressReport.htm, accessed

Dec 7, 2011

Figure 11: Green energy — A solar water heating system in Bangalore

Chapter 11: Energy

219

3.8.2. Greenhouse gas emissions

Greenhouse gas emissions in Karnataka are estimated

be 80.2 mn tons of CO2 equivalent, including agricul-

ture. Of these, CO2 emissions attributable to energy

account for about 59 million t/a (refer Table 9).

3.9. INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY

Adequate action on energy efficiency, renewable en-

ergy development, energy access and related energy

issues can be taken only if technology, finance, mana-

gerial know-how and administrative support are avail-

able. Major agencies in the state, as detailed in Table

10, are found to have broadly the requisite capacities.

However, human resource development is an im-

portant area in which further investment is needed.

KREDL is in the process of expanding its abilities in en-

ergy audit, an effort that may require further support

from both the state and the private sector. Also the

coordination between institutions need to be

strengthened to align complementary resources avail-

able.


4.1. EXPANDING GENERATION CAPACITY

Though energy efficiency and renewables have the

potential to make significant contributions, a rapid ex-

pansion of conventional generating capacity is essen-

tial for energy security. The persistent supply deficit

accounts not only for economic but also environmental

losses. Load shedding has led to the emergence of

secondary energy infrastructure such DG sets and UPSs

which increase the burden on the environment

through air pollution, high noise levels and disposal of

large quantities of lead acid batteries. The state’s inabil-

ity to ensure energy security results in significant pri-

vate investments in secondary power infrastructure.

Ironically, the use of UPSs to tide over intermittent sup-

ply actually increases electricity demand as the efficien-

cy of battery storage is only about 50% at best.

Gas-based power generation would serve mid-term

expansion best. Among fossil fuels, gas is the cleanest

with the lowest CO2 emissions per unit of electricity

generated. Unlike coal, it generates no fly ash and, un-

like hydropower, can be expanded at scale. Unlike nu-

clear energy, it does not require decades for commis-

sioning or leave radioactive waste for future genera-

tions to deal with. These and the advantage that the

capital cost of gas power plants is far below that of coal

Table 8: Fly ash generation in Karnataka in 2009-10

Source of fly ash

Fly ash generation

Mt/d Utilisation

Raichur Thermal Power Station, Raichur

5,352 84%

Supplied to ce-ment plants, fly ash blocks and soil conditioning

Bellary Thermal Power Plant, Bellary

1,680 100% Sent to Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu

Vasavadatta Cements, Gulb-arga

340 100% Cement making

Rajashree Ce-ments, Gulbarga

1,000 100% Cement making

ACC Ltd, Gulb-arga

510 100% Cement making

Grasim Indus-tries, Haveri

660 100%

Manufacturing bricks and soil conditioning by local farmers

Jindal Thermal Power Company, Bellary

324 100% Manufacturing of bricks and cement

Total 9,866

Adapted from Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (2010). Annual Report 2009-10

Table 9: CO2 emissions from energy in Karnataka

Energy CO2 in mn t/a

Electricity generation 2009-10 28.76

Transport fuel 2007-08 8.35

Cooking fuels (firewood, LPG, kerosene) 3.57

Cement industry 7.64

Iron & steel industry 8.59

Other industries (sugar, pulp & paper, iron ore, aluminium, ammonia)

1.86

Total 58.77

Adapted from Bangalore Climate Change Initiative - Karnataka (2011). Karnataka Climate Change Action Plan; Final Report

Table 10: Institutional capacity of the state

Administration,

planning Know-how Implementation

Social development,

awareness

Karnataka Renewable Energy Development Ltd. (KREDL) Available Available

Available

Department of Energy Available

Karnataka Power Corporation Limited (KPCL)

Available Available

Department of Rural Development & Panchayat Raj

Available Available

Public Works Department (PWD) Available

Available

Chapter 11: Energy

220

(refer Table 11) make gas nearly ideal as interim solu-

tion to achieve energy security until such time that re-

newables have been expanded to scale. It is encourag-

ing that that 45% of upcoming capacity additions by

the state are gas-based (refer Table 6).

4.2. POWER SUPPLY QUALITY

Expanding generating capacity would also help im-

proving the quality of power supply. Because of capaci-

ty shortages, utilities tend to undersupply a particular

area in terms of MW, rather than shedding load of

more consumers off the grid. Connecting more de-

mand than can be met leads to a drop of voltage lev-

els, as is commonly seen in dimmer lights. Energy effi-

cient appliances do not work efficiently with wide volt-

age fluctuations. The advantages of an energy saving

appliance may therefore not translate into actual sav-

ings. For several appliances voltage stabilisers are rec-

ommended to prevent damage and ensure function-

ing at lower voltage levels. Stabilisers are ‘selfish’ devic-

es. By adding to the connected load, they lower the

supply grid voltage even further and make the need

for stabilisers for other consumers more likely. Like

UPSs, while benefiting the device connected, stabilisers

effectively raise overall energy consumption and thus

widen the demand-supply gap.

Addressing this concern in rural Karnataka, GoK has

taken up the Nirantara Jyothi Scheme to provide 24

hours of quality power supply to rural households and

fixed hours of power supply to irrigation pumpsets. The

scheme is implemented in 126 phase covers 70 taluks

and second phase 56 taluks taluks in two phases at a

cost of INR 2,213 crore. The first phase covers 70 taluks

and second phase 56 taluks.

4.3. ENERGY EFFICIENCY

4.3.1. Demand side

Most prominent among energy efficiency measures are

so-called first generation measures. They are well

known, easy to implement and the technology is readi-

ly available. Examples are variable frequency power

drives, improved chillers and boilers, heat recovery be-

sides CFLs and LED lights. Policy has mostly been re-

stricted to these measures, which are generic across

sectors and easier to quantify and administer. The Kar-

nataka Renewable Energy Policy 2009-14 has set the

ambitious target of a 25% of reduction of consumption

through energy efficiency in all sectors. In Karnataka,

energy audits have not been conducted at larger scale

yet. The institutional and technical capacities are yet to

be built or expanded.

The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) is facilitating a

national programme, aiming to make the adoption of

efficiency measures mandatory under the ‘Perform

Achieve and Trade’ (PAT) component of the National

Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency. This is imped-

ed by a lack of data on energy use which hampers the

assessment of baselines and, consequently, the setting

of realistic targets. Implementation of this programme

in Karnataka has not yet started.

Second generation measures are more specific to in-

dustry sectors and hence difficult to administer

through policy. They require sectoral benchmarking.

Waste minimisation, inventory optimisation, automa-

tion of processes etc. are measures known for achiev-

ing operational excellence but are not widely adopted

in the industry. The large difference of energy intensity

values of Karnataka with those of advanced nations

suggests that there is massive underutilization of well-

known practices in India. Second generation measures

require higher level of institutional capacity which is

not available in Karnataka. Given that not even the

potential of first generation energy efficiency measures

is utilised, second generation measures need not be in

the policy focus in the near future.

The Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) was

finalised in 2007 to define norms and standards for the

energy consumption of buildings. Ministry of Power

has launched the code for voluntary adoption in the

same year. Since then BEE has been promoting the

instrument, primarily through capacity building. ECBC

is an excellent instrument for introducing proven low-

energy concepts into building design. It includes the

benchmarking system Green Rating for Integrated

Habitat Assessment (GRIHA). Substantial inroads were

not made in Karnataka with ECBC as it is yet to be noti-

fied.

4.3.2. Supply side

Higher transmission voltages and advanced conduc-

tors help reducing transmission losses. The state has

already decided to act on the issue but past experience

has shown frequent slippages in transmission and dis-

tribution (T&D) reduction achievements. More than a

decade ago India launched the Accelerated Power

Development and Reform Programme for improve-

ments in distribution with a project outlay of

INR 40,000 crore. The lack of follow-up led some critics

to consider the programme a failure. In 2009, Karna-

Table 11: Specific cost of power plants

Technology Capital cost in crore INR/MW

Gas 2.

Thermal (sub-critical) 4.5

Thermal (super-critical)

4.7

Nuclear 7

Wind 9

Solar 14

Adapted from Bangalore Climate Change Initiative - Karnataka (2011). Karnataka Climate Change Action Plan; Final Report

Chapter 11: Energy

221

taka ESCOMs were struggling to bring T&D losses with-

in the limit prescribed by Karnataka Electricity Regula-

tory Commission (KERC). Considering the possibilities of

failures, mechanisms to improve follow-up and ac-

countability should be set up to achieve and maintain

targets.

Through ESCOMs suffer from T&D losses, many do not

succeed plugging leaks. Outdated infrastructure and

metering results in commercial thefts and outdated

distribution infrastructure results in losses. There are

practical difficulties recovering arrears from defaulting

customers. And there is generally a vicious cycle that is

created due to T&D losses because the ESCOMs lose

valuable revenues that is needed to invest in infrastruc-

ture improvements. Underinvestment leads to losses

continuing further. While infrastructural deficiencies

can be addressed through funds, the recovery of ar-

rears or fines leaves only legal recourse. The latter can-

not be addressed directly through policy measures.

Creating an environment that minimises defaulting is

more advisable. In this context, infrastructural im-

provements through investments in smart metering

and upgradations of distribution equipment should be

prioritised. The state’s exploration of smart metering

and IT features in billing systems should be accelerated

and expanded. It is reported that a so called ‘smart

grid’ project has been taken up as pilot project in Elec-

tronic City in Bangalore and a distribution up-gradation

system was introduced in Bangalore Metropolitan Area

by BESCOM.

4.4. RENEWABLE ENERGY

A rapid up-scaling of activities to implement the Re-

newable Energy Policy 2009-14 is required, with sys-

tematic planning and monitoring of progress against

milestones. This may be easier to achieve now that the

National Solar Mission provides additional instruments

and resources. A systematic expansion of activities

should entail a thorough assessment of impediments

that are slowing down progress in the state and ad-

dressing these through strategies that work on the

ground. While up-scaling wind energy is already on

the horizon, for solar power plants first steps have just

been initiated by KREDL through inviting tenders for

five 80 MW plants to be set up in the state.

Renewable energy financing remains the largest im-

pediment for faster rollout of projects. It could be im-

proved by offering more capital on soft loans and per-

haps even renewable energy venture funds, which

presently do not exist. Other options include genera-

tion based incentives (GBI) and Renewable Energy Cer-

tificates (REC) which are already being implemented by

central agencies. Multilateral agencies are known to

engage in providing funding at attractive interest rate.

Greater interaction with such agencies through capaci-

ty building programmes can increase traction and

hence ability of the project developers to access such

funding. As a whole, financing should be reviewed to

identify areas where the state needs to facilitate pro-

cesses better to achieve strategic targets.

Most renewable energy projects are small in size as

compared to thermal power plants. Project externalities

such as feed-in connections at suitable voltage levels

and transmission become significant impediments. The

simplification of procedures to manage regulatory ex-

ternalities would help renewable project developers.

4.5. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ISSUES

Technologies for biomass, co-generation and wind

energy are available with Indian manufacturers. Indian

companies manufacture both photovoltaic cells and

modules. An expansion of demand will expand abili-

ties, know-how and further research. Likewise, basic

energy efficiency technologies are also available. Only

advanced proprietary technologies required for certain

industrial processes, such as steel making, may not be

available freely. However that may not be a major im-

pediment either as the industry is known to upgrade

itself if the market demands and permits it. A case in

point is the energy-saving dry process for cement mak-

ing, which Indian companies have been quick to

adopt. Technology transfer issues thus do not emerge

as significant for promoting renewable energy and

energy efficiency.

Figure 12: Tapping renewable energy — Solar streetlights in Bangalore

Chapter 11: Energy

222

223

CHAPTER 12

WASTE

MANAGEMENT

Chapter 12: Waste Management

224


225

CONTENTS

1. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE ............................................................... 227

1.1. GENERATION AND COLLECTION ............................. 227

1.2. LANDFILL AND ACTION PLAN

DEVELOPMENT ............................................................. 228

1.3. INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY BUILDING ...................... 228

1.4. LEGISLATION AND POLICY ......................................... 229 1.4.1. Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules 2000 .... 229 1.4.2. Karnataka Policy for Integrated Solid

Waste Management ......................................................... 229

2. HAZARDOUS WASTE ........................................................................ 230

2.1. GENERATION ................................................................. 230

2.2. LEGISLATION .................................................................. 230

3. ELECTRONIC WASTE ......................................................................... 230

3.1. GENERATION ................................................................. 230

3.2. LEGISLATION .................................................................. 231

4. BIOMEDICAL WASTE ........................................................................ 232

4.1. GENERATION ................................................................. 232

4.2. LEGISLATION .................................................................. 234

5. SLAUGHTERHOUSE WASTE ............................................................ 234

6. PLASTIC WASTE .................................................................................. 234

6.1. GENERATION ................................................................. 234

6.2. LEGISLATION .................................................................. 235

7. EMERGING INTERVENTION AREAS ............................................... 235

ANNEX: MSW GENERATION OF SELECTED ULBS .............................. 236


226

TABLES

Table 1: Waste generation and collection (2008-09) .............................................................................................................. 227 Table 2: Waste collection in Karnataka (2011) .......................................................................................................................... 228 Table 3: Transport of waste (2004) ............................................................................................................................................... 228 Table 4: Status of landfill development in Karnataka (2011) ................................................................................................. 228 Table 5: Hazardous waste generation (2011) ........................................................................................................................... 230 Table 6: Categories of e-waste ........................................................................................................................................................ 231 Table 7: Projections for selected e-waste streams for Bangalore ......................................................................................... 231 Table 8: Categories of biomedical waste according to the Bio-Medical Waste Rules 1998......................................... 232 Table 9: Status of biomedical waste management as on March 31, 2011 ....................................................................... 233 Table 10: Common BMW facilities on March 2011 .................................................................................................................. 233 Table 11: Type of waste produced from slaughterhouses ..................................................................................................... 234

FIGURES

Figure 1: Karnataka’s MSW generation (2008) – Adapted from DMA .............................................................................. 227 Figure 2: Bangalore’s MSW by source (2010) – Adapted from Bangalore Mirror, September 16, 2010 ................ 227 Figure 3: Uncollected waste at KR Market in Bangalore ........................................................................................................ 228 Figure 4: Wealth from waste — A bag made from banana fibre ......................................................................................... 229

2012-10-10%20Waste%20draft%2037%20-%20Layout%20PR%20V3%20GKMV14.doc#_Toc481283799









227

1. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

1.1. GENERATION AND COLLECTION

Cities and townships with populations between 1 lakh

and 25 lakh typically generate between 200 to 500

grams of domestic solid waste per person per day. The

management of this waste is an obligation of urban lo-

cal bodies (ULBs) which entails collection, segregation,

transportation, treatment and disposal. Compared to

other services provided by ULBs, a large portion of the

personnel employed is engaged in the management of

waste.

The quantity of municipal solid waste (MSW) generated

varies from 0.57 tons per day (t/d) in a small town pan-

chayat like Gurumitkal to 140 t/d in Belgaum City Cor-

poration. According to Directorate of Municipal Admin-

istration (Table 1), Karnataka generated 8,825 t/d of

waste (2009) with Bangalore being the largest con-

tributor (4,500 t/d). The major waste contribution

comes from residences and commercial establishments.

Details for individual albeit not all ULBs are available in

the Annex to this chapter. Considering a growth rate

of 6% in waste generation in the state as estimated by

NEERI, the projected municipal solid waste for the year

2020 will be 14,550 t/d. Even if the potential for com-

posting and incineration of waste was utilised to the maximum there would still be 20% residue of waste to

be landfilled.

Door-to-door waste collection has commenced in 36%

of ULBs (79 of 218) involving around 400 self-help

groups (SHGs). About 75% of the waste generated is

collected. Tractors dominate waste transportation not

only in town panchayats but every category of munici-

pality (refer Table 3).

It is frequently observed that MSW spills over collection

vehicles once loaded beyond holding capacity, a prac-

tice that is common. In absence of adequate coverage

WASTE MANAGEMENT AT A GLANCE

Municipal solid waste (MSW) Hazardous waste (2011)

Generation Karnataka (2009) 8,825 t/d Generation Karnataka 160,605 t/a

Generation Bangalore 4,500 t/d Number of generating industries 2,998

Urban local bodies managing MSW 218 ULBs Common facilities 1

Door-to-door waste collection in 79 ULBs Common incinerators 3

Landfill facilities ready 7 ULBs Authorised reprocessors 123

Pourakarmikas employed 7,060 Electronic waste

Slaughterhouse waste (2011) Generation Karnataka (estimate 2007) 17,000 t/a

Generation Karnataka n/a Authorised reprocessing capacity (2011) 13,040 t/a

Registered slaughterhouses 96 Authorised reprocessing (2010-11) 1,376 t/a

Plastic waste (2011) Authorised reprocessors (2011) 15

Generation Karnataka n/a Biomedical waste (2011)

Registered manufacturers 74 Generation Karnataka 73 t/d

Registered health care establishments 11,455

Common facilities 14

Figure 2: Bangalore’s MSW by source (2010) – Adapted from

Bangalore Mirror, September 16, 2010

Figure 1: Karnataka’s MSW generation (2008) – Adapted from

DMA

Table 1: Waste generation and collection (2008-09)

Type of ULB Waste gen-erated t/d

Waste collected

t/d

Average collection efficiency

City corporations 4,650 3,720 80%

City municipal councils 2,179 1,591 73%

Town municipal councils 1,244 933 75%

Town panchayats 752 534 71%

Total 8,825 6,778 75%

Adapted from Directorate of Municipal Administration


228

Table 2: Waste collection in Karnataka (2011)

of the cargo, transport vehicles also emanate a highly

disagreeable odour in neighbourhoods and along the

transport routes. In absence of transfer stations, MSW is

transferred from pickup to larger transport vehicles in

full public view. Such locations are consequently dirty,

unshielded and emit putrid smell round the clock. In

Bangalore, contractor’s transport vehicles appear gen-

erally dilapidated and not roadworthy, causing emis-

sions and noise well above average. In spite of collec-

tion systems being in place, residents contribute to the

indiscriminate dumping of MSW on vacant lands, in

drains and along the roads.

Table 3: Transport of waste (2004)

Type of ULB Lorries Mini

lorries

Trac-tors

Other

City corporations* 43 11 55 5

City municipal councils

28 25 170 20

Town municipal councils

1 14 129 12

Town panchayats 5 4 99 25

Total 77 54 453 62

Note: * Excluding Bangalore Adapted from Directorate of

Municipal Administration

The management of solid waste creates no revenue

but incurs substantial expenditure. Although there is

the obvious possibility of generating the necessary

funds through a levy on waste generators as in Banga-

lore, such fees have not been ratified by elected coun-

cils in many towns and panchayats in the state.

1.2. LANDFILL AND ACTION PLAN DEVELOPMENT

The development of safe landfills with adequate infra-

structure is a priority of urban local bodies. 93% (203 of

218) of ULBs have acquired and taken possession of

suitable sites. Preparatory infrastructure work has been

completed in 75% of all ULB’s. The development of san-

itary landfills has been completed in Mangalore, Puttur,

Udupi, Karwar, Shimoga and Belgaum. Coastal town-

ships and particularly Dakshina Kannada are in the

lead. Albeit not closely related, it is interesting to note

Dakshina Kannada and Udupi also rank among the dis-

tricts with near parity in female literacy and sex ratio

(refer Chapter 13: Urban and Rural Development).

Action plans have been approved in as many as 98% of

ULBs.

Under a fast track project, eight ULBs were selected for

the implementation of solid waste management includ-

ing development of inertisation and landfill on a build-

own-transfer (BOT) basis. Inertisation is prescribed for

treatment of MSW. It includes solidification and stabili-

sation so as to reduce the hazard potential by convert-

ing contaminants into their least soluble, immobile and

toxic form. Solidification physically binds or encapsu-

lates waste in a monolithic solid of high structural in-

tegrity.

Table 4: Status of landfill development in Karnataka (2011)

Stages in which ULBs are

Land acquisition

Possession taken 203

Acquisition in process 9

Common landfill sites 5

Exempted 1

Landfill development

Development completed 7

Preliminary infrastructure work completed 164

Action plans approved 213

Total number of ULBs 218

Adapted from: Directorate of Municipal Administration (2011).

Annual Administration Report 2010-11

1.3. INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY BUILDING

The cadre rules of ULBs were revised to pave the way

for the appointment of environmental engineers.

These are required to manage waste in conformity

with legal requirements. Accordingly, engineers were

appointed in all ULBs above the level of town pancha-

yats, 123 in all. A further 285 junior health inspectors

were recruited in 2006-07 for the implementation of

the urban sanitation programme. Though an appro-

priate plan for solid waste management has been de-

veloped by town panchayats as well, the necessary

personnel and technical expertise for their implementa-

tion is not available with them. As the cadre rules do

Waste collection status ULBs

Door to door collection started 79

Transfer and transport 63

Total number of ULBs 218

Figure 3: Uncollected waste at KR Market in Bangalore


229

not provide for engineers here, health inspectors are

burdened with the task of managing the solid waste of

towns.

Environmental engineers of ULBs have been trained

on the preparation of action plans as well as imple-

mentation and monitoring (refer section 1.2). Training

manuals have been provided to all ULBs. A number of

training programmes for the 7,060 waste handlers

(pourkarmikas) on safe and efficient ways of collection,

segregation and transportation of waste have been

conducted. Though it is generally felt that pourakarmi-

kas require more training to handle waste better, some

deficits are rather linked to insufficient incentives and

the general disrespect the profession is accorded.

These issues continue to remain a challenge. Door-to-

door garbage collection has been strengthened with

the involvement of around 400 self-help groups.

Figure 4: Wealth from waste — A bag made from banana fibre

1.4. LEGISLATION AND POLICY

1.4.1. Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules 2000

In view of the serious environmental degradation re-

sulting from the unsystematic management of MSW,

Government of India, in exercise of the powers con-

ferred by the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 noti-

fied the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management & Han-

dling) Rules, 2000. The MSW rules stipulate that munic-

ipal authorities have to manage MSW ‘scientifically’. It

defines management processes and sets out compli-

ance criteria for each stage of waste management: Col-

lection, segregation at source, transportation, pro-

cessing and final disposal. The rules stipulate further:

Dumping of MSW in water bodies and compaction

or baling are not acceptable;

Biodegradable waste has to be composted or stabi-

lised otherwise;

Mixed waste containing recoverable material

should be recycled;

Other treatment options such as pelletisation, gasi-

fication, incineration require clearance from State

Pollution Control Boards;

Landfilling should be limited to non-biodegradable

and inert waste and waste that cannot be recycled

or for biologically processed.

The rules also provide guidelines for the selection and

design of landfill sites. According to these, landfills must

be planned for an operating period of 20 to 25 years.

Their location should preferably be within five kilome-

tres of the current city limits to minimise transportation

and be surrounded by a 500-metre wide buffer zone.

Case study: Biogas generation from waste in Chikkamagalur and Raichur

A project to demonstrate integrated solid waste manage-

ment in compliance with the Municipal Solid Waste (Man-

agement and Handling) Rules 2000 was initiated by Direc-

torate of Municipal Administration and the Indo-

Norwegian Environment Programme (INEP) with support

by Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of

Science, Bangalore.

Technology Informatics Design Endeavour (TIDE) was

roped in to convert the organic fraction of municipal solid

waste into energy in the towns of Chikkamagalur and Rai-

chur in Karnataka. TIDE has constructed bioreactors and

compost yards that would each treat 1 ton of waste per

day. TIDE has operated the plant at Chikkamagalur for

three days and collected data from the site. The project has

established that it is possible to convert the organic frac-

tion of the waste into biogas and compost and streamline

all operational and maintenance issues at the processing

site.

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

1.4.2. Karnataka Policy for Integrated Solid Waste Management

A Policy on Integrated Solid Waste Management

(ISWM) was adopted by the state in 2004. The objec-

tive is to develop and implement appropriate methods

and processes for waste management comprising of

collection, segregation, storage, transportation, treat-

ment and disposal of waste. Among other things, the

policy seeks the following:

Promoting awareness of waste management prin-

ciples among citizens and other stakeholders, and

proposing an operating framework. Self-help

groups and NGOs are assigned important roles;

Promotion of doorstep collection and minimising

multiple and manual handling of waste and ensur-

ing MSW does not touch the ground until treated

and ready for final disposal;

Promotion of composting on one hand and value

recovery on the other hand by developing law-

compliant economical treatment and disposal facili-

ties that are environment friendly;


230

Introduction of a fee for waste generating house-

holds and trade establishments.

2. HAZARDOUS WASTE

2.1. GENERATION

Indian law defines hazardous waste as any waste

whose physical, chemical, reactive, toxic, flammable,

explosive or corrosive properties causes – or is likely to

cause – risks for human health or the environment.

This already broad scope is further expanded by a

clause that specifies that substances must also be con-

sidered hazardous when it meets any of the above cri-

teria when in contact with other waste or substances.

As of March 2011, around 160,605 tons of hazardous

waste is generated in the state by 2,998 industries who

are obliged to obtain permission from Karnataka State

Pollution Control Board (KSPCB). As per the rules, the

recyclable and reprocessable waste must be handed

over to authorised recyclers, some 123 of which have

been licensed.

Table 5: Hazardous waste generation (2011)

Type Quantity

in metric tons per annum

Recyclable or reprocessable 98,044

Incinerable 33,201

Landfillable 29,359

Total 160,605

Adapted from Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (2012).

Draft Annual Report 2010-11

Karnataka’s Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facility

(TSDF) for landfillable hazardous waste is in operation

since 2009. It is located about 45 km northwest of

Bangalore at Dobaspet in reasonable proximity to the

state’s largest industrial areas at Peenya. The develop-

ment was facilitated by Government of Karnataka

through Department of Forests, Ecology and Environ-

ment, KSPCB and Karnataka Industrial Area Develop-

ment Board (KIADB). The facility started accepting

waste from July 2008 onwards, initially for temporary

storage and commenced permanent disposal of treat-

ed hazardous waste after completion of the first cell in

January 2009. As of March 2011 more than 51,000

metric tons of landfillable waste have been processed

and disposed in line with regulation while nearly 6,000

Mt are kept in hermit storage.

As of now, there is no central incineration facility in the

state because the quantity of waste generated is not

sufficient to make such facility economically viable.

KSPCB has therefore encouraged co-processing of in-

cinerable hazardous waste in cement kilns as per direc-

tions of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). How-

ever, three common small-scale incinerators are in op-

eration around Bangalore while some major drugs and

pharmaceutical units have set-up captive incinerators

on their premises.

2.2. LEGISLATION

Based on powers conferred by the Environment (Pro-

tection) Act, 1986 Government of India legislated the

Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules,

1989. These were amendment in 2000 and 2003 re-

spectively. Among other things, the rules stipulate:

Empowerment of the state regulatory body to

grant or suspend authorisation for the generation

of hazardous waste;

Adequate collection, storage, treatment and dis-

posal of hazardous waste by the occupier or opera-

tor of hazardous waste generating facilities;

Provision of adequate packaging, labelling and

transportation of hazardous waste in accordance

with the provisions of the rules under Motor Vehi-

cles Act, 1988 and rules notified;

Protection of waste handlers from accidents by

making the occupier and operator of facilities gen-

erating, handling or processing hazardous waste

responsible for their training;

Import or export of hazardous waste mandatorily

requires permission and compliance with the Basel

Convention 1989 on the control of transboundary

movement of hazardous wastes and their disposal

ratified by India in 1992.

3. ELECTRONIC WASTE

3.1. GENERATION

Electronic waste or e-waste as it is called for short, is

electrical and electronic equipment intended to be dis-

carded, whole or in part as well as scrap or rejects from

manufacturing and repair. E-waste has seen explosive

growth driven by the unparalleled spread and penetra-

tion of microprocessor based computers, control,

communication and entertainment products paired

with rapid development and consequently high obso-

lescence rates.

It is nearly impossible to make dependable estimates

for e-waste in Karnataka. Official data is not available

and there is neither a mechanism for systematic collec-

tion of e-waste nor a reliable process assessesing its

volume. According to a rather conservative assessment

of WHO (Table 7), Bangalore alone is estimated to

generate about 125 tons of e-waste annually which is

projected to rise to 147 t/a in 2020. This however takes

into account only a very limited number of devices


231

while many more need to be considered as e-waste in

accordance with legislation. The 2007 study “e-Waste

Assessment in India” estimates that 333,000 tons of e-

waste is generated in India. Karnataka’s contribution to

that is likely to be in the order of 17,000 t/a, assuming

that the state’s share in India’s population of about 5%

provides a reasonable proxy for waste generation. This

number is still optimistic given the concentration of IT

and ITES (IT enabled services) in the state.

Table 6: Categories of e-waste

IT and telecommunication equipment

Centralised data processing: Mainframes, minicomputers

Personal computing: Personal computers, laptops, note-

books, notepads etc.

Printers including cartridges

Copying equipment

Electrical and electronic typewriters

Pocket and desk calculators

Any other and equipment for collection, storage, pro-

cessing, presentation or communication of information by

electronic means

User terminals and systems

Facsimile, telex and answering machines

Telephones: Pay, cordless and ordinary telephones

And other products transmitting sound, images or other in-

formation by telecommunications

Consumer electrical and electronics

Television sets (including LCD and LED)

Refrigerators

Washing machines

Air conditioners (exlluding central air conditioners)

Adapted from E-waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011

The absence of a mechanism for systematic collection

of e-waste brings e-waste generally into the hands of

scrap dealers, and subsequently to recyclers in the in-

formal sector. Likewise, material recovery, which is

economically viable, is largely in the hands of the in-

formal sector. The concerns surrounding e-waste are

primarily related to occupational health and safety of

workers employed by these. Workers are exposed to

intolerable health hazards, some of which have irre-

versible negative impacts. The informal sector lacks the

capacity to undertake certain processes without affect-

ing the health of workers severely. Another concern

besides the prevalence of child labour is that

wastewater and chemicals released from recycling

processes percolate the ground polluting both the soil

as well as the water table.

The main reasons are the inadequacy of equipment

and processes, the lack of awareness of intrinsic risks

among workers and the lack of enforcement of health,

safety and environmental standards. The problem is

best addressed by shifting operations to licensed indus-

tries in the formal sector, some 15 of which have se-

cured authorisation. However, a key challenge remains

the establishment of institutionalised collection mech-

anisms and collection centres as prescribed by law. If

these were in place, e-waste could also be channelled

to appropriate licensed recyclers, forcing the informal

sector out of business or to migrate to the formal sec-

tor. Karnataka’s 15 authorised e-waste recycling and

reprocessing units have an aggregate processing ca-

pacity of 13,040 Mt/a and reprocessed 1,376 Mt in

2010-11. 238 software companies, who are major e-

waste generators, have received authorisation for dis-

posal in Karnataka. Although the E-waste Rules 2011

(refer section 3.2) envisage waste streams to flow to

formal recyclers and dismantlers, the practice of auc-

tioning of waste may impede this and favour informal

recycler, if these offer better prices.

3.2. LEGISLATION

E-waste has been notified as hazardous waste under

the Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling)

Rules 2008. Based on the powers conferred by the En-

vironment (Protection) Act, 1986 dedicated rules for its

management have been notified through the E-waste

(Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 with effect

from May 1, 2012. They prescribe safe and environ-

E-Parisaraa Private Limited

Located in Dobaspet about 45 km north of Bangalore,

E-Parisaraa was Karnataka’s first authorised e-waste

recycler.

The company is collecting e-waste directly from sources

with a pick-up truck. The recycling plant is equipped with

innovative indigenous machines to make recovery of a

wide range of materials economically viable. Some types

of e-waste possess valuable materials but cannot

presently be economically recovered given the processing

technology available. Some of these are therefore sent to

Belgium for recovery. Barring some exceptions, computer

components are shredded. Shredded waste is ground to

powder from which metals are collected through gravity

separation. Only about 1% of waste is reportedly sent for

landfilling, indicating that nearly all materials are

recyclable.

Adapted from JK Journal of Mangement & Technology

Table 7: Projections for selected e-waste streams for Bangalore

Year

Waste generation in kg/a

Computers TVs Cell

phones Total

2011 93,900 15,647 16,269 125,816

2012 95,590 15,928 16,561 128,079

2013 97,310 16,214 16,859 130,383

2015 100,843 16,803 17,471 135,117

2020 110,248 18,369 19,100 147,719

Adapted from World Health Organization


232

ment friendly handing, transport, storage and recycling

with implications on the use of hazardous substances

during manufacturing of electrical and electronic

equipment. Among other things, the rules define:

Producers are liable for reducing and recycling e-

waste. They are required to inform consumers

about hazardous components and provide instruc-

tions for handling of the equipment after its use.

Bulk consumers such as enterprises and govern-

ments are directly responsible for recycling of e-

waste generated.

Annual reports prepared by State Pollution Control

Boards (SPCBs) are to furnish data on the imple-

mentation of these rules. Based on these CPCB will

review the situation every year and formulate rec-

ommendations to Government of India.

The maximum permissible storage period of e-

waste with any consumer is 180 days. This period

maybe extended by SPCBs if no authorised recyclers

are found in that state.

With relevance to manufacturers, in homogenous

materials lead, mercury, hexavalent chromium,

polybrominated biphenyls and polybrominated di-

phenyl ethers are permitted up to 0.1% by weight.

The max value for cadmium is 0.01% by weight.

4. BIOMEDICAL WASTE

4.1. GENERATION

Biomedical waste (BMW) is waste generated during

the diagnosis and treatment of humans or animals, or

in related research. It includes a wide palette of waste,

segregated into ten categories ranging from human

anatomical waste and animal waste, extending to mi-

crobiology and biotechnological waste, sharps (e.g.

used syringes), discarded medicines and cytotoxic

drugs as well as waste generated from laboratories

and housekeeping (refer Table 8). Under, the revised

draft rules notified in 2011, these ten categories are

consolidated to eight. It comprises both solid and liquid

fractions.

Table 8: Categories of biomedical waste according to the Bio-Medical Waste Rules 1998

Waste category Treatment

and disposal Waste category

Treatment and disposal

1. Human anatomical waste

Human tissues, organs, body parts

Incineration, deep burial

6. Soiled waste

Items contaminated with blood, and body fluids including cotton, dress-ings, soiled plaster casts, lines, beddings, other material contami-nated with blood

Incineration, autoclaving, microwaving

2. Animal waste

Animal tissues, organs, body parts car-casses, bleeding parts, fluid, blood and experimental animals used in research, waste generated by veterinary hospitals, colleges, discharge from hospitals, animal houses

Incineration, deep burial

7. Solid waste

Wastes generated from disposable items other than the waste [sharps] such as tubings, catheters, intrave-nous sets etc.

Disinfection by chemical treatment, autoclaving, microwaving, mutilation, shredding

3. Microbiology and biotechnology wastes

Wastes from laboratory cultures, speci-mens of micro-organisms live or attenuat-ed vaccines, human and animal cell cul-ture and infectious agents from research and industrial laboratories, wastes from production of biologicals, toxins, dishes and devices used for transfer of cultures

Local autoclaving, micro-waving, in-cineration

8. Liquid waste

Waste generated from laboratory and washing, cleaning, house-keeping and disinfecting activities

Disinfection by chemical treatment and discharge into drains

4. Waste sharps

Needles, syringes, scalpels, blades, glass etc. that may cause puncture and cuts. This includes both used and unused sharps

Disinfection by chemical treat-ment, auto clave microwaving and mutilation or shredding

9. Incineration ash

Ash from incineration of any bio-medical waste

Disposal in municipal landfill

5. Discarded medicines and cytotoxic drugs

Wastes comprising of outdated, contami-nated and discarded medicines

Incineration, de-struction and drugs disposal in secured landfills

10. Chemical waste

Chemicals used in production of bi-ological, chemicals used in disin-fection, as insecticides etc.

Chemical treatment and discharge into drains (liquids), secured landfill (solids)


233

As of March 2011, KSPCB identified 11,455 health care

establishments (HCEs) including veterinary institutions

which generate an aggregate of 73 tons of biomedical

waste per day (refer Table 9). In accordance with legal

provisions, BMW has to be disposed safely to minimise

the communication of infectious diseases. Common

treatment facilities are recommended to collect and

dispose the solid fraction of BMW by operators special-

ised in the field. As on date, there are 14 common

treatment facilities (refer Table 10) that dispose bio-

Table 9: Status of biomedical waste management as on March 31, 2011

Category of HCEs HCE BMW generated

kg/d BMW treated

kg/d Non-compliant

HCEs

Hospitals and nursing homes in towns with population of 30 lakh and above

117 4,258 2,895 4

Hospitals and nurs-ing homes in towns with population be-low 30 lakh

a) > 500 beds 38 5,492 3,981 3

b) 200 500 beds 44 4,509 3,452 10

c) 50 200 beds 268 13,572 10,357 26

d) < 50 beds 2,470 32,942 22,586 255

All other institutions generating BMW 8,518 12,365 10,594 185

Total 11,455 73,138 53,865 483

Adapted from Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (2012). Draft Annual Report 2010-11

Table 10: Common BMW facilities on March 2011

Location Address of the facility Districts covered HCEs

covered

Beds

covered

Bagalkot The BVV Sangha Rural Development Foundation Vidyagiri, Bagalkot

Bagalkot 289 3,252

Bangalore Rural

SembRamky Environmental Management Pvt. Ltd. Plot No. 39, KIADB Industrial Area, Dobaspet, Nelamangala taluk

Part of Bangalore Urban, Bangalore Rural, Tumkur

925 9,600

Belgaum Association of Hospital and Nursing Homes No-5-12, Khasbag, Belgaum

Belgaum 180 1,952

Bidar Environment Education Pollution Control Centre 446/2A, Kamathana village, Bidar taluk

Bidar 107 570

Bijapur Karnataka Private Medical Establishment Association Sy. No. 139, Mahalbagayat, Bijapur

Bijapur 149 1,532

Davanagere

1) Sushanth Environmental Technologies Pvt. Ltd. Sy. No. 56/1 A3, Voddinahalli village, Bada Road, Davanagere

Davanagere, Chitradurga, Haveri

56 2,067

2) Suryakanth Environmental Technologies Sy. No. 105/2 Lokekeri Road

Bellary and Chikkamagalur

312 2,068

Gulbarga

Center for Environment Education (CEE), Common Healthcare Waste Appropriate Management Plant (CHAMP) Survey No.139, Sharasirsigi Village, Gulgarga Field office Premises, Aiwan-E-Shahi, Gulbarga

Gulbarga 265 1,630

Dharwad Hubli-Dharwad Biomedical Waste Treatment Facility No-126/L, Tarihal Industrial Area, Hubli-Dhrawad

Dharwad, Gadag 237 3,932

Mangalore Ramky Energy and Environmental Pvt. Ltd. No-47-B, Karnad Industrial Area, Mulky, Mangalore

Dakshina Kannada, Udupi

344 7,300

Mysore Shree Consultants Sy. No-25, Varuna Village, Mysore taluk

Mysore, Hassan, Chamarajanagar, Kodagu

239 4,492

Raichur Raichur Indian Medical Association CBMWTF Operated by Vijayanagara Associates, Netaji Nagar, Raichur

Raichur 164 2,763

Ramanagara Maridi Eco Industries Private Limited Sy. No. 1/37, 1/38, 35

th Mile Stone, Gabbadi Kaval,

Kanakapura Road, Ramanagara

Part of Bangalore

Urban, Bangalore Rural, Mandya, Ramanagara, Kolar

1,036 10,850

Shimoga Shushrutha Biomedical Waste Management Society Plot No-31/C, KIADB Industrial area, Manchenahalli village, Nadige Post, Shimoga

Shimoga 180 2,560

Adapted from Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (2012). Draft Annual Report 2010-11


234

medical waste law-compliant; covering 28 districts of

Karnataka. In the two remaining districts Uttar Kanna-

da and Yadgir BMW is buried. All district and taluk hos-

pitals, community health care centres and some 300

primary health centres en route are disposing through

common treatment facilities. HCEs far removed from

common facilities bury BMW in deep pits. This practice

is followed in 1,852 (82%) of the 2,258 primary health

centres. Government of Karnataka through the Deputy

Commissioners is seeking further suitable land for es-

tablishment of common facilities.

4.2. LEGISLATION

In exercise of the powers conferred by the Environ-

ment (Protection) Act, 1986 Government of India has

notified the Bio-Medical Waste (Management and

Handling) Rules 1998, amendment in 2000 and 2003.

These stipulate the following:

Every occupier of an institution generating BMW

has to ensure such waste is handled without any

adverse effect to human health and the environ-

ment by setting up required treatment facilities

such as incinerators, autoclaves, microwave ovens

or ensure requisite treatment of waste at a common

facilities or any other suitable facility;

BMW shall not be mixed with other wastes but seg-

regated into appropriately labelled containers or

bags at the point of generation prior to its storage,

transportation, treatment and disposal;

No untreated BMW shall be kept stored beyond a

period of 48 hours.

In 2011 revised draft rules were notified by MoEF for

comments. The most important change is that under

these, every HCE would be required to obtain authori-

sation, irrespective of its size and the quantum of

waste. Also the duties of HCEs have been stipulated

while the current classification of waste streams (refer

Table 8) was simplified to eight categories.

5. SLAUGHTERHOUSE WASTE

Slaughterhouse waste is defined as the animal body

parts cut off in the preparation of carcasses for use as

food. This waste can come from several sources, includ-

ing slaughterhouses, restaurants, stores and farms.

Waste generated in slaughterhouses comprises of both

liquid and solid fractions and consist of non-edible or-

gans, stomach contents, dung, bones and sludge from

waste water treatment. The effluent is characterised by

high content of organic matter, suspended solids and

has high value of BOD. The principal deleterious effect

of these wastes on streams and watercourses is their

de-oxygenation effect. The types of waste produced by

the separate operations are shown in Table 11. The

Karnataka Prevention of Cow Slaughter & Cattle

Preservation Act, 1964 prohibits slaughter of cow-

and female buffalo calves.

Official data on the amount of slaughterhouse waste

generated does not exist. Though the management of

waste from slaughterhouses by law is treated akin to

municipal waste, it is important to note that its nature

and the possibility of infections require treatment more

similar to bio-medical waste. Chapter 7: Livestock dis-

cusses options for appropriate slaughterhouse waste

management.

Karnataka has 96 registered slaughterhouses, most of

them are old and dilapidated and do not have basic fa-

cilities like sanitation, effluent treatment, electricity, wa-

ter and ventilation. Earlier, Government of Karnataka

and Government of India established a joint venture in

1974: Karnataka Meat and Poultry Marketing Company

(KaMPCo) especially for the purpose of setting up

modern slaughterhouses across Karnataka. Many pro-

jects were taken up by KaMPCo but owing to either so-

cial resentment or environmental concerns none of the

projects is operational now. The Directorate of Munici-

pal Administration (DMA), Urban Development De-

partment (UDD) intends to set up or develop modern

abattoirs in 51 urban local bodies comprising seven

municipal corporations and 44 city municipal councils.

Table 11: Type of waste produced from slaughterhouses

Source Waste generated

Stockyard Manure

Killing floor Blood

Dehairing Hair and dirt

Insides removal Paunch manure and liquor

Rendering Stick and press liquor

Carcass dressing Flesh, grease, blood, manure

By-products Grease, offal

Adapted from Ministry of Urban Development

6. PLASTIC WASTE

6.1. GENERATION

Plastic waste, albeit treated along with municipal solid

waste, is of special concern. Plastic bags are in exten-

sive use in retail establishments. Their disposal, aided

by wind and weather often leads them to litter the en-

vironment and to enter drains and water bodies. The

magnitude of their presence in open spaces and drains

is leading to situations where they choke and clog

storm water drains, preventing them from functioning

as designed. The consequence of this causal chain is

visible in the water logging after downpours in dense

urban areas. The problem is compounded by the dex-


235

terity of fine plastic materials and the fact that decom-

position is very slow when the material is not exposed

to ultraviolet light. Official data on the amount of plas-

tic waste generated does not exist.

Acting on these concerns, the government has re-

sponded with several interventions. Firstly, the use and

composition of plastic bags was seriously restricted

through the Plastic Waste Rules, 2011 (refer section

6.2). Secondly, at state level KSPCB has made it manda-

tory for manufacturers of plastic products to obtain

permission while the use of plastic bags in certain are-

as, especially parks, was banned. 74 units have ob-

tained a valid registration by March 2011. This was

backed by several awareness programmes for especial-

ly plastic bag manufactures at district level and various

awareness campaigns by the government and several

NGOs on the harmful effects of plastic waste and the

need to minimise its usage in day–to–day life.

6.2. LEGISLATION

Ministry of Environment & Forest (MoEF) has notified

the Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules,

2011 in February 2011 through powers conferred un-

der the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. It replaces

the earlier Recycled Plastics (Manufacture and Usage)

Rules, 1999 amended in 2003. It specifies among other

things:

A ban on the use of plastic for retail packing of cer-

tain products such as gutkha (a crushed areca nut

preparation for chewing), pan masala (a mixture of

nuts, seeds, herbs, and spices for chewing) and to-

bacco;

Recycled plastic carry bags need to comply with BIS

standards and a uniform thickness of 40 microme-

tres (µm) or more;

Explicit recognition of the important role of rag

pickers and their active engagement;

Municipal authorities are required to prevent the

burning of plastic waste (which is a waste of re-

sources and causes unnecessary air pollution) and

to ensure the collection, segregation, and pro-

cessing of plastic waste through collection centres

involving and channelising it to recyclers and to en-

courage new technologies such as plastic in road

construction, co-incineration in compliance with

norms established by law;

Plastic carry bags shall be compulsorily chargeable

in retail outlets to discourage use.

In order to comply with the directions of the Supreme

Court in clarifying certain definitions and procedures,

MoEF notified the Plastic Waste (Management and

Handling) (Amendment) Rules, 2011 in July 2011.


Municipal solid waste

With the increase in population and changing life-

style, the quantity of waste generated will continue

to increase. Hence an effective system to handle

these enormous quantities is essential. Possibilities

for more decentralised waste handling and segre-

gation need to be explored. Commercial establish-

ments, apartments and market complexes etc.

where waste quantities or the number of waste

generators are high lend themselves to unit level

collection, segregation and disposal of organic

waste while inert waste can be handled by the city.

A pilot project at Malleshwaram market in Banga-

lore has been successful and can be replicated;

A waste management fee should be introduced

across all urban local bodies to generate the re-

sources needed for waste management;

Citizens and organisations willing to support waste

management should receive incentives to enhance

participation, which has shown to lead to successful

examples. The need for this is higher in downmar-

ket areas and especially slums;

The feasibility of public-private partnerships (PPP) in

waste management needs to be explored, particu-

larly considering the lack of infrastructure, funding

and human resources at ULB level needs;

Composting has the potential of reducing munici-

pal solid waste by substantial amounts and needs

more attention and promotion, ideally through in-

volvement of citizens as is attempted by the corpo-

rate-backed initiative Daily Dump in Bangalore.

E-waste

Mainstreaming of the informal sector requires more

than just capacity building given its lack of access to

finance and technology. The problem could be

tackled best at the collection level by systematic col-

lection and limiting the distribution of waste

streams to authorised recyclers.

Slaughterhouse waste

The current proposal on upgrading the slaughter-

houses has to be implemented effectively and an

incentive needs to be introduced to encourage the

development of innovative and decentralised

means of waste treatment.

Across

More citizen awareness is needed in respect of

rampant littering in public places and the apparent

lack of concern for common goods.


236

ANNEX: MSW GENERATION OF SELECTED ULBS

Name of the ULB Population (2009) Waste generated in t/d Per capita waste generation in

kg/d per capita

City corporations

1. BBMP 84,00,000 3,770 0.45

2. Belgaum* 4,50,000 140 0.31

3. Bellary 3,76,813 129 0.34

4. Davanagere 4,29,300 112 0.26

5. Gulbarga* 3,40,000 170 0.50

City municipal councils (CMC)

1. CMC Gadag-Betgeri 1,72,291 70.0 0.41

2. CMC Madikeri 32,296 14 0.43

3. CMC Mandya 1,56,000 54.6 0.35

4. CMC Udupi 1,31,803 58 0.44

5. CMC Karwar 62,973 20 0.32

6. CMC Dandeli 53,287 19 0.36

7. CMC Sirsi 59,000 30 0.51

8. CMC Doddaballapur 85,000 38 0.45

9. CMC Nippani 58,061 18.1 0.31

10. CMC Gokak 76,832 25.5 0.33

11. CMC Bidar 2,10,000 50 0.24

12. CMC Baavakalyana 68,935 26 0.38

13. CMC Bijapur 2,85,000 109 0.38

14. CMC Chintamani 65,493 23.5 0.36

15. CMC Chitradurga 1,25,000 44 0.35

16. CMC Harihar 87,048 25 0.29

17. CMC Shahabad 50,285 7.8 0.16

18. CMC Yadgir 58,833 4.5 0.08

19. CMC Haveri 55,913 17 0.30

20. CMC Ranebennur 89,618 29 0.32

21. CMC Kolar 1,30,052 60 0.46

22. CMC Koppal 61,759 25 0.40

23. CMC Gangavati 1,05,000 30 0.29

24. CMC Raichur 2,45,030 90 0.37

25. CMC Sindhanoor 65,001 25 0.38

26. CMC Ramanagara 1,00,000 40 0.40

27. CMC Channapatna 70,287 24 0.34

28. CMC Shimoga 2,74,105 94.1 0.34

29. CMC Bhadravathi 1,60,662 51.7 0.32

30. CMC Sagara 58,000 18.0 0.31

31. CMC Tumkur 3,27,851 114 0.35

32. CMC Tiptur 57,196 25 0.44

33. CMC Sira 61,310 21.5 0.35

Town municipal councils (TMC)

1. TMC Gajendragad 30,497 10.7 0.35

2. TMC Laxmeshwar 36,627 12.1 0.33

3. TMC Naragund 32,561 9.5 0.29

4. TMC Mundargi 23,313 8.1 0.35

5. TMC Ron 23,551 8 0.34

6. TMC Nanjangud 63,000 25 0.40

7. TMC Hunsur 53,034 19 0.36

8. TMC K.R.Nagar 34,619 13 0.38

9. TMC BANNUR 26,436 8.5 0.32

10. TMC Maddur 31,000 10.9 0.35

11. TMC Malavalli 42,700 14.9 0.35

12. TMC Srirangapatna 28,400 9.9 0.35

13. TMC K.R.Pet 27,000 9.4 0.35

14. TMC Karkala 25,635 6 0.23

15. TMC Kundapura 31,197 17 0.54

16. TMC KUMTA 28,333 12 0.42

*Note: The population of Belgaum and Gulbarga shows to be below that of 2002, which may be indicative of incomplete data


237


kg/d per capita

17. TMC Bhatkal 31,774 14 0.44

18. TMC Anekal 43,013 16 0.37

19. TMC Devanahalli 28,000 9 0.32

20. TMC Vijayapura 29,540 14 0.47

21. TMC Hosakote 42,515 19 0.45

22. TMC Nelamangala 37,171 17 0.45

23. TMC Bailhongal 48,781 15.5 0.32

24. TMC Saundatti 41,035 15.0 0.37

25. TMC Ramdurg 32,966 9.5 0.29

26. TMC Mudalagi 32,000 8.0 0.25

27. TMC Sankeshwar 32,511 6.0 0.18

28. TMC Chikkodi 38,820 13.0 0.33

29. TMC Athani 43,394 15.0 0.35

30. TMC Kampli 35,380 12 0.34

31. TMC Hadagali 27,830 10 0.36

32. TMC Siruguppa 51,830 16 0.31

33. TMC Sandur 31,480 7.9 0.25

34. TMC Humnabad 42,061 16.4 0.39

35. TMC Chitguppa 28,337 10.6 0.37

36. TMC Bhalki 35,204 17 0.48

37. TMC B.Bagewadi 33,211 10 0.30

38. TMC Muddebihal 32,300 8 0.25

39. TMC Talikoti 31,000 6 0.19

40. TMC Indi 35,243 10 0.28

41. TMC Sindagi 27,733 10 0.36

42. TMC Shidlagahtta 41,098 14 0.34

43. TMC Gowribidunur 34,000 12 0.35

44. TMC Challakere 55,491 17 0.31

45. TMC Hiriyur 48,806 17 0.35

46. TMC Annigeri 28,024 10.5 0.37

47. TMC Bantwal 36,830 13 0.35

48. TMC Moodabidri 25,710 10.6 0.41

49. TMC Puttur 48,063 1 0.02

50. TMC Aland 35,308 10 0.28

51. TMC Sedam 36,178 1.2 0.03

52. TMC Chittapur 31,365 10 0.32

53. TMC Shahapur 42,752 1.2 0.03

54. TMC Surpur 47,000 14.9 0.32

55. TMC Byadgi 28,000 8.1 0.29

56. TMC Hangal 27,625 10.0 0.36

57. TMC Hosakote 42,515 19 0.45

58. TMC Savanur 38,916 12 0.31

59. TMC Shiggaon 27,959 6.9 0.25

60. TMC Bankapur 23,622 7 0.30

61. TMC Bangarpet 43,088 16.7 0.39

62. TMC Malur 32,893 12 0.36

63. TMC Mulbagal 50,000 18 0.36

64. TMC Kustagi 21,183 5 0.24

65. TMC Manvi 39,915 14 0.35

66. TMC Deodurga 23,340 8 0.34

67. TMC Lingsugur 28,977 10.1 0.35

68. TMC Kanakapura 55,000 19 0.35

69. TMC Magadi 28,000 14 0.50

70. TMC Shikaripura 34,144 11.4 0.33

71. TMC Madhugiri 29,229 12.5 0.43

72. TMC C N Halli 22,360 16.5 0.74

73. TMC Kunigal 34,677 12 0.35

74. TMC Pavagada 28,068 12 0.43

Town panchayats (TP)

1. TP Mulagund 20,632 5.6 0.27

2. TP Naregal 16,685 5.5 0.33


238


kg/d per capita

3. TP Shirahatti 16,208 5 0.31

4. TP Virajpet 20,000 3.7 0.18

5. TP Kushalnagar 13,186 5 0.38

6. TP PeriyaPatna 17,431 7 0.40

7. TP T. Narasipura 10,761 4.7 0.44

8. TP HD Kote 15,045 3.4 0.23

9. TP Pandavapura 21,900 7.7 0.35

10. TP Nagamangala 19,200 6.7 0.35

11. TP Saligrama 14,962 0.5 0.03

12. TP Ankola 14,309 7 0.49

13. TP Honnavar 17,824 7.5 0.42

14. TP Siddapur 15,134 5.5 0.36

15. TP Yellapur 23,000 9.6 0.42

16. TP Mundgod 16,173 6 0.37

17. TP Khanapur 18,000 4.4 0.24

18. TP Konnur 19,000 1.0 0.05

19. TP Hukkeri 26,050 5.0 0.19

20. TP Sadalaga 20,202 5.0 0.25

21. TP Raibag 15,924 4.0 0.25

22. TP Tekkalakote 23,578 6 0.25

23. TP Kottur 22,701 8 0.35

24. TP Kamalapur 21,830 10 0.46

25. TP Kudligi 24,143 5 0.21

26. TP Aurad (B) 17,384 4.9 0.28

27. TP Bagapalli 27,000 7.5 0.28

28. TP Gudibanda 10,500 2 0.19

29. TP Hosadurga 28,000 15 0.54

30. TP Holalkere 14,574 12 0.82

31. TP Molakalmuru 14,133 12 0.85

32. TP Harapanahalli 41,907 15 0.36

33. TP Honnali 18,000 7 0.39

34. TP Channagiri 21,000 7.3 0.35

35. TP Jagalur 16,000 6 0.38

36. TP Alnavar 19,000 4.0 0.21

37. TP Kalaghatagi 14,680 5.9 0.40

38. TP Kundagol 16,864 4 0.24

39. TP Navalagund 25,532 7.7 0.30

40. TP Belthangady 7,305 2.1 0.29

41. TP Mulki 16,398 7.5 0.46

42. TP Sullia 22,313 5.4 0.24

43. TP Ullal 58,877 16.5 0.28

44. TP Afzalpur 19,335 4 0.21

45. TP Jewargi 21,372 1.0 0.05

46. TP Gurumitkal 18,823 0.6 0.03

47. TP Hirekerur 18,000 6.0 0.33

48. TP Bangarpet 43,088 16.7 0.39

49. TP Srinivaspur 25,219 8 0.32

50. TP Mudgal 20,286 7 0.35

51. TP Thirthahalli 14,808 3.5 0.24

52. TP Shiralkoppa 18,900 5.0 0.26

53. TP Gubbi 16,805 4 0.24

54. TP Turuvekere 15,279 5 0.33

55. TP Koratagere 13,638 6 0.44

56. TP Mulagund 20,632 5.6 0.27

57. TP Naregal 16,685 5.5 0.33

239

CHAPTER 13

URBAN AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 13: Urban and Rural Development

240


241

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 243

2. LAND UTILISATION ................................................................................... 243

3. URBAN DEVELOPMENT .......................................................................... 243

3.1. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ................................... 243

3.2. HOUSING ........................................................................ 245 3.2.1. Housing needs.................................................................... 245 3.2.2. Policy ...................................................................................... 246 3.2.3. Housing agencies .............................................................. 246 3.2.4. Implications of master plans ........................................... 247 3.2.5. Slum development ............................................................ 247

3.3. LUNG SPACES ................................................................ 247 3.3.1. Implications of master plans ........................................... 247 3.3.2. Institutional playgrounds ................................................ 247 3.3.3. Green belts .......................................................................... 248

3.4. WATER BODIES .............................................................. 248

3.5. ZONING REGULATIONS .............................................. 249

3.6. TRANSFER OF DEVELOPMENT RIGHTS ................... 249

4. RURAL DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................ 249

4.1. REGIONAL IMBALANCES............................................. 249

4.2. PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT .................................. 250 4.2.1. Literacy and gender disparity ........................................ 250 4.2.2. Water supply and sanitation .......................................... 250 4.2.3. Health .................................................................................... 251 4.2.4. Livelihoods ........................................................................... 252

5. TOURISM ........................................................................................................ 253

5.1. SIGNIFICANCE ................................................................ 253

5.2. THE ENVIRONMENTAL DIMENSION ........................ 253

5.3. ECO-TOURISM ................................................................ 253

6. EMERGING INTERVENTION AREAS .................................................... 254


242

TABLES

Table 1: Land utilisation in 2008-09 in hectare ............................................................................................................................. 244 Table 2: Schools without playground .............................................................................................................................................. 248 Table 3: Taluks identified as backward in 2002 ............................................................................................................................ 250 Table 4: Infant mortality trends in Karnataka ................................................................................................................................ 251 Table 5: Districts with highest farmer suicide incidence ............................................................................................................ 252 Table 6: Tourists' arrival from 2005-2009 ........................................................................................................................................ 253

FIGURES

Figure 1: Local planning area of urban development authorities in km2 ............................................................................. 245

Figure 2: Local planning area of town planning authorities in km2 ....................................................................................... 245

Figure 3: Apartments rise high in Bangalore, a result of escalating land cost .................................................................... 246 Figure 4: Bangalore’s Mantri Mall – Icon of urban consumer culture ................................................................................... 246 Figure 5: Construction of apartments – An ubiquitous indicator of urban expansion .................................................... 247 Figure 6: Green belts vis-à-vis rural tracks and development zones ....................................................................................... 248 Figure 7: Communication goes rural – Bridging disparity ........................................................................................................ 249 Figure 8: Driving literacy – A government primary school at Vadaradoddi ........................................................................ 250 Figure 9: The urban-rural employment divide .............................................................................................................................. 252 Figure 10: Urban-rural connectivity: The Bangalore-Mysore Expressway ............................................................................ 254


243

1. INTRODUCTION

Development has multiple dimensions. On one side of

the equation stands economic growth, on the other

human needs which, at the basic level includes hous-

ing, water, food, clothing and sanitation. Needs extend

virtually to all spheres of life, including education,

health services, administration and infrastructure are

closely tied to economic development as enabler. Kar-

nataka stands fourth in GDP growth in India, having a

growth rate of 6% which is less than India’s GDP

growth of 6.5% between1999-2006. The state of de-

velopment can be approximated through indicators

such as the human development index (HDI). Quanti-

tative indicators for child welfare, health, literacy, edu-

cation and income compose the index among other

parameters. Karnataka’s HDI rose from 0.558 in 1996

to 0.622 within ten years, indicating considerable de-

velopment in the state. However, it is only marginally

better than the all India value of 0.61 and Karnataka

holds only the 25th

rank in the country. Literacy levels

of the state rose from 66.6% in 2001 to 75.6% in 2011.

A requirement whose importance cannot possibly be

overstated in this context is equitable development,

meaning development across all sections of society ir-

respective of their caste and creed. In reality and de-

spite economic growth, some indicators suggest that

poverty levels are increasing in both urban and rural

areas and more rapidly so in urban areas. An issue of

grave concern is that the number of citizens in the four

bottom most expenditure classes of the monthly per

capita consumer expenditure (MPCE) have risen from

20 to 26 million between 1994 and 2006, according to

Karnataka’s Vision 2020 document.

Coming to environmental issues, development increas-

es the consumption of resources. It typically entails en-

vironmental degradation or decimation. Likewise the

lack of development, which is a significant concern in

rural Karnataka, is a driver of out-migration which in

turn increases the pressures on urban centres. Be-

tween 2001 and 2011, Karnataka’s urban population

increased by a significant 31% from 18.0 to 23.6 mil-

lion. For the rural population the increase was a mod-

erate 7.8% from 34.9 to 37.6 million. Massive migration

to urban centres explains in part the marginal increase

in the rural population. The increase in the urban pop-

ulation contributed significantly to environmental is-

sues observed in respect of surface and groundwater

contamination, poorly managed waste and air pollu-

tion.

2. LAND UTILISATION

The state has significant agricultural and forest lands

and accounts for 27,481 inhabited villages, 270 towns

and urban agglomerations, 176 taluks divided into

presently 30 districts. This includes Yadgir, which was

created through the division of Gulbarga district in

2010. As Table 1 indicates, more than 3.1 million ha

(16%) of land is under forest cover. There are however

major differences within the state. In northern Karna-

taka about 76% of the geographical area is sown but

only 53% in southern Karnataka.

3. URBAN DEVELOPMENT

3.1. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

Directorate of Town and Country Planning is responsi-

ble for urban and rural planning in the state. The main

mandate of the department is to monitor, scrutinise

and advise in the preparation of master plans, pre-

pared by town planning authorities (TPA) and urban

development authorities (UDA). Planning encompasses

the preparation of master plans under the Karnataka

Town and Country Planning Act, 1961 and rules. The

URBAN AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT AT A GLANCE

Districts (2011) 30 Urban Rural

Taluks (2011) 176 Literacy

Towns and urban agglomerations 270 2011 86.2% 68.9%

Revenue villages 27,481 2001 80.6% 59.3%

Rural habitations (2010) 57,417 Child morbidity under 5 years of age per 1000 life births

Notified slums (2011) 2,251 2005 42.9 61.1

Number of houses 12.2 million 1992 70.6 94.4

Population Water supply of 40 l/d of per capita in habitations

2021 (projected) 70.0 million 2010 56%

2011 61.0 million 2001 38%

2001 52.9 million Access to toilets by households

Human development index (HDI) 2009 28%

2006 0.622 1991 7%

1996 0.558


244

State Town Planning Board, constituted in 1964, advis-

es government on town planning, development, gen-

eration of resources and policies for the equitable de-

velopment.

The Constitution (Seventy-Fourth Amendment) Act,

1992 reorganised urban local bodies (ULB) and em-

powered them to perform essential functions. Master

plans are the key instrument for control of land and re-

gional planning, delineated by district boundaries. The

act also provides for the constitution of district and

metropolitan planning committees to integrate urban

and rural plans. These are yet to gain status in Karna-

taka and the ambit of their functions is yet to be clari-

fied. With the shortcoming of effectiveness in function-

ing of these committees in integrating physical and fis-

cal plans, there is bound to be an impact on the envi-

ronment. The range of issues concerned includes wa-

ter supply, depletion of groundwater, sanitation defi-

cits, a shortage of housing which in turn could spurn

encroachment, non-reservation of land and housing

for economically weaker sections (EWS) and a shortage

of open spaces, parks and playgrounds. Considering

that physical and fiscal requirements can rarely be met

in totality, planning committees need to be able to set

priorities and apportion funds accordingly. The chal-

lenge is significant and could assume insurmountable

proportions if not tackled in a planned manner.

Of Karnataka’s 237 urban centres, 109 are designated

as local planning areas. Also some 46 municipalities

have been declared as local planning areas. The ag-

gregate local planning area of urban development au-

thorities is 5,690 km2

and 5,959 km2 for town planning

authorities (refer Figure 1 and Figure 2).

Table 1: Land utilisation in 2008-09 in hectare

District Total area Forest cover

Non-agricultural and barren land

Other uncul-tivated land

Fallow land Area sown

Northern Karnataka

1. Bagalkot 81,126 53,642 5,738 63,030 567,257

2. Belgaum 190,424 113,853 39,357 202,459 1,009,297

3. Bellary 97,017 122,100 33,917 125,244 575,787

4. Bidar 27,707 41,133 44,285 88,547 400,182

5. Bijapur 1,977 64,906 16,393 224,205 849,500

6. Dharwad 35,235 25,802 6,442 63,366 498,892

7. Gadag 32,614 22,109 3,866 47,422 458,269

8. Gulbarga inlc. Yadgir 69,089 131,107 51,263 164,080 1,427,097

9. Haveri 47,454 38,472 17,465 17,140 423,526

10. Koppal 29,451 55,497 17,453 91,128 469,041

11. Raichur 18,167 40,647 44,212 221,743 651,483

12. Uttara Kannada 813,595 50,694 27,881 18,211 124,996

Total north 9,813,116 1,443,856 759,962 308,272 1,326,575 7,455,327

Southern Karnataka

13. Bangalore Rural 11,322 51,102 20,004 23,338 129,522

14. Bangalore Urban 5,055 119,791 16,893 21,321 56,399

15. Chamarajanagar 275,610 46,040 35,169 21,244 230,544

16. Chikkaballapur 49,704 66,235 72,135 31,819 189,854

17. Chikkamagalur 200,485 70,961 130,839 23,870 329,269

18. Chitradurga 73,719 76,646 121,672 68,685 481,430

19. Dakshina Kannada 128,476 123,383 81,914 12,299 157,926

20. Davanagere 89,918 59,496 33,018 22,986 460,772

21. Hassan 58,775 109,119 54,048 82,884 448,168

22. Kodagu 134,597 54,971 47,245 8,927 178,479

23. Kolar 20,620 74,547 52,824 47,387 187,541

24. Mandya 24,765 82,425 77,386 60,347 303,574

25. Mysore 62,851 112,840 83,587 78,918 523,515

26. Ramanagara 69,946 50,564 29,790 38,560 172,380

27. Shimoga 276,855 101,765 206,638 44,443 255,854

28. Tumkur 45,177 151,815 160,128 92,561 684,415

29. Udupi 100,102 51,013 94,449 9,564 123,474

Total south 9,236,720 1,627,977 1,402,713 1,317,739 689,153 4,913,116

Total in ha 19,049,836 3,071,833 2,162,675 1,626,011 2,015,728 12,368,443 in km

2 190,498 30,718 21,627 16,260 20,157 123,684

Adapted from Directorate of Economics and Statistics. Karnataka at a glance 2009-10


245

3.2. HOUSING

3.2.1. Housing needs

The population of Karnataka as per Census 2011 is 61

million, 23.6 million of which live in urban areas. As-

suming five persons per household, the total number

of houses in the state should be around 122 lakh right

now, 47 lakh of which in urban areas. Current data on

housing unfortunately is not available as yet. Consider-

ing a decadal growth rate of 15.7% over the 2011

population, Karnataka could be having a population of

around 70 million in 2021 and require 140 lakh hous-

es. Assuming a gross density of 125 persons/ha, the

land required to house the state’s population in 2021

would be 112 lakh ha taking into account existing

housing land as well. Conversion pressures on agricul-

tural land to accommodate growing housing needs

are likely to increase. Given this scenario, the need for

formulation of a state housing policy is imminent.

According to Census 2011, the urban population of

India is 377 million. Taking into account towns with a

population over 50,000, there are 93 million slum

dwellers, constituting 25% of the urban population. On

average, every fourth Indian urban citizen resides in a

slum. Karnataka Slum Development Board (KSDB) esti-

mates slum dwellers in the state to be 35.5 lakh resid-

ing in 2,251 notified and a smaller number of unrec-

ognised slums. Quite obviously, the housing shortage

is most pronounced for economically weaker sections

(EWS) and low income groups. A 2010 report of the

National Sample Survey Organisation found that urban

households have an average per capita floor area of

10.4 m2 in Karnataka but only 5.6 m

2 on pan-Indian

average for the lowest class in the monthly per capita

expenditure (MPCE) index.

In 2009-10, 18.5% of the state’s population lived below

the poverty line as defined by Planning Commission.

26.4 lakh households that belong to economically

weaker sections were identified by Rajiv Gandhi Rural

Figure 1: Local planning area of town planning authorities in km2

Figure 2: Local planning area of urban development authorities in km2


246

Housing Corporation Limited (RGRHCL) through regu-

lar surveys. Housing schemes for 23.6 lakh of these are

reported to have been approved to uplift these pre-

dominantly hut dwelling households.

3.2.2. Policy

Government of India released the first National Hous-

ing Policy (NHHP) in 1988. Given that the housing

shortage has not been overcome in two decades, the

revised National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy

2007 seeks to augment housing stock with greater

emphasis on the urban poor. Key elements of the new

policy include:

Encouraging states to continuously update zoning

and master plans to provide for the poor among

other things;

Facilitate an acceleration of supply of land and

housing for economically weaker sections and low

income groups;

Increase energy and cost efficiency in housing and

incorporate ‘green’ building concepts;

Remove legal, financial and administrative barriers

for facilitating access to tenure, land and finance.

In order to provide incentives to cities for improving

sustainable service delivery systems for institutional,

structural and fiscal reforms, the Jawaharlal Nehru Na-

tional Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) was

launched in 2005 for an initial period of seven years

with a financial outlay of INR 500 billion. In Karnataka,

beneficiary cities are Bangalore and Mysore.

The state needs to ensure an adequate allocation of

land for productive as well as community purposes and

provide all sections of society with equal access to land

and shelter. Besides recognising this important respon-

sibility, the Draft Urban Development Policy for Karna-

taka 2009 points out that the development of urban

areas so far has failed to demonstrate a clear vision for

the integration of urban development into the overall

development of the state. The policy therefore aims at

dissipating the current tendency of unbalanced devel-

opment and stresses the need for industrial zones in

smaller town and a connection of economic centres

through so-called ‘industrial corridors’. Potential corri-

dors have been identified and include:

Hospet – Bellary – Raichur;

Tumkur – Bangalore – Hosur – Mysore – Mandya;

Belgaum – Hubli – Dharwad – Davanagere –

Harihar; and

Ratnagiri – Goa – Karwar – Mangalore.

3.2.3. Housing agencies

The main public housing agencies are the Karnataka

Housing Board (KHB) and the Rajiv Gandhi Rural Hous-

ing Corporation Limited (RGRHCL) which provide ur-

ban and rural housing respectively. In addition, private

housing societies play a significant role in co-operative

housing development. Other agencies which contrib-

ute to the housing sector are Karnataka Slum Devel-

opment Board (KSDB), urban local bodies (ULBs) and

urban development authorities (UDA). Wherever UDAs

provide housing, it is mainly in the form of sites and

services and occasionally group housing.

As the urban population increases, so will EWS. This

means that the need for housing for this section is of

paramount importance, especially considering the ab-

sence of any concrete achievement in the eradication

of poverty. 15% to 20% of public housing schemes are

reserved for EWS, mostly in the form of plots while

construction is to be undertaken by beneficiaries. The

provision of houses by the public agencies is far below

the vast requirement at present. Unless there is a con-

certed effort to extend public housing for EWS, the

problem is unlikely to show any signs of mitigation.

Figure 4: Apartments rise high in Bangalore, a result of

escalating land cost

Figure 3: Bangalore’s Mantri Mall — Icon of urban consumer culture


247

Several central government schemes are directed to

mitigate the housing deficit. These include the Ashraya

Programme with its urban and rural branches, Dr.

Ambedkar Housing Scheme, Indira Awas Yojana and

Neralina Bhagya.

3.2.4. Implications of master plans

Among other things, every master plan deals with

housing. It generally informs of the status and future

requirement but does not indicate breakups for the

various groups. While not being an explicit policy in-

strument to that effect, master plans could play a role

in preventing encroachments, slum formation or illegal

housing by assessing EWS housing needs and prescrib-

ing suitable measures such as reservation or low cost

housing. This would oblige authorities to acquire and

reserve this land bank for EWS.

3.2.5. Slum development

Substantial effort is directed at raising the abysmal liv-

ing conditions in slums. Slum development is being

mainstreamed though a designated state agency that

was aptly renamed from Karnataka Slum Clearance

Board to Karnataka Slum Development Board (KSDB).

This change indicates indeed a fundamental change in

the government’s approach to slums but also implies

an acknowledgement of failure in the eradication of

conditions that lead to the emergence and sustenance

of slums. A defined slum policy that seeks to address

certain pertinent issues below is presently under con-

sideration. These include:

Uplifting slums to decongested hygienic localities

with basic amenities;

Grant of tenurial rights to slum residents;

Community participation in design, implementa-

tion, maintenance and management of slum im-

provement and housing projects;

Urban development authorities are sought to trans-

fer 5% of land to KSDB free of cost for creation of

land banks for relocation of slums wherever neces-

sary;

Simplification of the acquisition of land occupied by

slum dwellers for regularisation of slums.

3.3. LUNG SPACES

3.3.1. Implications of master plans

Parks, playgrounds and open spaces have an im-

portant role as recreational space but receive low prior-

ity. They are the single most contributor for improving

physical health of citizens with a direct positive impact

on the environment. Every master plan therefore ear-

marks areas for parks, playgrounds and open spaces.

Planning institutions, mechanisms and capacities ap-

pear prima face adequate. Bottlenecks exist however,

as is often the case, in the implementation. Fund short-

ages, which are not uncommon at ULB level, can not

only delay but completely thwart the acquisition of

land for these purposes. After a delay of five years,

master plans expire and the obligation for develop-

ment of these areas on part of the ULB lapses. In these

cases respective owners are re-entitled to their land

which can be used for any purpose while a well-

intended regulation of land use fails. As far as parks

and playgrounds are concerned, a saving grace is the

mandatory provision of these in layouts and group

housing projects. The Karnataka Town and Country

Planning Act needs to be amended to prevent land

from going out of hand through the lapse of master

plans.

Even burial grounds are classified as open spaces.

Hardly any master plan contains proposals for desig-

nated burial grounds. Earmarking of such open spaces

is much needed as they cannot possibly be located in

commercial or residential areas.

3.3.2. Institutional playgrounds

Whether nursery, primary school, high school or col-

lege, educational institutions ought to have play-

grounds. Sadly, such is quite often not the case. 37% of

62,542 schools in the state do not have playgrounds.

Karnataka has nearly one crore students of which 16

lakh are in the age group of 9-10. It would be desirable

Figure 5: Construction of apartments — An ubiquitous indicator of urban expansion


248

to prepare a dossier on schools that have no play

grounds so that options for creating these can be ex-

plored. This aspect has a bearing not only on health

but also on the environment.

3.3.3. Green belts

A strip of open land covered with vegetation around

the limits of inhabited or industrial areas is generally re-

ferred to as green belt. The Karnataka Town and Coun-

try Planning Act does not provide a definition for green

belts but the Karnataka Land Revenue Act mentions

them. A circular of Rural Development and Co-

operation Secretariat de facto institutionalises them by

directing village panchayats around Bangalore to de-

ny authorisation for proposed building constructions

beyond their respective jurisdiction (gramathana) and,

importantly, within 200 metres from the panchayat

boundary.

In master plans for local planning areas, the limits of

conurbations are defined based on land requirement

for the projected year of planning. The land between

the planning area and the conurbation limit is termed

rural tract (refer Figure 6). This tract with predominant-

ly agricultural use is a no-development zone except for

uses permitted by the pertaining zonal regulation. This

stretch is generally wrongly interpreted as green belt.

From a planning perspective rural tracts are not per-

manent. Subsequent revisions of master plans tend to

alter conurbation limits for the next planning period.

However, most certainly there should be green belts

between development zones. This would help preserve

some of the country characteristics, provide habitats for

flora and fauna, and absorb air pollution and noise to

some degree besides enhancing the general appeal of

the area.

An intrusion into rural tracts is not advisable as it dis-

turbs the environmental setting. It would in fact be de-

sirable to retain rural tracts permanently by restricting

future development here. This would imply a re-

definition of local planning areas and may be achieved

by enshrining the creation of permanent rural tracts,

which are de facto green belts, in the Karnataka Town

and Country Planning Act through amendment. As has

been pointed out, it is presently permissible to change

the land use of rural tracts. In practice therefore even

before areas in conurbation limits are fully utilised, the

character of rural tracts is changed. Consequently,

there is an adverse effect on the environment since in-

frastructure is developed beyond the conurbation lim-

its in order to meet needs relating to the land devel-

oped. If adequate water supply and sanitation is not in

place, the exploitation of groundwater and deficiencies

in wastewater management typically have a cascading

negative effect on rural tracts.

3.4. WATER BODIES

Rivers, tanks, nallas and valleys are important aspects of

urban planning and development. It is important that

natural drainage courses are maintained without ob-

Figure 6: Green belts vis-à-vis rural tracks and development zones

Table 2: Schools without playground

District Schools Without

playground

1. Bagalkot 1,982 592

2. Bangalore Rural 1,463 705

3. Bangalore Urban 4,448 1,381

4. Belgaum 2,089 639

5. Bellary 2,190 930

6. Bidar 2,147 819

7. Bijapur 2,738 683

8. Chamarajanagar 1,127 448

9. Chikkaballapur 2,044 1,032

10. Chikkamagalur 2,004 639

11. Chitradurga 2,346 939

12. Dakshina Kannada 1,827 296

13. Davanagere 2,289 754

14. Dharwad 1,348 355

15. Gadag 1,014 238

16. Gulbarga 2,777 1,197

17. Hassan 3,376 1,469

18. Haveri 1,725 513

19. Kodagu 548 108

20. Kolar 2,429 1,405

21. Koppal 1,376 413

22. Mandya 2,552 954

23. Mysore 3,012 1,130

24. Raichur 2,046 796

25. Ramanagara 1,827 969

26. Shimoga 2,414 812

27. Tumkur 3,029 1,419

28. Udupi 1,220 205

29. Uttara Kannada 2,254 1,163

30. Yadgir 901 435

Total 62,542 23,438


249

struction. Experience has taught that obstructions of

main drains or raja kaluve as they are called in the

state, lead to flooding in urban areas in the rainy sea-

son. The development of towns must consider topo-

graphic features and natural drainage more closely. A

study of this kind, still a novelty, has been prepared for

Bangalore Metropolitan Region (BMR) and was used

for preparation of the Interim Master Plan for urban

centres in BMR.

3.5. ZONING REGULATIONS

Zoning of land use is a key instrument for regulating

land use. The definition of zones provides the basis for

the development of master plans and permits the set-

ting of safeguards for populations induced. For in-

stance, zoning in the Bangalore Metropolitan Region

needs to ensure that by 2031 a population of 124 lakh

can be accommodated. As part of master plans, zoning

regulations stipulate permissible land uses in different

zones of the local planning area and define area specif-

ic building regulations in view of setbacks, floor area

ratio, coverage, approaches, ingress and exits beyond

the provisions of the Karnataka Municipalities Act and

building by-laws formulated by urban local bodies

(ULBs). Many ULBs however are yet to formulate build-

ing by-laws and therefore follow merely previous prec-

edents.

3.6. TRANSFER OF DEVELOPMENT RIGHTS

Master plans also contain proposals for widening of

roads to keep pace with growing and anticipated traf-

fic volumes. The acquisition of land for roads and other

public purposes by the government is a controversial

issue as it overrides property rights of individuals based

on legal provisions of the Land Acquisition (Karnataka

Extension and Amendment) Act, 1961. To enhance ac-

ceptability among property owners required to relin-

quish land, the concept of Transfer of Development

Rights (TDR) was introduced in the Karnataka Town

and Country Planning Act. This change rewards the

voluntarily surrender of land by permitting additional

floor area (1.5 times the area of land surrendered).

TDRs can also be utilised elsewhere in the local plan-

ning area and even be transferred to a third party.

However, the scheme received poor reception so far.

This is attributed to the fact that landowners often pre-

fer financial compensation (which the scheme elegant-

ly circumvents) and also the fact that present market

values of lands requisitioned are neither assessed nor

considered.

4. RURAL DEVELOPMENT

4.1. REGIONAL IMBALANCES

Karnataka was formed on November 01, 1956 based

on regions with communities sharing the same mother

tongue, Kannada. The re-organisation combined five

areas that had hitherto distinct separate administra-

tions:

The entire Mysore state, which had emerged from

the erstwhile Kingdom of Mysore comprising of My-

sore, Bangalore, Kolar, Tumkur, Chitradurga,

Chikkamagalur and Hassan district;

Areas under Bombay Presidency comprising of

Dharwad, Belgaum, Bijapur and Uttara Kannada

district;

Areas of Hyderabad state comprising of Bidar,

Gulbarga and Raichur district;

Areas under Madras Presidency comprising of Bel-

lary and Dakshina Kannada district; and

Coorg that was later renamed to Kodagu district.

The eight districts belonging formerly to Mysore state

had a considerable advantage in their well-developed

banking system, educational facilities, railway network,

industrial development, water supply and institutional-

ised income taxation. These were chiefly lacking in the

other four regions. The consequences of this uneven

start have continued to influence regional develop-

ment in Karnataka and are felt even today.

A reduction of regional imbalances has economic, so-

cial, political and cultural significance. Economically

backward regions need not necessarily remain so if

their intrinsic potential is mobilised. Inspired by policies,

strategic development planning seeks to gradually re-

move disparities. In order to formulate strategic long-

Figure 7: Communication goes rural — Bridging disparity


250

term responses, Government of Karnataka constituted

the Nanjundappa Committee. It investigated regional

imbalances in detail and presented their findings along

with recommendations in the 2002 Report on High

Power Committee for Redressal of Regional Imbalances

in Karnataka.

As part of this elaborate assessment, a 35-parameter

index was devised so as to measure the status of de-

velopment and in turn backwardness. The assessment

was conducted at the taluk level, which is the adminis-

trative unit below the district level. All in all, the com-

mittee found 114 out of Karnataka’s 176 taluks to be

backward, which is nearly two thirds of the state. Ta-

luks were classified into three finely worded categories

depending on the degree of backwardness (refer Table

3). While the number of taluks that are backward in

general is similar in north and south Karnataka (59 vs.

55), northern Karnataka has double the number of

most backward taluks. This confirmed the perceived

pronounced north-south divide in the state. This as-

sessment would continue to serve the government to

allocate priorities and special funds for the develop-

ment of backward taluks.

4.2. PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT

4.2.1. Literacy and gender disparity

Karnataka ranks 16th

in the Education Development

Index (EDI) among 35 states of India. EDI takes into ac-

count infrastructure, access to education, teachers and

outcomes. In infrastructure in primary and upper pri-

mary schools Karnataka ranks 23 and 24 respectively.

This considers shared and separate toilets, drinking wa-

ter and the classroom ratio. Karnataka’s rural literacy

rate has leaped from 59.3% to 68.9% between 2001

and 2011. Urban literacy by comparison rose moder-

ately from 80.6% to 86.2% and overall literacy from

66.6% to 75.6% in the same period. The disparity be-

tween male and female in literacy still continues in the

state. Most backward districts are Yadgir and Raichur,

while Dakshina Kannada, Kodagu and Bangalore dis-

tricts have nearly achieved gender parity in literacy.

Gender disparity occurs in India since ancient times.

The sex ratio is a proxy for gender disparities, albeit a

rather crude one. As common in India, the sex ratio fa-

vours men across Karnataka except for the three dis-

tricts of Udupi, Kodagu and Dakshina Kannada. The

latter two are noteworthy because they almost

achieved gender parity in literacy as well (see above).

Between 2001 and 2011 the sex ratio has improved in

Belgaum and Chitradurga but it remains skewed in

Bangalore Rural, Bijapur, Bidar, Haveri and, surprising-

ly, the capital district Bangalore Urban. Important fac-

tors responsible for tilted gender ratio is the differential

social status accorded to male and the female children

in the family's social hierarchy, lower marriage age for

girls and of course the profound burden of dowry

practices.

4.2.2. Water supply and sanitation

Without adequate water supply and sanitation, health

and hygiene cannot be maintained. 40 litres of drink-

ing water per capita and day for domestic uses is na-

tionally defined as minimum requirement for rural citi-

zens and hence a development goal. Habitations in

which this requirement is met are classified as ‘fully

covered’ and those that fall short of supply as ‘partially

covered’. In case of hot districts such as Bellary, Raichur

and Bijapur a minimum of 70 litres per capita per day is

considered necessary which includes even water re-

quirement for some livestock. In rural areas water is

drawn either from bore wells, hand pumps or fetched

from nearby rivers or lakes.

Figure 8: Driving literacy — A government primary school at Vadaradoddi

Table 3: Taluks identified as backward in 2002

Taluk categories Index North Karnataka South Karnataka Total

Backward 0.89 to < 1.00 16 19 35

More backward 0.80 to < 0.89 17 23 40

Most backward 0.53 to < 0.80 26 13 39

Total 59 55 114

Adapted from Nanjundappa, D.M. et al. (2002). Report of the High Power Committee for Redressal of Regional Imbalances in Karnataka; Nanjundappa Committee


251

In 2001 Directorate of Economics and Statistics as-

sessed 62% of Karnataka’s rural habitations to be par-

tially covered. This suggests that about 38% of habita-

tions were fully covered. Since then government im-

plemented schemes enhancing water supply in defi-

cient areas. About 2 lakh bore wells with hand pumps

were sunk and 28,000 mini- and 20,000 piped water

supply schemes installed since 2008. This shows tangi-

ble results. By March 2010 fully covered habitations

have risen to 56% of the state’s rural 57,417 habita-

tions, according to the Directorate of Economics and

Statistics. Department of Rural Development and Pan-

chayat Raj however pegs the number of fully covered

habitations at 41,081. This estimate appears to relate to

pumping and distribution capacity created rather than

actual supply.

Another challenge is water pollution. Karnataka is fac-

ing concerning levels of fluoride, arsenic, iron, nitrate

and salinity of both anthropogenic and geogenic (nat-

ural) origin. It is estimated that about 12% of the state’s

population is affected by high iron content, 10.3% by

excess fluoride, 7.9% by brackishness and 7.2% by ex-

cessive levels of nitrate. Affected water appears discol-

oured, has a rusty, bitter or metallic taste and is linked

to health effects ranging from discoloration of teeth,

bone damage to blue baby disease, cardiovascular dis-

eases and high blood pressure.

Poor sanitation reflects on socio-economic develop-

ment. The consumption of unsafe water, improper dis-

posal of human excreta, high infant mortality rates are

in part attributed to poor sanitation. A sanitation cam-

paign is under implementation across districts since

2005 with gram panchayats as implementing unit at

the village level. The target is to achieving an environ-

ment free of open defecation, along with sanitation in

schools and rural child care centres (anganwadis). Back

in 1991 only 6.9% of rural households had access to

toilets. A 2009 survey of 17,200 households by Ar-

ghyam, an NGO, found that this number has risen to

7% and 21% with toilets inside and outside the house

respectively. This however leaves us with a startling

72% who still defecate in the open. For Raichur district

the estimate was 98%. More recent or comprehensive

data to shed light on this important subject is not avail-

able yet. This could well be an indicator that progress

may not be worth highlighting.

4.2.3. Health

Health is greatly compromised wherever drinking wa-

ter is unfit for consumption or where there is a lack of

sanitary facilities. This scenario is not untypical for rural

Karnataka and felt especially by the economically

weaker sections that constitute the majority. This is ex-

acerbated in the case of women who can expect lim-

ited or poor maternal and child health services and

cook indoors with firewood or cow dung. Measured

levels of damaging pollutants from biomass stoves are

at least ten times greater than standards for ambient

air.

According to the latest National Family Health Survey,

the mortality of children under the age of five is 54.7

per thousand life births for Karnataka as a whole. This

is significantly higher than Tamil Nadu (35.5) or Kerala

(16.3). Nevertheless, for Karnataka this marks an

achievement compared to two decades ago when

mortality stood at 83.7. Not surprisingly, in rural Karna-

taka mortality of children under five is limping far be-

hind. In absolute numbers the gap appears to be

gradually closing (refer Table 4) but relative trends re-

veal that rural morbidity today lags farther behind than

two decades ago (44% vs. 34%). Infant mortality is a

crucial indicator because it is determined by a broad

range of health, social and economic factors, each of

which is an indicator of rural development itself. Fac-

tors include socio-cultural-gender discrimination in so-

ciety as well as within the family, particularly in terms of

food distribution, early marriage of girls and frequent

pregnancies. It also includes superstition, awareness on

adequate maternal and child care and feeding practic-

es, nutrition, access to health services, especially ma-

ternal and child care services and to safe drinking wa-

ter.

With regard to health care facilities, the state has17 dis-

trict hospitals, 10 other hospitals, 29 autonomous and

teaching hospitals, 326 community health centres and

2,193 primary health centres. Apart from allopathic

centres, there are 659 government ayurvedic dispensa-

ries in the state. There are wide variations in the availa-

bility of doctors. At the one end of the scale Hubli has

10.7 doctors for a population of 10,000 whereas value

drops lowest in Gubbi with 0.74 doctors per 10,000 in

2001.

Table 4: Infant mortality trends in Karnataka

National Family

Health Survey

Survey

period

Morbidity of infants under 5 per 1,000 life births Rural-urban gap

Urban Rural Total Absolute Relative

Survey 1 1990-92 70.6 94.4 83.7 +23.8 +34%

Survey 2 1996-98 48.8 79.0 69.8 +30.2 +62%

Survey 3 2003-05 42.9 61.6 54.7 +18.7 +44%

Note: All data as of 0 up to 4 years preceding the survey Adapted from Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (2008). National Family Health Survey 2005-06


252

4.2.4. Livelihoods

Agriculture is the chief income source of the rural

economy. The viability of agriculture and livelihood

provider is plagued by a variety of factors. The average

size of land holdings is decreasing owing to the way

land is passed on from generation to generation. Mar-

ginal and small farmers face great difficulties in survival.

This is compounded by scarcity of water. This supports

a trend whereby small farmers sell their landholdings

and join as agricultural labourers on other farms. Con-

tinuous or fulltime employment is rare. Given the low

level of other employment opportunities in rural areas,

many shift to other activities and become construction

workers and find their way to urban areas as migrant

labourers in this course. Farmers who have taken loans

and face draughts for two or more consecutive years

lose income as well as the prospect of being able to re-

pay loans. Indebted and deprived of perspectives 1,193

farmers committed suicide between 2003 and 2007

according to Muzaffar Assadi (2010). Kannada Prabha

(2011) reported that 126 farmers have taken their lives

in 2010 and another 56 between January and July

2011.

The use of chemical fertilisers has progressively led to a

tangible loss in soil fertility. This in turn reduces crop

productivity and increases dependence on fertilisers. As

detailed in Chapter 6: Agriculture and Horticulture,

the consumption of N-P-K fertilisers has been rising

from 12.9 lakh tons per annum in the state in 2001 to

20.6 lakh t/a in 2010. To bring down soil degradation

by over-use of chemical fertilisers, government is pro-

moting a large dryland farming scheme — Bhoo

Chetana in which fertiliser use is tailored to actual

needs based on soil tests. Organic farming, albeit being

supported, has received much less support as evident

from the 0.7 lakh ha organically cultivated against the

12 lakh ha (2011) under Bhoo Chetana.

Water is another important part of the agriculture

problem. In terms of drought prone area, the state is

second after Rajasthan. A failure of monsoon rains is

not uncommon and groundwater is often the only de-

pendable option in meeting water requirements. In five

districts more water is drawn than recharged. Over-

exploitation in some has reached 70% indicating that

the scarcity of groundwater is likely to grow.

30% of rural population of Karnataka lives on less than

INR 12 per person per day. Spending levels are low

across all classes of the monthly per capita consumer

expenditure (MPCE). Rural Karnataka also has the low-

est percentage (5.7%) of households with an MPCE of

above INR 890 among Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat,

Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. Apart from obvious

shortage of opportunities in sectors other than agricul-

ture, lack of required education and skills cannot lever-

age higher wages. Figure 9 shows employment status

in rural and urban areas of Karnataka. Between 2000

and 2005, the number of self-employed persons and

regular employees has declined for rural men, while

the proportion of casual labour has increased. This is

contrasted by a decline of casual labour in urban areas.

Traditional occupations of farmers are increasingly los-

ing their viability. Vagaries of the weather and debts

are compounded by uncertainties in market prices. The

crash of coffee price between 1999 and 2003 led to

observable out-migration in Karnataka’s coffee estates

in Kodagu. Migration, albeit being an alternative to no

Figure 9: The urban-rural employment divide - Adapted from Department of Planning, Programme Monitoring and Statistics (2011). Eco-

nomic Survey of Karnataka 2010-11

Table 5: Districts with highest farmer suicide incidence

District 2010 2011 (till July)

Chitradurga 10 8

Tumkur 10 3

Hassan 9 7

Chikkamagalur 9 3

Belgaum 9 2

Dharwad 9 1

Uttara Kannada 8 4

Haveri 7 3

Raichur 7 3

Koppal 7 1

Adapted from Kannada Prabha (September 1, 2011). Can government listen to the food provider’s sad story?


253

income, is fraught with hardship. The search for liveli-

hood with generally limited education and skills ends

often in urban slums as their rise in population indi-

cates.

5. TOURISM

5.1. SIGNIFICANCE

Karnataka has a rich cultural heritage favouring the

development of tourism. For Government of Karna-

taka, tourism is a revenue sector whose development is

promoted. In 2009 the new Tourism Policy 2009-14

was announced. In this period private investment of

INR 250 billion is envisaged to create 29 to 41 lakh

jobs. Unfortunately, this ambitious target is not sup-

ported by measures for mitigation of adverse impacts.

Tourism brings socio-economic growth based on cul-

tural dimensions of the state and generates employ-

ment opportunities for the skilled and unskilled while

increasing state revenue. Karnataka itself has contrib-

uted 9% of the total foreign exchange earned by the

country in 2008. It is estimated that about 8% to 11%

of the population are working for tourism, either direct-

ly or indirectly. Over the last six years between 25 and

39 million tourists visited the state (refer Table 6).

Though foreigners account for only between 1% and

2%, their revenue contribution is disproportionally

higher. Unexpectedly, the number of foreign visitors is

significantly more stable and thus dependable than

that of Indian tourists. In the year 2012, India was des-

tination for 5.8 million foreign tourists, 5.2 lakh of

which visited Karnataka. Though the state accounts for

only about 5% of India’s area, 9% of foreign tourist

chooses to visit the state among other options.

The state has been and is promoting tourism through a

host of measures:

Development of world heritage centres at Hampi

and Pattadakal at a combined cost of INR 225 crore;

Establishment of further bird sanctuaries in Kokre-

bellur, Anegundi, Attiveri and Kodagu while areas

of four further villages have been identified;

Integrated development of the Almatti dam in Bija-

pur district at a cost of INR 16 crore;

Establishment of prominent highway signage for

locations of interest in the state;

Development of a biological park within Banner-

ghatta National Park;

An introduction of night safari in Bannerghatta Na-

tional Park is under consideration.

5.2. THE ENVIRONMENTAL DIMENSION

While tourist arrivals and the steady stream of foreign

visitors underline the attractiveness of the state, con-

cerns are raised on dirty and unhygienic conditions,

even at places of touristic interest. Such issues pose a

challenge for making the state more visitor-friendly and

accommodate visitors at par with countries such as

Thailand or Malaysia. Adequate electricity and water

supply, sanitation and cleanliness besides infrastructure

are critical needs. But these are familiar challenges for

citizens of the state as well.

Besides electricity and water supply, tourism depends

on road connectivity, transport, hospitality and enter-

tainment and handicrafts. These are interrelated. When

tourism develops and a certain market is being created,

related services develop in the process. In rural areas

tourism is a boon for development, especially in respect

of regional infrastructure that is improved in the pro-

cess and employment generated. Adequate infrastruc-

ture to be provided by the state government and pri-

vate parties are very essential for limiting environmen-

tal damage in tourist areas caused by sizable visitor

populations.

5.3. ECO-TOURISM

In order to protect natural resources from negative im-

pacts, the focus on eco-tourism as ‘better’ alternative is

increasingly being pursued. In essence, eco-tourism is

responsible tourism that seeks "to conserve the envi-

ronment and improve the well-being of local people"

according to a definition by The International Ecotour-

ism Society (TIES). Responsible tourism is not limited to

‘green’ recreational facilities, quite a few of which are

available in Karnataka, but seeks to bring about new

qualities in interactions between visitor and the visited

while limiting damage – or simply changes – caused.

The promotion of such concepts seeks to protect Kar-

nataka’s rich forestry and other precious resources bet-

ter from intrusions and degradation.

The state has presently 14 eco-tourism units operated

by Jungle Lodges and Resorts and Directorate of Tour-

Table 6: Tourists' arrival from 2005-2009

Year Indians

Foreigners

Total Absolute

Of total

2005 24,698,243 545,225 2.2% 25,243,468

2006 36,195,907 505,524 1.4% 36,701,431

2007 37,825,953 534,563 1.4% 38,360,516

2008 37,010,928 520,041 1.4% 37,530,969

2009 32,729,679 529,847 1.6% 33,259,526

2010 38,202,077 524,573 1.4% 38,726,650

Adapted from Department of Planning, Programme Monitoring

and Statistics (2011, 2012). Economic Survey of Karnataka

2010-11 and 2011-12


254

ism. Suitable destinations for witnessing biodiversity

and wildlife in particular have been developed in eight

forest areas across the state. To promote responsible

tourism further it is necessary to expand the existing

network to other locations of touristic interest as well.


Urban development

Entire Karnataka should be brought under the Kar-

nataka Town and Country Planning Act;

A Regional Planning Bill should be formulated

based on the template prepared by Town & Coun-

try Planning Organisation, Government of India;

Role and status of district and metropolitan plan-

ning committees as well as urban development au-

thorities should be clarified rapidly, particularly in

respect of their relationship with urban local bodies;

Urban local bodies need to be strengthened to dis-

charge responsibilities vested through the Constitu-

tion (Seventy-Fourth Amendment) Act, 1992;

Government should enhance housing options for

the poor in order to cater to the growing demand

and prevent encroachments. This could be

achieved on the strength of existing policies and

provisions of the Karnataka Town and Country

Planning Act. Alternatively, town-planning schemes

with reservation for economically weaker sections

could be implemented in residential areas. This

would further aid the implementation of master

plan proposals, especially those in circulation.

Rural development

Mitigating the drivers of rapid rural out-migration by

securing rural livelihoods and promoting balanced de-

velopment of the state through:

Promotion of rural employment generation;

Improving access to quality education and health

services;

Provision of housing;

Strengthening agricultural livelihood through es-

tablishment of R&D and knowledge centres, educa-

tion of farmers in selection of appropriate farming

techniques and promotion of crop insurance.

Tourism

Promotion of sustainable and responsible tourism by:

Development of adequate infrastructure in respect

of hospitality, drinking water supply and sanitary

facilities accommodating even economical weaker

sections, including extension of the home stay

scheme Athithi;

Establishing eco-tourism units across locations of

tourist interest in adequate number;

Creation of toilets on travel corridors and in popular

destinations which in terms of number and mainte-

nance;

Allocation of waste collection bins in municipal are-

as and popular destinations outside and enforcing

a state wide ban on plastic carry bags;

Creation of pedestrian infrastructure in urban areas;

Developing further tourist locations in rural areas

for increasing employment opportunities in support

of regional development;

Defining instruments for mitigating negative im-

pacts on the environment remain with particular

view at the Tourism Policy 2009-14.

Figure 10: Urban-rural connectivity: The Bangalore-Mysore Expressway

255

CHAPTER 14

CLIMATE CHANGE

Co

urt

esy

V. S

ree

niv

as

Chapter 14: Climate Change

256


257

CONTENTS

1. BACKGROUND ............................................................................ 259

2. PROJECTED IMPACTS................................................................. 259

2.1. FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY ............................... 261

2.2. AGRICULTURE ......................................................... 263

2.3. COASTAL ZONE ...................................................... 264

2.4. WATER RESOURCES ............................................... 264

2.5. POWER SECTOR ...................................................... 267

2.6 HEALTH ..................................................................... 267

3. GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS .............................................. 268

3.1. GREENHOUSE GASES ............................................ 268

3.2. ANNUAL EMISSIONS .............................................. 268

4. RESPONDING TO THE CHALLENGE ...................................... 268


258

TABLES

Table 1: Rainfall and temperature projections for Indian forests for 2085 (B2 scenario).................................................. 261 Table 2: Projected impacts on yield of different crops ................................................................................................................. 264 Table 3: River systems of Karnataka ................................................................................................................................................... 265 Table 4: Research findings on climate change impact on water resources over 100 years ............................................ 267 Table 5: Potential health vulnerabilities due to climate change ............................................................................................... 267

FIGURES

Figure 1: Relationship between climate change and development ....................................................................................... 260 Figure 2: Cross-linkages between climate change and development .................................................................................... 261 Figure 3: Change projections for different forest types (A2 and B2 Scenario)..................................................................... 262 Figure 4: Projected change in forest types for2021-50 in Karnataka (A1B) .......................................................................... 262 Figure 5: Agricultural vulnerabilities.................................................................................................................................................. 263 Figure 6: A mango orchard in Bangalore district — A viable option for drought prone conditions ............................ 263 Figure 7: Coastal districts vulnerable to climate change ............................................................................................................. 264 Figure 8: Erosion of Karnataka coastline ........................................................................................................................................ 264 Figure 9: Proportion of drought prone area (%) ........................................................................................................................... 265 Figure 10: Projections for the Krishna basin for the monsoon (kharif) season (left) and post monsoon (rabi)

season (right) for 2021-2050 (A1B scenario) ............................................................................................................. 266 Figure 11: Transmission windows of malaria in India: The base year 2000 (left) compared to a projection for

2050s (right)......................................................................................................................................................................... 267 Figure 12: Sectoral breakup of Karnataka’s GHG emissions (% of CO2 equivalent) ........................................................... 268


259

1. BACKGROUND

The world today is confronted with one of the most

pressing global environmental challenge, a challenge

which is likely to have deleterious effects on natural

and human systems, economies and infrastructure: the

challenge of climate change. Anthropogenic (human)

activities have added significant quantities of green-

house gases (GHGs) to the earth’s atmosphere since

the industrial revolution. The accumulation of GHGs

increases the heat retention capacity of earth’s atmos-

phere and thus contributes to a warming of the world's

climate. Global GHG emissions from human activities

have grown with an increase of 70% between 1970

and 2004, since pre-industrial periods. Carbon dioxide

(CO2) is the most important GHG with its annual emis-

sions growing due to increased use of fossil fuels and

land-use change.

To investigate climate change, the Intergovernmental

Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in

1988 as leading scientific body by United Nations Envi-

ronment Programme (UNEP) and World Meteorologi-

cal Organization (WMO). Its latest Assessment Report

2007 concluded from observations of changes in tem-

perature, sea level, and snow cover that the warming

of the climate is unequivocal. Changes are likely to im-

pact hydrological systems, ecosystems, coast lines, crop

yields and related processes the world over, with par-

ticularly severe impacts in tropical areas, falling dispro-

portionately on developing countries. Anthropogenic

climate change is a result of human activities in indus-

try, energy, agriculture and land use change. Antici-

pated impacts are posing a serious threat to develop-

ment aspirations of the emerging economies like India

by further accentuating existing stresses on natural

resources such as water, forests, biodiversity and land.

The integral relationship between development, natu-

ral resources and climate change is presented in (refer

Figure 1).

Climate change is likely to impact all natural ecosys-

tems as well as socio-economic systems. IPCC predicts

temperature increases up to 2.7ºC over South Asia by

the 2080s, an increase in rainfall over the Indian sub-

continent by 6-8% and sea level rise of 88 cm by 2100.

With nearly 70% of rural populations directly depend-

ing on climate-sensitive sectors (agriculture, forests and

fisheries) and natural resources such as water, biodi-

versity, mangroves, coastal zones, grasslands for liveli-

hoods and subsistence, India is expected to feel the

brunt of climatic changes. With 27.5% of the popula-

tion below the poverty line, large sections will be vul-

nerable to the impacts of climate change. In addition,

urban areas will be further stressed due to rural-urban

migration and depleting resources.

However, the scale and accuracy of predictions of IPCC

has not remained uncontested. The Non-governmental

International Panel on Climate Change (NIPCC) for in-

stance drew attention to limitations of the IPCC as-

sessments while attributing observed climatic changes

largely to natural processes. In its 2009 report, ‘Climate

Change Reconsidered’, NIPCC argues that observed

changes are dominated by changes in ecological cycles

and not anthropogenic GHG emissions. These cycles,

the report holds, also caused the ice ages. A central

point in its critique is the claims that IPCC failed to take

into account the magnitude of the cooling effect on

earth caused mainly by atmospheric aerosol, dimethyl

sulphide from the oceans and iodo-compounds from

marine algae, thus leading to unrealistic predictions of

future temperatures.

In spite of limitations on the current scientific assess-

ment, the weight of evidence attributing climatic

changes to human activities is overwhelming. This

combined with the severity and irreversibility of certain

impacts makes preventive actions imperative, a need

that most governments acknowledge. Nevertheless, till

date the meetings of the Conference of the Parties

(CoP) under the UNFCCC have not been successful in

negotiating consensus on binding reductions on GHG

emissions. The chances for mitigating climate change

are increasingly diminishing. Failing to prevent climate

change, it appears imperative to prepare for its likely

impacts. Across the globe, governments are increasing-

ly adopting national programmes to deal with the

threat of climate change. India is one of them.

India is a large country with wide variations in socio-

economic and biophysical characteristics. Different

states differ in their vulnerability to climate change and

their capacity to cope with impacts. In this context,

Karnataka with its own set of unique geographical and

socio-economic features will therefore have specific

climate change implications, challenges and opportu-

nities. The chapter highlights key vulnerabilities of the

state and outlines selected impacts predicted on natu-

ral and human systems. Actions to be taken have not

been included in this chapter as a comprehensive ac-

tion plan for entire Karnataka has been prepared con-

currently to this report. The Karnataka State Action Plan

for Climate Change was adopted by Government of

Karnataka in March 2012.

2. PROJECTED IMPACTS

With a coastline of 320 kilometres and home to 60% of

Western Ghats, Karnataka has a wealth of natural re-

sources. Given the presence of large arid and semi-arid

tracts, high dependence on rain-fed agriculture and

significant numbers of over exploited watersheds, the

state is vulnerable to climate change impacts. The im-


260

portance of climate sensitive sectors such as agriculture

and hydropower and likely impacts of a changing cli-

mate on these can hardly be overemphasised. While

these depict the vulnerability of the state to climatic

impacts, a large share of forest cover, renewable ener-

gy generation and the energy efficiency potential in

the state present low carbon growth opportunities.

Climate change is increasingly being seen as a part of

the larger challenge of sustainable development. On

one hand impacts can severely hamper development

efforts in key sectors, e.g. changing rainfall patterns

impacting crop yields accentuating food security con-

cerns. On the other hand, development choices will

themselves influence the capacity to mitigate and

adapt to climate change for e.g. policies for clean en-

ergy.

Figure 2 shows that alternative development pathways

can result into different levels of greenhouse gas emis-

sions, leading to different climate change impacts. It

also identifies mitigation and adaptation as the two

response strategies to the problem of climate change.

Mitigation and adaptation policies can be more effec-

tive when consistently embedded within overall sus-

tainable development strategies. Fortunately, a con-

scious effort in this direction is already underway with

the Karnataka State Action Plan on Climate Change.

The following sections outline selected impact areas

along with some projections made. An in-depth discus-

sion of these topics can be found in the concurrent.

Figure 1: Relationship between climate change and development


261

2.1. FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY

Climate is seen as an important determinant of vegeta-

tion patterns globally and has noteworthy influence on

the distribution, structure and ecology of forests. A

number of climate-vegetation studies have shown that

certain climatic regimes are associated with particular

plant communities or functional types. It is therefore

logical to assume that climate changes would alter the

configuration of forest ecosystems.

20.5% of Karnataka’s geographical area is under for-

ests. Owing to the presence of a multitude of different

climatic and geographic regions, the state is endowed

with an enormous diversity of flora and fauna.

The state is home to 4,500 species of flowering plants,

600 bird species, 160 mammal species, 160 reptile spe-

cies including turtles, snakes, lizards and crocodiles, 70

frog species, and 800 species of fishes. It houses tropi-

cal evergreen forests, paddy fields, coconut and areca

nut orchards as well as mangroves. Karnataka has hilly

regions encompassing the Western Ghats and plains

embracing the inland plateau. The hill chain of the

Western Ghats, which is older than the Himalayas, is

one of the 34 global hotspots of biodiversity. They in-

voke the monsoons for southern India and are seen by

some scientist as cushion to climate change in spite of

their intrinsic vulnerability.

Forests of Karnataka also serve requirements for fire-

wood, fencing, grazing, fodder, leaf manure, bamboos,

canes and other forest produce for the use for local

habitants. Forest authorities permit the temporary cul-

tivation and collection of non-timber forest products

(NTFS) for scheduled tribes in many forests. But in re-

cent times, with the increasing population and urban

demands, privileges are being overused and create

pressures on forest resources (refer Chapter 1: Forest

and Biodiversity).

Figure 2: Cross-linkages between climate change and development — Adapted from IPCC 2007

Table 1: Rainfall and temperature projections for Indian forests for 2085 (B2 scenario)

Forest type

Mean annual rainfall (mm)

Change in rainfall (mm)

Mean temperature

(ºC)

Change in tempera-

ture

(ºC)

Blue-pine (Kail) 763.0 223.5 10.5 3.0

Chir-pine 1,373.4 437.4 17.1 2.8

Mixed-conifer 930.1 375.9 9.3 3.0

Hardwoods coni-fers mix

1,560.7 585.6 13.1 2.8

Upland hard-woods

1,523.8 476.9 16.4 2.7

Teak 1,314.6 353.0 26.1 2.9

Sal 1,435.2 348.3 24.6 2.7

Bamboo forest 2,268.3 564.9 23.8 2.7

Mangrove 1,734.3 280.8 26.6 2.5

Western Ghats

evergreen forest 3,111.3 368.7 25.4 2.4

Miscellaneous forest

1,679.8 374.5 23.0 2.7


262

.....

Figure 3: Change projections for different forest types (A2 and B2 Scenario)

Figure 4: Projected change in forest types for2021-50 in Karnataka (A1B) — Adapted from Bangalore Climate Change Initiative — Karnataka (2011)


263

In an earlier work Ravindranath et al., 2006 studied the

impact of climate change on forests in India using the

Regional Climate Model of the Hadley Centre and veg-

etation response model across the Indian region. Un-

der this model, baseline value of 320 ppm of CO2 was

used for the present climate and for 2085 two scenari-

os are considered; A2 (extreme scenario of 740 ppm

CO2) and B2 (moderate scenario of 575 ppm CO2). The

impact of climate change on selected ecosystems was

studied in terms of change in rainfall and mean tem-

perature. Refer Table 1 for the values for these forests

under the B2 scenario.

The study projects that the Western Ghats could be-

come warmer by 2.4oC in the B2 scenario as compared

to national average increase of 2.9oC. For the more

extreme A2 scenario, a change of 3.3oC in mean tem-

perature has been predicted. Important forest types

such as the Western Ghats, evergreen and semi-

evergreen and mangroves are projected to experience

only minimal or no changes in type according to both

A2 and B2 scenarios. However, other forest types are

likely to experience more change (refer Figure 3).

A recent projection by Bangalore Climate Change Initi-

atives - Karnataka (BCCI-K) in 2011 however projected

shifts in Karnataka’s forest types in the central and

northern parts of Western Ghats and Karnataka’s

south-east (refer Figure 4).

The possibility of beneficial climate change impacts has

also been studied. It has been found that the increase

of CO2 in the atmosphere may increase the amount of

carbon that plants absorb through photosynthesis.

Enhanced CO2 levels would thus contribute to an ac-

celeration of plant growth resulting in as increase in

the net primary productivity (NPP) of forests. The cur-

rent net primary productivity for Indian forests grids

studied is 835 gram carbon per square meter (gC/m2).

This value is projected to increase to 1,445 by 2085 in

the B2 scenario and to 1,670 gC/m2 in the more ex-

treme A2 scenario. The interdependent relation of flora

and fauna of forests will in turn affect biodiversity too.

It is vital to understand that forest ecosystems need

well-planned mitigation and adaptation strategies to

deal with climate change.

2.2. AGRICULTURE

With all probability, agriculture is the sector that will be

most impacted by climate change. 65% of Karnataka’s

geographical area is under cultivation. Farmers and

agricultural labourers account for 56% of the total

workforce of Karnataka. Agriculture thus provides live-

lihood for the majority of the population. Changes in

the climate affects agricultural productivity in two ma-

jor ways. Direct effects change temperature, precipita-

tion and CO2 concentrations. Indirect effects include

changes in soil moisture content and the distribution

and frequency of infestation by pests and diseases. A

number of studies were conducted to understand the

impact of climate change on agriculture. A 2004 study

predicts that the arid and semi-arid region in northeast

of Karnataka are “doubly” vulnerable to climate change

(refer Figure 5). Sanghi, Mendelsohn, and Dinar (1998)

estimate that a 2°C rise in mean temperature and a 7%

increase in mean precipitation could shrink the net

revenues approximately by 12% for the country as a

whole.

As far as yield is concerned, different studies projected

vastly different impacts. This suggests that yields de-

pend on a variety of factors, the most important one

being the crop in question and the region considered,

and sweeping conclusions for agriculture as a whole

cannot be made (refer Table 2).

BCCI-K’s 2011 study investigated production and

productivity for nine major crops in Karnataka for a

period spanning more than five decades. The assess-

ment concludes that the overall yield increased since

2000-2001. This resonates with the fact that the De-

partment of Agriculture was conferred 2011 national

award for the best performance in the increase in pro-

duction of core cereals. It seems reasonable to con-

clude that a better adaptation to changes can be

achieved by selecting crops for cultivation by consider-

ing their appropriateness given climatic trends and

projections for a given region.

Figure 6: A mango orchard in Bangalore district — A viable option for drought prone conditions

Figure 5: Agricultural vulnerabilities — Adapted from O’Brien, K., R. Leichenko, et al. (2004)


264

2.3. COASTAL ZONE

Karnataka has 320 km of coastline, spanning three dis-

tricts. As Figure 7 illustrates, 55% of Karnataka’s coast is

eroded, including the mouths of many small coastal

rivers and backwaters. A study of Udupi district’s 95 km

of coast line by Dwarakish et al. (2009) observed at

rate of erosion of about 0.6 km2/year. More than half of

the stretch was critically eroded. If sea levels rose, 59%

of the studied stretch would be at very high risk. A one-

meter flood is estimated to inundate more than 42 km2.

Climate related risks include tropical cyclones, sea-level

rise and changes in precipitation. Though a rise in sea

level has been predicted by IPCC, NATCOM 2004 ob-

served a relative decrease in the sea level of Karna-

taka’s coast. In a ranking system NATCOM assigned

Karnataka’s coastal districts the lowest of three vulner-

ability rankings. A study including a physiographic

evaluation, site specific sea-level changes, tidal envi-

ronment and hydrography of the coastline of Karna-

taka is needed to understand specific risks.


With the projected rise in temperatures, climate

change can impact the rainfall pattern and the hydro-

logical cycle. An increase in temperature increases the

evaporation of surface moisture. Higher temperatures

also increase the moisture holding capacity of ambient

air. This in turn enhances the intensity of rainfall events

and may increase the likelihood of floods.

Karnataka has 15.9 billon m3 of annual replenishable

groundwater with net groundwater availability of 15.3

billon m3. In 2004 groundwater exploitation reached

critical or semi-critical stages in 15 out of Karnataka’s

then 27 districts. Rising agricultural, industrial and do-

mestic demand vis-à-vis high dependence on ground-

water and continue to aggravate the situation. With

79% of its areas drought prone, Karnataka ranks high-

est in India in relative terms. In absolute terms it has the

Table 2: Projected impacts on yield of different crops

Crop Region Yield impact Reference

Rice South Increase NATCOM Report 2004

India Increase Aggarwal and Mail 2000

South Decrease/increase depending on scenario Sasendran et al. 1999

India Increase Mohandass et al. 1995

India Decrease Sinha and Swaminathan 1991

Wheat India Decrease Gangadhar Rao and Sinha 1994

India Decrease/increase depending on region/scenario Aggarwal and Kalra 1994

India Decrease/increase depending on region/scenario Aggarwal and Sinha 1993

India Decrease Sinha and Swaminathan 1991

Soybean India Decrease/increase depending on region/scenario Mall et al. 2004

Chickpea India Decrease Mandal 1998

Pigeonpea India Decrease Mandal 1998

Sorghum India Increase NATCOM Report 2004

India Decrease Chatterjee 1998

India Decrease/increase depending on region/scenario Gangadhar Rao et al. 1995

Adapted from Mall et al 2007, India’s Initial National Communication to the UNFCC, MoEF, 2004

Figure 8: Erosion of Karnataka coastline — Adapted from MoEF, 2004

Figure 7: Coastal districts vulnerable to climate change — Adapted from India’s Initial National Communication to the

UNFCCC - MoEF, 2004


265

second largest area of dryland after Rajasthan, it is vul-

nerable to increase in temperature and decrease in

rainfall. Changes in climate are feared to increase the

frequency and severity of droughts and hence impact

the supply of drinking water needs for both humans

and livestock.

Karnataka has seven river basins with a catchment of

about 192,000 km2. The total water availability from

these is about 7,660 thousand million cubic feet (TMC),

(or 217 billion m3) of which 3,475 TMC (or only 98 bil-

lion m3) are economically utilisable. The major portion

of it accounts for the presently unutilised west flowing

rivers. While utilising groundwater resources extensive-

ly, Karnataka is currently utilising only 49% of economi-

cally available quantity of surface water.

Research carried out points with increasing confidence

at the prospect that increased temperatures and pre-

cipitation may not necessarily increase run-off and wa-

ter availability. An increase in evapo-transpiration is

expected to over-compensate these effects, resulting in

a reduced net availability of run-off. Findings of select-

ed studies on impacts on water resources are summa-

rized (refer Table 3).

Using 1981-2000 data, NATCOM (2004) also projected

that increase in rainfall does not always result in an

increase in run-off as had been generally presumed.

Table 3 shows projections of this study, comparing a

warming scenario with higher greenhouse gas con-

centrations in the atmosphere with HadRM2-

generated reference scenario for the period 2041-

2060.

BCCI-K (2011) made focused projections for the Krish-

na and Cauvery basins, the two most important basins

of Karnataka. The study projected rainfall, surface run

off and evapo-transpiration for the 2035s, using the

HadCM3 model under the IPCC A1B scenario. In the

following, main trends are outlined while Figure 11

presents the results pertaining to the Krishna basin.

Changes in rainfall: A pronounced increase in pre-

cipitation is projected for the post-monsoon season

in the western part of the Krishna basin. The areas

around Bagalkote, Koppal and Raichur districts may

experience much less rainfall during the monsoon

season.

Changes in run-off: A substantial reduction of run-

off is expected in the northern part of the Krishna

and the western part of the Cauvery basin for both

seasons. The southern part of the Krishna basin and

the northern part of the Cauvery basin are project-

ed to see increases.

Figure 9: Proportion of drought prone area (%) — Adapted from Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka

0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%

Kar

nat

aka

Tam

ilnad

u

Raj

asth

an

Gu

jara

t

An

dh

ra P

rad

esh

Mah

aras

htr

a

Har

yan

a

Wes

t B

enga

l

Bih

ar

Mad

hya

Pra

des

h

Ori

ssa

Utt

ar P

rad

esh

J&K

Table 3: River systems of Karnataka

River System

Catchment Area Economically Availa-ble Quantity (TMC)

% Utilization (TMC) % km

2 %

1. Godavari 4,405 2.3 50.0 1.44 22.4 1.32

2. Krishna 113,271 59.1 969.4 27.90 1,156.0 68.40

3. Cauvery 34,273 17.8 425.0 12.23 408.6 24.17

4. West Flowing Rivers 26,214 13.7 1,998.8 57.51 0 0

5. North Pennar

13,610 7.1 32.0 0.92 103.31 6.11 6. South Pennar

7. Palar

Adapted from Water Resources Department, Government of Karnataka, 2009-10


266

Changes in evapo-transporation: The southwestern

part of the Krishna basin is projected to experience

significant increases in evapo-transpiration in the

monsoon season while the southeastern part may

see increases in the post-monsoon season. A similar

pattern emerges for the Cauvery basin where high-

est increases of evapo-transpiration are predicted

for Ramanagara in the post-monsoon season and

Kodagu in the monsoon season. More pronounced

however are reductions: the central-northeastern

part of the Krishna basin is projected to experience

significant evapo-transporation declines in both

seasons.

The current understanding of future changes on water

resources is limited. In absence of further studies inves-

tigating possible trends in Karnataka, the projections

presented should be treated with caution and be com-

pared and corroborated with research findings of oth-

er origin once these become available. Certain is how-

Figure 10: Projections for the Krishna basin for the monsoon (kharif) season (left) and post monsoon (rabi) season (right) for 2021-2050 (A1B scenario) — Adapted from Bangalore Climate Change Initiative — Karnataka (2011). Karnataka Climate

Change Action Plan; Final Report


267

ever, that climate changes would exacerbate the exist-

ing pressures on water resources in Karnataka.

2.5. POWER SECTOR

Fossil fuel is the major cause of anthropogenic global

warming. Its contribution is discussed in section 3 of

this chapter. At the same time the energy sector also

has certain vulnerabilities vis-à-vis climate change. In

Karnataka 4,197 MW of the installed capacity is hydro-

power while another 3,553 MW of hydro-power po-

tential remain untapped. Hydropower is and will con-

tinue to be crucial to energy security of Karnataka.

However, hydropower is sensitive to the availability of

water. Change in rainfall and run-off thus will impact

hydropower also.

2.6 HEALTH

Climate change is expected to adversely impact human

health. A warming climate would create a more con-

ducive environment for the spread of vector borne

diseases such as malaria, kala azar and dengue. For

central India, the transmission window for malaria

would expand from 4-6 to 7-9 months per year if the

climate warmed by 3.8oC (refer Figure 12). For Karna-

taka however no change is predicted as the transmis-

sion window is already 10-12 months a year. Warmer

temperature may increase thermal stress and thus con-

tribute to heat cramps, dehydration, influenza, cardio-

vascular and respiratory diseases. On the other hand,

extreme weather events resulting in increased inci-

dence of floods or droughts may adversely affect the

Figure 11: Transmission windows of malaria in India: The base year 2000 (left) compared to a projection for 2050s (right) —

Adapted from National Communication to UNFCC, MoEF, 2004

Table 4: Research findings on climate change impact on water resources over 100 years

Region Impact Reference

Indian subcontinent Increase in monsoonal and annual run-off in the central plains. No substantial change in winter run-off. Increase in evaporation and soil wetness during monsoon and on an annual basis

Lal and Chander 1993

All-India Increases in potential evaporation across India Chattopadhyary and Hulme 1997

Central India Basin located in a comparatively drier region is more sensitive to climatic changes

Mehrotra 1999

Southern and central India

Soil moisture increases marginally by 15-20% during monsoon months

Lal and Singh 2001

River basins of India General reduction in the the available run-off Gosain and Rao 2003

Adapted from R.K. Mall et al. 2007

Table 5: Potential health vulnerabilities due to climate change

Health concerns Vulnerabilities due to climate change

Vector-borne diseases Changed patterns of diseases

Malaria, filaria, kala-azar, Japanese encephalitis, and dengue caused by bacteria,

viruses and other pathogens carried by mosquitoes, ticks, and other vectors

Temperature-related morbidity Heat- and cold-related illnesses

Cardiovascular illnesses

Health effects of extreme weather Diarrhea, cholera and poisoning caused by biological and chemical contaminants in

the water (even today about 70% of the epidemic emergencies in India are water-

borne).

Damaged public health infrastructure due to cyclones/floods

Injuries and illnesses

Social and mental health stress due to disasters and displacement

Health effects due to lack of food security Malnutrition and hunger, especially in children

Adapted from India’s National Communication to UNFCC, MoEF, 2004


268

primary sector, particularly agricultural productivity.

This could give rise to crop failures and subsequent

food shortages leading to nutrition deficiencies.

3. GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS

3.1. GREENHOUSE GASES

There are six recognized GHGs as illustrated (refer Fig-

ure 12). They are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),

nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), per-

fluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).

Each has a different global warming potential (GWP).

Although CO2 has the lowest GWP (defined as 1.0), it is

globally the most significant greenhouse gas because

of the quantities in which it is emitted. Although other

GHGs are released in lesser quantities their contribu-

tion is significant because of their greater GWP. Me-

thane for instance has a GWP of 21 and thus 21 times

greater than that of CO2 – while that of SF6 has been

assessed as 23,900. For ease of accounting, GHG emis-

sions are generally shown as “CO2 equivalent” by con-

verting GHGs of gases other than CO2 into an amount

of CO2 having the same global warming potential.

3.2. ANNUAL EMISSIONS

India’s total GHG emissions have been estimated to be

1,728 million tons CO2 equivalent in 2007. Not surpris-

ingly, the energy sector is the largest contributor (58%)

followed by industries (22%), agriculture (17%) and

waste (3%). A detailed inventory of GHG emissions of

Karnataka is not available as yet. However, a fair esti-

mate has been prepared by Centre for Study of Sci-

ence, Technology and Policy (CSTEP) in BCCI-K’s 2011

report. It pegs annual emissions from Karnataka at 80.2

million tons of CO2 equivalent, thus accounting for

4.6% to India’s total GHG emissions.

This estimate considers three of the six GHGs: CO2 with

44 million t/a, CH4 with 0.9 million t/a and N2O with

0.01 million t/a. The study did not define emissions

from HFC, PHC and SF6 as these could not be quanti-

fied for Karnataka. The sectoral distribution in Karna-

taka level follows the national pattern relatively closely.

Energy accounts with 54% for the greatest share,

which includes the powers sector, transport fuel and

cooking fuels. Industry emits 23% of GHG emissions in

Karnataka, agriculture 20% and waste 4%. Figure 12

provides more details in this regard.

4. RESPONDING TO THE CHALLENGE

Responses to climate change focus on two strategies:

The state needs to mitigate global warming by reduc-

ing emissions of greenhouse gases and adapt to climat-

ic changes that cannot be prevented. In view of the

significance of climate change as a growing stressor,

Government of India prepared a National Action Plan

on Climate Change (NAPCC), released in June 2008. As

prudent for an emerging economy, this plan does not

sacrifice developmental goals for achieving specific

emission reduction targets. Instead it conceptualises

long-term mitigation strategies that promote sustaina-

ble development and growth with climate “co-

benefits”. Intervention areas include renewable energy,

energy efficiency, water management, agricultural re-

silience, afforestation, waste management and public

transport. Through its eight sectoral missions the

NAPCC provides a detailed road map for achieving

these objectives.

Figure 12: Sectoral breakup of Karnataka’s GHG emissions (% of CO2 equivalent) — Adapted from Bangalore Climate Change Initia-

tive — Karnataka (2011). Karnataka Climate Change Action Plan; Final Report


269

...

The states play the major role in the implementation of

the NAPCC. In August 2009, the Prime Minister called

upon these to initiate the preparation of state action

plans. Besides actions, state level plans needs to create

an operational and institutional framework for imple-

menting the missions and aligning them with other

developmental priorities specific to the state. To

achieve this, Ministry of Environment and Forest

(MoEF) issued guidelines to help states in the prepara-

tion. These emphasise the need to identify state specific

impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptation requirements

and thus to go beyond the mitigatory purview of the

NAPCC.

In June 2009 Government of Karnataka constituted a

Coordination Committee to oversee and coordinate

the state’s response to climate change. It assigned the

mandate for preparation of the State Action Plan on

Climate Change (SAPCC) to Environmental Manage-

ment & Policy Research Institute (EMPRI), an autono-

mous body under the Department of Forest, Ecology &

Environment. A rapid assessment of actions already

taken at state level conducted in 2010.

The initial Karnataka State Action Plan on Climate

Change Plan has been prepared and was adopted by

government of Karnataka in March 2012. Besides de-

tailed sectoral assessments, the document proposes a

comprehensive set of actions to mitigate GHG emis-

sions and adapt to observe and projections for climatic

changes. The recommendations have not been includ-

ed here as their scope and depth is more adequately

dealt with in this dedicated document.


270

271

CHAPTER 15

ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS

Chapter 15: Economic Instruments

272


273

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 275

2. ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT ........................................... 275

2.1. THE CRUX OF ENVIRONMENTAL GOODS ....... 275

2.2. TAXONOMY OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS .... 277

3. ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY……………………………………………………………………………… ....... 278

3.1. PROPERTY RIGHTS .................................................. 279

3.2. MARKET CREATION ................................................ 279

3.3. FISCAL INSTRUMENTS ............................................ 280

3.4. CHARGE SYSTEMS ................................................... 280

3.5. FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS .................................... 280

3.6. LIABILITY INSTRUMENTS ........................................ 280

3.7. PERFORMANCE BONDS AND DEPOSIT REFUND SYSTEMS .................................................... 281

3.8. SUMMARY ................................................................. 281

3.9. ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN KARNATAKA ..... 281

4. ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS FOR KEY AREAS ........................ 282

4.1. AIR POLLUTION ....................................................... 282

4.2. WATER RESOURCES ............................................... 283

4.3. LAND AND INFRASTRUCTURE ............................ 284

4.4. WASTE MANAGEMENT ......................................... 284

4.5. FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY ................................. 284

4.6. ENERGY ..................................................................... 286

4.7. CLIMATE CHANGE .................................................. 286

4.8. AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE ................. 286

4.9. LIVESTOCK ................................................................ 287

4.10. MINING AND QUARRYING ................................... 288

4.11. COASTAL ZONE ...................................................... 288

5. EMERGING INTERVENTION AREAS ........................................ 288


274

TABLES

Table 1: Water cess assessed and collected in lakh INR (2011) ............................................................................................. 283 Table 2: Monthly solid waste cess prescribed by BBMP ........................................................................................................... 284

MATRICES

Matrix 1: Possible economic instruments for air pollution ....................................................................................................... 282 Matrix 2: Possible economic instruments for water pollution ................................................................................................ 283 Matrix 3: Possible economic instruments for land pollution ................................................................................................... 283 Matrix 4: Possible economic instruments for waste management ....................................................................................... 284 Matrix 5: Possible economic instruments for forest and bio-diversity .................................................................................. 285 Matrix 6: Possible economic instruments for energy ................................................................................................................. 286 Matrix 7: Possible economic instruments for climate change................................................................................................. 286 Matrix 8: Possible economic instruments for agriculture and horticulture ......................................................................... 287 Matrix 9: Possible economic instruments for livestock .............................................................................................................. 287 Matrix 10: Possible economic instruments for mining and quarrying ................................................................................. 288 Matrix 11: Possible economic instruments for coastal zone .................................................................................................... 288

FIGURES

Figure 1: Economic values attributed to environmental assets ............................................................................................. 276 Figure 2: Taxonomy of economic instruments for environmental protection of natural resources ........................... 277 Figure 3: Economic efficiency after internalising negative externalities (pollution) ........................................................ 278 Figure 4: The coastal zone — Boundless unpriced resources ................................................................................................. 279 Figure 5: Traffic police — Victim of air pollution .......................................................................................................................... 282 Figure 6: High rise complexes .......................................................................................................................................................... 284 Figure 7: Western Ghats — Critical biodiversity hotspots ......................................................................................................... 285 Figure 8: Sapota cultivation .............................................................................................................................................................. 287 Figure 9: Poultry on sale ..................................................................................................................................................................... 287


275

1. INTRODUCTION

The relationship between economic growth and envi-

ronmental sustainability has been a subject of intense

discussions in recent years. Natural resources are es-

sential not only for sustaining life but also act as crucial

input for economic growth. Economies expand with

continuous depletion in the natural resource base due

to continuous interaction between economy and envi-

ronment. Economic development aimed at continuous

augmentation of human and man-made (physical) cap-

ital imposes immense cost on natural capital. Environ-

mental degradation in turn imposes high cost on socie-

ty and impoverishes economic well-being. Therefore,

prevention and mitigation of environmental degrada-

tion is necessary to make economic development a

sustainable proposition. Economists have strongly rec-

ommended market-based instruments for efficient en-

vironmental policy to bring development that lasts for-

ever. Over the last five decades, several economic in-

struments have been evolved to deal with environ-

mental problems to internalise negative externalities

and to subsidise and internalise positive externalities to

encourage research and development. Economic in-

struments are also used as means for enhancing the

capacity of governments to deal with environmental

and developmental issues in a cost effective manner,

raising revenue, influencing consumption and produc-

tion patterns, redistribute wealth and also stimulating

the economy by discouraging undesirable manufactur-

ing practices and promoting technological innovation.

The Earth Summit, 1992, held at Rio de Janeiro in its

declaration emphasises the importance of economic

instruments for environmental policy and also recom-

mends these as effective tools for national authorities

to promote the internalisation of environmental cost

and to apply the the-polluter-pays principle in the most

efficient manner.

2. ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT

The significance of the application of economic instru-

ments for environmental resource conservation and

management can be better understood by looking at

the importance of our nature in economic develop-

ment and human well-being. Natural resources can be

classified as the indestructible resources (land, oceans,

atmosphere, solar energy), renewable resources (bio-

diversity, forests, animals) and exhaustible resources

(minerals, fossil fuels). They perform three important

functions as supplier, producer and assimilator through

supply of natural resources, raw materials for produc-

ing various goods and services and assimilation of

waste or by-products. Environmental goods have three

vital and features viz., reversibility (except exhaustible

resources), uncertainties arise due to limited know-

ledge about the ecological balance and uniqueness

(nature’s beauty is not replicable) which help us in un-

derstanding the economic value of the environment.

The economy and natural environment are highly in-

terlinked in such a way that every economic action

would have some effect on the environment and in

turn every environmental change may have an impact

on the economy. Therefore it is universally accepted

that economic forces are driving environmental degra-

dation. At the same time it is also well accepted that

economics offers solutions for environmental problems

through economic instruments.

2.1. THE CRUX OF ENVIRONMENTAL GOODS

Ecosystem conservation and management is compli-

cated by interactions of various factors. Market failure

or non-existence of markets for many environmental

goods is the main factor for inefficient allocation of

scarce resources leading to divergence between social

and private costs. For instance, most of the economic

values of environmental resources and their environ-

mental services are not reflected by markets and there-

fore their increasing relative scarcity is not readily cap-

tured by price signals. People, in reality, prefer to place

their value on direct benefits (direct use value) and not

on indirect benefits (indirect use value) mainly on ac-

count of missing markets (see Figure 1). Therefore,

market mechanisms fail to absorb and reflect the true

or total economic value of the environment (both di-

rect and indirect) where it does not reflect the full so-

cial costs or benefits of a good. Market failure is at-

tributed to the following reasons:

Many ecosystems provide services that are public

goods;

Many ecosystem services are affected by

externalities; and

Property rights related to ecosystems and their

services are often not clearly defined.

Ecosystem services are often regarded as public goods

that have distinct properties of indivisibility and non-

excludability when compared to private goods. Ecosys-

tem services are indivisible because use or enjoyment

by any number of people does not affect or reduce

other peoples’ use or enjoyment. They are also non-

excludable because no one can stop anybody from

using them through imposing charges. These distinct

properties of ecosystem services do not allow defining

or implementing property rights over them for their

efficient use through free markets. Therefore, a market

for these services is missing and people have a tenden-

cy to use them as free goods beyond their carrying


276

capacity thereby imposing either costs or a deprecation

of benefits on society which are external to the pur-

view of the market mechanism (i.e. externality). Market

failure, therefore is caused by externalities in the sense

that goods such as environmental quality (oxygen

produced by forests) are not sold on the market. If ex-

ternalities (uncompensated side effects) are present,

the market will not function efficiently and results in

inefficient provision of resources (damage to environ-

mental quality). Environmental problems can also be

traced to certain pattern of resource allocation failure

mainly due to inappropriate property rights, infor-

mation asymmetries, transaction cost and paucity of

infrastructure. Therefore, unassigned or ill-defined

property rights and information asymmetry are also

main causes of market failures. This happens since no

one owns environmental resources, open access can

lead to a ‘tragedy of commons’ i.e. severe over-

harvesting or pollution of the resource base. For exam-

ple, overharvesting and severe decline in quantity and

quality of resources such as air, water, fish, forests, bio-

diversity etc. ‘It is the failure of the market system to

allocate and price resources and environmental ser-

vices correctly that creates the need for economic

measures of value to guide the policy maker’ (Freeman,

1993).

Figure 1: Economic values attributed to environmental assets

Total economic value

Use value

Direct use value

(resources used

directly)

Outputs directly

consumable

Food

Fiber

Fuel

Timber

NTFPs

Fresh water

Genetic resources

Fish

Medicine

Health

Ornamental resources

Grazing

Human habitat

Education

Eco-tourism

Cultural services

Amenity services

Indirect use value

(resources used

indirectly)

Functional and regulative benefits

Air quality regulation

Climate regulation

Water regulation

Pollination

Erosion regulation

Water purification

Waste assimilation

Disease/pest regulation

Natural hazard regulation

Soil enrichment

Groundwater recharge

Watershed protection

Non-use value

Optional value

(possible future use)

Future uses direct and

indirect values

Biodiversity

Conservation of habitats

Photosynthesis

Soil formation

Assimilation of energy

Nutrient recycling

Water recycling

Bequest value (possible use by

future generation)

Use and non-use value of

environmental legacy for our

offspring

Habitats

Prevention of irreversible change

Educational values

Inspiration

Aesthetic values

Recreation and eco-tourism

Existence value

(fight for existence)

Value from knowledge of

continued existence

National parks

Biodiversity e.g. blue whales, tigers, lions

Cultural heritage

Spiritual and religious values

Sacred grove

Sense of place

Social relations


277

2.2. TAXONOMY OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS

Economists have proposed a number of economic in-

struments for better environmental regulation. Eco-

nomic instruments can be divided into seven broad

categories (refer Figure 2):

Property rights;

Market creation;

Fiscal instruments;

Charge systems;

Financial instruments;

Liability instruments;

Performance bonds and deposit refund systems.

These can be grouped in to three categories: Price

based, quantity based and hybrid instruments. Eco-

nomic instruments are also known as market based

instruments as they complement the free market pro-

cess to achieve Pareto efficiency.1 Market based in-

struments were first introduced by A.C. Pigou. These

instruments are broadly based on the economic prin-

ciples like taxes, subsidies, property rights, marketable

permits, user charges etc. to deal with detrimental and

beneficial environmental externalities in production

and consumption. However, the practical application

of these instruments started in 1972 through the the-

polluter-pays principle based on a recommendation by

the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and De-

velopment (OECD). Here polluters bear all necessary

expenses of pollution prevention and control to safe-

guard the environment. The cost of these measures

would be reflected in the cost of goods and services

that cause pollution in production and/or consump-

tion. Such measures should not be accompanied by

subsidies that would create significant distortion in

international trade and investment. Nevertheless, there

are problems though in leaving the management of

the environment entirely to the market.

In today’s economy industries take into account only

material and labour cost of production including regu-

latory compulsions by ignoring so-called external costs

such as social and health costs of environmental pollu-

tion as long as these resources are not priced. The ul-

timate goal is an internalisation of external costs

through a pricing system. External costs also include

natural resource depletion and environmental degra-

dation. In today’s economy these costs are largely

borne by the public through deteriorating health or

the use of tax money for compensatory work by the

government. Very importantly, those who bear today’s

external costs of production may not even be benefi-

ciaries of the product or service they pay for.

1 Pareto-efficiency is a state when no re-allocation can make one per-

son better off without making any other person worse off

Figure 2: Taxonomy of economic instruments for environmental protection of natural resources

Economic Instruments

PROPERTY RIGHTS

Change in ownership rights Land titles Water rights Mining rights Use and development rights Stewardship Licencing

MARKET CREATION

Marketable emission permits Marketable catch quotas Marketable development quotas Marketable water shares Marketable resource shares Tradable land rights

FISCAL INSTRUMENTS

Pollution taxes Effluent taxes Emission taxes Input taxes Product taxes Export taxes Import tariffs Tax differentiation

CHARGE SYSTEMS

Pollution charges User charges Betterment charges Impact fees Access fees Road tolls Administrative charges Non-compliance fees

LIABILITY SYSTEMS

Legal liability Non-compliance liability Natural resource damage liability Liability insurance Enforcement incentives Joint and several liability

FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS

Financial subsidies Soft loans Grants Location/relocation incentives Subsidised interest Revolving funds Sectoral funds

BONDS AND DEPOSIT REFUND SYSTEMS

Environmental performance bonds (e.g. forest management) Land reclamation bonds (e.g. mining) Waste delivery bonds Environmental accident bonds (e.g. oil spills) Deposit refund for recycling Buy-back schemes


278

3. ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

The side effects of high levels of economic develop-

ment powered by unrestricted access to natural re-

sources have undermined the environment and quality

of life in recent decades. In order to make economic

development sustainable, environmental policy is nec-

essary to contain environmental damage within ac-

ceptable bounds.

Despite many advantages of economic instruments

and wide acceptance and application of these instru-

ments in developed countries, useful lessons can be

learnt by developing countries as existing experiences

show that also developed countries are far from having

achieved an integration of environmental policies with

economic policies. The major challenge of developing

countries is to integrate environmental and economic

policy in such a way that economic instruments remain

suitable and helpful for fostering sustainable develop-

ment. Economic instruments should help to bridge the

gap between private and social costs which comprises

of the cost of resource depletion and environmental

degradation. Figure 3 shows an example of the inter-

nalisation of external costs when the price reflects both

production and social cost.

A negative externality (pollution) creates economic

inefficiency because the equilibrium quantity exceeds

the economically efficient quantity at point “A” with a

price of USD 100 for each unit where the producer

does not take into account the marginal social cost in

production. When government applies economic in-

struments such as a pollution tax, the producer’s cost is

“B” which is economically efficient output (at USD 140)

which takes into account both marginal private and

social costs. This implies that the polluter can choose to

pay emission charges, treat the effluent in order to re-

duce the charge or cut back on production. Thus when

emissions have high social costs, the emission charge

should be high and reflect the negative externality of

the pollution thereby the polluter will be either in-

duced to invest in pollution prevention technology or

desist from the activity.

Despite their many advantages, economic instruments

are not widely used in developing countries and their

introduction also faces many obstacles from the exist-

ing nexus between economic agents and administra-

Why economic instruments are preferabble over regulatory interactions

Environmental policies were dominated by regulatory

controls or command and control authorities in 1960s

and 1970s;

Command and control consists of promulgation and

enforcement of laws and regulations;

Polluters need to comply with standards and technol-

ogies prescribed, e.g. ambient quality, emission or dis-

charge, process and product standards etc.;

Command and control approaches can use draconian

controls or bans against non-compliance;

Effective enforcement is required and enforcement

often proves weak when there are a great number of

controls with poor administrative staff and tardy legal

procedures;

Bargaining and negotiations between public authori-

ties and private sector may invite corruption;

Regulation is static and provides little incentive to

technical development;

Regulations are proved to be expanse at the enforce-

ment level.

Methods of economic or market based instruments

Economic instruments can be designed in a variety of

ways for diverse of applications:

Increasing prices of economic goods and services that

damage human health and environment;

Increasing financial returns in the case of a more sus-

tainable approach pursued by economic agents

which foster more environment-friendly production

and consumption patterns;

Reduction or exemption of compliance costs to eco-

nomic agents which use natural resources in cost-

efficient and environmental-effective measures;

Extending incentives for investment in innovation and

improvement of environmental technology to achieve

twin goals viz., environmental and financial benefits;

Assigning property rights and responsibilities to firms

or group of individuals in a manner so that they act as

incentive and responsibilise their behaviour in a more

environmental friendly way;

Raising of revenues of government to achieve both

environmental and societal health and welfare objec-

tives through implementation of eco-tax policies.

Figure 3: Economic efficiency after internalising negative externalities (pollution)


279

tion. In this regard, advantages and disadvantages of

economic instruments are discussed in the Indian con-

text here.

3.1. PROPERTY RIGHTS

Assigning property rights to natural assets such as

land, water, forests, fisheries and lakes helps to put re-

sources to certain uses and prevents others from using

or selling these. For example, the problem of air pollu-

tion exists because of non-existence or incomplete

property rights to clean air. To prevent depletion and

degradation of environmental assets due to uncon-

trolled access, property rights could be assigned to an

individual, the state, or community — an identifiable

group that will help in the proper functioning of mar-

kets and efficient allocation and management of envi-

ronmental resources. Property rights are of three main

types: Ownership rights (land titles and water rights);

use rights (licenses, concession bidding, usufruct certif-

icates) and access rights to roads, parks and develop-

ment rights distinct from both ownership rights and

use rights. For instance, assignment of property rights

to land helps owners or users of the land to have an

interest in its current and future productivity and

would be inclined to control exploitation so as to max-

imise the net benefits and also invest in further im-

provement of the land or use it sustainably.

The Indian and Karnataka governments have enacted

and implemented various land related acts, rules, regu-

lations and policies over the years where land rights

are relatively well defined and the majority of land re-

lated issues are settled. The Forest (Conservation) Act,

1980 clarifies the use for forest lands by the central and

state governments for various environmental and eco-

nomic needs. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 de-

clares certain forest land as national parks and sanctu-

aries for wildlife conservation. Forest (Conservation)

Act, 1980 amended in 1988 allowed degraded forest

land for joint forest management (JFM) with local

community participation. Recently, Government of In-

dia has passed the Scheduled Tribes and Other Tradi-

tional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights)

Act, 2006 to settle forest land rights for tribals and oth-

er forest dwellers. However, ill-defined property rights

are the major crux of problems related to land or forest

land ownership as insecure rights have resulted in de-

pletion and degradation of ecosystems. For instance,

unclear land and forest land rights (jamma and bane)

in Kodagu have resulted in widespread deforestation

and paved the way for encroachment and illegal plan-

tations. However, inequitable access and poor entitle-

ments to land and other natural resources have result-

ed in poverty and over-exploitation of India’s environ-

mental resource base.

3.2. MARKET CREATION

Market creation or marketable or tradable permit sys-

tems provide high flexibility in dealing with environ-

mental problems when compared to pollution charges

as no need arises for further intervention if permits are

sold. Market creation instruments include marketable

emission permits, marketable catch permits, marketable

development quotas, marketable water shares, quota

systems and tradable land permits. Governments can

issue a fixed number of pollution permits (or rights to

pollute) equal to the permissible or acceptable total

emission and distribute them among the polluting

firms in a given area. When a market for pollution per-

mits exists, these permits are traded among firms. Firms

that maintain their emission levels below their allotted

level can sell or lease their surplus allotments to other

firms or use them to offset emissions in other parts of

their own facilities.

As per the Kyoto Protocol of the UN Framework Con-

vention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), tradable per-

mits of greenhouse gases are allocated among devel-

oped and developing countries where developed

countries are asked to reduce greenhouse gases and

developing countries are permitted to use clean devel-

opment mechanisms (CDM) or carbon credits. In recent

years, India has generated carbon credits and the rev-

enue generated from 200 projects is estimated at INR

97 billion till 2012 which is considered as the second

highest transacted in volumes in the world.

Marketable permits can also be used to manage natu-

ral resources such as fish catch, mining, harvesting of

timber, sand mining etc., through individual transfer

quotas. Under this system property rights to a specified

quantity of natural resources (e.g. fish harvest) are dis-

tributed among firms or auctioned off to the highest

bidders. Such system can lead to the efficient use of

resources.

Figure 4: The coastal zone — Boundless unpriced resources


280

3.3. FISCAL INSTRUMENTS

The application of fiscal instruments or taxes for envi-

ronmental protection such as pollution taxes, effluent

taxes, emission taxes, input taxes, product taxes, export

taxes, import tariffs, tax differentiation, royalties, land

use taxes, investment tax credits, accelerated deprecia-

tion derives double dividends for government. On one

hand is an improvement in environmental quality and

on the other is revenue generation from environmen-

tal taxes. The use of environmental taxes should be

aimed at revenue mobilisation for reducing pollution.

The revenue generated would be used for meeting

environmental expenditures for public funded pollu-

tion reduction schemes. For example the use of envi-

ronmental tax on transport including motor vehicle tax

and fuel tax will reduce air pollution apart from gener-

ating revenue for the government. Further, on imposi-

tion of taxes on harmful goods such as cigarettes, to-

bacco, plastics, chemical fertilisers and pesticides shape

consumers behaviours to switch over to alternatives or

reduce consumption. These tax differentiations for dif-

ferent products modify their relative prices and will

impact supply and demand for these goods in the mar-

ket. For instance, with an imposition of carbon taxes,

air pollutants are likely to fall with citizens switching

over from personalised to public transport.

3.4. CHARGE SYSTEMS

Environmental charges are one of the key economic

instruments. However, environmental charges and

environmental taxes are often used interchangeably.

The distinction between these two is that pollution

charges are payments made for specific environmental

services whereas environmental taxes are connected to

means for raising fiscal revenue for the government.

However, it is recommended that government uses this

revenue on environmental conservation and man-

agement programmes such as afforestation, water pol-

lution control, air pollution control etc. Charges are the

payments or prices for the use of resources or public

goods. These prices differ from market prices as charg-

es are administratively determined by the government.

User charges are mainly intended to recover the cost of

public or community provision of services. These in-

clude charges or payments for provision of effluent

treatment, supply of drinking water, treatment of mu-

nicipal solid waste, wastewater treatment. Charges can

also be imposed on a pollutant in proportion to the

quantity and its impact. There could be air pollution

charges, user charges, water effluent charges, waste

charges, betterment charges, impact fees, access fees,

road tolls, administrative or license fees etc. that are

used as instruments of demand management.

3.5. FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS

Financial Instruments such as financial subsidies, soft

loans, grants, location or relocation incentives, green

funds, revolving funds, sectoral funds etc. provide indi-

rect economic incentives through their effect on prices

paid for the input or received for the outputs of a pro-

duction process. Financial instruments are different

from fiscal instruments mainly because of their extra-

budgetary nature. These instruments provide perma-

nent incentives for environment friendly behaviour.

These instruments are also used as the second best

responses to distorted or inefficient markets, internalis-

ing externalities through willingness of people to invest

on environmental conservation and mobilising addi-

tional financial resources for conservation, environ-

mental protection and sustainable development. For

instance, India receives soft loans and occasional

grants from World Bank, United Nations Environment

Programme and Japan for afforestation, wildlife con-

servation and watershed development. Subsidies and

soft loans are the opposite of environmental taxes

mainly because they are created to assist firms to re-

duce pollution. Subsidies can be extended in propor-

tion to the reduction in pollution or could be offered

for the purchase of pollution abatement equipment.

These incentives help in advancement of technical

change through research and development which

provide double dividends to firms in terms of savings in

both abatement cost and tax payments which results

in cleaner production processes and thus cleaner

products.

3.6. LIABILITY INSTRUMENTS

Liability instruments for environmental regulations are

used to force polluting firms that use environmental

resources to insure against potential environmental

damage. This infers that liability encourages a firm to

internalise the cost of damages through compensation

schemes tied to environmental outcomes. Polluters are

allowed to obtain a licence to operate only if they meet

environmental standards set by regulators against en-

vironmental damage. The Public Liability Insurance Act,

1991 and Environment Relief Fund (ERF) are aimed at

providing compensation and relief to victims or affect-

ed people for loss of life, damage to property and envi-

ronment caused by polluting industries. These ensure

that funds are available for environmental clean-up or

rehabilitation or compensation in the event of envi-

ronmental accidents or abandonment of project. Thus

firms need to offer payments for risk participation

through trade in risk participation shares in the open

market and investors have the opportunity to sign such

shares upon accepting the payment. Therefore, liability

instruments can generate market prices for environ-

mental damage. The insured amount of paid-up capital

in this regard to is up to INR 500 million. The reimburs-


281

able amount is up to INR 25,000 per person in addition

to reimbursable medical expenses up to INR 12,500 per

person under this instrument. The eligibility of insur-

ance is limited to INR 50 million per accident or INR

150 million per year or up to the tenure of the policy.

Any excess claim is reimbursed by the Environment

Relief Fund. The main liability instruments are legal lia-

bility, non-compliance liability, joint and several liabili-

ties, natural resource damage liability, liability insurance

and enforcement incentives.

3.7. PERFORMANCE BONDS AND DEPOSIT REFUND SYSTEMS

Performance bonds and deposit refund systems consist

of a deposit which is a front-end payment for potential

environmental pollution and a refund which guaran-

tees a return of the deposit in case of non-pollution.

The deposit is intended to force the customer to make

an upfront payment for improper disposal of waste or

purchase of potentially polluting products. On the oth-

er hand, the refund serves as a reward for avoiding

pollution which includes proper disposal of waste or

return of environmentally harmful product or residues

for safe disposal or recycling. These instruments include

environmental performance bonds (forest manage-

ment), land reclamation bonds (mining), waste delivery

bonds, environmental accident bonds (oil spills), depos-

it refund systems for waste recycling and buy-back

scheme. These economic instruments are used for

managing plastics, bottles, cans, disposable batteries,

lubricating oils, electronic equipment, white goods

such as refrigerators, stoves, washing machines and

automobiles and encourage companies to take a life

cycle approach.

3.8. SUMMARY

Economic instruments, when compared to command

and control policies are cost effective in pollution con-

trol, provide incentives for technology innovation and

diffusion, decrease externality and generate revenues

for the government. The success of economic instru-

ments depends on meeting the following require-

ments:

Revenue sufficiency: Enough revenue should be

collected to offset all costs;

Economic efficiency: Rates should maximise water

consumers’ net benefits or maximise net present

value across all water consumers;

Equity and fairness: Consumers with equivalent

characteristics should pay equivalent rates, and

rates should be perceived as fair by customers;

Simplicity: Rates should be easily understood by

clients;

Legality: Rates should be legally acceptable.

3.9. ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN KARNATAKA

The Department of Ecology and Environment was es-

tablished in the year 1981 with the objective of improv-

ing the environment and ecological situation in the

state. The department is a wing of the Forest, Ecology

and Environment Department and has a network of

organisations with specific roles:

Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB);

Lake Development Authority (LDA);

State Environment Impact Assessment Authority

(SEIAA);

State Level Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC);

Environmental Management & Policy Research

Institute (EMPRI).

The department administers the following acts and

rules through its field offices and organisations:

Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, and Rules and

Regulations framed under it;

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;

Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess

Act, 1977;

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,

1974;

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972;

Karnataka (Preservation of Trees) Act, 1972;

Karnataka (Forest) Act, 1963;

The following regulations are issued by the Govern-

ment of India under the Environment (Protection) Act,

1986 for environmental management:

Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) 2006

notification;

The Hazardous Wastes (Management and

Handling) Rules 1989 and amendments 2000 and

2003;

Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling)

Rules, 1998 and amendments 2000 and 2003;

Re-cycled Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules,

1999 and amendment 2003;

Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules,

2000 and amendment 2002;

Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and

Handling) Rules 2000;

Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and

Storage of Hazardous Micro-organisms, Genetically

engineered Organisms or Cells, 1989;


282

Manufacture, Storage & Import of Hazardous

Chemical Rules, 1989.

Notification declaring coastal stretches as Coastal

Regulation Zone (CRZ) and regulating activities in

these;

Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and Biological

Diversity Rules, 2004;

Chemical Accidents (Emergency, Preparedness and

Response) Rules 1996.

However, the application of market based instruments

for environmental policy and conservation is still in an

infancy stage and command and control are widely

used even though it does not provide the necessary

incentives to polluters for choosing least cost pollution

control methods. Hence, economic instruments as an

alternate option can help meeting the desired goals of

conservation goals in future.

4. ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS FOR KEY AREAS

Rapid growth of population, sprawling urbanisation,

expansion of the industrial base under globalisation led

economic development and largely impacted on envi-

ronmental resources such as land, water, air and biodi-

versity in the state. The well-being of the people and

sustainable development completely rely on the extent

of insurance provided by natural resources against cli-

mate change and natural catastrophes. However, the

state is facing several environmental problems. Surface-

and groundwater bodies of the state have been under

severe pressure with increasing levels of contamination

by biological and toxic pollutants. Air quality is affected

with high presence of respirable suspended particulate

matter (RSPM), exceeding prescribed National Ambient

Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). Mining, industrial pol-

lution, domestic waste discharge, injudicious use of

chemical fertilisers and pesticides in agriculture, unsci-

entific use of water for irrigation etc. have polluted

land resources. Biodiversity including forests and wild

animals are affected by developmental pressures. Cli-

mate change is likely to pose a serious threat to eco-

nomic and environmental resources. Therefore, it is

important to give an account of environmental condi-

tions and present policies as is attempted in this chap-

ter and outline possible responses for future policy to

realise sustainable development to meet the needs of

both present and future generations.

4.1. AIR POLLUTION

Ambient air quality of Bangalore and other urban cen-

tres has deteriorated with rapid growth of the popula-

tion, vehicular growth, industrialisation and rapid eco-

nomic development. National Ambient Air Quality

Standards (NAAQS) are fixed to limit the levels of air

pollutants with an adequate margin of safety to protect

the public health, vegetation and property. Central

Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and KSPCB regularly

monitor air pollutants. Economic instruments may be

effectively applied to reduce air pollution and also

generate revenue for the government for better envi-

ronmental management in the state. Proposed eco-

nomic instruments are given in Matrix 1. Environmental

taxes in the European Union represent 5.2% of the

total taxes whereas in India this is meagre.

KSPCB’s assessment shows that diesel generators con-

tribute to the pollution of air and therefore imposed

consent fees which amounted to INR 199 lakh during

2009-10.

Matrix 1: Possible economic instruments for air pollution

Property rights

Market Creation

Charge System

Liability system

Bonds or deposit system

Fiscal instruments

Financial instruments

---- Issuing tradable emission permits to industries and encourage trad-able carbon credits.

User charges on polluting vehi-cles and indus-tries and road tolls for highly polluting vehi-cles inside na-tional parks.

Non-compliance liability on indus-tries and vehi-cles particularly lorries and au-tos, rickshaws.

Performance bond and depos-its for Red cate-gory industries including nuclear power plants, fertiliser and pesticide indus-tries.

Pollution taxes on vehicles and industries emit-ting GHGs, CO2, sulphur.

Subsidies on CNG, wind mills, hydro-power plants, electric vehi-cles, solar en-ergy equip-ment.

Figure 5: Traffic police — Victim of air pollution


283


Water resources of Karnataka state are dwindling with

the rapid growth of the population and increasing uti-

lisation of water for economic activities. Water demand

for consumptive (drinking, health and sanitation

needs) and productive uses (agricultural, industrial

production, power generation, mining and recreation-

al activities), has increased tremendously. However,

water supply has declined with depletion and degra-

dation of water resources causing water distress or

scarcity in the state. Depletion of quantity and degra-

dation of water has restricted the availability of water

for consumptive and productive uses and consequent-

ly caused negative externalities which impose econom-

ic and social costs on society. The declining trend in the

economic contribution of water resources occurred

due to physical and economic water scarcity resulting

in insufficient use, poor management, declining water

productivity and increasing environmental and eco-

nomic costs. Obviously, the outcome is a growing im-

balance between water needs and supply augmenta-

tion capability of the state. Government of India enact-

ed the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)

Cess in 1977 as an economic instrument. According to

this act, all industries using water for production and

processes need to pay water cess as per the rates fixed

for different consumption purposes. However, the ef-

fectiveness of this instrument is hindered as water cess

does not cover the consumption of water from private

bore wells or private supply sources. The water

cess provides INR 565 lakh of revenue to KSPCB (refer

Table 1).

Table 1: Water cess assessed and collected in lakh INR (2011)

Particulars Local body Industry Total

Assessed 303 479 781

Collected 74 490 565

Matrix 2: Possible economic instruments for water pollution

Property rights

Market creation

Charge system

Liability system


Fiscal instruments


Clarifying water rights.

Allow marketa-ble water shares and marketing of wastewater treated by indus-tries.

Impose water pollution charg-es on industries. User or better-ment charges for domestic waste water treat-ment. Access fees for irriga-tion water and water rates for different crops.

Non-compliance and legal liability on polluting industries. En-forcement in-centives for farmers to grow crops suitable for agro-climatic conditions and nature of soil and status of water availabil-ity.

Performance bond and depos-it refund sys-tems on water recycling by industries.

Effluent taxes on industries, hos-pital, and do-mestic wastewater.

Subsidies and soft loan for waste water treatment plants and industries. Promotion of organic farming through subsi-dies, soft loan for drip and sprinkler irriga-tion, promotion of watershed and ground. water recharge through subsi-dies.

Matrix 3: Possible economic instruments for land pollution

Property rights

Market creation

Charge system

Liability system

Bonds or depos-it system

Fiscal instruments


Clarification of property rights on land and forest lands, waste lands and gomals etc. Give use and de-velopment rights for afforestation etc. Cancellation of land, permits, titles or, industrial, mining rights in case of non-compliance.

Allowing trada-ble land permits (rights) for envi-ronmental con-servation and sustainable management.

User charges on hazardous and municipal waste disposal, better-ment charges for households generating waste.

Land damage and non-compliance liability for in-dustries that discharge haz-ardous waste on land and water bodies.

Land reclama-tion bond for industrial and agricultural lands. Environ-mental accident bonds for nucle-ar contamination and oil spills. Deposit refund for recycling of waste. Perfor-mance bond for Red category industries.

Land pollution taxes on indus-tries, hospital and households, tax on chemical fertilisers and pesticides, im-port tariffs on polluting prod-ucts. Input and product tax for plastics.

Subsidies, grants and soft loans for land clean ups, promotion of bio-degradable products, or-ganic farming, waste recy-cling, sanita-tion, drainage etc.


284

4.3. LAND AND INFRASTRUCTURE

Land resources of the state are subject to severe pres-

sure with the growing demand for land for various

needs. The competing demand for land will likely im-

pact agricultural production. Fertile top soils have been

degraded by intensive agriculture, over-grazing, defor-

estation, rapid industrial growth and land contamina-

tion caused by mining, industrial and domestic pollu-

tion, improper irrigation and poor land management.

Erosion by water and wind is also making land unpro-

ductive. The state faces soil erosion in 60% of the area

under crops with major environmental problems such

as water logging, salinity and alkalinity. These factors

have affected the soil health in Tungabhadra, Upper

Krishna, and the Malaprabha-Ghataprabha areas. Fur-

ther, deforestation, decline of common property re-

sources, and increasing grazing activities has also af-

fected the quality of land.

4.4. WASTE MANAGEMENT

Waste including municipal solid waste, hazardous

waste, e-waste, bio-medical waste, slaughterhouse

waste, plastic waste impose external costs on society.

This occurs chiefly through the deterioration of envi-

ronmental resources which in turn can lead to increas-

ing consumption of contaminated water and exposure

to diseases among other things.

Bangalore alone generates more than half of the solid

waste collected in Karnataka. In order to manage

waste, Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP)

has rightly introduced a solid waste cess from January

1, 2006. This is indeed an economic instrument and it

aims at both revenue generation and efficient envi-

ronmental management. Regrettably, the cess fails to

set an incentive for waste reduction at household level

given that it is defined based on the plinth area and

not actual waste generated (refer Table 2).

4.5. FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY

The forest resources of state are under pressure with a

decline in the area of dense forest cover. Dense forest

cover was estimated to be about 26,156 km2

in 2001

and declined to 21,958 km2 in 2007, a 10 % decline in

Matrix 4: Possible economic instruments for waste management

Property rights

Market creation

Charge system

Liability system


Fiscal instruments


---- Issuing tradable waste genera-tion and recy-cling permits to industries, ho-tels, hospitals, apartments etc. Encourage con-version of bio-degradable waste to manure and create mar-kets for such goods.

User charges or cess waste gen-eration based on type and quanti-ty and recyclable capacity on in-dustries, hotels, hospitals and apartments.

Non-compliance liability, natural resource dam-age liability, legal liability for highly hazardous indus-tries and hospi-tals. Liability insurance for industries and hospital and enforcement incentives.

Waste delivery bonds, deposit refunding sys-tem for waste treatment or recycling, land reclamation bonds, environ-mental perfor-mance bonds based on nature of waste genera-tion. Buy back scheme intro-duction for used cans, plastic bottle, electron-ics batteries.

Pollution taxes on waste which produces disa-greeable odours or methane.

Subsidies, soft loans, grants, revolving funds for waste recy-cling and land filling and bio-medical waste treatment and also encourage converting waste into manure and reusable of waste.

Table 2: Monthly solid waste cess prescribed by BBMP

Type of building

Cess based on plinth area

Below 1000 ft

2

1001 to

3000 ft2

3000 ft2

Residential 10 30 50

Commercial 50 100 200

Industrial 100 200 300

Other facilities 300 500 600

Adapted from State of Environment Report Bangalore 2008

Figure 6: High rise complexes


285

7 years period. However, open forest cover naturally

has increased from 10,835 km2

to 14,232 km2

in the

assessment period. The forest area of the state has also

slightly declined compared to the country’s forest area

during the period. The Western Ghats are depleted,

degraded and construed as one of the most critical

ecosystems or hot spots of biodiversity. Most alarming-

ly, even though the depletion of forest cover is halted

to a large extent and forest cover has quantitatively

increased in recent years, natural forest stock is qualita-

tively under severe degradation. Therefore, an acceler-

ated deforestation and associated degradation of envi-

ronmental resources has a serious implication not only

for the production but also the resilience of the ecosys-

tem. Continued denudation of forests could block fu-

ture development options in terms of loss of biodiversi-

ty, soil erosion, limited availability of food, fodder, fuel

wood, depletion of the water table and climate

change.

Recently several economic instruments have been

evolved for better conservation and management of

both forest and biodiversity. These include debt-for-

nature swaps, payment for ecosystem services, eco-

labelling, forest certification, net present value of forest

and biodiversity, ecological value tax, forest develop-

ment tax entrance fees for national parks and sanctuar-

ies and clean development mechanism or carbon cred-

its.

Forests provide a multitude of ecosystem services

which are not marketed or they are considered as free

goods. Payment for ecosystem services is a concept

through which the beneficiaries pay the providers of

those services. Therefore, the creation of markets for

ecosystem services helps policy makers to evolve eco-

nomic instruments in order to promote conservation as

well as meeting or support local livelihood needs as it

rewards owners or managers for their active participa-

tion as stewards in providing these services. An exam-

ple is a downstream water levy as a means of financing

the conservation of the Western Ghats forest for its role

in the genesis of many rivers. Downstream hydropow-

er schemes should remit a levy imposed for forest con-

servation.

Further, property rights can be effectively used as eco-

nomic instrument by allocating land to afforestation

programmes, medicinal plants for local communities

who use or live in biodiversity areas for promoting sus-

tainable forest and biodiversity conservation. Apart

from above, deforestation is caused by over-

exploitation of forest for firewood thus, energy taxes

and subsidies as incentives may be used in order to

encourage people to reduce energy consumption and

consume less fuel wood which helps forest conserva-

tion. For example, subsidies for efficient stoves and tax-

es on wood based industries.

Matrix 5: Possible economic instruments for forest and bio-diversity

Property rights

Market creation

Charge system

Liability system


Fiscal instruments


Forest steward-ship through payment for eco-system ser-vices, limiting mining rights in forest areas. Assign waste-land to village panchayats for afforestation.

Creation of a market for eco-systems includ-ing watersheds, carbon seques-tration, eco-tourism, forest and biodiversity conservation.

User charge or entry fee collec-tion for national parks, sanctuar-ies, wetlands etc. Betterment charges from tourists.

Natural re-sources damage or non-compliance liabil-ity for mines on forest areas.

Performance bond and depos-it policy for for-est and biodiver-sity manage-ment. Forest area reclamation bond to be af-fected after mine closure. Deposit refund for afforestation carried out by industries, hy-dropower pro-jects etc.

Taxes on valua-ble and rare timber, other forest products such as sandal-wood. Entry and emission tax on vehicles visiting biodiversity parks.

Subsidies for afforestation, eco-development programme, tree plantation, JFM, village forest pro-gramme, finan-cial subsidies for forest and wild-life conserva-tion.

Figure 7: Western Ghats — Critical biodiversity hotspots


286

4.6. ENERGY

Increasing level of energy consumption particularly

combustion of fossil fuels has not only contributed to

the emission of pollutants such as oxides of nitrogen

(NOX), sulphur dioxide (SO2), suspended particulate

matter (SPM) and respirable suspended particulate

matter (RSPM) but has increasingly affected the atmos-

pheric concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs)

causing climate change. Karnataka intends to promote

Renewable energy through the introduction of Green

Energy Fund by imposing a cess for energy consumed

by commercial and industrial establishments.

4.7. CLIMATE CHANGE

The Stern report reveals that the economic costs of

climate change are significant and capable of severely

aggravating economic and environmental problems

Per capita emissions of GHGs increased rapidly as a

result of expected and needed economic development

in urban transportation, industrial and agriculture in

developing countries. Variations in temperature, rain-

fall, evaporation and extreme events have a tendency

to impact significantly upon natural resources particu-

larly freshwater availability (refer Chapter 14: Climate

Change). Economic instruments have been evolved to

deal with climate change. Prominent are Carbon Emis-

sion Reductions (CER), an instrumental clean develop-

ment mechanisms (CDM). CDM permits emission re-

duction projects (example: Delhi and Bangalore metro-

rail) in developing countries to earn CER credits, each

equivalent to one ton of CO2. These can be traded and

sold and used by industrialised countries to meet a part

of their emission reduction targets.

Further, climate change can also be dealt with the ap-

plication of taxes on GHGs and particularly fossil fuel

CO2 emissions. Tax rebates or subsidies for carbon se-

questration through afforestation programmes can be

extended. For instance, a tax on energy raises the price

of all forms of energy, whether or not they contribute

to CO2 emissions, whereas a carbon tax changes rela-

tive costs and therefore provides incentives for fuel

switching. India has low per capita GHGs of only

2.1 t/a. This indicates that India can effectively make

use of CDM mechanism through its environmental and

developmental projects.

4.8. AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE

The state faces difficulty in managing land and water

resources more efficiently due to lack of appropriate

policy measures and also failure to make use of market

based instruments in managing these resources. The

Matrix 6: Possible economic instruments for energy

Property rights

Market creation

Charge system

Liability system

Bond or deposit System

Fiscal instruments


----- Issuing tradable emission permits and encourage trade of carbon credits.

User charges on polluting indus-tries and vehi-cles. Green ener-gy cess.

Non-compliance liability on vehi-cles, industries, commercial establishments, and DG sets.

Performance bond and depos-it policy for coal, hydropower, nuclear energy plants.

Ad valorem tax on energy prod-ucts, carbon or pollution taxes per unit of emis-sion by indus-tries and vehicles particularly GHGs and sulphur.

Subsidies on CNG, wind mills, hydropower plants, electric vehicles, solar energy equip-ment, energy efficient lighting (CFLs), and en-ergy saving technology; promote bio-fuel.

Matrix 7: Possible economic instruments for climate change

Property rights

Market creation

Charge system

Liability system


Fiscal instruments


----- Issuing tradable emission permits to various devel-opment and environmental projects in order to encourage earning of CERs or tradable car-bon credits.

Charges on emission of GHGs by vehi-cles, industries etc.

Non-compliance liability on indus-tries and vehi-cles.

Environmental performance bonds for indus-tries and the transport sector. Deposit refund for environmen-tal conservation through affor-estation.

Pollution tax on fuels, and also emission of GHGs.

Subsidies on CNG, wind mills, hydro-power plants, electric vehi-cles, solar energy equip-ment etc.


287

state has the second largest geographical area in India

prone to droughts with 18 districts facing scanty rain-

fall. There are also instances where irrigation facilities

encourage unscientific cropping systems unsuitable to

the agro-climatic conditions resulting in land degrada-

tion and a fall in agricultural productivity. Sustainable

agriculture will depend on new agricultural policies

which accommodate scientific advancements and ap-

propriate market based instruments. This will help in

promoting organic farming, influencing appropriate

cropping patterns, minor irrigation, watershed man-

agement as well as sprinkler and drip irrigation practic-

es etc.

4.9. LIVESTOCK

Livestock rearing is important for sustaining livelihoods

of rural farmer and even non-farming households.

However, the dwindling of grazing lands has adversely

impacted the quality and size of livestock populations

Matrix 8: Possible economic instruments for agriculture and horticulture

Property rights

Market creation

Charge system

Liability system


Fiscal instruments


Land titles to land less people. Pro-mote water users association with assignment of water rights.

Marketable water share through water markets for efficient use of water. Tradable land rights for efficient use of land. CDM or CER for agro-forestry and social forestry programmes.

User charges on land pollution from industries and waste dumping. Irriga-tion water charges, pay-ment for ecosys-tems for water-shed provisions.

Non-compliance liability on min-ing industries, effluent dis-charge.

Environmental performance bonds and de-posit policy for water users association.

Land pollution taxes, effluent taxes on waste water, input taxes on chemi-cal fertilisers and pesticides.

Subsidies on organic ma-nure, water-shed, sprinkler, drip irrigation, soil conserva-tion, afforesta-tion, agro-forestry, social forestry.

Figure 8: Sapota cultivation

Figure 9: Poultry on sale

Matrix 9: Possible economic instruments for livestock

Property rights

Market creation

Charge system

Liability system


Fiscal instruments


Land titles for pasture or mead-ow lands devel-opment for ani-mal grazing to avoid grazing in forest areas. License for fod-der collection in notified forest lands. Fodder stewardship for payment for ecosystem ser-vices.

Tradable land rights for live-stock owners for sustainable fod-der production.

User charges for grazing in forest land, pollution charges on slaughter waste.

Non-compliance liability on slaughter hous-es. Liability in-surance for sci-entific disposal of animal waste.

Environmental performance bond for sustainable pasture or mead-ow land develop-ment. Environ-mental perfor-mance bond for slaughterhouses.

---- Subsidies to promote native livestock. Subsi-dies for biogas, promotion of bio-gas. Subsi-dised interest for promotion of native livestock.


288

also forest land in the state. Economic instruments can

be effectively used to halt further erosion of native ge-

netic diversity, promoting indigenous knowledge in

livestock breeding, improving productivity, ensure ac-

cess to micro credit, ensure benefit sharing among

communities, promotion of fodder cultivation, and also

reduce the increasing dependence on fragile forest

land and preventing desertification.

4.10. MINING AND QUARRYING

The state introduced environmental protection fees of

INR 84,000 per hectare in respect of mines located on

revenue or patta lands for compensatory afforestation.

4.11. COASTAL ZONE

The state’s vast coast of 320 km is threatened with ero-

sion and submergence of low lying areas, effluent dis-

charge, waste dumping and the possibility of sea level

rise. These render the livelihoods of fishing communi-

ties vulnerable.


India, which is undergoing structural reforms with the

introduction of New Economic Policy in 1991, faces

unique challenges but it can seize the opportunity in

effectively using ecsssonomic instruments by correcting

historically distorted market prices for environmental

resources and other goods. Therefore, well developed

markets with adoption of the the-polluter-pay-principle,

competent budgets with moderate inflation, well de-

fined and enforced property rights, an effective fiscal

administration, broad political acceptance and an en-

lightened society can bring close alignment between

environmental and economic policy to realise sustain-

able development. Economic instruments can be intro-

duced in phased manner to make markets work effi-

ciently by internalising externalities.

Matrix 10: Possible economic instruments for mining and quarrying

Property rights

Market creation

Charge system

Liability system


Fiscal instruments


Stewardship for restoration of mining areas.

Quota for limit-ing mining of exhaustible resources. Trad-able land rights for greening of mined areas.

User charges on tailings and oth-er wastes. Road tolls, impact fees and betterment charges on min-ing industries.

Legal liability and non-compliance liability on min-ing industries and sand mining. Natural resource damage liability.

Land reclama-tion bond for mining indus-tries, waste delivery bonds, deposit refund system, deposit refund shares made compulso-ry.

High pollution taxes on non-complying min-ing industries.

----

Matrix 11: Possible economic instruments for coastal zone

Property rights

Market creation

Charge system

Liability system


Fiscal instruments


Assign property rights over coastal areas for various envi-ronmental con-servation and economic activi-ties.

Tradable land rights for eco-tourism and oth-er sustainable development activities.

User charges on garbage and waste disposal, pollution charges waste water release into coastal zone, coastal better-ment charges from tourists.

Non-compliance liability on sew-age disposed. Natural resource damage liability, enforcement incentives. Liabil-ity insurance.

Performance bond and deposit policy for Red category indus-tries including nuclear power plants, coal, iron ore, fertiliser and pesticide indus-tries.

Pollution taxes on garbage, haz-ardous waste, vehicles and industries emit-ting GHGs, CO2, sulphur tax, user charges for tour-ists in coastal areas, hotels, restaurants and boats.

Financial subsidies for coastal area management, soft loans for waste and water recy-cling equip-ment, reloca-tion incentive for highly polluting industries, soft loans for mangrove afforestation.

289

CHAPTER 16

ENVIRONMENTAL

EDUCATION

Chapter 16: Environmental Education

290


291

CONTENTS

1. AN OVERVIEW ....................................................................................... 293

1.1. EDUCATION ABOUT ENVIRONMENT, THROUGH AND FOR ENVIRONMENT ............................................... 293

1.2. LOOKING BEYOND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION ................................................................... .… 293

2. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN INDIA ....................................... 294

2.1. REVITALISING IN INDEPENDENT INDIA ....................... 294

2.2. THE TURNING POINT ........................................................ 294

2.3. GREENING OF THE CURRICULA .................................... 295

2.4. EFFORTS BY THE NON-GOVERNMENTAL SECTOR ... 295

3. STATUS IN KARNATAKA ....................................................................... 295

3.1. REORIENTATION ................................................................ 296

3.1.1. The beginnings ....................................................................... 296

3.1.2. Moving towards visibility...................................................... 296

3.1.3. Mainstreaming ........................................................................ 296

3.1.4. Genesis of Environmental Study (EVS) ............................ 296

3.1.5. Greening of text books ......................................................... 297

3.1.6. Supreme directive ................................................................... 297

3.1.7. On the lines of the National Curriculum Framework .. 297

3.1.8. Environmental study module in higher education ...... 297

3.2. MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL INITIATIVES ....................... 298

3.2.1. The state government efforts ............................................. 298

3.2.2. The facilities .............................................................................. 299

3.2.3. National commitments ......................................................... 301

3.2.4. NGO initiatives ........................................................................ 301

3.2.5. Environmental education in universities ......................... 302

3.2.6. Role of academic and research institutions .................... 302

3.2.7. Communities – powered by environmental awareness ................................................................................. 303

3.2.8. Corporate social responsibility............................................ 304

3.2.9. Joint ventures .......................................................................... 304

3.2.10. Mass media and environment ............................................ 304

4. CHALLENGES .......................................................................................... 305

5. EMERGING INTERVENTION AREAS ................................................... 305


292

FIGURES

Figure 1: A tree is being cut in Bangalore ....................................................................................................................................... 293 Figure 2: Growing medicinal plants – Clocimom (Lavanga tulasi) .......................................................................................... 299 Figure 3: Tigers are part of the animal adoption programme in Mysore Zoo ...................................................................... 300 Figure 4: Medicinal plants grown and maintained at Padmanabhanagar Park in Bangalore....................................... 300 Figure 5: A board on safe drinking water in rural Karnataka .................................................................................................... 303 Figure 6: Canopy of avenue trees shading the road at Netkalappa Circle in Bangalore.................................................. 304


293

1. AN OVERVIEW

The people of Karnataka, particularly the youth, want

to see an ecologically-conscious and “green” state by

2025 with low pollution levels, efficient use of energy,

responsible use of scarce resources such as water, and

careful recycling and reprocessing of waste, so states

the Karnataka Vision 2025 developed by Confedera-

tion of Indian Industry (CII). The need for environmen-

tal education in Karnataka as the driver of this vision is

increasingly recognised by the state institutions.

Environmental education aims at improving environ-

mental quality thereby the quality of life of humans

and other life forms. The idea of environmental educa-

tion evolved in the 1970s as one of the strategies to

attain the goal of environmental improvement during

the UN conference on “Human Environment” held in

Stockholm (1972). Since then environmental education

has grown so vast embracing many concepts, ideas

and practices, that it has become difficult to define its

boundaries. This chapter attempts to give an overview

of the environmental education in the state capturing

some of the important thinking and practices.

1.1. EDUCATION ABOUT ENVIRONMENT, THROUGH AND FOR ENVIRONMENT

One of the best examples that summarise the essence

of environmental education is the Appiko movement

of Karnataka. Appiko (‘hug’ in Kannada), the popular

ecological movement of India, started in a tiny village

of Salkani in Uttar Kannada district in the Western

Ghats region of Karnataka. The rural community

launched a movement in 1983 similar to Chipko (hug

the trees) movement in Uttarakhand in the Himalayas,

to save their forests. Men, women and children of Sal-

kani village ‘hugged the trees’ in protest against the

axing of trees in the Kalasa forest area. This construc-

tive movement was instrumental in changing the gov-

ernment policy. The state government imposed a ban

on felling of trees in some of the forest areas within 6

years from the inception of the movement. Using fas-

cinating, creative and unique techniques to raise

awareness such as foot marches in the interior forests,

slide shows, folk dances, street plays and so on, the

movement gave birth to new beginnings in the areas

of environmental awareness and education all over

southern India. Through awareness and education, the

Appiko movement attempted to re-establish the har-

monious relationship between people and nature,

change attitudes and practices of people and govern-

ment and redefine development for a sustainable fu-

ture. Environmental education is ‘Education about En-

vironment, through Environment and for Environment’

and is comprehensive, continuing and interdisciplinary

in nature.

“Environmental education should simultaneously attempt

to create awareness, transmit information, teach

knowledge, develop habits and skills, promote values and

provide criteria and standards and present guidelines to

problem solving and decision making. It therefore, aims at

both cognitive and affective behaviour modification. This is

an action oriented, project centred and participatory

process leading to self-confidence, positive attitudes and

personal commitment to environmental protection.

Furthermore it should be implemented through and

interdisciplinary process.”

UNESCO 1970

1.2. LOOKING BEYOND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

The concept though emerged in the earlier half of

1970s, the practice of environmental education grew

strongly into a worldwide movement to “create new

patterns of behaviour of individuals, groups and socie-

ty as a whole towards environment” from the first In-

tergovernmental Conference on Environmental Educa-

tion held in Tbilisi (1977), which is a landmark in the

history of environmental education. The idea of sus-

tainability with multiple perspectives got woven into

environmental education in 1990s after the United

Nations Conference on Environment and Develop-

ment (UNCED) held at Rio de Janeiro in Brazil. The

result is the emergence of the concept of education for

sustainable development. While environmental educa-

tion focuses on the environment and its conservation,

education for sustainable development addresses key

areas of sustainable development namely; society, en-

vironment and economy. Thus the scope of environ-

mental education has grown with much broader edu-

cational and societal change over these past four dec-

ades. The UN has declared the decade starting from

2005 to 2014 as the Decade on Education for Sustain-

able Development in recognition of the central role of

education and communication in sustainable devel-

Figure 1: A tree is being cut in Bangalore


294

opment. From environmental education to education

for sustainable development, it has been a long jour-

ney. While it took almost 30 years for environmental

education to carve a niche within the mainstream ed-

ucation and educational policy, the concepts of educa-

tion for sustainable development are being taken at a

faster rate despite no clear understanding of its para-

digmatic implications. However, with the new thinking

emerging, this decade provides a crucial opportunity

for the governments to integrate education for sus-

tainable development into their national strategies and

action plans at all levels.

2. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN INDIA

National policies, plans and several of the major envi-

ronmental education programmes initiated at the na-

tional level have direct bearing on environmental edu-

cation in the state. A glimpse of environmental educa-

tion in India therefore serves as a background for envi-

ronmental education initiatives in Karnataka.

Environmental education in India always blended the

concerns of development and environment while re-

flecting the traditions and social perspectives since

times immemorial. Traditional societies in India have

incorporated conservation education in their religion,

traditions and cultures promoting sustainable lifestyles.

The Bishno is, for example, from the early fifteenth cen-

tury, emphasised vegetarianism, non-violence, protec-

tion of trees and respect for all living things. However,

with increasing level of environmental destruction,

environmental education which was an informal part

of our traditions and culture, needs much more atten-

tion and emphasis in the present context.

2.1. REVITALISING IN INDEPENDENT INDIA

Post independence, India has taken greater steps to

rediscover and promote environmental education

across the country. The Indian constitution is amongst

the few in the world that explicitly makes environmen-

tal conservation a duty that guides the government

and people through their actions. For instance, Article

48A in the ‘Directive Principles of the State Policy’ de-

clares that ‘the state shall endeavour to protect and

improve the natural environment including lakes, rivers

and wildlife and have compassion for living creatures.’

It is interesting to note that in India’s 4th

Plan (1969-74),

problems related to environment received attention for

the first time. Since then India’s 5-year plans have laid

emphasis on environmental awareness and education

with financial outlays.

Environmental Education, Training and Awareness (7th Plan: 1985 – 1990)

For creating and intensifying environmental awareness at

all levels of Indian society, both formal and non-formal

educational channels will have to be utilised. The basic

thrust of the programme would encompass:

Incorporation of environmental themes in educational

curricula and teaching aids/materials in the formal envi-

ronmental education sector;

Encouraging non-governmental organisations, mass

media and concerned organisations to promote non-

formal education;

Providing aid to professional societies and institutions

for environmental education activities;

Establishing the National Museum of Natural History

and establishing regional (satellite) museums;

Feasibility studies for establishing a National Institute

for Environmental Management;

Promoting the establishment of interpretive centres in

national parks, botanical gardens, zoos and biosphere

reserves;

Promoting manpower development and generating

literature and audio-visual material for environmental

education;

Establishing centres of excellence in environmental

education and research.

In the formal education system there will have to be the

fullest involvement of the Ministry of Education, and in

particular the NCERT (for schools) and UGC (for universi-

ties). It is proposed to arrange for comprehensive training

and consultancy services, besides having facilities for re-

search in environmental management, on aspects of rele-

vance to corporate executives, senior planners and admin-

istrators.

Adapted from Planning Commission, Government of India (1985): 7

thFive Year Plan 1985-1990

2.2. THE TURNING POINT

The first formal recognition of the need for integrated

environmental planning was acknowledged in India

following the UN conference on “Human Environ-

ment” in Stockholm in the year 1972. This was a land-

mark in the history of environmental awareness and

management in the country. The 6th

5-year plan (1980-

85) laid emphasis on environmental education ‘for cre-

ating and intensifying environmental awareness at all

levels of Indian society’ using both non-formal educa-

tional and formal (primary, secondary and tertiary lev-

els) channels through relevant curricula, publications

and trainings. The National Committee on Environ-

mental Planning (NCEP) which provided a major thrust

in the spread of environmental awareness in the coun-

try in the late 1970s and early 1980s gradually evolved

as a separate department of environment and reached

the full-fledged status of Ministry of Environment and

Forests (MoEF) by 1985. In order to plan, promote, co-

ordinate and oversee the implementation of various


295

environmental and forestry programmes, the ministry

recognised “creation of environmental awareness

among all sectors of the country's population” as one

of the key tools. It established Centre for Environment

Education (CEE) in 1984 at Ahmedabad and C. P.

Ramaswamy Environmental Education Centre (CPREE)

in 1988 at Chennai as ‘Centres of Excellence' in envi-

ronmental education to play a pivotal role in setting

the pace and the agenda for environmental education

in the country. MoEF since its formation has been em-

phasising the promotion of environmental education

at different levels through several programmes such as

seminars, campaigns, eco clubs, production of aware-

ness materials among various groups including deci-

sion makers, politicians, administrators, teachers and

students and general public, making it a people's

movement.

2.3. GREENING OF THE CURRICULA

Government is mainstreaming environmental educa-

tion in formal education. Recognising the role of envi-

ronmental education, the National Policy on Education

in 1986 stated that “There is a paramount need to cre-

ate consciousness of the environment. It must perme-

ate all ages and all sections of society, beginning with

the child. Environmental consciousness should inform

teaching in schools and in colleges. This aspect will be

integrated in the entire educational process.” In order

to make environmental education mandatory in all

states, at all levels of formal education, the Supreme

Court gave a directive in 2003 “we would require eve-

ry state government and every education board con-

nected with education up to matriculation stage or

even intermediate colleges to immediately take steps

to enforce compulsory education on environment in a

graded way. This should be so done that in the next

academic year there would be compliance with this

requirement”, failing which the states have to pay

penalty. The states including Karnataka have initiated

the process of mainstreaming environmental educa-

tion in a phased manner.

Besides these efforts, there are several co-curricular

and extracurricular activities related to environmental

education in schools facilitated by the central govern-

ment (MoEF, Ministry of Human Resource Develop-

ment), state education departments, state environment

and forest departments, non-governmental agencies,

the corporate sector, and school management com-

mittees.

2.4. EFFORTS BY THE NON-GOVERNMENTAL SECTOR

One of the strengths of India's environmental educa-

tion movement is the vast network of NGOs. Over

10,000 NGOs at national, regional and state levels;

community based institutions; communities and indi-

viduals have been actively engaged in improving

awareness on development and environmental issues.

Recognising the contribution of NGOs in spreading

environmental awareness, the government is building

a number of partnerships with them to achieve the

huge tasks ahead. Government is also finding out new

ways of working with the corporate sector who wish

to contribute to the body of environmental education.

For instance, the Paryavaran Mitra programme is a 3-

sector partnership with government (MoEF), an NGO

(CEE) and a corporate body (Arcelor Mittal), the

strengths of each complementing the other.

The thinking and concerns of education for sustainable

development are slowly percolating into the pro-

grammes and activities of environmental education.

Efforts to reorient environmental education through

incorporation of an array of strategies, approaches,

processes suitable to education for sustainable devel-

opment keeping in mind the type of knowledge, skill

required, are reflected in the recent initiatives of several

institutions including government and non-govern-

ment agencies.

3. STATUS IN KARNATAKA

The diverse landscapes in Karnataka ranging from

semi-arid region to coasts support a wide range of so-

cio-cultural aspects associated with biological diversity.

Stemming from such an association is environmental

education, which is not a new idea or concept to Kar-

nataka like in several other states of India. Environmen-

tal education in the state dates back to the pre-historic

period. Traditional societies living in diverse landscapes

of the state perceive conservation as a part of their

religion, culture and education for sustainable life-

styles. For instance, the magnificent traditional water

conservation practices, especially in drier parts of the

state, some of which still functional, tell the stories of

how communities have met their minimum water re-

quirements effectively. Fascinating sacred groves in the

state illustrate how native communities come together

to protect the biodiversity of the locality, especially in

Kodagu where there are still 1,214 listed sacred groves

covering an area of 2,520 hectares. These unique tradi-

tions demonstrate a successful and sustainable man-

agement of natural resources. Traditional societies

have also expressed concerns about the impact of en-

vironmental degradation and need for conservation

for human survival. These concerns and practices only

reveal the highest degree of environmental awareness

and knowledge people possessed about the environ-

ment that they were living in. With the increase in

population, rapid modernisation (for instance, re-

placement of the local efforts and community water


296

management practices with large dams for irrigation

and hydropower), changing lifestyles and livelihoods,

altered socio-cultural systems and an expanding mar-

ket economy over the past century, dissociation has set

in between humans and nature. With this, the tradi-

tional wisdom, knowledge systems and practices are

dying. As a result, education, awareness, and value

systems towards environment which trickled down

generations through practices and oral communica-

tion have lost their significance. It is evident from the

mounting pressure on natural resources like water, air,

forests and unprecedented environmental degrada-

tion in the state.

3.1. REORIENTATION

3.1.1. The beginnings

Realising that education is the panacea to halt rapid

environmental degradation, Karnataka has started fo-

cusing its efforts on environmental education in the

state. The process began in 1970s shortly after the UN

Conference on ‘Human Environment’ (1972), follow-

ing the footsteps of the centre.

Karnataka since its formation in 1956 has been work-

ing on soil conservation, public health, forest and wild-

life protection, industrial hygiene and so on, treating

each of these sectors as separate entity. However, rec-

ognising the need for an integrated approach, the

state set up a separate Department of Ecology and

Environment in the year 1981. With this move, Karna-

taka became one of the earlier states to have provided

explicit recognition to the vital role of environmental

conservation in the sustainable development. The de-

partment now facilitates and coordinates awareness

and education programmes on environment and ecol-

ogy related matters through various boards and re-

gional offices along with regulatory functions.

3.1.2. Moving towards visibility

The major state-wide campaign for environmental ed-

ucation came about in 1986 when MoEF at the Centre

launched the National Environmental Awareness

Campaign (NEAC) across the country, to create

awareness among a wide spectrum of the population

and to inspire participation in the protection of the

environment. There was overwhelming response for

the campaign from teachers and NGOs of Karnataka.

More than 500 teachers participated in three work-

shops held in Bangalore, Mulki in Dakshina Kannada

and Gulbarga. The programme addressed local envi-

ronmental problems and hence became very popular

and successful in reaching out to people. This cam-

paign made environmental education more visible in

the state which otherwise was limited to sporadic ex-

periments. Today, after about 25 years of the NEAC

launch, the programme continues in the state with

Karnataka Rajya Vijnana Parishat (KRVP) as the region-

al resource agency.

3.1.3. Mainstreaming

In the later part of 1980s there were several interesting

experiments on environmental education in the formal

education system in the different parts of the state,

such as teacher trainings, campaigns, important envi-

ronmental day celebrations, bringing out materials on

environmental concepts and issues, environmental

monitoring involving educational institutions like

schools and colleges with the financial support from

the state government, MoEF, MHRD and bilateral

agencies like NORAD. These trials increased following

the National Policy on Education of India in 1986. Kar-

nataka was among the first few states that embraced

the values stated in the policy ‘that protection of envi-

ronment is a value which, along with certain other

values, must form an integral part of the curriculum at

all stages of education’. The state government through

the Department of Education infused the values of

environmental protection, concepts and information

on the environmental issues in text books, instructional

materials, classroom transactions and co-curricular and

extracurricular activities in science, social sciences and

even in languages. This was the beginning of main-

streaming of environmental education in formal edu-

cation in Karnataka. However, these efforts were high-

ly inadequate and did not make much impact on the

mainstreaming of environmental education in formal

education.

In 1991, when Supreme Court ruled that environmen-

tal education should be made compulsory in formal

education system, Karnataka had to face a host of chal-

lenges. Should it be a part of the taught subjects or

should it be a separate subject? How can teachers be

trained to teach this subject since most of the teachers

have no experience in environmental education? Kar-

nataka was in a dilemma. In 1995 came the Nali-Kali

approach which gave a clear direction to the imple-

mentation of environmental education in schools

across the state. Impressed by this initiative, District

Primary Education Programme (DPEP) in Karnataka

planned to introduce this approach.

3.1.4. Genesis of Environmental Study (EVS)

Karnataka was one of the earlier states chosen for

DPEP, a major educational initiative to supplement the

efforts of the state and central governments for univer-

salisation of primary education in India. ‘Environmental

Studies’, EVS in short, was introduced for the first time

in DPEP in selected districts in primary schools follow-

ing Nali-Kali experiment. Teachers were trained in the

methodology of activity based approach as in EVS. The

Directorate of Textbooks of the Department of State

Educational Research and Training (DSERT) of the

Government of Karnataka, responsible for the prepara-


297

tion of curricula and text books for schools, decided to

use this model of introducing EVS for the primary

schools in the year 2001-2002 considering the impact

and success of the approach. An attempt was made to

use environment as a binding and over-arching subject

at the primary level (standards 1 to 5). Science and so-

cial science concepts got integrated into EVS. A small

experiment thus got bigger and better, culminating in

the mainstreaming of EVS giving environment its due

recognition as a subject in Karnataka in 2001-02. The

students of standards 1 to 4 now study three subjects:

Language, mathematics and EVS.

Nali-Kali

Nali-Kali (joyful learning), an interesting educational ap-

proach focusing on joyful and participatory learning, was

initiated as a small experiment by a group of 15 teachers

from Heggada Devanakote in Mysore district who were

inspired by J. Krishnamurthy’s child centered pedagogical

principles. Funded by UNICEF, one of the concepts of Nali-

Kali was learning directly from the environment. Simple,

joyful, child-centered indoor and outdoor activities were

introduced for students to learn from and about environ-

ment.

3.1.5. Greening of text books

Karnataka brought in changes in EVS text books,

based on the recommendation of National Curriculum

Framework for School Education (NCFSE) 2000. While

text book cum workbooks on EVS were introduced for

standards 1 to 4, environmental concepts and infor-

mation were infused suitably in science, social science

and language text books in standards 5 to 10.

However, in 1999-2000, a massive study undertaken

by the Pune-based Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute for

Environmental Education and Research (BVEERI) on

the ‘Status of infusion of environmental concepts in

school curricula and the effectiveness of its delivery’

funded by MoEF and World Bank, revealed major flaws

in the infusion of environmental concepts in the state

text books. Lack of coordination, continuation, concept

levels, and inappropriate pictures were some of the

problems pointed out. This analysis paved the way to

the greening of textbooks at the national level and the

initiative came from MoEF, supported by World Bank.

In Karnataka, the Directorate of Text Books joined

hands with MoEF in this textbook greening project

called Environmental Education in School System. With

the support of CEE, it introduced various environmen-

tal concepts for 6, 7 and 8th standards during 2003-04

in science, social science and Kannada text books and

field tested in 100 schools.

3.1.6. Supreme directive

In the year 2003, following the Supreme Court ruling

of enforcing compulsory education on environment in

the formal education system, the National Council of

Educational Research and Training (NCERT), the apex

body in the area of curriculum development for the

formal education system, brought out a syllabus on

environmental studies in 2004 on the instructions of

Supreme Court. Taking the challenge and seeing it as

an opportunity, Karnataka decided to adopt this cur-

riculum. CEE worked closely with the Directorate of

Text Books in the State of Karnataka, evaluated the

existing environmental education syllabus and text-

books vis-à-vis the Supreme Court approved syllabus

and facilitated the entire process of text book writing

to comply with the court directive. New EVS textbooks

were introduced for classes 1 to 4 in 2006. In class 5,

environmental studies were added in the textbook of

science as part 2. From class 6 onwards environmental

concepts were infused in both science and social sci-

ence text books.

3.1.7. On the lines of the National Curriculum Framework

NCERT meanwhile published the National Curriculum

Framework (NCF) in 2005 and environmental studies

appeared as ‘Habitat and Learning’. Karnataka is now

introducing this framework. Textbooks are planned in

a phased manner by the Directorate of Textbooks,

now Karnataka Textbook Society (2006), and they

hope to complete the task by 2014. Textbook writing

for classes 1 to 5 is in progress and the new textbooks

with greener content will be introduced from the aca-

demic year 2012 to these classes. At higher secondary

level (classes 11 and 12), environmental study is intro-

duced as an optional subject and also integrated into

various subject areas. Text Book Society has also

planned EVS source books for teachers and workbooks

for students.

3.1.8. Environmental study module in higher education

Environmental study had not received adequate atten-

tion till the Supreme Court directed the University

Grants Commission (UGC) to introduce a basic course

on environment at every level in higher education.

Complying with the direction, UGC has formulated a

compulsory six months core module in environmental

studies across the country for undergraduate courses

of all branches of higher education, thus giving envi-

ronment its space and time in academic programmes.

UGC also brought out the textbook for environmental

studies aiming at creating a pro-environmental attitude

and changing behavioural pattern and lifestyles of

youth. It has notified all universities to use this course

material. Six universities in Karnataka have introduced

the UGC module in their respective colleges as com-

mon course for undergraduate students of all disci-

plines such as arts, science, commerce and law begin-

ning from 2005. Technical universities and colleges

such as Visvesvaraya Technological University, Univer-


298

sity of Agricultural Sciences, Karnataka Veterinary, An-

imal and Fisheries Sciences University and the colleges

of management studies in Karnataka have also intro-

duced environmental studies as a compulsory paper in

their respective programmes.

3.2. MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL INITIATIVES

Efforts have been made in the state by different agen-

cies to create environmental awareness and con-

sciousness, and educate people on the environmental

conservation leading to action.

3.2.1. The state government efforts

According to CII’s Karnataka Vision 2025, Karnataka

wants to become an ecologically-conscious low pollu-

tion state. Several government departments working

towards this vision have included awareness and edu-

cation as an important step for making the state green.

Department of Ecology and Environment (DEE) is the

department working towards improving the environ-

ment and ecological situation in Karnataka. The de-

partment employs various awareness programmes on

environment and ecology related matters as one of the

major tools to fulfil its objectives. It spreads awareness

through its six Regional Offices at Gulbarga, Bellary,

Belgaum, Dakshina Kannada, Uttar Kannada and

Udupi. DEE facilitates and coordinates activities such as

production of awareness materials both in print and

audio-visuals; awareness campaigns; exhibitions; work-

shops and seminars; trainings for planners, NGOs, poli-

cy makers, schools and general public to reduce the

environmental foot prints mainly through. Karnataka

State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB), Lake Develop-

ment Authority (LDA), Karnataka Biodiversity Board

(KBB) and Environmental Management and Policy Re-

search Institute (EMPRI).

Through DEE, Government of Karnataka (GoK) facili-

tated the process of preparing state of environment

reports to get policy makers, NGOs and public to un-

derstand the status of various natural resources and

take right decisions in development planning. Reports

are available in English and some in Kannada for the

years 1983-84, 84-85, 85-86, 1990, 1993 and 2003.

Through KSPCB the state has launched 3 mobile exhib-

it vans in 2005 for school students, public and indus-

tries. Hosting a series of facilities like models, panels,

pollution testing equipment, computers, documentary

films screening and so on, these buses have reached

out to more than one lakh students, one lakh public

and 30,000 people working in small-scale industries.

These buses educate people on ecology and environ-

ment, forest and wildlife, water, renewable energy

resources, pollution and its effects on human health

and other living organisms, and environmental con-

servation.

Training is one of the core objectives of Environmental

Management and Policy Research Institute (EMPRI). It

conducts short term training programmes ranging

from 1 to 6 days for KSPCB officials, representatives of

industries and municipal bodies, NGOs, hospital ad-

ministrators and employees of public sector and gov-

ernment. In the past 3 years, it has offered more than

30 trainings per year, with an average number of 25 –

30 participants per programme on issues ranging from

biomedical waste management to biodiversity conser-

vation to rainwater harvesting to environmental

awareness. It runs the ENVIS centre on state environ-

mental issues for MoEF, Government of India. EMPRI

also brought out the State of Environment Bangalore

2008. Since 2009 EMPRI is implementing the National

Green Corps (NGC) programme of MoEF which was

formerly run by the Indo-Norwegian Environmental

Programme (INEP). With about 7,500 supported eco-

clubs in 7,500 schools and 7,500 trained teachers

across 30 districts, NGC has become an extensive envi-

ronmental education network for conservation in Kar-

nataka. Government of Karnataka expanded the NGC

programme to include pre-university colleges in which

more than 2,100 eco-clubs were supported over the

last six years.

Back to nature: The clay campaign

KSPCB has over the past few years appealed to the public

to use eco-friendly idols made of clay without much re-

sponse. In 2010, the board launched a major awareness

campaign asking people to ‘drop toxic lead-based paints’

through an extensive and sustained mass media approach

and reached out to many. It also operated 13 mobile im-

mersion vans. The response was indeed amazing. About

58.3% of the 3,700 idols immersed in 13 mobile immersion

vans on Ganesh Chaturti were eco-friendly. In 2009, just

about 500 of over 3,000 idols immersed were made out of

clay. The board also has been successful in making

Deepavali 2010 a less sound polluted affair through such

mass campaigns.

Adapted from The Hindu, September (2010): Pollution officials over the moon as green Ganesh idols catch on

The Karnataka Biodiversity Board (KBB) facilitates the

preparation of peoples’ biodiversity registers, conducts

awareness workshops and training on issues related to

biodiversity including traditional knowledge, genetical-

ly modified crops, dry zone biodiversity and medicinal

plants to the general public, students and teachers of

schools and colleges and government officials. Karna-

taka Biodiversity Information System, Karnataka Coastal

Biodiversity Information System and the biodiversity

atlas are also developed by the board for planners,

NGOs and other interested groups.


299

The Lake Development Authority (LDA) organises pub-

lic awareness campaigns in order to sensitise people

towards the protection, conservation, reclamation,

restoration, regeneration and integrated development

of lakes – natural and human-made in Karnataka.

Mandated to improve and manage forests of the State,

the Karnataka Forest Department (KFD) builds capaci-

ties in various issues of the forests. It is equipped with 5

training institutes and runs various training modules to

forest officials at various levels. It orients and trains the

stakeholder communities in Joint Forest Planning and

Management (JFPM) for better and efficient participa-

tion in the forests protection and development.

As mentioned before, the Department of Public In-

struction has taken major steps to mainstream envi-

ronmental studies through Directorate of Text Books,

DSERT, Department of Primary and Secondary Educa-

tion. It also collaborates with other departments like

DEE to spread the awareness among school students

as in the case of NGC. DSERT has trained more than 6

Lakh teachers from across the State between 2000 and

2006, and all these trainings have included environ-

mental education modules ranging from 4 hours to

two days. The department is making roads to reach

out with environmental education to the non-formal

sector. With funding support from International Labour

Organization (ILO), DSERT has developed a crash

course for out-of-school children like rag pickers

wherein they can complete 7 years of primary educa-

tion in 2 years before joining mainstream education.

DSERT has brought out bridge textbooks clubbing the

textbooks of classes 1 to 7 including environmental

studies.

Promoting energy conservation measures is one of the

important programmes of the Department of Energy

for protecting the environment. Through Karnataka

Renewable Energy Development Limited (KREDL), the

nodal agency to facilitate the development of non-

conventional energy sources, the department organis-

es exhibitions and seminars on energy conservation,

renewable energy sources and systems, Clean Devel-

opment Mechanisms (CDM) across the state. In order

to motivate the industries to use less energy, KREDL

also celebrates energy day and awards those industries

that have saved energy.

Funded by both Government of India and Govern-

ment of Karnataka, the Karnataka State Council for

Science and Technology (KSCST) has been playing a

catalytic role in promoting the application of science

and technology, in developmental needs and objec-

tives of Karnataka. It employs impressive educational

approaches through dialogue, demonstration, training

to influencing policy changes in various sectors like

energy, environment and water.

Figure 2: Growing medicinal plants – Clocimom (Lavanga tulasi)

Karnataka Rajya Vijnana Parishat (KRVP), an autono-

mous registered society with the mandate to popular-

ise science and technology, is the regional resource

agency for NEAC. It organises and implements pro-

grammes for NEAC in the state with the major financial

support from the MoEF, Government of India and also

from State agencies. It also organises other teachers

training programmes on environmental issues. It has

implemented NGC in more than 3,000 schools till now.

Other state departments such as Agriculture, Animal

Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences, Health and Family

Welfare, Rural Development and Panchayat Raj,

Transport, Water Resources, Watershed Development

and Tourism in their training and awareness pro-

grammes include environmental awareness related to

their subject areas. For instance, while Department of

Agriculture promotes organic farming, Department of

Tourism popularises ecotourism and Abdul Nasir Saab

State Institute for Rural Development (ANSSIRD) of Ru-

ral Development and Panchayat Raj Department gives

extensive training in various aspects of rural develop-

ment, drinking water and sanitation, watershed devel-

opment including skills development.

3.2.2. The facilities

There are several educational facilities created in the

state like zoos, parks, and museums to spread aware-

ness about environment to all sections of society. Most

of these facilities are government initiatives, some by

the state and some by the centre.

Zoos

Karnataka has at least 19 zoos: 15 mini zoos, one small

zoo, more than two medium zoos and one large zoo.

They serve as excellent educational facilities. Besides

various animal species; wayside information charts and

visitor centres they “..connect visitors and animals

through exemplary animal welfare and care, best edu-

cational and inspirational experiences, fostering public

appreciation and support for wild animals and conser-

vation” (Mission statement of Mysore Zoo). Being the


300

Figure 3: Tigers are part of the animal adoption programme in

Mysore Zoo

largest zoo, Mysore Zoo hosts major educational pro-

grammes and attracts more than 20 lakh visitors per

year.

Botanical gardens and parks

Like zoos, gardens also serve as facilities for environ-

mental education. They promote biodiversity educa-

tion among the public. Parks are a major component in

town planning and almost every small town hosts a

park. The Lalbagh Botanical Garden in Bangalore for

instance is an internationally renowned centre for sci-

entific study and dissemination of knowledge about

plants and horticulture training since 1856. Vegetation,

the aquarium, the aviary and the lake are the major

educational facilities in the garden for environmental

education and are visited by about 10,000 people on a

normal day. CEE has captured the rich flora (6,000

plants belonging to 96 species) and fauna of Cubbon

Park, another major lung space of Bangalore, in its

Figure 4: Medicinal plants grown and maintained at

Padmanabhanagar Park in Bangalore

‘Park Education’ brochure. The brochure has helped

engaged school students in several activities to help

them explore Cubbon Park and through it, learn more

about the wider environment.

Museums

Out of six popular museums in the state, Regional Mu-

seum of Natural History (RMNH), located in Mysore is

educating the public exclusively on environment, pro-

moting conservation education in particular. Initiated

in 1995, it is the first regional museum of the National

Museum of Natural History (NMNH). The museum pro-

vides a unique opportunity to explore nature and the

natural world through models; translates; audio visual

aids; dioramas; thematic, interactive and participatory

exhibits. In the discovery room of the museum, chil-

dren explore, handle, examine and study specimens

through participatory and fun-filled activities. RMNH

also develops programmes for the public to promote

environmental awareness through theme exhibitions,

nature study tours, film shows, lectures and regular

trainings. It has reached out to more than 3,000 peo-

ple between 2008 and 2010. Visvesvaraya Industrial

and Technological Museum (VITM) in Bangalore, un-

der the National Council of Science Museums, intro-

duced nature education in its permanent ‘science for

children’ exhibition hall. It conducted environment

related activities for students between 2008 and 2010

and has reached out to more than 20,000 students

from different parts of the state. The museum also runs

a District Science Centre in Gulbarga and holds envi-

ronmental education programmes like nature study

camps and competitions. In the year 2009-10, envi-

ronmental awareness programmes at Gulbarga Centre

reached out to more than 1,500 students.

Energy parks

In order to popularise and promote renewable energy

sources and devices, KREDL has set up ten district level

energy parks with the financial assistance from Ministry

Chamarajendra Zoo – A joyful learning facility

Popular as Mysore Zoo, it hosts major educational pro-

grammes. It trains 60 students every year for 25 weeks in

wildlife biology and conservation, 25 teachers are trained

to use the zoo. It conducts summer camps for 115 students

in 3 batches for 7 days each, visits educational institutions

to disseminate information about the zoo, provides

transport and meals for children with special needs and

the aged. It organises animal caretaker programmes; veter-

inary workshops; 10-day orientation for forestry students,

IFS and RFO probationers; volunteer programmes for visi-

tor education; arranges competitions on theme paintings,

slogans for animal birthday celebrations and naming; cel-

ebrates world environment day, wildlife week; brings out

publications; conducts workshops for housewives on solid

waste, water conservation, pet management, vermi-

composting. The zoo has recently started an animal

adoption programme.

Adapted from Sri Chamarajendra Zoological Gardens, Mysore Annual Report 2008-09


301

of New and Renewable Energy Sources (MNRES) be-

tween 2003 and 2007. Today, there are energy parks

in all the districts; 18 by KREDL and 11 by KSCST. Work-

ing models of improved wood burning stoves, solar

devices, biogas, and wind generators are some of the

exhibits displayed in these energy parks for enhancing

public awareness.

Pilikula Nisarga Dhama at Pilikula

This is a major eco-education facility in Mangalore dis-

trict in the Western Ghats region. This facility is spread

over an area of 370 acres covering tropical forest and a

lake. The facility includes an integrated theme park

consisting of a biological park, arboretum, a science

centre and a lake park among others. Inspired by the

concept of wholesome experience of the rich native

natural and cultural heritage of the coastal and West-

ern Ghats region, Pilikula is reported to be the first facil-

ity of its kind in India. It focuses on environmental edu-

cation for conservation of unique wild species of this

region to save them from extinction.

Karnataka Forest Department (KFD) has extended the

scope of environmental education to the protected

areas by establishing camping facilities, and interpreta-

tion and education centres in these areas. So far there

are 12 campsites, 5 by KFD and 7 by the Department

of Tourism to be exclusively used by school students of

the state. KFD has established 3 interpretation centres,

two on wildlife in general and one specifically on am-

phibians in protected areas, which are highly educa-

tive in nature. Located in Bannerghatta National Park,

the Butterfly Park offers a unique educational experi-

ence for visitors to learn more about butterflies, their

diversity, evolution and conservation. A 30-minute film

developed by the park facilitates learning.

3.2.3. National commitments

Several environmental education initiatives of the state

are offshoots of initiatives of the central government.

For instance, the National Policy on Education 1986

followed by the Supreme Court ruling 2003 and Na-

tional Curricular Framework 2005 have formed the

foundation for mainstreaming environmental educa-

tion in formal education sector in the state. Similarly,

DEE has been implementing programmes and initia-

tives like NGC, ENVIS and State of Environment Reports

(SoER), which were initiated by MoEF at the national

level. However, Karnataka has always been one of the

earlier states to have taken up these activities. MoEF

has set up a regional office in Bangalore to serve the

southern states. Two of its exclusive Centres of Excel-

lence for environmental education – CEE and CPREE –

have offices in Bangalore. All these offices are putting

much of their efforts in strengthening the EE initiatives

of the state.

MHRD through NCERT is also promoting green text-

books in the state. Through Environmental Orientation

to School Education (EOSE), a scheme to enrich the

pool of locale-specific environmental education mate-

rials in local language, has brought out state relevant

materials like Encyclopaedic Dictionary on Environ-

ment in Kannada with the help of NGOs for students

and the general public. Similarly, Mahatma Gandhi

Institute of Rural Energy and Development (MGIRED),

established with the assistance of MNRES, Government

of India, and Department of Rural Development and

Panchayati Raj, Government of Karnataka cater to the

training needs of Karnataka on renewable energy.

Through demonstration, documentation and dissemi-

nation, the institute tries to bring awareness in public

on renewable energy sources and devices. Mass

awareness and training is one of the activities of the

Central Ground Water Board office in Karnataka. These

are organised for government agencies, NGOs and the

general public to educate them on the protection of

groundwater.

3.2.4. NGO initiatives

There are more than 400 NGOs working in Karnataka

in the development sector and more than 50 NGOs

work exclusively on environmental protection includ-

ing natural resource conservation. These NGOs have

included environmental awareness in their training

modules and focus around eco-friendly practices, en-

ergy and clean technologies, waste management, wa-

ter conservation and greening activities through mass

media, demonstration centres, training programmes

for schools, colleges, corporate sector, communities in

both rural and urban areas.

Some of the national NGOs like CEE, CPREE, work ex-

clusively on environmental education. They employ a

variety of interesting approaches – from public consul-

tation to demonstration to greening the syllabus to

nature camps – for a range of environmental issues –

from water and sanitation to coastal management.

They work with a wide range of stakeholder groups.

CEE is also ENVIS Centre for environmental education.

Some of the international NGOs like Greenpeace with

their office in Bangalore stage interesting campaigns

for environmental conservation for public awareness

on various environmental issues like promotion of or-

ganic agriculture. Centre for Wildlife Studies (CWS)

develops rigorous methods to monitor wildlife popula-

tions and also conducts training for field biologists,

Karnataka Forest Department staff and NGO volun-

teers participate in monitoring wildlife populations.

Most of these work closely with government pro-

grammes and policies and compliment government

efforts in spreading environmental awareness and ed-

ucation.


302

3.2.5. Environmental education in universities

St. Joseph's Arts and Science College of Bangalore Uni-

versity was the first to start a B.Sc. programme in Envi-

ronmental Science in the 1980s. Besides the compulso-

ry course on environmental studies, six universities

(Mysore, Bangalore, Mangalore, Kuvempu and Gulb-

arga) offer environmental science in their Bachelor's

programme as an optional subject and a M.Sc., M.Phil.

and Ph.D. programme or post-graduate diploma in

environmental science. Some of the engineering col-

leges offer a special paper on environmental studies,

like PES Engineering College Mandya. In B.Ed. colleges

a paper or portion of a paper on environmental educa-

tion was introduced while others have introduced en-

vironmental education as optional subject.

National Law School of India University (NLSIU) offers a

foundation course in Environmental Law at under-

graduate level. The course addresses the Third World

dilemma between environment and development; the

legislative and judicial responses to environmental

problems with special attention to environmental ad-

vocacy. NLSIU also offers optional seminar courses in

Natural Resources and Energy; Law and International

Environmental Law and an optional clinical course in

Environmental Advocacy for undergraduate students

through Centre for Environmental Law, Education,

Research and Advocacy (CEERA). At the post graduate

level, it offers specialisation in Environmental Law and

also a one year post-graduate diploma. A course in

Environmental Law has been specially designed for

students of the distance education programme in Mas-

ter of Business Law.

In distance learning mode, there are several certificate,

diploma and post graduate (M.Sc.) courses on various

aspects of environment such as Ecology and Environ-

mental Science, Environment and Sustainable Devel-

opment, offered in the state by Indian Institute of Ecol-

ogy and Environment (IIEE); Sikkim-Manipal University;

Kuvempu University; Indira Gandhi National Open

University (IGNOU), Bangalore Regional Centre and

Karnataka State Open University (KSOU). IGNOU is also

trying to adopt these courses in Kannada to reach out

the rural mass.

An army of National Service Scheme (NSS) volunteers

(more than 3 lakh in 2009-10) is playing a major role in

environmental education. Around 24 NSS coordinators

from various universities and directorates across the

state have chalked out several programmes related to

environmental issues and have oriented 3,000 NSS

officers. NSS volunteers have taken up several envi-

ronmental education programmes including promo-

tion of tree planting, clean up campaigns, health and

sanitation through various approaches like street plays

and discussions. However demonstrations have been

their major environmental education tool. For instance,

in 2009-10, NSS volunteers have planted 195,100 sap-

lings across the state. They established a biodiversity

park in Bangalore University campus covering an area

of 1,000 acres with 2,000 species of plants. Dhanvantri

Park established as a part of this is used as an educa-

tional facility by 55 Ayurveda college students from

across the state. Energy clubs established in some col-

leges along with KREDL have promoted minimum use

of electricity and maximum use of solar energy.

3.2.6. Role of academic and research institutions

There are academic and research institutions working

to strengthen environmental awareness. The Centre

for Ecological Sciences (CES) at the Indian Institute of

Science (IISc) is the first of the Centres of Excellence

established by MoEF in 1983, with a mandate to work

on the ecological issues of the Western Ghats. Aware-

ness is one of its programme areas besides research in

ecology. Environmental Education Programme at CES

in collaboration with Karnataka Environment Research

Foundation (KERF) referred as ‘Know your Ecosystem'

focuses on the importance of investigating the ecosys-

tems within the context of human influences. The cen-

tre also conducts training programmes and workshops

for local NGOs, college teachers and students to de-

velop a database on the Western Ghats biodiversity

and also in the area of eco-development. It has devel-

oped an activity-based environmental education pro-

gramme for students of standards 6 to 9. The Centre

runs an ENVIS on Western Ghats Biodiversity.

The Centre for Sustainable Technologies (CST) estab-

lished as Centre for Application of Science and Tech-

nology for Rural Areas (ASTRA) in 1974, is an inter-

disciplinary research and technology development

centre of IISc for providing sustainable solutions to a

host of environmental concerns. The centre focuses on

promoting sustainable technologies primarily in the

area of energy and environment such as efficient

wood burning devices, biomass gasification, using en-

vironmental education as one of the important tools.

Both CST and CES offer Ph.D. programmes on sustain-

able technologies and ecology respectively. National

Centre for Biological Sciences (NCBS) located in Banga-

lore, a part of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Re-

search (TIFR), offers a 2-year M.Sc. course on wildlife

wherein ecology and conservation biology are taught.

Started in 1997, Centre for Environmental Law, Educa-

tion, Research and Advocacy (CEERA) of NLSIU offers

training programmes in environmental law to gov-

ernment functionaries, industry managers, judges, law

practitioners, NGOs and representatives of the local

self-government. Seminars and workshops on various

aspects of environmental law are a part of the ongoing

activities of the centre all-round the year. Centre for


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Ecological Economics and Natural Resources (CEENR)

of the Institute for Social and Economic Change (ISEC)

are a recognised centre for imparting training to uni-

versity and college teachers, researchers as well as ad-

ministrators at different levels in the area of environ-

mental economics. The centre also organises courses

for NGOs. National and regional organisations such as

TERI, ATREE, FRLHT conduct both theme based and

general environmental education programmes for

schools and the general public.

3.2.7. Communities – powered by environmental awareness

Communities, traditional communities in particular,

have always contributed to environmental conserva-

tion because they are aware of the fact that environ-

ment is their lifeline. They also possess in-depth

knowledge about the natural resources. Even today

people in pockets have been working towards conser-

vation of water, agro-biodiversity, sacred groves, and

mangroves and so on though the knowledge people

possess is fast eroding. A good example is the case of

Kolar district. It is in the dry agro-climatic zone and

historically drought prone. Short sighted policies en-

courage over-exploitation of groundwater. Gram Vi-

kas, a local NGO with its strong network of women

self-help groups (SHG) took up tank restoration in the

area. Besides physical cleaning of tanks, SHGs under-

took a Jatha on tank restoration and ecological advo-

cacy. Women visited 400 villages in 3 taluks and

through songs and slogans, organising theme confer-

ences, inviting policy-makers and media so as to draw

attention to the issue. The strategy worked well result-

ing in the constitution of Tank Development Commit-

tees in each village they visited. Realising ordinary

womens’ extraordinary commitment, the state gov-

ernment decided to desilt tanks of the state. With this

was born the Tank Restoration Project Jala

Samvardhane Yojana in 2002 funded by World Bank.

Awareness did empower women to protect their wa-

ter resources.

Communities in Karnataka, especially in the Western

Ghats region are becoming aware of the adverse im-

pacts of some developmental projects on environment.

This is resulting in people’s movements to pressurise

the government and influence policies in favor of envi-

ronmentally sound and sustainable development prac-

tices. Bidthy Project IV in Karnataka, a proposed site for

a hydroelectric project in Uttar Kannada across the

river Bidthy is another example of how information

leads to education and decision making. For the first

time, a cost benefit analysis of a hydroelectric project in

the country included an Environmental Impact As-

sessment (EIA) which included ecological costs. Follow-

ing this, a public consultation was held. The analysis

showed that the economic value of the biomass gen-

erated by the local forest was more than the energy

equivalent of the proposed project. Convinced, the

state government abandoned this project on the

grounds that the project was not economically viable.

These green movements, triggered by the awareness

of the fact that the natural resources are fast degrad-

ing, have embraced a wide spectrum of issues from

forest to pollution. Initiation has emerged from grass

roots including indigenous communities and women

and NGOs have supported their cause. Interestingly,

these movements have yielded the desired results

showcasing the power of people.

Figure 5: A board on safe drinking water in rural Karnataka

A one-woman mission

284 sturdy banyan trees stand majestically with their vast

canopy along a 4 km stretch on the Bangalore –

Nelamangala highway singing the story of Saalumarada

Thimmakka (Thimmakka of the row of trees). Childless

Thimmakka, a native of Hulikal village in the Magadi taluk

of Bangalore Rural district, took to tree planting in 1950s

in lieu of children. Thimmakka and her husband grafted

saplings of ficus (banyan) trees and planted them on the

highway. The couple watered and protected these trees.

Today, the net value of these more than 50 year old trees

is around INR 1.5 million (15 lakh). They may be worth a

few crores considering their ecological services. She has

won several awards for her dedication including the

Nadoja Award by Hampi University and the National Citi-

zen's award of India. A US environmental organisation

based in California is named after her ‘Thimmakka's Re-

sources for Environmental Education’. After her husband’s

death in 1991, Thimmakka has continued to involve her-

self actively in spreading the message of afforestation,

tank construction for storing rain water, hospital construc-

tion in her village and so on. One woman without formal

education has done it all with her sheer determination, all

because she is aware of the fact that environmental solu-

tions lie with everyone, all classes, all languages equally

and is not restricted to the formally educated, scientists,

policy makers or to the elite classes; and that everyone

should contribute in terms of work and not simply lec-

tures.

Adapted from B.R. Srikanth, Thimmakka's Green Crusade Trans-forms Heat-And-Dust Hulikal, Outlook India, May 03, 1999


304

Figure 6: Canopy of avenue trees shading the road at Netkalappa

Circle in Bangalore

Government of Karnataka has realised this strength. It

has recognised that community is an integral part of

any developmental project and their participation is

crucial. Hence environmental awareness and educa-

tion have become important components in all the

programme areas

3.2.8. Corporate social responsibility

In the corporate sector, not many are into environmen-

tal education. Small initiatives in schools have come

from some like Bosch and Infosys. Banks and industries

are giving small funds for one-time events like competi-

tions, campaigns, rallies, programmes on environmen-

tally important days. The recent Azim Premji University

in Bangalore, another corporate initiative, focuses on

teaching and research in ecology and also environ-

ment, livelihoods and development economics in the

field of development.

3.2.9. Joint ventures

Most of the environmental education initiatives in Kar-

nataka have been joint ventures. The programmes

have been in partnership between government,

NGOs, community and occasionally with the corporate

sector. NGC is a good example of joint efforts coming

from DEE, DSERT, schools, district administration,

NGOs and community participation with central sup-

port. Kodagu Model Forest in Karnataka designed for

conservation and sustainable forest management is a

joint initiative of local communities, Karnataka Forest

Department, Coffee Planters’ Association and Forestry

College of Ponnampet. It is the first site in India to have

joined the International Model Forest Network (IMFN)

in 2003. It is interesting to note that awareness and

education have played a major role in adding this

model to the prestigious network.

3.2.10. Mass media and environment

The gradual coming into consciousness of environ-

mental issues is reflected in growing column space

attributed in print media. This change is much less ap-

parent on TV though and even less on radio. On envi-

ronmentally important days like World Environment

Day, Earth Day, the print media in particular brings out

special supplements on various environmental issues.

There are few journalism courses, which offer envi-

ronmental journalism as electives. There are some

documentaries and films made on environmental is-

sues of Karnataka, particularly on wildlife. ‘Wild Dog

People’s power

Hanakon, a sleepy village in the Karwar taluk of coastal

Uttara Kannada woke up suddenly when Ind-Bharath

Thermal Power Company Limited (IBTPL), a Hyderabad

based private company, proposed to set up a 450 MW coal

based thermal power plant in 2006. The awareness of the

richness of the region and that such projects would disturb

the ecologically sensitive zone, threatening both the

coastal and Western Ghat biodiversity besides displacing

thousands of fishermen on the bank of the river Kali de-

priving of their livelihood made the locals angry. On these

grounds the local people and environmentalists decided to

protest against this project strongly. In early 2009, events

took a serious turn when leaders and 17 women were

arrested. Agitators roped in environmentalists like Medha

Patkar to gain more support to their agitation. This war

against the project on all fronts - legal, social, cultural,

emotional and political - from an unassuming small village,

shook the authorities in Delhi. The Central Expert Appraisal

Committee) on Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA)

after studying the reports and visiting the place recom-

mended to consider withdrawal or cancellation of the

project. This victory of the people shows that awareness

leads to active participation of local communities which

can stop projects which are anti-people.

Adapted from Centre asked to cancel clearance for power plant – Times of India TNN, April 17, 2010; Hanakon thermal power plant

project shelved, The Hindu – January 3, 2010; Hankon Thermal Power Plant - 7 - Project Shelved on Persistent Agitations,

The Hindu, Monday, January 18, 2010

Pick and plant

On November 14, 1987, people, particularly women of

the tiny village Kusunur in Dharwad district protested

against the allotment of village pasture land by the state

to Karnataka Pulpwood Limited (KPL) – a joint ven-

ture of the Government of Karnataka and the private

polyfibre industry, which intended to grow eucalyptus

on it. People of Kusunur and the surrounding villages

staged a pick and plant demonstration and symbolically

plucked eucalyptus and planted locally useful plants.

Supported by NGOs like Samaj Parivartana Samudaya,

and eminent environmentalists like Shivaram Karanth,

the local community sustained struggle for over sev-

en years. One of the best examples of public awareness

leading to large-scale public participation after the Appi-

ko movement is Kusunur Satyagraha.

Adapted from K.N. Ninan and S. Puttaswamaiah (1998): People power; Down to Earth Vol. 6; Issue 19980331


305

Dairies’, a film by wildlife photographers Krupakar and

Senani shot in protected areas of Karnataka has recent-

ly (2010) won the Green Oscar.

4. CHALLENGES

It is obvious that the state is investing great deal of ef-

forts to make Karnataka green and clean. However,

the impact of environmental education is not discerni-

ble. An analysis brings out the following:

Positives and Favourable factors

Karnataka has rich traditional practices which are

environmentally sound and sustainable;

Karnataka was one of the earlier states that initiated

most of the centre’s environmental education pro-

grammes;

State government departments recognise environ-

mental education as an important part of education

and provided financial outlays;

The Department of Education has mainstreamed

environmental education in formal education;

The state has environmentally literate citizenry and

committed network of NGOs active in environmen-

tal education;

A string of academic and research institutions offer

support services in the area of environmental edu-

cation;

The state also enjoys the support at the national

level in terms of policy (The National Policy on Edu-

cation 1986), Supreme Court directive 2003 and fi-

nancial and technical assistance from MoEF and

MHRD.

Constraints

Poor infrastructure in government schools especial-

ly in single-teacher rural schools;

The scope of environmental education is not well

defined and strategies and process within the state

lack region and target specificity affecting wider

participation;

Documentation of environmental education pro-

cesses and results is weak and inconsistent;

Monitoring and evaluation of environmental edu-

cation activities and programmes are inadequate;

Poor co-ordination between and across related de-

partments, institutions and agencies hinders effec-

tive and integrated use of resources;

Strengths of NGOs and other academic institutions

are often underutilised.


The analysis of this chapter shows that environmental education in its present form is neither effective in im-pacting the environment and its conservation, nor helping to boost the development plans of the state to be sustainable. More of the same certainly is not the answer.

As key intervention areas emerge:

Development planning today addresses the issues

of sustainable future. Hence education focusing on

environment alone is highly inadequate in the

present context. Environmental education has to

shift to education for sustainable development

integrating the principles of sustainable

development, embracing values and wisdom

education and not just information. Hence, the

challenge before the state is to shift from

environmental education to education for

sustainable development to improve the present

development planning process. While environmen-

tal education took almost 30 years in the state to

carve a niche in the mainstream education and

programmes, the concepts of education for

sustainable development has to move faster;

The scope of education for sustainable develop-

ment has to be defined so that it moves beyond a

few lectures and competitions. The central role of

education for sustainable development has to be

clearly stated in all state policies, programmes and

project plans so that education for sustainable de-

velopment is not brushed aside as a supplement.

Environmental educators need to strengthen their

capacities to be able to empower people to take

environmental action;

Zoos and botanical gardens should be seen from

the point of education for sustainable development.

They offer myriad scope for spreading awareness

among thousands of visitors. Education for sustain-

able development in these places should cater to

multiple target groups from children to adults. Small

and big towns across Karnataka need to upgrade,

improve and strengthen existing facilities and infra-

structure and create new ones if needed;

‘The volume of education continues to increase, yet so do pollution, exhaustion of resources, and dangers of ecological catastrophe. If still more education is to save us, it would have to be a different kind: an education that takes us into the depth of things.’

E. F. Schumacher

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krupakar-Senani

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krupakar-Senani


306

It is necessary to build an evaluation mechanism in

education for sustainable development activities to

assess the outcome and desired results;

The success of education for sustainable develop-

ment will depend upon the synergy between vari-

ous departments within the state government and

their key institutions. Education for sustainable de-

velopment programmes are not exclusive and can-

not be viewed in isolation. Implementation would

need to keep this in view, particularly in the case of

DEE and Department of Education;

Promoting partnerships with government institu-

tions, NGOs, academic, research institutions and

print and electronic media can make education for

sustainable development more effective and take it

to next level;

Karnataka has taken steps to train/orient a good

number of people on environmental education and

education for sustainable development. However,

the quality of training and capacity building among

all the sections of society needs improvement;

Ensuring full community participation in education

for sustainable development processes is necessary

to make it a people’s movement and to get better

results in environmental conservation;

Literature for children and training materials for

teachers and NGOs such as manuals, charts, simple

kits (water testing or soil testing) need to be pro-

duced in Kannada to enrich information,

knowledge, skills and classroom transactions;

Involvement of the youth, as borne out by the ex-

perience of CEE and CES in Karnataka, has brought

out the potential of accelerating the spread of edu-

cation for sustainable development;

Encourage mass media to have special reports on

environmental issues periodically.

307

Action Points

PA

RT

3

Action Points

308

Action Points

309

1. FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY

Key challenges The present state of forest management leaves certain conservation issues insuf-ficiently addressed. Stipulations of the Forest Conservation Act are implemented but not in totality. This is in spite of the fact that Karnataka has a well-funded Forest Department with dedicated officers, expertise, a strong Forest Conserva-tion Act and court orders strengthening the department’s work.

Recommended actions and good practices

1) Critical review of the management practices;

2) Further consolidation of forest boundaries and prevention of forest en-croachments;

3) Effective control of grazing, fire and illicit removal of trees in the natural for-est area;

4) Effective Joint Forest Management (JFM);

5) Abolishment of mining and quarrying in natural forest areas (also listed un-der section 9. Mining and Quarrying);

6) Refuse permission for new hydropower projects within protected areas and reserve forests;

7) Regulation of tourism in protected areas and reserved forests;

8) Survey and inventorisation of biodiversity;

9) In-situ and ex-situ conservation of RET species;

10) Continuance of soil and moisture conservation in natural forest areas;

11) Aggressive promotion of farm forestry;

12) Increasing investment, inputs and resources in forest conservation and use of forest produce;

13) Development of an integrated approach for reducing man-elephant con-flicts;

14) Greening of urban and rural areas.

Action Points

310

2. COASTAL ZONE

Key challenges In spite of the notification of the Coastal Regulation Zone and the establishment of Karnataka State Coastal Zone Management Authority, implementation of the notification and clearance of encroachments, especially settlements, is lagging behind expectations.


1) The CRZ regulation needs to be strictly enforced. This may require strength-ening of Karnataka State Coastal Zone Management Authority and district coastal zone management committees;

2) Sea erosion to be controlled through mangrove plantations, afforestation and, wherever extremely necessary, sea wall construction. Green sea walls emerge as preferable option;

3) Pollution control to be strictly enforced on beaches, the sea, creeks, estuar-ies, backwaters, ports and harbours;

4) Natural coastal features and ecosystems such as sand dunes, the topogra-phy, coastal biodiversity and reefs to be preserved;

5) Rehabilitation of people displaced as result of CRZ implementation;

6) Eco-tourism to be promoted as preferable option in coastal districts;

7) Fishing to be strictly regulated. It is also to be ensured that aquaculture prac-tices do not cause pollution to water bodies.

Action Points

311

3. WATER RESOURCES AND MANAGEMENT

Key challenges The Water Act is not well enforced. Untreated sewage is found to enter water bodies. BWSSB’s plants work at a fraction of their capacity. Industrial effluents en-ter water bodies and, as analysis results suggest, possibly even the groundwater through illegal discharges. Effluent tankers deployed by Central Effluent Treat-ment Plants (CETPs) are a potential risk for unauthorised discharges.

Groundwater use in several districts is beyond recharge The magnitude of re-charge of groundwater is well below achievable levels. Rainwater harvesting has made inroads because it has been notified but its potential is far from being real-ised.

The reuse of secondary treated water for garden irrigation and toilet flushing to reduce overall water consumption is well below potential. Tertiary treatment of water has failed to make significant inroads.


1) Curbing groundwater exploitation as envisaged by Karnataka Ground Wa-ter (Regulation and Control of Development and Management) Act, 2011;

2) Establishment of an accounting and monitoring system for detecting unac-counted for discharge of trade effluent and sewage. This should involve metering of non-domestic/agricultural bore wells and tankers;

3) Introducing a heavy penalty for water polluters;

4) Ensuring access to safe drinking water for all citizens. Providing cost effec-tive water treatment devices for drinking water for rural population com-bined with awareness campaigns;

5) In view of the high arsenic content in drinking water in and around past and present gold mines, a detailed investigating is necessary based on which an action plan should be prepared to ensure supply of safe drinking water to affected communities;

6) Ensuring access to adequate sanitation facilities for all citizens;

7) Expanding rain water harvesting in urban and semi-urban areas through incentives, legislation and awareness;

8) Contour bunding, expansion of watershed management and revival of traditional tanks;

9) Promotion of water saving techniques in agriculture through drip and sprinkler irrigation and less water intensive crops as preferential option for sustainable development (also listed under 6. Agriculture and Horticul-ture);

10) Encouragement of water conservation measures in domestic use and in-dustries through higher water tariffs and creation of mass awareness;

11) Incentivising recycling and reuse of urban wastewater.

Action Points

312

4. AIR AND NOISE

Key challenges While sulphur dioxide levels in urban ambient air have shown to abate thanks to tightening emissions norms, respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM) is not getting under control owing to the rapidly rising diesel vehicle population, the fact that old commercial vehicles are not decommissioned and a certain re-mainder of two-stroke vehicles continue to be on the road. High levels of air pol-lution and noise are not acted upon in a systematic manner, suggesting that regulatory mechanisms in place and institutional capacity fail to rise to the chal-lenge.


1) Enforcement of the six-monthly vehicle emission test and introduction of heavy penalties for defaulters (also listed under section 10. Transport);

2) Evaluation of the possibility for inclusion of RSPM in the six-monthly emis-sion test. This may require a legislative intervention (RSPM is not presently notified under the Motor Vehicles Act) and upgrade of equipment of all

emission test centres (also listed under section 10. Transport);

3) Scheduled phase-out of commercial vehicles beyond 15 years of age and

commercial 2-stroke vehicles irrespective of age to reduce RSPM and noise (also listed under section 10. Transport);

4) Introduction of a heavier penalty for cases of fuel adulteration;

5) Incentives should be devised or expanded to promote LPG, electric and hybrid vehicles. Stimulating the demand for electric/hybrid cars would promote cleaner technology and make the area more attractive for R&D;

6) Establishment of regular monitoring of air pollution and noise at intersec-tions and thoroughfares witnessing high traffic volumes and industrial ar-eas. Results should be used to develop emission and noise reduction con-cepts for critical areas and their implementation on a pilot basis;

7) Building a fast response mechanism to address air pollution and noise lev-els. A public toll free line should be set up for complaint for noisy or pollut-ing vehicles, industries, party halls, etc. and the complainant should be re-warded if appropriate complaint is made;

8) Declaration of “No horn” zones around hospitals and schools and their strict enforcement through penalties (also listed under section 10. Transport);

9) Strict enforcement of court orders on the use of loudspeakers;

10) Enforcement of a maximum permissible loudness level for vehicle horns, banning those exceeding this limit and conducting confiscation drives linked to penalty for defaulters (also listed under section 10. Transport);

11) Establishment of a maximum permissible loudness level for DG sets, ban-ning of those exceeding this limit and conducting confiscation drives linked to penalty for defaulters;

12) Devising a long-term campaign aiming at minimising the use of horns in non-essential circumstances (also listed under section 10. Transport).

Action Points

313

5. HEALTH

Key challenges Health indicators suggest declining human health due to air pollution, particular-ly in urban areas, and water borne diseases. Also an adverse impact of noise can reasonably be expected. The precise magnitude of the impact of pollution and environmental degradation on human health is insufficiently understood be-cause of the absence of consistent monitoring of public health indicators and dif-ficulties to attribute health symptoms to isolated causes. Albeit safeguarding hu-man health is a key concern in our pursuit of environmental conservation, the prevailing knowledge deficit impedes informed choices about necessary actions.


1) Establishment of a disease task force to improve coordination between government departments concerned;

2) Improvement of the maintenance of data on disease incidence and public health indicators in both public and private healthcare facilities;

3) Undertake health-environment correlation studies in line with the topics recommended by State of Environment Report Bangalore 2008.

Action Points

314

6. AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE

Key challenges Best practices are constrained by vagaries of the monsoon. Production practices vary widely due to differences in the resource base at farm level. The impover-ishment of land in rainfed areas limits superior production practices. Injudicious use of fertilisers and pesticides compromise soil health and increases the risks of highly undesirable chemicals entering the food chain. Volatility of the market and lack of post-harvest support restricts manoeuvrability at the farm level.


1) Accelerate the implementation and coverage of watershed development and management to the entire state in a time bound plan (around five years);

2) On irrigated lands, promote the concept of precision farming to check ex-cessive application of fertilisers and pesticides;

3) Promote techniques of rice production under unflooded conditions to min-imise methane emissions, reduce leaching losses of nutrients and save wa-ter;

4) Practice of integrated nutrient management (INM) in both rainfed and irri-gated cultivations to ensure sustenance of soil fertility, production efficien-cy and need-based application of inputs. These will have a positive impact on the environment;

5) Promotion of water saving techniques in agriculture through drip and sprinkler irrigation and less water intensive crops as preferential option for sustainable development (also listed under section 3. Water Resources and Management);

6) Promote organic farming to rapidly expand its coverage and devise means to enhance its sales through market interventions;

7) Enhance agricultural and horticultural agro-biodiversity through the pro-motion of indigenous crops through the creation of markets for such products;

8) Initiate funding support to undertake comprehensive research to charac-

terise the long-term effects of chemical fertilisers and pesticides on land productivity, pesticide residues and groundwater quality.

Action Points

315

7. LIVESTOCK

Key challenges There is erosion in the stock of genetic material of indigenous varieties. Common grazing land is declining both in terms of area and quality. In traditional trading places, abattoirs (slaughterhouses) and waste management facilities are missing. The biogas potential of slaughterhouse waste remains largely unutilised. Existing abattoirs lack facilities, procedures for compliance with legislation; some operate without authorisation. In rural areas abattoirs are often completely missing.


1) Fodder development needs serious attention to reduce the pressure of grazing livestock on shrinking common grazing land and safeguard pro-tected forest lands. Waste and degraded lands should be considered for fodder development on a preferential base, likewise the establishment of fodder banks;

2) Promotion of indigenous breeds of cattle through conservation, selected breeding or progeny testing;

3) Promotion of biogas generation from slaughterhouse waste which would address both the problem of disposal as well as methane emissions (also

listed under section 12. Waste Management);

4) Achieving legal compliance in disposal of slaughterhouse waste through introduction of necessary facilities and procedures (also listed under sec-tion 12. Waste Management);

5) Setting up of rural abattoirs and modernisation of existing ones;

6) Serious penal actions against unauthorised abattoirs.

Action Points

316

8. INDUSTRY

Key challenges The protection of water resources and air from contamination and pollution has not been a regulatory success in the state. Present regulatory mechanisms and institutional capacity require significant improvement to achieve law compliance.

Environmental management and administration requires information on indus-trial establishments, including cottage and seasonal industries. Several public agencies produce fragmented data sets that are incompatible and hardly recon-ciled. As a result, dependable data does not exist, not even for the number of operating industries in the state. Even available data on water consumption, wastewater discharge and pollution loads in the state recorded by KSPCB is not regularly compiled. As a result, its potential for planning cannot be leveraged.


1) Creation of a single-window registration mechanism for industries (man-datory, free-of-charge, and annually renewable for non-trading commer-cial establishments) for the collective benefit of all concerned departments (KSPCB, Department of Factories, Boilers, Industrial Safety & Health, De-partment of Industries & Commerce and Electrical Inspectorate etc.);

2) Establishment of an online database for processing applications, inspec-tions and approvals under the consent process. The development of such database should be led by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) to en-sure that data generated from across India can be aggregated and to avoid that states waste resources by funding the development of software applications that could be incompatible from a central level prospective;

3) Setting up of common effluent treatment plants in industrial clusters and areas in the state to prevent the need for transporting effluent. The chal-lenge of ensuring economic viability should be given second priority while highest priority needs to be placed on complete coverage. Ownership by a public body may be considered;

4) Tightening regulatory monitoring of compliance with pollution control in respect of water, air and noise;

5) Establishment of mechanisms for systematic collection and management

of non-hazardous industrial waste;

6) Establishment of subsidy schemes for pollution control equipment for small-scale industries;

7) Re-establishment of the erstwhile Karnataka Cleaner Production Centre;

8) Incentivise the re-use of recycled water for purposes other than gardening;

9) Achievement of compliance with regulation in respect of health and safety equipment. Conduct regular medical check-ups for personnel of certain industries;

10) Improvement of industrial energy efficiency through prescribed and vol-untary audits.

Action Points

317

9. MINING AND QUARRYING

Key challenges Air, water and soil quality have substantially deteriorated in mining areas of the state as necessary mitigative measures are often elusive. Rehabilitation plans for exhausted mines are not included in post closure plans. The transport of iron causes substantial damage to roads and increases particulate matter (dust) along transport corridors to extreme levels. A systematic health surveillance system for workers and affected local communities is not in place. Most recommendations of the exhaustive NEERI 2004 report have not been implemented.


1) Abolishment of mining and quarrying in natural forest areas (also listed

under section 1. Forest and Biodiversity);

2) Enforcing pollution control of air, water and soil in mining and quarrying;

3) Enforcing the mandatory requirement to use overburden from open cast mines for filling prior excavations to prevent its deposition on slopes, on forest and other lands and its infiltration into water bodies;

4) Systematic reclamation of exhausted mines by including closure and reha-

bilitation plans into the post closure plan as mandatory in the process of granting mining leases. The same should be extended to quarries;

5) Enforcing strict control of overloading of ore trucks;

6) Mandatory introduction of tarpaulins to cover ore-loaded trucks;

7) Strategising a long term solution for ore transport by rail;

8) Regular health check for miners, neighbourhood villages and others who are associated with mining or quarrying;

9) Adopt sustainable and systematic mining practices.

Action Points

318

10. TRANSPORT

Key challenges

Private vehicles increased dramatically and congestions are a challenge for commuters, the traffic police as well as pedestrians. Commuters spend more time travelling and cause and inhale more polluted air. The addition of expressways, fly-overs and underpasses is as much alleviating congestion as it is attracting more traffic.

In spite of substantial improvements, the attractivity of urban public transport for commuters of higher income groups is limited. Constraints are longer journey times, the unpredictability of departure times and the lack of door-to door inte-gration.

Non-motorised transport is severely disincentivised, inconvenience being one factor, risk being another. Bicyclists are competing with motorised traffic for road space. Footpaths, if available at all, are obstructed by switchyards, construction materials, unsecured drains, uneven or missing slabs, garbage, vendors and parked vehicles.


1) Public transport needs to improve on dependability, travel time and inter-connections to attract commuters who use private transport. Door-to-door concepts need to include secured parking in proximity of main terminals, pedestrian-worthy footpaths and transport on hire around stops;

2) Town planning needs a long-term vision for rail passenger transport, the desirable share of private transport, and the creation of pedestrian and cy-cling facilities and pedestrian-only zones (as planned by Directorate of Ur-ban Land Transport) keeping in view the quality of urban life;

3) Scheduled phase-out of commercial vehicles beyond 15 years of age and commercial 2-stroke vehicles irrespective of age to reduce RSPM and noise (also listed under section 4. Air and Noise);

4) Declaration of “No horn” zones around hospitals and schools and their

strict enforcement through penalties (also listed under section 4. Air and Noise);

5) Enforcement of a maximum permissible loudness level for vehicle horns, banning those exceeding this limit and conducting confiscation drives linked to penalty for defaulters (also listed under section 4. Air and Noise);

6) Enforcement of the six-monthly vehicle emission test and introduction of

heavy penalties for defaulters (also listed under section 4. Air and Noise);

7) Evaluation of the possibility for inclusion of RSPM in the six-monthly emis-sion test. This may require a legislative intervention (RSPM is not presently notified under the Motor Vehicles Act) and upgrade of equipment of all

emission test centres (also listed under section 4. Air and Noise);

8) Devising a long-term campaign aiming at minimising the use of horns in non-essential circumstances (also listed under section 4. Air and Noise);

9) A bio-fuel share in petrol and diesel should be introduced in line with the Karnataka Biofuel Policy.

Action Points

319

11. ENERGY

Key challenges

Karnataka’s power supply falls short of demand. This shortage results into substan-tial economic losses and impedes growth. It also creates avoidable secondary infra-structure of DG sets exacerbating air pollution, noise levels and UPSs that increase the number of lead-acid batteries disposed.

Energy efficiency has not made much inroads yet on account of lack of institutional capacity although its potential is greater than the present supply deficit.

Renewable energy needs a more focused promotion strategy to overcome impedi-ments and to contribute to energy generation at scale.

Free electricity to farmers creates a climate in which electricity saving is not incentiv-ised and burdens the exchequer with subsidies where revenue is needed for power generation infrastructure.


1) Rapid expansion of conventional generating capacity with primary focus on gas, furthering the 3,500 MW of planned capacity to help Karnataka tide over the supply deficit with a relatively clean low-carbon option as mid-term per-spective until renewables can be deployed at scale;

2) Development of strong institutional and technical capacities for providing en-ergy audit services to a wide range of sectors, both mandatory and voluntarily so as to close in on the existing energy saving potential;

3) Rapid up-scaling of renewable energy with particular focus on large-scale so-lar photovoltaic and thermal projects. This needs to be accompanied by an as-sessment of impediments, addressing the same and systematic planning and monitoring of progress against milestones;

4) Power supply voltage needs to be improved through better load manage-ment to ensure functioning of particularly energy efficient appliances. Alterna-tively, this could be addressed by the closure of the demand-supply gap;

5) The provision of free electricity to farmers is suggested for a revisit.

Action Points

320

12. WASTE MANAGEMENT

Key challenges Though urban local bodies (ULBs) are focusing on establishment of adequate infra-structure and processes for solid waste management, targets remain to be achieved in most. E-waste management is lacking institutional collection mechanisms. The capacities for biomedical waste management within healthcare establishments are insufficient to achieve disposal in regulatory compliance.


1) Municipal solid waste: Improving waste management across ULBs to ensure (a) complete coverage of collection, (b) completion of establishment of waste handling centres and (c) segregation at source;

2) E-waste: Introduction of a systematic institutionalised collection mechanism which would also help ensuring that only authorised recyclers process e-waste collected. Mercury recovery is needed specifically for CFLs and tube lights, which are often disposed along with municipal solid waste;

3) Bio-medical waste: Enhance knowledge and handling capacities of healthcare establishments in the state to achieve rapid compliance with legis-lation;

4) Slaughterhouse waste: Achieving legal compliance in disposal of slaughter-house waste through introduction of necessary facilities and procedures (also listed under section 7. Livestock);

5) Slaughterhouse waste: Promotion of biogas generation from slaughterhouse waste which would address both the problem of disposal as well as methane

emissions (also listed under section 7. Livestock);

6) Demonstrating pilot waste-to-energy projects;

7) Introducing paper and re-usable cloth bags on a large scale in urban areas as alternatives to plastic bags.

Action Points

321

13. URBAN AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Key challenges A legal framework for the creation of green belts does not exist. Though parks and green spaces are enshrined and planned, the capacity and resources of urban local bodies (ULBs) is constrained, inviting failures to implement master plans in respect of urban parks and green spaces. Planning authorities are awaiting a clearer defini-tion of their relationship with ULBs. ULBs do not presently have the capacity to do full justice to responsibilities vested with them.

Though much effort has been made to address regional imbalances in Karnataka, rural-urban migration continues at a rapid pace. The lack of employment opportuni-ties and difficulties with agricultural livelihoods continue to drive migration.

Tourism presents itself as an opportunity for the rural economy. However the de-velopment is constrained by the absence of adequate infrastructure and facilities along travel corridors and in popular destinations. This is limiting its development and impinging unnecessarily on precious environmental resources.


1) The jurisdiction of the Karnataka Town & Country Planning Act needs to be expanded to cover the entire state. Likewise the Regional Planning Bill, a tem-plate of which has been prepared by Town & Country Planning Organisation, Government of India, should be adopted with changes to suit specifics of Karnataka;

2) The establishment of metropolitan planning committees and district planning committees should be finalised at the earliest. This would also clarify the status of planning authorities vis-a-vis ULBs;

3) ULBs need to be strengthened to accomplish additional responsibilities vested by the 12

th Schedule of the Constitutional Amendment Act;

4) It remains necessary to pursue a more focussed mitigation of drivers of rapid rural-urban migration by securing rural livelihoods and promotion of bal-anced development through employment generation, access to quality edu-cation, health services and housing besides strengthening agricultural liveli-hoods;

5) In order to promote tourism, the creation and maintenance of adequate infra-

structure and facilities is required along travel corridors and in popular desti-nations. This should include accommodation for different economic strata, safe drinking water, public toilets, waste collection, footpaths, electricity sup-ply etc.

Action Points

322

14. CLIMATE CHANGE

Government of Karnataka approved the state’s first Karnataka State Action Plan on Climate Change Plan in March 2012. The comprehensive action plan laid out by this document over 50 pages cannot be adequately summarised here. Action points on climate change therefore have been omitted in this section as the document merits a separate reading.

Refer to the separate document Karnataka State Action Plan on Climate Change Plan available on the website of Environmental Management & Poli-cy Research Institute, Bangalore.

Action Points

323

15. ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS

Key challenges Opportunities exist for using market mechanisms for steering behaviour towards less energy intensive and more environmentally friendly practices through reward and punishment. The current insignificance of economic instruments is attributable to the fact that in today’s products and services, not all costs are considered in the price. The remainder of so-called external costs is borne by society, chiefly in terms of social and health costs. The absence of property rights for key resources such as air and water is another obstacle.


1) Progressive adoption of the the-polluter-pays principle leading to the internal-isation of external costs. In such a scenario, market forces will steer prefer-ences to products and services that degrade the environment less;

2) Introduction of a shift in the utilisation of existing economic instruments such as waste and water cess, to incentivise ecologically beneficial behaviour rather than merely generating revenue.

Action Points

324

16. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Key challenges Though environment is occupying a growing priority area in education, the present system is constrained by lack of coordination among stakeholders, interesting ways of engaging students missing in syllabi and somewhat limited attention to the sub-ject by electronic media. In its present form, environmental education is viewed to be neither effective in impacting environmental conservation, nor helping to boost the development of the state in a sustainable way.


1) The success of education for sustainable development will depend on syner-gies between state agencies and their key institutions. It is essential to achieve better coordination among government departments, communities, NGOs and the corporate sector which should extend to building real partnerships that foster participation in environmental education;

2) Environmental education in schools and colleges should migrate from sup-plemental lectures and competitions to assuming an integral part of educa-tion with the objective to empower action on environment;

3) The visit of zoos, botanical gardens, sanctuaries, museums and other places of interest should be mandatory in the syllabus. Such facilities, in turn, require to kindle and sustain the interest of students;

4) The outcome of environmental education for sustainable development should be assessed systematically against objectives stipulated to understand wheth-er objectives are being achieved. Systematic audits alone would have the ca-pacity to identify possible deficiencies and foster the development of more ef-fective strategies;

5) The mass media, television in particular, should leverage the potential of its role for encouraging interest on environmental matters through special re-ports on subjects including ancient wisdom and old traditions and practises;

6) Foster active participation of citizens, especially youths in programmes such as ‘Save the Tiger’, ‘Bus Day’ and ‘World Environment Day’;

7) Literature for children and training materials for teachers and NGOs (manuals, charts, simple water and soil testing kits) needs to be produced in the local

language to enrich information, knowledge, skills and classroom transactions.

325

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345

A

AAY Anthyodaya Anna Yojana

ACC Associated Cement Companies

ADB Asian Development Bank

ANSSIRD Abdul Nasir Saab State Institute for Rural Development

APMC Agricultural Produce Marketing Committee

ASRTU Association of State Road Transport Undertaking

ASSOCHAM Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India

ATF Aviation turbine fuel

ATREE Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment

B

BAIF Bharatiya Agro Industries Foundation

BBMP Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike

BDA Bangalore Development Authority

BEE Bureau of Energy Efficiency

BEL Bharat Electronics Limited

BEML Bharat Earth Movers Limited

BESCOM Bangalore Electricity Supply Company

BGML Bharath Gold Mines Limited

BHC Benzene hexachloride

BHEL Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited

BIS Bureau of Indian Standards

BMC Biodiversity management committees

BMR Bangalore Metropolitan Region

BMRCL Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Limited

BMRDA Bangalore Metropolitan Region Development Authority

BMTC Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation

BMW Biomedical waste

bn Billion

BOD Biological oxygen demand

BOOT Build own operate transfer

BOT Build operate transfer

BPL Below the poverty line

BPO Business process outsourcing

BRT Bitigiri Rangaswamy Temple

Bt Bacillus thuringiensis

BTM Byrasandra, Tavarekere and Madivala

BVIEER Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute for Environmental Education and Research

BWSSB Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board

C

Ca Calcium

CAAQMS Continuous ambient air quality monitoring stations

CADA Command Area Development Authority

CAGR Compound annual growth rate

CALPI Capitalisation of Livestock Programme Experiences India

CAMPA Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority

CCTV Close circuit television

CDM Clean development mechanisms

CDTA Capital District Transportation Authority

CEA Central Electricity Authority

CEE Centre for Environment Education

CEENR Centre for Ecological Economics and Natural Resources

CEERA Centre for Environmental Law, Education, Research and Advocacy

CER Certified emission reduction

CERNA Centre d'Économie Industrielle

CES Centre for Ecological Sciences

CETP Common effluent treatment plant

CFC Chlorofluorocarbon

CFE Consent for establishment

CFL Compact fluorescent lamp

CFO Consent for operation

CH4 Methane

CII Confederation of Indian Industries

Cl Chloride

CMC City municipal council

CMFRI Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute

CNCI Chittranjan National Cancer Institute

CNG Compressed natural gas

CO Carbon monoxide

CO2 Carbon dioxide

COD Chemical oxygen demand

ACRONYMS

Acronyms

346

CoP Conference of Parties

COPD Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

CPCB Central Pollution Control Board

CPHEEO Central Public Health Environmental Engineering Organisation

CPREE C.P. Ramaswamy Environmental Education Centre

CPWD Central Public Works Department

CREP Corporate responsibility for environmental protection

CRRI Central Road Research Institute

CRS Commuter Railway System

CRZ Coastal Regulation Zone

CSE Centre for Science and Environment

CSO Central Statistical Organisation

CST Centre for Sustainable Technologies

CSTEP Centre for Study of Science, Technology and Policy

CWS Centre for Wildlife Studies

CZMP Coastal Zone Management Plan

D

dB Decibel

dB(A) Decibel in accordance with the A curve

DBS Diethylstilbestrol

DCZMC District Coastal Zone Management Committee

DDT Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane

DEE Department of Ecology and Environment

DFEE Department of Forest, Ecology and Environment

DFID Department for International Development

DG Diesel generator

DMA Directorate of Municipal Administration

DMRCL Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Limited

DPEP District Primary Education Programme

DSERT Department of State Educational Research and Training

E

ECBC Energy Conservation Building Code

EDC Eco-development committees

EDI Education Development Index

ED-XRF Energy-dispersive-X-ray-fluorescence

EEA European Environmental Agency

EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone

EIA Environmental impact assessment

EMPRI Environment Management and Policy Research Institute

ENVIS Environmental Information System

EOSE Environmental Orientation to School Education

EPA Environmental Protection Agency (of the USA)

EPR Extended producer responsibility

ERF Environment Relief Fund

ESCOM Electricity supply company

ETP Effluent treatment plant

EU European Union

EVS Environmental Study

EWS Economically weaker section

F

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (of the United Nations)

FCCI Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry

FDA Forest Development Agency

FDI Foreign direct investment

Fe Iron

FO Furnace oil

FRLHT Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions

FSI Forestry Survey of India

G

GAIL Gas Authority of India Limited

GBI Generation based incentives

GDP Gross domestic product

GHG Greenhouse gas

GIS Geographic information system

GJ Gigajoule

GKVK Gandhi Krishi Vignyan Kendra

GM Genetically modified

GMO Genetically modified organism

GMR Grandhi Mallikarjuna Rao

GoI Government of India

GoK Government of Karnataka

GRIHA Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment

GSDP Gross state domestic product

GWP Global warming potential

Acronyms

347

H

ha Hectare

HadCM3 Hadley Centre Coupled Model, version 3

HadRM Regional Climate Model of the Hadley Centre

HAM Hectares metres (1 HAM = 10,000 m3)

HAP Hazardous air pollutants

HC Hydrocarbons

HCB Hexachlorobenzene

HCEs Health care establishment

HDI Human Development Index

HFC Hydrofluorocarbons

HMT Hindustan Machine Tools

HOPCOMS Horticultural Produce Co-operative Marketing Society

HSD High speed diesel

HW Hazardous waste

HYVS High yielding variety seeds

I

IAS Indian Administrative Service

IAY Indira Awaz Yojana

IBM Indian Bureau of Mines

IBTPL Ind-Bharat Thermal Power Company Limited

ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research

ICFRE Indian Council for Forestry Research & Education

ICLEI International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives

ICMR Indian Council of Medical Research

IFS Indian Forest Service

IGNOU Indira Gandhi National Open University

IIEE Indian Institute of Ecology and Environment

IIM Indian Institute of Management

IIMB Indian Institute of Management Bangalore

IIP Index of industrial production

IISc Indian Institute of Science

ILO International Labour Organization

IMFN International Model Forest Network

INCCA Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment

INEP Indo-Norwegian Environment Programme

INR Indian Rupee

IPCC Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change

IPIRTI Indian Plywood Industries Research & Training Institute

IPS Indian Police Service

ISEC Institute for Social and Economic Change

ISRO Indian Space Research Organisation

ISWM Integrated solid waste management

IT Information technology

ITES Information technology enabled services

ITI Indian Telephone Industries

IWST Institute of Wood Science & Technology

J

JBIC Japan Bank of International Cooperation

JFM Joint Forest Management

JFPM Joint Forest Planning and Management

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency

JNNURM Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission

K

K2O Potassium oxide

KaMPCo Karnataka Meat and Poultry Marketing Company

KAPPEC Karnataka State Agricultural Produce Processing and Export Corporation Limited

KAS Karnataka Administrative Service

KASSIA Karnataka Small Scale Industries Association

KBB Karnataka Biodiversity Board

KCDC Karnataka Cashew Development Corporation

KEONICS Karnataka State Electronics Development Corporation

KERF Karnataka Environment Research Foundation

KFD Karnataka Forest Department

KFDC Karnataka Forest Development Corporation

KGF Kolar Gold Fields

KHB Karnataka Housing Board

KHF Karnataka Horticulture Federation

KIADB Karnataka Industrial Areas Development Board

KPCL Karnataka Power Corporation Limited

KRDWSA Karnataka Rural Drinking Water and Sanitation Agency

Acronyms

348

KREC Karnataka Regional Engineering College

KREDL Karnataka Renewable Energy Development Limited

KRVP Karnataka Rajya Vijnana Parishat

KSCB Karnataka Slum Clearance Board

KSCST Karnataka State Council for Science and Technology

KSCZMA Karnataka State Coastal Zone Management Authority

KSDB Karnataka Slum Development Board

KSFIC Karnataka State Forest Industries Corporation

KSFMBC Karnataka Sustainable Forest Management and Biodiversity Conservation

KSIIDC Karnataka State Industrial Investment Development Corporation

KSOU Karnataka State Open University

KSPCB Karnataka State Pollution Control Board

KSRSAC Karnataka State Remote Sensing Application Centre

KSRTC Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation

KSSIDC Karnataka State Small Industries Development Corporation Limited

KUDCEMP Karnataka Urban Development and Coastal Environment Management Plan

KUIDFC Karnataka Urban Infrastructure Development and Finance Corporation

KUWSDP Karnataka Urban Water Supply and Drainage Board

kW Kilowatt

KWDP Karnataka Watershed Development Project

KWDT Krishna Water Dispute Tribunal

kWh Kilowatt hours

KWh/a Kilowatt hours per annum

L

LAMP Large area multipurpose societies

LDA Lake Development Authority

LDO Light diesel oil

LEAD Livestock-Environment Interactions in Watersheds

LED Light emitting diode

Lmax Maximum lumen

Lmin Minimum lumen

LPCD Liters per capita per day

LPG Liquefied petroleum gas

Ltd. Limited

LWTP Liquid waste treatment plant

M

M Metric

MCF Mangalore Chemicals and Fertilizers

MEE Multiple effect evaporation

Mg Magnesium

MGIRED Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Rural Energy and Development

MGNREG Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guaranty

MHRD Ministry of Human Resource Development

MJ Megajoules

MLD Million litres per day

mm Milimeter

Mn Manganese

mn Million

MNRE Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forests

MPCE Monthly per capita consumer expenditure

MPEDA Marine Products Export Development Authority

MRPL Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Limited

MSME Micro, small and medium enterprises

MSW Muncipal solid waste

Mt/d Metric tons per day

MW Megawatt

N

N Nitrogen

N2O Nitrous oxide

NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards

NAL National Aerospace Laboratories

NALCO National Aluminum Company

NAMP National Air Quality Monitoring Programme

NAPCC National Action Plan on Climate Change

NATCOM India’s National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

NBAGR National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources

NCBS National Centre for Biological Sciences

NCEP National Committee on Environmental Planning

NCERT National Council of Educational Training and Research

NCF National Curriculum Framework

Acronyms

349

NCFSE National Curriculum Framework for School Education

NCZMA National Coastal Zone Management Authority

NEAC National Environmental Awareness Campaign

NEERI National Environmental Engineering Research Institute

NEKRTC North East Karnataka Transport Corporation

NGC National Green Corps

NGO Non-governmental organisation

NH3 Ammonia

NHHP National Housing and Habitat Policy

NIPCC Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change

NLSIU National Law School of India University

Nm3

Norm cubic metre

NMHC Non-methane hydro carbon

NMNH National Museum of Natural History

NO2 Nitrogen dioxide

NO3 Nitrate

NOC No objection certificate

NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation

NOX Oxides of nitrogen

NPC Nuclear Power Corporation

NPE National Policy of Education

N-P-K Nitrogen phosphorous and potassium

NPP Net primary productivity

NRCP National River Conservation Plan

NRDMS Natural Resource Data Management System

NRLP National River-Linking Project

NRSA National Remote Sensing Agency

NRW Non-revenue water

NTFP Non-Timber Forest Product

NWKRTC North West Karnataka Transport Corporation

O

O3 Ozone

OBC Other Backward Classes

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation

and Development

P

P2O5 Phosphorus pentoxide

PAH Polyaromated hydrocarbons

PAP Project affected persons

PAT Perform, Achieve and Trade

Pb Lead

PBR People’s biodiversity register

PBT Persistent, bio-accumulative and toxic pollutants

PCB Pollution Control Board

PCC Pollution Control Committee

PFC Perfluorocarbons

PIB Press Information Bureau

PIL Public interest litigation

PM Particulate matter

PoA Programme of activities

POP Persistent organic pollutants

PPM Parts per million

PPP Public private partnership

ppt Parts per thousand

PSU Public sector unit

PWD Public Works Department

R

R&D Research and development

RCCF Regional Chief Conservator of Forests

REC Renewable energy certificates

RET Rare, endangered and (species)

RFO Range Forest Officers

RMNH Regional Museum of Natural History

RPM Revolutions per minute

RPO Renewable energy purchase obligation

RSPM Respirable suspended particulate matter

RTO Regional Transport Office

S

SC Scheduled castes

SCZMA State Coastal Zone Management Authority

SEAC State Level Expert Appraisal Committee

SEIAA State Environmental Impact Assessment Authority

SEICMM Software Engineering Institute Capability Maturity Model

SEZ Special Economic Zone

Acronyms

350

SF6 Sulfur hexafluoride

SHG Self help groups

SIAM Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers

SMDF Sustainable Mining Development Fund

SO2 Sulphur dioxide

SO4 Sulfate

SPCB State Pollution Control Board

SPM Suspended particulate matter

SSI Small scale industry

ST Scheduled tribes

STP Sewage treatment plant

SVO Straight vegetable oil

T

T&D Transmission and distribution

TCD Tonnes of cane per day

TDR Transfer of development rights

TDS Total dissolved solids

TERI The Energy Research Institute

TIDE Technology Informatics Design

Endeavour

TIES The International Ecotourism Society

TIFR Tata Institute of Fundamental Research

TLWK Total live weight killed

TMC Thousand million cubic feet (1 TMC = 28,316,847 m

3 = 28.3 million m

3)

TMC Town municipal council

TOE Tonnes of oil equivalent

TP Treatment plant

TP Town panchayat

TPA Town planning authority

TSDF Treatment, storage and disposal facility

U

UAS University of Agricultural Sciences

UASB Up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket

UDA Urban development authority

UGC University Grants Commission

UGD Underground drainage

ULB Urban local bodies

UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund

UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization

UPS Uninterruptible power supply

USA United States of America

USD United States (of America) Dollar

V

V/C Volume/capacity

VAT Value Added Tax

VDF Village development fund

VFC Village forest committees

VFDF Village forest development fund

VITM Visvesvaraya Industrial and Technological Museum

VOC Volatile organic compounds

VVNL Visvesvaraya Vidyuth Nigam Limited

W

W Watt

WALMI Water and Land Management Institute

WHO World Health Organization

WII Wildlife Institute of India

WMO World Meteorological Organization

WRD Water Resources Department

Z

Zn Zinc

ZP Zilla panchayat

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_hexafluoride

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