Introduction toPolitical TheorySecond Edition

John HoffmanUniversity of Leicester

Paul GrahamGlasgow University

llliiii

PEARSON

Longman

Harlow, England • London • New York • Boston • San Francisco • Toronto • Sydney • Singapore • Hong KongTokyo • Seoul • Taipei • New Delhi • Cape Town • Madrid • Mexico City • Amsterdam • Munich • Paris • Milan

Brief Contents

Introduction XXVII

Part 1 Classical Ideas

Chapter 1Chapter 2Chapter 3Chapter 4Chapter 5Chapter 6Chapter 7

What is Power?

The StateFreedomEqualityJusticeDemocracyCitizenshipPunishment

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: Part 2 Classical Ideologies

What is Ideology?

Chapter 8 Liberalism

Chapter 9 ConservatismChapter 10 SocialismChapter 11 AnarchismChapter 12 NationalismChapter 13 Fascism

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Part 3 Contemporary Ideologies

What is a New Social Movement?

Chapter 14 Feminism

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vi Brief Contents

Chapter 15 Multiculturalism 340Chapter 16 Ecologism 362Chapter 17 Fundamentalism 385

Part 4 Contemporary Ideas

What do we Mean by a New Idea? 405

Chapter 18 Human Rights 408

Chapter 19 Civil Disobedience 429Chapter 20 Political Violence 451Chapter 21 Global Justice 473

Conclusion 493

Glossary 495

Index . 503

Contents

Publisher's Acknowledgements xxiAuthors' Acknowledgements xxiiiAbout the Authors xxv

Introduction

What is Political Theory? xxviiTheory and Action xxviiiTheory as Abstraction xxviiiThe Distinction between Facts and Values xxixThe Contestability Thesis xxxThe Structure of the Book xxxiiThe Companion Website xxxivBeyond the Book xxxivQuestions xxxvReferences xxxv

Part 1 Classical Ideas

What is Power? 1

The Link with Other Concepts 2Power and Authority: an Indissoluble Link? 3Does a Broad View of Politics Help? 4Negative and Positive Power 5Negative and Positive Power as a Relationship 6Three-dimensional Power and the Problem of Power and Authority 7Accounting for the 'Indissoluble Link' 8References 9

Chapter 1 The State 11

Introduction 11Chapter Map 11Test Case: Margaret Thatcher and the State 12

viii Contents

How Modern is the Concept of the State?Defining the State

The Force ArgumentThe Centrality of WillThe State as a Mixture of Will and Force

Force and the Modernity ArgumentThe Argument Against the Concept of the State

The Behaviouralist ArgumentThe Argument of David EastonDavid Easton's Concept of the Political SystemThe Linguistic and Radical Argument

Problems with the Argument Against the StateThe Argument of David EastonThe Question of ExistenceForce and StatelessnessThe Distinction between Force and Constraint, State and Government

State and SovereigntySovereignty as a Modern ConceptSovereignty as a Broad Concept

Problems with the Theories of State SovereigntyDifficulties with the Modernist ConceptionThe Broad View of State Sovereignty

Rescuing the Idea of SovereigntyMoving to a Stateless WorldGlobalisation and the State

The Case for Global GovernmentSummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks

Chapter 2 Freedom

IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Smoking in the Last Chance Saloon?Berlin's Two ConceptsUnfreedom versus InabilityMill on Freedom

Freedom of Thought and ExpressionFreedom of Action

Criticisms and DevelopmentsHarm to OthersConsentHarm to Self - PaternalismExpression and HarmOffensivenessHarmless Wrongdoing

Contents ix

The Smoking Ban ReconsideredHarm to OthersConsentHarm to SelfOffensiveness

SummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks

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Chapter 3 Equality

IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Does Inequality Make you III?Principles of EqualityMoral Equality

Moral Autonomy and Moral EqualityNietzsche contra Moral Equality

Legal EqualityEqual Liberties

Do Freedom and Equality Conflict?Material Equality

Equal AccessEquality of OpportunityEquality of OutcomeAffirmative ActionEquality of Welfare versus Equality of Resources

SummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks

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Chapter 4 Justice

IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Just Deserts? What do People Deserve?Theories of Just DistributionRawls: an Egalitarian Liberal Theory of Justice

The Original PositionMotivation in the Original PositionWhat would be Chosen in the Original Position?The Democratic Conception: the Two Principles of JusticeWould we really Choose the Difference Principle?

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x Contents

Nozick: a Libertarian Theory of JusticeNozick's Starting Point: Private Property RightsJust Acquisition - Locke and NozickJust TransferTypes of TheoryRectification

Left LibertarianismCohen: a Marxist Perspective on Distributive Justice

Cohen contra NozickCohen contra Rawls

SummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks

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Chapter 5 Democracy

IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Zimbabwean Elections June 2000Democracy and ConfusionDemocracy and LiberalismThe Problem of ExclusionThe Tyranny of the Majority' ThesisThe Problem of ParticipationSolutions to the Problem of Low ParticipationRepresentational and Direct DemocracyDemocracy and the StateThe Ancient Greek Polity and the Problem

with LiberalismDemocracy and the Relational ArgumentSummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks

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Chapter 6 Citizenship

IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: 'Being British': Pride, Passports and PrincesCitizenship and LiberalismCitizenship and ClassCitizenship, Marshall and Social RightsCitizenship and the New RightCitizenship and the Case for a Basic Income

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Contents xi

Citizenship and WomenGlobal CitizenshipCitizenship within the European UnionDoes the State Undermine Citizenship?The Problem of ClassCitizenship as a Relational ConceptSummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks

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Chapter 7 Punishment

IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: The Ultimate Punishment?What is Punishment?Retributivism

Retributivism - the Crude VersionRetributivism - the Sophisticated Versions

ConsequentialismRetributivism versus Consequentialism: the

Argument so FarCompromise Theories (Indirect Utilitarianism)Beyond Retributivism and Consequentialism? Censure

and RestorationCapital Punishment

Retributivism and the Death PenaltyConsequentialism and the Death PenaltyRespecting Persons versus Using ThemArguments against Capital Punishment

ConclusionQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks

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Part 2 Classical Ideologies

What is Ideology?

Origins and Development of the TermIsms as IdeologiesMannheim's Paradox: Are we Stuck?Facts, Values and the StateReferences

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xii Contents

Chapter 8 Liberalism

IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Prostitution Laws in SwedenThe Meaning of LiberalismLiberalism as Toleration

The Reformation and Wars of ReligionToleration

ContractarianismHobbes and Liberalism

Rights-based LiberalismLockeLocke and LiberalismKantKant and Liberalism

UtilitarianismUtilitarianism and Liberalism

Conclusion: Prostitution LawsSummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks

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Chapter 9 Conservatism

IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: The Monarchy - an Anachronism?Conservatism: an Elusive Ideology?

Basic Elements of ConservatismDavid HumeEdmund BurkeMichael OakeshottLeo Strauss and American Neo-conservatismConclusion: the MonarchySummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks

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Chapter 10 Socialism

IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Tanks in the Streets of PragueThe Problem of Variety

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Contents xiii

Defining Socialism 220The Problem of Utopia 220Science and the 'Utopian Socialists' 221Introducing Marxism 223The Authoritarian Consequences of 'Scientific Socialism' 224

The Inevitability Argument 225What Happens when Revolutions are 'Bourgeois'

in Character? 225What Happens when Revolutions are 'Pre-mature'? 226Rosa Luxemburg, the Bolshevik Revolution and Stalinism 227The Concept of Class War and the Problem of Morality 227

The Dilemma of Democratic Socialism 228Eduard Bernstein and the German Socialists 229Bernstein, Revisionism and the British Tradition 230

Bernstein's Argument 230The British Labour Party and the Fabians 231The Labour Party, Constitutionalism and the Trade Unions 232Blair's Socialism 232International Social Democrats 233

Socialism and the USA 233British Labour and the 'Third Way' 234Can Marxism be Rescued? 234

The Notion of Revolution 234The Inevitability Problem and the Liberal Tradition 235The Question of Class and Agency 235Socialism and Inevitability 237

The Problem of Utopianism 237Summary 239Questions 240References 240Further Reading 241Weblinks 241

Chapter 11 Anarchism 242

Introduction " 242Chapter Map 242Test Case: Death in Genoa 243The Relationship with Socialism 245Philosophical Anarchists 245

Free-market Anarchists 247Anti-Capitalist Anarchists: Proudhon, Bakunin and Kropotkin 249Republican Spain and the Anarchist Experience 251The Problem of Violence 254Anarchism and the New Social Movements 255The Problem of Organisation and Relationships 257The Problem of Hierarchy 258The Question of Self-determination and Constraint 258

Anarchism and the Distinction between State and Government 260

xiv Contents

SummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks

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Chapter 12 Nationalism 264

Introduction 264Chapter Map 264Test Case: Only a Game? 265Nations and Nationalism 266

Citizenship - 'Civic' and 'Ethnic' Nationalisms 268Citizenship and Civic Nationalism 270

Liberalism and Nationalism: Mill and Herder 272John Stuart Mill 274Johann Gottfried von Herder 275

Socialism and Nationalism: Marx and Engels 275Liberalism and Nationalism: Individualism versus Communitarianism 277

Conclusion: Football and Banal Nationalism 281Summary 282Questions 282References 282Further Reading 283Weblinks 284

Chapter 13 Fascism

IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: 'Never Again'Defining Fascism

Fascism and CommunismFascism and ReligionFascism and LiberalismFascism and Conservatism

Fascism in ItalyNationalism and WarCorporativism, Violence and the StateIntellectual Roots

Fascism in GermanyA Brief HistoryAnti-CapitalismStatism, Women and Colonialism

Fascism and CapitalismFascism, Liberalism and the Enlightenment

The State of Nature, Equality and the IndividualNationalismRationality

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Contents xv

Fascism, Stalinism and the State 302Stalinism 302

Fascism Today 304The Unrepentant Apologists 304The Holocaust Deniers 304The Critical Fascists 305Eurofascism 305Nationalist Salvation 305

Summary 307Questions 307References 308Further Reading 308Weblinks 308

Part 3 Contemporary Ideologies

What is a New Social Movement? 309

Social and Economic Change 310Critique of Classical Ideologies 313References 314

Chapter 14 Feminism 315

Introduction 315Chapter Map 315Test Case: Women's Work? 316Liberal Feminism 318

Mary Wollstonecraft 318John Stuart Mill 319Liberal Feminism in Britain and the USA 319

Problems with Liberal Feminism 321Radical Feminist Critique 321Socialist Feminist Critique 321Other Critiques 322

Socialist Feminism 322Engels' Contribution 323Bebel and Later Socialists 323Women in the Communist Party States 324The Domestic Labour Debate 324

Problems with Socialist Feminism 325Liberal Feminist Critique 325Radical Feminist Critique 325Black Feminist and Philosophical Feminist Critique 326

Radical Feminism 326

xvi Contents

Problems with Radical Feminism 328Liberal Feminist Critique 328Socialist Feminist Critique 328Black Feminist and Philosophical Feminist Critique 329

Black Feminism 331Problems with Black Feminism 332

Liberal, Socialist and Radical Feminist Critiques 332The Critique of Philosophical Feminisms 332

Philosophical Feminisms 333Feminist Empiricism 333Standpoint Feminism 333Postmodern Feminism 334

Problems with the Philosophical Feminisms 335Liberal Feminist Critique 335Socialist, Radical and Black Feminist Critiques 335

Summary 337Questions 337References 338Further Reading 338Weblinks 339

Chapter 15 Multiculturalism 340

Introduction 340Chapter Map 340Test Case: Religious Dress Ban: Equality or Oppression? 341What is Multiculturalism? 342Culture, Race, Ethnicity and Religion 342

Culture 342Race and Ethnicity 343Religion 344Multiculturalism and Islamic Radicalisation 345

Multiculturalism and the Politics of Identity 347Theories of Multiculturalism 348

Multiculturalism as Hybridity (Jeremy Waldron) 348The Right to Cultural Membership (Will Kymlicka) 349Constitutional Diversity (James Tully) 350An Overlapping Consensus (John Rawls) 351

Multiculturalism and Feminism 354The Feminist Case against Multiculturalism (Susan Okin) 355Responses to Okin 356

Conclusion: Head Scarves and Women's Rights 358Summary 359Questions 359References 360Further Reading 360Weblinks 361

Contents xvii

Chapter 16 Ecologism

IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Nuclear Power? Yes Please!Ecologism or Environmentalism?Environmental Crisis

Green PoliticsEnvironmentalism and Other IdeologiesAldo Leopold and the 'Land Ethic'Arne Naess and 'Deep Ecology'Garrett Hardin and the Ethics of the LifeboatCritique of Ecologism

Do Ecologists have a Plausible Account of why we shouldValue 'Nature'?

Can Ecologists Respect the CreatedWorld - that is, Culture?

Are Ecologists Hostile to Individualism (or IndividualHuman Rights)?

Are Ecologists Hostile to Reason and Rationality?Is Ecologism Compatible with Human Equality?Is Ecologism Compatible with Value Pluralism?

SummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks

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Chapter 17 Fundamentalism

IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: The Diversity of FundamentalismsLabel or Concept?Fundamentalism and ReligionFundamentals and FundamentalismModernity and TraditionFundamentalism, Democracy and ViolenceWhat is Islamic Fundamentalism?American Fundamentalism and the Religious RightJewish Fundamentalism and the Israeli StateThe 'Clash of Civilisations': a Fundamentalist Thesis?SummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks

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xviii Contents

Part 4 Contemporary Ideas

What do we Mean by a New Idea? 405

Chapter 18 Human Rights

IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Free to Believe?Human Rights after Nuremberg

Human Rights ConventionsUniversal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)European Convention on Human Rights (1950)

Why the UDHR and the ECHR are SignificantRights - Some Conceptual IssuesRelativism versus Universalism

Intuition and Consensus (Donnelly)Contractualism (Rawls)Rational Entailment (Habermas)Natural Rights (Finnis)Cruelty and Solidarity (Shklar and Rorty)Conclusion: Article 18SummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks

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Chapter 19 Civil Disobedience

IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Protest and Survive?Civil Disobedience and Law-breaking

Law-breakingCivil Disobedience and Political Obligation

Civil Disobedience and DemocracyDemocracy and ObedienceFair CompromiseProblems with Democracy

Rawls: Civil Disobedience and Conscientious RefusalThe ContextThe Obligation to Obey the LawThe Nature and Role of Civil DisobedienceConscientious Refusal

Criticisms of Rawls

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Martin Luther King and the Civil Rights MovementHistorical Background to the Civil Rights MovementThe Civil Rights MovementBus BoycottsFreedom RidesSit-insElectoral Registration CampaignsMartin Luther King, 'Letter from Birmingham City Jail' (1963)

SummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks

Contents xix

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Chapter 20 Political Violence 451

Introduction 451Chapter Map 451Test Case: 9/11 and its legacy 452Liberalism and the Question of Violence 453The State and Political Violence 453An Assessment of Salmi 454Distinguishing Between Political Violence and Terrorism 455The Just War 457Political Violence, Ambiguity and the Liberal State 457Marx on the Problem of Political Violence 459The Leninist and Maoist Position on Political Violence 460A General Theory of Political Violence? 462The Roots of Political Violence 463The Problem of Violence and the State 464The Force/Violence Distinction and the Analysis of Political Violence 466The Significance of September 11 th 467Summary 469Questions 470References 470Further Reading 471Weblinks 472

Chapter 21 Global Justice

IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Famine - whose Responsibility?Famine

Singer on FamineSen on FamineEthical and Political Implications

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CosmopolitanismParticularismPolitical ConceptionJustice between GenerationsSummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks

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Conclusion

Academic Political Theory and Politics

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Glossary 495

Index 503

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