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Business English is… ___________________________________ __________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION

Business English is… What do you think it is? Some people think that BE is almost an unidentifiable subject and to some extent this view is justified. To work out a definition of BE is a tedious task. The simplest approach is probably to present it as a plain equation: Business+English. But is it as simple as that? And is it simple at all? What exactly does the word “business” imply and what part of English is the English we mean?

Let us start from looking at the constituents of the first member of equation: business. These are at least the following:

- the structure and organization of business,- producing and selling,- financing,- advertising,- management of business,- marketing,- product development,- the workforce and industrial relations,- selection and recruitment,- training and development,- business environment,- business communication, etc.

Actually the list may be longer. Besides each of the entries in the account above can be presented as a list of its own constituents, e.g. “business communication”:

- by device,- face –to-face,- in groups (small vs large).

Each of these could be developed further, i.e.:1. communication “by device” means

communicating by phone, mail, e-mail, fax, telex,

2. communication “face-to-face” means oral interacting of two interlocutors in various situations of business, like visiting a company or receiving and entertaining visitors, introducing people and being introduced, exchanging information and others – all united under one heading: socializing,

3. communication “in groups” means taking part in and chairing meetings, negotiating,

giving and receiving presentations, interviewing and being interviewed.

Knowing business terms alone will hardly ensure your being effective in the enlisted situations of communication. What you will need is communicative competence, i.e. skillfulness in hitting the targets of communication. This will require

1. good command of general English – developed skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking, knowledge of general and specifically business vocabulary, solid knowledge of grammar and functions (the chunks we generally use to indicate our feelings, attitudes, intentions, etc.: agreeing / disagreeing, asking for / giving opinions, advising / suggesting, etc.)

2. mastering business communication skills (correspondence, telephoning, socializing, meetings, negotiations, presentations)

3. knowledge of the business world, including cross-cultural awareness

4. mastering the management skills of problem solving and decision making

5. mastering the ground skills of understanding business data and modifying business information.

So as you can see the equation above is not sufficient to explain comprehensively what is implied by Business English, which we now can try to define. It looks as if what we mean by Business English is eitherEnglish for the purposes of effective communication in business in a variety of specific business contexts

ora delicious layer cake with a mix of different flavours.

Quick questions:1. Why is BE sometimes viewed upon as an unidentifiable subject?2. What are the most essential issues of business?3. What three main divisions does business communication break up into?4. What is meant by business communication skills?5. Can problem-solving and decision-making be regarded as communication skills either?6. What does the idea of cross-cultural awareness imply?7. Which of the two BE definitions above is more consistent? Why?_______________________________________________________ Module 1. Business Organisations

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It remains to be said that this course book is based upon the idea of Business English, we have tried to explain above. That is why the major division within every module of the book is as follows:

Section 1: Business World, Section 2: Business Communication, Section 3: Case Study.

The final touch in every module isa glossary

and the crowning glory –a test.

_______________________________________________________ Module 1. Business Organisations

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Nina Medvedeva Tatyana Valentey

MODULE 1 B U S I N E S S ORGANISATIONS

Section 1: Business world

I. READING

1. Read the following texts. Discuss the answers to the questions below each text. Sum up the main points in writing (250 words).

A business organization can be defined as a firm, a company, a business or a corporation that makes, buys or sells goods, or provides services, to make a profit. The words:firm,company,business,corporation are often used interchangeably.Different types of business fall into specific areas of activity. For example, a business may make things, such as furniture or cars, or it may sell items that have been produced by someone else. In addition, a company may be owned by the state, or by private individuals.

The basic terms below will help you talk about how a company fits into the economy.Sector - a part of the economy (usually occurs after ‘private’ or ‘public’)Industry - organized activity producing goods or services, for example food, banking, construction, steel, tobacco,, biotechnology.Private sector - privately- owned and –run companiesPublic sector - state-owned and –run organizations, e.g. government departments, and nationalized industries, such as the postal service.

Service sector - all the companies which provide services in areas such as tourism, banking and finance, communications, wholesale and retail tradeManufacturing sector - all the companies which assemble components into finished products, or which make goods from raw materials (Industry and sector are sometimes used with the same meaning, e.g. the retail sector, the retail industry).

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Ownership:

UNLIMITED LIABILITY COMPANIES

The sole trader (BrE) (a sole proprietorship- AmE) is an organization legally owned and controlled by one person. It is commonly called a ‘one-man business’, which implies that its employees have no legal responsibility for the conduct of the business.The sources of financial capital available to establish and expand a sole trader business are quite limited:● the sole trader’s own savings,● borrowing from friends and relatives,● borrowing from banks and building societies,● trade credit, i.e. obtaining stock without having to

pay until the goods have been sold and the business has had time to generate some cash,

● investing past profits.

Many people do make a success of a sole trader business, as it has certain advantages over larger organizations:● they are easy to establish in terms formal

procedures,● the complete unity of ownership and control is in the

hands of one person,● there is better understanding between the owner and

the employees,● services offered to the consumer are more personal.

The drawbacks of a sole trader business can be summed up as follows:● the sources of finance are very limited,● the owner is entirely responsible for the debts of the

business (unlimited liability),● all the owner’s personal assets can be taken to settle

the debts,● the owner is unlikely to be a specialist in all aspects

of managing the business,● the owner has to work long hours, there is no

continuity of the business.The above problems often lead the sole trader to

consider ways of expanding the firm which will involve changing the legal structure of the business.

QUESTIONS:1. What kind of organization is sole proprietorship?2. Why is sole trader type of business often called ‘one-man’ business?3. What are the main sources of financial capital for a sole trader business?4. What are the advantages and the disadvantages of sole proprietorship?5. What is meant by ‘unlimited personal liability’?

Partnership (BrE) (general partnership AmE)

is the first form of organization, the owner is likely to consider when changing the legal structure of the business. Partnership is the type of organization where a business is jointly owned by 2 or more people. There exist two main types of partnership.The ordinary type of partnership means that all the partners have unlimited personal liability for the debts of the business. So if the business fails, all the partners can be declared bankrupt.The limited partnership allows some partners to join the business contributing money only. They take no part in the management of the business and have no right to be consulted about decisions. However they

can enjoy limited liability, i.e. they are not liable for the debts of the business beyond the amount they have already contributed. These partners are entitled to receive a return on the amount of money they contributed.Partnerships have certain advantages over sole proprietorships:● there are more sources of capital● there are more people involved in the business● the burden of management is reduced (decision-

making can be shared),● there is an opportunity for the partners to split

responsibilities.

The drawbacks of this type of business unit do not make it suitable for all types of business:● one partner’s decisions will be legally binding on the

others,● partners risk their personal assets,● disputes between the partners may lead to the

dissolution of the partnership,● the continuity of the business is uncertain.

QUESTIONS:1. What is the major difference between the two types of partnership?2. Why might 2 independent traders consider going into partnership?3. What are strong and weak points of partnership?

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LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANIES

It is possible to establish a business which has a completely separate legal existence from the people who own and manage it and can work for itself and be responsible for itself. This process is known as incorporation and it creates a separate legal or judicial personality. The most common type of business unit established by the process of incorporation is the Limited Company. The principle difference between

the private and the public limited company is in size and in how the shares are bought and sold.

The basic requirements to form a public company are:● the minimum number of people – 2,● a minimum authorized share capital -& 50 000,● the name of the company must end with Plc (Public

Limited Company).The vast majority of companies are private.

Their most essential features are:● no limit on the number of shareholders,● the company is not allowed to sell shares or

debentures to the general public,● the name of the company must contain Ltd

(Company Limited).The formalities for establishing a Plc are more

complex because the shares have to be made available to the public through the stock market (floatation).Private limited company –BrE = limited liability company (AmE)Public limited company BrE) = Listed company (AmE)

QUESTIONS:1.What is the purpose of incorporation?2.Give 2 differences between a Plc and a Company Limited.3.What are the strong points of incorporation?

2. Read the 5 texts below. Note the terms and the information you can not do without in business. Write 15 Wh-questions. Work in pairs asking and answering questions. Sum up the main points in the form of an oral talk.

1/ Other forms of organization: You may come across other forms of organization. The following three are among the most common:Franchise a business arrangement in which one party (the franchisee) pays for the right to use the name, and sell the products of, another company (the franchiser).Co-operative is an association formed for a particular purpose, e.g. to give better service to its members, and in which each member has an equal vote.Non-profit organization is an organization (usually a charity), that raises funds and offers products and services, but does not have to make a profit to stay in business.

2/ Relationships:

Businesses expand, they may buy shares in other companies, or join with other companies for a particular purpose. The words below describe the

relationships these companies can have with one another.A group is a number of subsidiary companies operating under one leading company known as the parent company. A subsidiary is a company that is half or wholly owned by another company (the parent company).

A large corporation operating in many countries is called a multinational; most of the world’s largest corporations are multinationals. A holding company is the leading company in a group. It holds all, or more than half of, the shares in one or more other companies. The term conglomerate refers to a group of companies

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operating in business activities which are not related to that of the leading company in the group.

When two or more companies come together to work on a particular project, or to form another company, they form a joint venture. In such cases, the two companies involved remain separate legal entities.

A consortium is a group of companies which come together to undertake a project which any one of the members can not carry out alone.

3/ Corporate restructuring:

In the world of business, it is usual to see news of changes to the structure of companies and groups of companies. Many companies join with or buy other companies in order to have better control of a particular market, or to diversify their business. As the resulting mergers and acquisitions have many effects, for

example on share prices and employment, the business community watches them with interest.

When companies merge they combine to form one company in an agreement known as a merger.

To buy another company or to win a controlling share of a company is to acquire a business, make an acquisition or take over a company. There are different kinds of takeover: a hostile takeover is a situation in which a company is bought out, but where the owners do not want to sell. A friendly takeover on the other hand refers to a situation in which a company is willingly bought out. When someone wants to buy a company they have to make a bid for it, i.e. offer to buy it at a certain price. A buyout is the purchase of a company, especially by its management or staff.

4/ Organizational structure:

The structure of organizations varies greatly

according to the nature of the business. There are several factors which influence this structure, including:

● the number of locations and employees● the economic sector● the type of market in which they operate● the type of customer● the degree of management control required● the complexity of the business activities.

Some corporations will, therefore, have many levels of management, while others may have a flatter structure with fewer layers. In recent years, the trend has been towards reducing the number of layers in large corporation.

Listed below are the terms used to describe the basic layers of management in a public limited company in the UK and a listed company in the US.

UK StructureBoard of Directors

Chairman of the BoardManaging Director (MD)

Deputy Managing DirectorGeneral Manager

Department Manager

US StructureBoard of Directors

PresidentVice President and Chief Executive Officer (CEO)

Senior Vice PresidentDirectorManager

Most organizations have a hierarchical or pyramidal structure, with a single person or a group of people at the top, and an increasing number of people below them at each successive level. A clear line or chain of command runs down the hierarchy, so that all employees know who their superior or boss is, to whom they report, and who their immediate subordinates are, to whom they can give instructions. Some people in an organization have an assistant who helps them; this is an example of a staff position: its holder has line authority, and is not integrated into the chain of command.

Businesses that can not be divided into autonomous divisions with their own markets can simulate decentralization, setting up divisions that use internally determined transfer prices when dealing with each other.

An inevitable problem with hierarchies is that people at lower levels are unable to make important decisions, but are obliged to pass on responsibility to their boss, unless responsibilities have been explicitly delegated.

One solution to this problem is matrix management, in which people report to more than one superior: e.g. a brand manager with an idea can deal

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Yet the activities of most large organizations are too elaborate to be organized in a single hierarchy, and require functional organization, usually with production or operations, finance, marketing and personnel departments. Large companies manufacturing a wide range of products, e.g. General Motors, are normally decentralized into separate operating divisions, each with its own engineering, production and sales departments.

directly with the appropriate managers in the finance, manufacturing and sales departments. Another, more recent idea is to have a network of flexible groups or teams, instead of the traditional departments, which are often at war with each other; they are formed to carry out a project, after which they are dissolved and their members reassigned.

5/What do the departments of companies do?

PERSONNEL touches all parts of the business, because it touches all the employees. The personnel group manages employee affairs. They find and screen new employees, keep employee records and run training, recreation and education programs. The group also manages employee benefits (or fringe benefits) such as medical coverage, life insurance, profit sharing plans and pension plans. Nowadays it’s fashionable among some companies to call the personnel function human resources, which to some may sound more important or glamorous.

INFORMATION SYSTEMS is also called management information system or EDP. This is the computer and telecommunications heart of a corporation. It gets and transmits timely information about business inside and outside the company.

PURCHASING can be little more than filling out purchase orders, approving bills from suppliers or vendors (firms that sell products and services to the company) and looking for the best deals on minor items such as calculators or desk chairs. Or it can be a very powerful group that is a key buying influence, perhaps specializing in basic materials, parts design or business systems.

MANUFACTURING This function covers a lot of activities. Raw materials and parts receiving, plant engineering, production, production scheduling, quality control or quality assurance and shipping. The place where manufacturing takes place is usually called the production line.

ACCOUNTING in the US is called accountancy in Great Britain. The people in this

function are accountants. They keep track of all the company’s financial dealings and play an important role in setting the company’s annual budget. They produce the financial information that goes into the company’s annual and quarterly reports to shareholders.

R&D (Research and Development). Often business magazines and newspapers refer to this function simply as R&D. So do people in general. In R&D scientists and engineers engage in what are often called technical programs. They are assisted by technicians, specialists who are less educated or experienced.

TRANSPORTATION, also called Traffic, manages the movement of raw material and parts into the company and finished products to the customers in domestic or foreign markets. Often the manufacturer and the customer prefer different delivery dates: the customer wants the products delivered on time as requested (OTAR), but the manufacturer wants a later, more convenient date when the goods are delivered on time as promised (OTAP). The best companies deliver on time as the customer requires.

MARKETING is bringing a product to market and building its market share. Marketing has become almost scientific, thanks to computers and modern market research. Marketing programs have to consider the competition, market share and margin (the difference between product cost and sale price). To meet their objectives marketing people devise strategies such as market segmentation and positioning. Marketing includes advertising.

SALES is sometimes a part of a company’s marketing operation, but it’s a distinctly different business activity. While marketing people develop market strategies, salespeople pursue sales objectives. Effective sales representatives have good contacts in the market place and good working relationships with the other departments in their companies. Most sales reps work in the field: their sales territories are away from the home office (headquarters).

(from ‘Business Studies Today’ by John Ryan and John Richards & ‘Chambers Guide to English for Business’ by Barbara Campbell)

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3. Find the answers to the following questions in the text that follows: 1. What is the role of the board of directors?2. What is the senior executives’ role?3. What happens at the annual general meeting?4. What is the difference between a strategic and a tactical decision?5. What part can non-executive directors play in the proceedings?6. What objections can be raised against the appointment of non-executive directors?7. What is meant by an interlocking board of directors?8. How is that a board of directors can control a company though they only meet, say, once

a week?

The board of directors of a limited company is primarily responsible for determining the objectives and policies of a business. It is the directors who determine the direction the business is going to take. They will need to ensure that the necessary funds are available and will appoint key staff to whom they will delegate the authority to run the business on a day-to-day basis. They will need to design an effective organization structure so that there is both a chain of command linking one level of management with another and an effective communication network so that instructions can be passed downward and information passed upward.

The directors are appointed by the shareholders, normally at the company’s annual general meeting, at which the chairman of the board will be expected to account for their stewardship during the previous year. The company’s accounts will be presented to the shareholders at that time so they can judge for themselves whether or not the board has been successful.

Direction in business is like strategy in a war situation. The strategic decisions determine the areas in which the company’s resources will be employed. Above all it involves planning to ensure that the

business first survives and then flourishes. Strategic decisions, made by the board of directors, are concerned with the disposition of resources. These contrast with the tactical decisions by means of which the senior executives (appointed by the directors) carry out in detail the plans conceived or approved by the board of directors.

The fact that boards of directors tend to meat rather infrequently, say once a week, means that part-time directors can be elected to the board. Since they will not have departmental responsibilities within the company they are often described as non-executive directors. There are arguments in favour of such directors though they may lack a detailed knowledge of the company’s activities. They may bring expertise to the board. Some are lawyers, or experts in tax affairs. Some represent influential groups of shareholders whose support is necessary if the board is going to carry out its plans, while others are directors in a number of companies and are used to interlock boards within a group of companies. For example, a holding (or parent) company may appoint a director from their board to serve on the board of a subsidiary company, with a view to keeping a watching brief on the director’s activities.

(from ‘English for Business’ by J. Chilver)

II. KEY VOCABULARY OF THE SECTION:

Give the Russian equivalents of the following words and word-combinations. In case of problems return to the texts above and elaborate on them further.

ATo account for one’s stewardship- нести ответственность за должность управляющегоTo acquire a business- обзавестись деломTo approve bills- одобрять законопроектыTo appoint key staff- назначать ключевых сотрудниковTo assemble components- собирать деталиAccountancy- бухгалтерское дело, счетоводствоAccountant- бухгалтер, счетоводAnnual and quarterly reports- годовые и квартальные отчётыAt each successive level- на каждом последующем уровне


BTo be available- быть доступным, полезнымTo be declared bankrupt- объявить себя банкротомTo be decentralized- быть децентрализованнымTo be divided into autonomous divisions- быть поделённым на самостоятельные частиTo be dissolved-быть растворённым To be entirely responsible for the debts- нести всю ответственность за долгиTo be jointly owned by 2 or more people- находиться в совместном владении 2 или более людейTo be integrated into a chain of command- быть объединённым в цепь инстанцийTo be legally binding on smb- принимать на себя законные обязательстваTo be legally owned and controlled by- находиться в законном владении и под управлениемTo be liable for the debts- быть ответственным за долгиTo be reassigned- быть вновь назначеннымTo bring expertise to the board- доводить компетентность до руководстваTo bring a product to market- продвигать товар на рынокTo build market share (of a product)- получить долю (продукта) на рынкеTo buy and sell shares- покупать и продавать акцииTo buy at a certain price- покупать за определённую ценуBeyond the amount- превысить суммуBorrowing from banks- занимать у банковBrand manager- менеджер, продвигающий товар на рынокBuilding society- жилищно-строительный кооперативBuyout- приобретение контрольного пакета акций компании

CTo carry out a project- осуществлять проектTo change the legal structure of the business- изменить легальную структуру бизнесаChairman of the board of directors- председатель совета директоровCharity- благотворительностьChain of command- цепь инстанцийChief executive officer (CEO)- главный исполнительный директор корпорации (обычно президент)Conduct of the business- управление бизнесомConglomerate- промышленный конгломератConsortium- консорциумCooperative- кооперативное обществоCorporate restructuring- общая реструктуризация

DTo deal directly with- иметь дело напрямую сTo delegate responsibility (authority)- передавать полномочия (власть)To determine the direction the business is going to take- определить будущее направление бизнесаTo design an effective organization structure- построить эффективную организационную структуруTo determine the objectives and policies of a business- определить цели и курс действий бизнесаTo devise strategies- разрабатывать стратегииTo diversify one’s business- модифицировать бизнесDepartment manager- управляющий отделомDelivery dates- даты поступленияDisposition of resources- размещение ресурсовDissolution of the partnership- ликвидация товариществаDomestic markets- внутренние рынкиDrawbacks of a business- недостатки бизнеса

ETo enjoy limited liability- обладать ограниченной ответственностьюTo establish a business- учредить бизнесTo ensure that the necessary funds are available- быть уверенным в доступности необходимых фондовTo employ the company’s resources- использовать ресурсы компанииTo expand a business- развивать делоEffective communication network- эффективная сеть связиEmploy (-er, -ee)- предоставлять работу (наниматель, работодатель, служащий; работающий по найму)

FTo fill out purchase orders- заполнять заказыTo find and screen new employees- находить и тщательно отбирать новых служащихFinished products- готовые изделияFlat structure- простая структураFloatation- основание предприятия, учреждение предприятия (путем продажи акций)Franchise (-er, -ee)- франчайзинг


Functional organisation- функциональная организация

GTo generate some cash- производить наличностьGeneral manager- директор, руководительGeneral partnership- компания с неограниченной ответственностью

HTo have better control of a particular market- обладать лучшим контролем над отдельным рынкомTo have a completely separate existence- полностью самостоятельное существованиеTo have departmental responsibilities- обладать ведомственной ответственностьюTo have good contacts in the market place- обладать хорошими контактами на рынкеTo have good working relationships with- иметь хорошие рабочие отношения с To have line authority- обладать линейными полномочиямиTo have (no) legal responsibility- нести законную ответственностьTo hold shares in one or more other companies- обладать пакетом акций в одной или более других компанияхHierachical (pyramidal) structure- иерархическая (пирамидальная) структураHolding company- компания, владеющая контрольными пакетами акций других компанийHostile takeover- враждебное взятие под свой контроль и управлениеHeadquarters (home-office)- штаб-квартира

ITo interlock boards within a group of companies- объединять руководство группы компанийTo invest past profits- инвестировать суммарные прибылиImmediate subordinates- непосредственные подчинённыеIncorporation- объединение, слияниеIn terms of formal procedure- в показателях формальной процедуры

JTo join the business- войти в делоA joint venture- совместное предприятие, смешанное предприятие, временное товарищество

KTo keep employee records- сохранять документы служащихTo keep a watching brief on the director’s activities- содержать краткие наблюдения за деятельностью директораTo keep track of all the company’s financial dealings- отслеживать все финансовые дела компанииA key buying influence- ключевое покупательское влияние

LTo lack a detailed knowledge of the company’s activities- нехватка детального знания деятельности компанииTo look for the best deals- искать лучшие сделкиLife insurance- страхование жизниLimited partnership- товарищество на вере, компания с ограниченной имущественной ответственностьюListed company- перечисленная компания

MTo make it suitable for- сделать пригодным дляTo make an acquisition- приобрестиTo make a bid for a company- предложить цену за компаниюTo make goods- компенсировать, возмещать, создавать товарыManaging director- директор-распорядитель, управляющий, главный менеджер, финансовый директорTo manufacture a wide range of products- производить широкий выбор продукцииTo manage employee benefits- распределять пособия работающим по наймуManufacturing sector- производственный секторMarket research- изучение конъюнктуры, возможностей рынкаMarket segmentation and positioning- сегментирование и позиционирование рынкаMarket share- доля на рынкеMarketing people- торговля человеческими ресурсамиMatrix management- матричная система управленияMedical coverage- медицинская сфера действияTo meet objectives- соответствовать целямMinimum authorized share capital- минимальный уставной акционерный капиталMerger- слияние, объединение (коммерческое, промышленное и т.п.)Mergers and acquisitions- слияние и приобретенияMultinational corporation- многонациональная корпорация

NNetwork of flexible groups or teams- сеть гибких групп или командNon-executive directors- член совета директоров, не являющийся исполнительным лицом компанииNon-profit organizations- не предназначенные для получения прибыли организацииNumber of shareholders- количество акционеров

OTo obtain stock- получать запасTo offer services to the consumer- предлагать покупателю услугиOrdinary partnership- обыкновенное сотрудничествоOwn savings- собственные сбереженияOwnership- собственность; владение, имущество

PTo pass on responsibility to- передавать ответственностьTo pass upward (downward)- направляться вверх (вниз)To provide services- осуществлять обслуживаниеTo pursue sales objectives- преследовать торговые целиParent company- компания, владеющая контрольным пакетом акций другой компанииPart time directors- директора на неполном рабочем днеPension plans- пенсионные планыPersonal assets- движимое имуществоPersonnel department- отдел кадровPlant engineering- служба главного механика и энергетикаPrivate limited company- закрытое акционерное общество с ограниченной ответственностьюPrivate sector- частный секторPrivately-owned company- частная компанияPrivately-run company- компания, находящаяся во владении частных лицProduction line- поточная линияProduction scheduling- производственное календарное планированиеProfit sharing plan- программа участия служащих в прибылях компанииPublic limited company- открытая публичная компания с ограниченной ответственностьюPublic sector- государственный сектор, обобществленный сектор

QQuality assistance- поддержка качества; гарантия качестваQuality control- контроль за качеством

RTo raise funds- привлекать фонды, мобилизовать средстваTo report to smb- докладыватьTo risk one’s personal assets- рисковать личным состояниемTo run down the hierarchy- спускаться по служебной лестницеTo run the business on a day-to-day basis- управлять делом на повседневной основеTo run training, recreation and education- управлять подготовкой, отдыхом и образованиемRaw materials- редкие материалыResearch and Development (R& D)– проектно-конструкторская работа

STo sell shares or debentures to general public- продавать акции или долговые обязательства общественностиTo serve on the board of a subsidiary company- находиться в штате дочерней компанииTo set the company’s annual budget- установить годовой бюджет компанииTo set up divisions- открывать отделыTo settle the debts- утрясать долгиTo share decision making- делить принятие решенийTo split responsibilities- разлепленные полномочияSales department- отдел сбыта; коммерческий отделSales people- люди, участвующие в товарооборотеSales representatives- агент по продаже товаров, торговый представительSales territories- сбытовые территорииSenior executives- старшие должностные лицаSeparate legal or judicial personality- отдельные легальные или законные личностиSeparate operating divisions- отдельные оперативные деленияShareholders- акционеры; пайщики, владельцы акцийSole trader- одиночные торговецSources of financial capital- источники финансового капиталаState owned company- открытая или публичная акционерная компания


State run company- компания, находящаяся во владении штатаStock market- фондовая биржаSubsidiary- вспомогательный, добавочный, дополнительныйSuppliers or vendors- поставщики или продавцы вразнос

TTo take over a company- вступать во владение компанииTactical decisions- тактические решенияTrade credit- торговый кредит

UTo undertake a project- предпринимать проектUnlimited liability- неограниченная ответственность (акционера)

WTo win a controlling share of a company- завоевать контрольный пакет акций компанииTo work long hours- работать на протяжении многих часовWithin the company- в компанииWholesale trade- оптовая торговля

III. PRACTICE

1. Listen to a talk about a company and complete the following fact file. Dwell on the strengths and weaknesses of the company’s status.

T & D Tours location_________________company status___________responsibilities: a/ Tracy______ b/ David_____number of staff_____________tour leaders’ responsibilities___________________________________________________________administrative staff’s responsibilities____________________________________________________company’s activities:_________________________________________________________________

2. Read the following text and sum it up in the following way:The message is_________________________________________The main points are_____________________________________The conclusion to be made is______________________________

WHAT WILL IT BE LIKE TO START YOUR OWN BUSINESS?Most probably the answer is much worse than

you can imagine. There are a few people who start out and find the whole operation flows smoothly from the beginning; there are others who pretend everything is going well, while the reality is quite different; and there are others who openly admit how hard it is. One of the most dispiriting aspects is that while you may expect hard work for one or two years, it could continue for

Statistics about the proportion of businesses which succeed and which fail are hard to come by for the UK. The best estimate is that a third of new businesses are no longer in business at the end of the third year. However research shows that taking advice or going on a training course can double the success rate. Business in the Community, the umbrella organization for enterprise agencies, has found that with training or advice, the failure


several. rate drops to one in six.A higher proportion should survive of those who

raise venture capital, which is money provided by investors for new or developing businesses. This is for two reasons First, it is possible that venture capitalists can pick winners (and what they look for is strong management and a good market). Second, these

businesses are properly funded and are less likely to run short of cash. Statistics from the British Venture Capital Association (the trade association for venture capital businesses) show that the failure rate among those backed by their members is around one in five.

If you manage to survive, life will not always be easy. Your business life may follow this pattern:● money: your income can prove to be a problem,

● working hours: you may find that you work all the hours possible,

● risks: you stand the best chance of success if you are prepared to take calculated risks,

● stress: you need to be able to cope with it,● type of work: you need to be a jack of all trades,● independence: you have it only if you never borrow or

raise money,● achievement: you must be able to accept failures and

draw all the possible lessons from them,● power: managing people properly is more important

than power,● personal relations: if you do not like people, do not

employ them.(from Sara Williams ‘Small Business Guide’, p.p.5-7)

3. Go through the text one more time and write out all the word combinations and words to do with the message of the text. Give their Russian equivalents. Discuss the text, making good use of vocabulary.

4. Listen to an interview with a sole trader Sylvia Sonders and complete its outline below. Compare your outline with your partner’s and improve it. Write a short text, using the outline, you’ve accomplished.

Outline of important points:1) make sure you______________________2) research the_______, gather__________

- ___________________________________- ___________________________________

3) plan- ____________________________________- ____________________________________

4) hire________________- ____________________________- ____________________________

5)get more________________ -______________________ - ______________________

5. Study the organization chart and answer the questions below:


Romford Engineering is a public limited company and its shares are quoted on the London Stock Exchange. The chart shows the lines of communication and command between the company’s senior officials. 1/ From whom do the Departmental Heads: the Marketing Director, the Production Manager, the Personnel Manager and the Financial Director take their orders? 2/ From whom do the Line Managers take orders?3/ How many executive directors are there in Romford Engineering?4/ How many immediate subordinates do each of the Departmental Heads have? 5/ If there was a dispute between one of the line managers and the Chief Engineer how would you expect it to be settled? 6/ If the Managing Director and the Production Manager had a meeting, what do you think they might discuss? 7/ In what circumstances do you think the Marketing Director and the Production Manager might have conflicting interests?

(from ‘English for Business’ by J. Chilver)

6.Video: A portrait of a company.1/ UPS ( New International Business English. Sequence 3).2/ Wedgwood3/ Apricot Computers

Watch a video and collect the information to indicate:Name of the CompanyHeadquartersCompany structureKey ServiceCustomer ProfileCompany HistoryPeople PoliciesThe Future

7. Prepare an oral report on1/ UPS 2/ Wedgwood 3/ Apricot Computers

according to the plan above.

8. Read the following text and pick up the information to explain the main distinctive features of a multinational company.

A multinational is a business which has operating units in more than one country. Although multinationals have existed since before the turn of the century, their development has expanded greatly since the end of the Second World War. The trend towards expansion on an international scale started with American business but in the last 20 years more multinationals have had non-American bases. Some multinational companies are medium-sized businesses with operations in a few countries and others are very large multibillion organizations which operate all over the world.

A multinational company aims to produce on a global scale with plants in many countries. Often each plant specializes in part of the firm’s product range or in specific components for the product range. The company then aims to sell its products in the countries in which it operates, giving it a much larger market for its products. The Ford Motor Company is an example of an American company which has plants in many countries. Many Ford cars have components assembled from Ford factories all over the world.. The same is

true of the General Motor Corporation, which operates in Britain under the name of Vauxhall Motors. Many British businesses are multinational companies, e.g. British Petroleum and ICI.

The existence of multinational companies means it is often difficult to determine the nationality of a product. Many ‘British’ products contain components which are manufactured overseas, and many ‘foreign’ products contain British parts.

Multinational companies often prove difficult to control and manage as they are so diverse and, by definition, decentralized. There is also the problem of decisions affecting important economic institutions in one country being taken by managers in another country, e.g. the decision by Chrysler, based in America, to close its UK car plant in Coventry in the 1970s. Notwithstanding these problems, businesses are becoming increasingly concerned with producing for the world rather than a national market. Therefore multinational companies are a very important form of economic organization.

(from ‘Business Studies Today’ by john Ryan and John Richards)

A Line Manager

Board of Directors

Chairperson and Managing Director

Marketing Director Personnel Manager Financial DirectorProduction Manager

Market Research Manager

Overseas Sales Manager

Training Officer

UK Sales Manager

Recruitment Officer

Welfare Officer

B Line Manager

C Line Manager

Chief Engineer

Budget Officer

Wages Officer

Computer Manager

Cost Accountant

Chief Accountant


9.Read the following text, pick up the main points and prepare a short talk on “The Business Plan”:

Life can be very chaotic when you are starting or running a small business. The telephone calls to make, the letters to write, the decisions to take – all the day-to-day emergencies can push aside the sort of long-term strategic planning which is essential to keep your enterprise on the right track. Do not let short-term problems divert you from your longer-term objectives.

Writing a business plan is merely encapsulating your longer-term objectives, estimates and forecasts on paper.The two most important reasons for producing a written plan are to show to outsiders to help raise money to use

within the business, to keep yourself on your planned course.What should be in the plan?

1) Summary of your plan, highlighting the attractions of your business (1-2 pages):- what is the business?- what is the market?- potential for business- forecast profit figures- how much money is needed?- prospects for the investor/lender

2) The past (1 page+ Appendix):- when business started- brief summary of past performance (put accounts for last 3 years in an Appendix)- indication of how relevant or not past performance is to future progress

3) Management (this is a crucial section) (as many pages as needed)- your past employment and business record – identify achievements, not just a chronological statement- the record of other people working with you- if there are obvious weaknesses in your management, how you propose to deal with them

4) The product or service (2 pages + Appendix)- a simple description of what it does (avoid technical words). If essential, technical descriptions can go in an

Appendix- why the product is unique or distinct- brief survey of competition- how the products will be developed, what new products are being considered, when replacement will be needed

for existing product range, what competitive products may emerge- any patents applied for

5) Marketing (also crucial) (3 or 4 pages) (detailed market statistics in Appendix)The market:

- its size, its past and future growth- analysis of market into sectors; identification of sector your business is aimed at- likely customers: who they are, type (i.e. industrial or consumer), size, how they buy- your competitors: who they are, their size, their position in market, likely response to your challenge

Selling:- promotion, advertising (if any)- who will sell- some idea of your sales pitch (for example, the benefits of your product)- how you will price

6) Operational Details (length depends on nature of business)- where you will be based – location, premises - suppliers- manufacturing facilities- equipment needed

7) Financial Analysis (2 or 3 pages + figures in Appendix)- summary of the forecasts- monthly profit and loss forecast for two years- profit forecast for further 3 years (optional)- monthly cash flow forecast for two years- cash flow forecast for further 3 years (optional)- forecast balance sheet for two years- audited accounts for last 3 years (if available)- the assumptions behind your forecasts- what are the principal risks which could affect figures?

8) The Prospects (1 or 2 pages)- your objectives – short-term, long-term


- the finance needed and what it is needed for- shareholding suggested (if appropriate)- prospects for the investor or lender (if appropriate, including possible value of business if floated on the

stockmarket, so investors will be able to cash in their investment)(from ‘Small Business Guide’ by Sara Williams, pp 66-71)

10. Work in pairs. Discuss the essentials of a business plan in the form of dialogues in different social contexts

IV. SUMMING IT ALL UP:

Revise all you have learned in this section and 1. make sure you can give a brief account of:

1. Types of Companies2. Relationship between companies3. The essentials to know about small business4. Company structure5. The functions of company divisions6. The functions of the Board of Directors7. The constituents of success in successful companies8. The difficulties, businesses encounter with while developing9. The peculiarities of multinational companies10. The requirements to the business plan

2. Get prepared to discuss the points in the list above in class

3. Write an essay on one of the points in the list above at your choice

4. Choose a topic for a ‘Debating Club’ session. Split the group into two parties. Within your group discuss and work out your joint position on the issue in question. Decide who will make a statement on behalf of your group and whose job will be to support the main speaker, defend the position by contributing argumentation, asking the opponents ‘nasty’ questions, etc. Exchange the statements. Debate the issue. Vote.

5. Prepare an oral report on the topic: ‘Business Organizations’.

V. LANGUAGE PRACTICE:

1. Complete the following sentences with appropriate words from the box:

a private limited companya sole proprietorshipfranchiseshas runa holding company

job lossesbuyoutbranches and subsidiariestakeoverexpanded into

companyhave been hitwas privatizedcooperativebranches

1.The same family______ this successful whisky distillery for most of this century.2.Texaco ________ oil production in the early part of this century.3.The _______ diversified in the 1960s and started producing good products as well as tobacco.4.British European Airways __________ in 1987.5.Businesses in the private sector _______ with job losses.6.Thousands of _________ are expected in the public sector.7.Many of the shops in the main street are run by as _______.


8.The largest __________ in the country was set up in 1989 to enable its members to buy paper in large quantities at low prices. 9. Being the owner of _________ leaves you with little free time.10.The bank was originally set up as _________________over a hundred years ago, but is now a public limited company. 11.As a result of a management___________ the footwear manufacturing business was rescued.12.Nestle Corporation, with its many _________________, is one of the world’s largest food manufacturers.13.Philip Morris is _____________ which owns several major American companies in the tobacco and food industries.14.The largest bank in the country plans to close twenty of its __________.15.As a result of the friendly _______________ of Western Foods Ltd, we can report a substantial increase in earnings.

2. Translate the following sentences into Russian: 1. The factory has been bought by a local packaging business. 2. Starting up an enterprise of that type requires huge investment in plant and machinery.3. Her grandfather established a small business at the end of the war. 4. French hypermarket companies have stepped up their operations in the Spanish retail sector.5. In Europe, the manufacturing sector has been shrinking steadily, while the number of service sector jobs has

increased.6. She works as an Executive Director of one of the biggest listed companies in the US.7. The groups share fell by 11 per cent because of a fall in the domestic market.8. Talks of a merger between Daimler and Chrysler caused speculation about job security.9. Japanese and US firms in the textile industry continue to enter into joint ventures in China. 10.Making an acquisition

in the software industry will greatly improve the company’s future.

3.Translate from English into Russian

Many businesses are owned and controlled by a single person (called a sole trader). There would not be much capital required and he would no doubt be given credit by his suppliers. This would give him the opportunity to sell goods to his customers before having to pay fro them. He would no doubt turn to his bankers for temporary loans if, and when, these were required. If he wanted to increase the size of his business he would either turn to the bank for longer- term support or ‘plough back’ some of his profits. The attraction for the sole trader is that he has maximum control over the business, making decisions without reference to others.

Other businesses are organized in the form of a partnership. Each partner provides a part of the capital, and the profits and losses are shared on an agreed basis. The amount of capital which can be raised is restricted by the personal wealth of the partners and is likely to be inadequate for the modern large-scale enterprise. Partnerships tend to remain relatively small, predominating in retailing and the professions. Solicitors’ practices are often in the form of partnerships, one of the partners concentrating on conveyancing (property sales), another on litigation

(lawsuits), while a third deals with probate (wills and trusts)

The problem with partnerships is that all partners are liable for the debts of the firm, irrespective of the amount of capital they invested. So it would be possible for an extremely rich person to have a small stake in the enterprise, but to lose all his personal assets if the business fails.

A business which is drilling for oil or producing motor cars will obviously need extensive funding and they will be able to obtain money more easily from the public if they are in the form of a limited company. This is because if the company becomes insolvent the shareholders only stand to lose their original stake, the price they paid for their shares.

An enterprise requiring large amounts of capital would probably have its shares quoted on the stock exchange and this would give its shareholders the opportunity to dispose of their shares more easily, if they so wished. Different classes of shares may be issued but, in general, the ordinary shareholders have voting rights which give them power to elect the board of directors who will organize and control the company’ activities.

4. Give the words corresponding to the following definitions:1. to begin to produce a wider range of goods or services –2. to grow and develop in a particular area-3. to focus on or to give more resources to smth-4. to sell a state-owned company into private ownership-5. to expand into a new area of business-6. to sell a privately owned company into state ownership-7. a type of business organization owned and run by one person-8. a company which has shareholder, but can not offer its shares to the public-9. a company whose shares can be bought and sold on the stock exchange-10. a firm run by two or more partners-


5. A/ Translate the following sentences from Russian into English in writing1. Основными причинами банкротств являются плохое управление, нехватка опыта и квалификации, отсутствие

источника дополнительных средств.2. Существуют 3 основные формы бизнеса – единоличная собственность, партнерство и корпорация.3. Корпорации, составляющие всего лишь менее 1.5 от общей численности всех существующих предприятий,

получают почти 9.10 всех доходов.4. Совет директоров утверждает устав корпорации, назначает президента и управляющих.5. Кооператив – это предприятие, которым владеют и которое контролируют его члены, обычно потребители

или поставщики, но иногда и сами рабочие.6. По сравнению с корпорацией кооператив имеет налоговые преимущества и меньшее вмешательство в свои

дела со стороны правительства.7. Корпорация одна из трех основных организационных форм бизнеса, при которой предприятие или фирма

существует как независимый юридический субъект и собственность которой разделена на паи.8. Если при образовании корпорации, используется капитал учредителей, то акции распределяются в

соответствии с долей внесенного капитала.9. Как правило, фрэнчайзером является корпорация, а фрэгнчайзи – единоличный собственник или

товарищество. Фрэнчайз – чрезвычайно привлекательная форма организации и ведения дел для мелкого бизнеса.

10. Совместное предприятие могут образовывать как товарищества иди единоличные собственники, так и корпорации, которым не хватает собственных средств для осуществления какого-либо проекта.

B/ Study the table. Translate the whole of it into English.Единоличная собственность

Партнерство Корпорация

Уровень сложности Простота образования и ликвидации

Почти так же проста, как и единоличная собственность, но рекомендуется подписание договора при создании

Требует специального правительственного разрешения, большой бумажной волокиты и является объектом регулирования

Возможности привлечения капитала

Источники капитала ограничены собственными сбережениями и займами

Увеличение капитала через объединение сбережений партнеров

Способна привлекать большие суммы через инвесторов, количество которых может быть неограничено

Ответственность Собственник отвечает за все текущие операции

Каждый партнер отвечает за все текущие операции. При ограниченном партнерстве только основные партнеры ответственны за все операции

Ответственность собственников ограничена суммой, уплаченной за акцию

Контроль Собственник имеет полный контроль за всей деятельностью

Разногласия по поводу контроля создают сложности. Необходимо оговаривать в договоре сферы контроля

Учредители могут сохранить контроль, оставив у себя контрольный пакет акций. Менеджеры корпорации при слишком широком распылении собственности могут получить неприятные предложения о скупке акций и проблемы, связанные с выяснением полномочий при голосовании

Продолжительность существования

Прекращает свое существование со смертью собственника

Обычно прекращает существование со смертью одного из партнеров, но крупные партнерства могут существовать и далее

В принципе, существование корпорации может когда-то прекратиться

Налогообложение Доходы предприятия облагаются по тем же ставкам, что и доходы отдельных граждан. Не является субъектом налогообложения на корпоративные доходы

Доход облагается налогом в пропорции к доходу каждого из партнеров. Иногда имеет даже некоторые налоговые преимущества. Не является субъектом налогообложения корпоративных доходов

Является субъектом двойного налогообложения за исключением корпораций категории S, которые могут выбирать налогообложение по типу партнерства или единоличной собственности

RECOMMENDED ADDITIONAL TASKS AND EXERCISESfrom English for Business Studies by Ian MacKenzie:

1b, p. 27;1c. p. 18-20;1e, 1f, p. 20;2a,b,c, p. 21-22.

Section 2: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

PRESENTATIONS

I. READING & DISCUSSING

1. Read the following lecture, devoted to the ‘SKILL OF PRESENTATION’ and answer the questions below. Write 12 Wh-questions and working in pairs discuss the main points. Choose one of the two topics for a composition below and write a 200-words composition. Choose one of the themes of the lecture for an oral production of your own. Finally write a summary of the lecture (300 words)

Public speakers throughout history have been aware of the importance of dynamic and emotional public delivery. Prophets, poets, philosophers and storytellers have practiced through the ages to capture the minds and imaginations of their audiences.

As a modern student of business communication, you must develop your skills of presentation to make it effective. Even the most powerful speech can be ruined by a poor delivery, while a mediocre speech can be improved if delivered in a dynamic way.

Those who have confronted the challenging task of making presentations will agree that a lot of work should be carried out in order to prepare a serious and effective presentation. One of the first steps consists in gathering necessary materials to build a speech.

It is usually to your advantage to select from a wide variety of sources. The type and number of sources you use will depend on the specific purpose of your speech.

When presenting an informative speech on a controversial issue, you should always secure information on at least two opposing views. If you are presenting a speech on, for example, "rising gasoline costs" you might find that the explanation of the shortage and consequent increase in prices presented in an oil company publication would be quite different from the facts and arguments published in a consumers' pamphlet.

Of course when presenting a persuasive speech, you may include only those sources, which support your particular point of view. But even then it is important to be aware of the opposition.

Whether you conduct an interview to collect your material, read a magazine article or reports it is essential to take notes. Your notes should include summaries of information and direct quotations especially if you plan to use them in your talk.

MATERIAL GATHERINGWhat are the sources which can provide the

material? The most basic and obvious source at your disposal is yourself. Whether you realize it or not you represent a storehouse of knowledge, experience and

observation. Do not hesitate to use information you posses and share it with the audience.

One can not deny that very often the best source of material for a particular subject is another person or a group of people. In that case you may want to gather your material by conducting a personal interview. It is conducted on a one-to-one basis with a person who has information or knowledge about the topic of the speech.

Sometimes you may need to conduct a survey rather than a personal interview. A survey is a detailed gathering of information by questionnaire, observation and so forth. A survey enables you to gain a cross- section of information and opinions. Of course both sources are most useful when used informally, their validity depends on the standardization of questions and the selection of participants.

Of course the primary source of information for a presentation is printed material. Such material includes books, magazines, journals, newspapers, diaries, encyclopedias and so on. There are so many types of different printed material that it is essential to understand where to look for this or that information..

Nowadays one of the most powerful means of information gathering is of course electronic media. Effectiveness of computer application for gathering material is hard to overestimate. Of course it requires knowledge and skills to be able to search for and find the information you need. Internet offers limitless possibilities since data on practically any field of human activity can be located through the World Net. When all the necessary material is collected it is time to plan your presentation.

PLANNINGIt should be emphasized that planning is a key

factor for a successful presentation. If you want your presentation to be a success you should plan it carefully. It is essential that you know precisely what you are going to say, what results you are going to achieve and what results you are expecting. When planning the presentation you must be well aware of the reasons for making this presentation.


We may enumerate the following reasons: to inform the audience, to pursue, to sell goods or services, to entertain etc.

Of course having a clear idea of the people in the audience is of paramount importance. Their knowledge of the subject, status, age, business culture, specific interests - all this information is relevant for your success.

The duration of the talk should be planned beforehand. Remember that presentations made in the form of a short, condensed talks are highly valued in the business world.

How to prepare the material? Experts in business communication recommend to write it in note form first with the brief outline of the subject matter as a core. Then write the text in full, time it to fit the available time. Practice it with the help of audio- and video – taped recordings to control the manner of speaking and body language. Then reduce the script to notes of the most important points and use the notes (numbered cards are extremely useful) when speaking in front of the audience. Remember that good planning is a key factor for a successful presentation.

DELIVERYIt is important to bear in mind that the success

of delivery goes far beyond maintaining audience interest. Research in the sphere of business communication has shown that the way you present your material affects credibility, message comprehension and persuasiveness.

A speaker's credibility can be established or destroyed during the presentation of a speech. The audience's perception of a speaker as trustworthy and sincere is greatly influenced by delivery. These audience perceptions are changed by non-verbal cues such as the speaker's appearance, facial expression, posture, and gestures.

What is essential to remember and what rules should be followed in order to make your public speech a success. The following suggestions should help both to improve your confidence and to control speech tension.

Rehearsing a speech helps to build both speaker confidence and self-concept. If you are not prepared, you will have reason to feel tense. It is a good idea to practice by yourself and then if possible ask someone to listen to you. Practicing alone and with others should help you to learn how both you and audiences will respond. An audience of friends can also give you suggestions for improvement.

2. Use Physical ActivityPhysical involvement in your speech helps use

excess energy. If you are nervous (and it is only natural) it can manifest itself in trembling hands, knees and voice. Using gestures and body movements helps use energy, properly, emphasise main points and maintain audience attention. Like speeches, gestures and movements should be practised and experimented with before the final presentation.

3. Do Not Memorise and Organise WellWhen we try to memorise we put ourselves at a

disadvantage. Speakers begin to worry about forgetting something - and usually do. If a speaker does forget, there are usually uncomfortable silences and abbreviated presentations. With proper preparation time, using a note card with a brief outline, should be all that is necessary for prompting. Clear organisation enables speakers to speak extemporaneously. It is much easier to remember points if they follow in a logical progression, so try to put them in sequences to build your confidence.

4. Get Involved with Your TopicConfidence increases when speakers are

interested and involved with topics. Topics should be so important and interesting to the speaker that he or she wants to get the ideas across. Involvement in the topic helps focus attention on what is being said rather than on who is saying it, which decreases nervousness.

5. Develop a Proper AttitudeProper attitudes go along with topic

involvement. Speakers have a responsibility to be sincerely interested in what they have to say. Speakers must also remind themselves that their physical responses are normal reactions. The audience is an important factor to consider. Audiences usually want speakers to succeed especially in classroom situations. The classroom audience is generally the most sympathetic audience speakers will ever encounter.

In order to Make a Successful Presentation, a speaker should practice certain principles of Good Delivery.

1. Look natural.The first principle is to look natural. If you are

stiff or artificial, you will look uncomfortable and awkward. The audience may see this as a lack of confidence, which might greatly affect its perception. At the other extreme, if you seem theatrical or overly dramatic, you may be perceived as false and insincere. The good speaker strives for a natural, easygoing style of presentation.

2. Match Delivery and ContentThe delivery should be carefully coordinated

with the content of the speech. Body movement and

vocal expression should add to the presentation, not detract from it. Superficial gestures and inappropriate facial expressions can distract the audience's attention. Some personalities become associated with one particular gesture, but most speakers use a variety of gestures and vocal expressions. A sudden change in volume, a pause in delivery, or a firm shake of the head can all be effective in punctuating a particular idea or argument. However, the speaker must be sure that the various vocal expressions and body actions support the verbal message and do not contradict it.


3. Make It AppropriateAnother principle of good delivery concerns the

choice of an appropriate style of presentation. The delivery of a speech must be considered in relation to the audience, the situation and the speaker. The awareness of audience characteristics is also important in terms of delivery. For example, the tone of voice used when speaking to an audience of children is quite different from the tone of voice used when speaking to adults. Regardless of the age of the audience, the speaker should never talk down to them. Talking down is most often projected more by the delivery than by content. While you may speak differently to children than to adults, you must remember that no audience, regardless of age, wants to be patronised.

It is very important to make sure that the delivery is appropriate to the situation. To do this, you must first consider the occasion of the speech. If you are supposed to present your speech in a solemn manners, you should keep your volume low and the pace relatively slow. On the other hand, the situation may require that you should seem enthusiastic and in good spirits. Lightness of tone, variation in pace and free use of gestures, plus happy expression on your face, are appropriate here.

You should also consider the setting for the speech. Your delivery will be influenced by whether the setting is a small conference room or a large auditorium. Obviously, the volume of your voice must vary according to the size and the acoustics of the setting. Size, acoustics and seating arrangement also

influence the basic mood or tone of your delivery. A casual, understated and highly informal presentation may not come across well in a very large auditorium. On the other hand, a strict sense of formality can alienate the audience in a small and intimate setting. The effective speaker will choose the degree of formality according to the setting. A quiet, casual talk would be effective in a classroom where the audience is close enough to perceive subtle gestures and expression but the same kind of presentation would be inappropriate in a concert hall.

Delivery must be appropriate to the speaker's personal style or manner. The key here is to know your own personality and behave naturally. Regardless of the situation, when you are true to yourself you will project sincerity and honesty. Make sure that a delivery that is consistent with your own personality.

4. Establish Rapport If the speaker fails to develop and maintain a

positive relationship with the audience throughout the presentation, the purpose of the speech will he lost. Rapport is almost entirely the result of delivery. For example, eye contact with the audience increases credibility and makes the audience more trusting of the speaker. A warm, conversational manner can achieve the same effect.

Rapport is also important because a good speaker - audience relationship can overshadow weak spots in the message itself. Entertainers devote much energy and talent to projecting a feeling of identification with their audiences.

PHYSICAL DELIVERYThe term delivery covers many different

elements of a speaker's presentation besides those mentioned above. They may include physical and vocal aspects. The physical elements of delivery can be divided into various body movements, such as posture, gestures and facial expressions (including eye contact). Also included in the physical aspect of the presentation is the way a speaker uses accessories, such as note cards or a pointer.

Posture and Body Movements As a speaker, you must be aware of your body

as an important source of communication. In fact, the body is so expressive in communicating ideas and feelings that many of our verbal expressions are based on body movements. Our body movements, especially posture, are closely related to our physical and emotional states. On the physical level, posture can reveal whether a person is tired, energetic, or in pain. On an emotional level, posture can reveal whether a person is tense, relaxed, depressed, or excited. Posture also tells us something about a person's self-image.

An audience's perception of a speaker is influenced by body movement and posture. While there are few specific rules governing this aspect of delivery, there are some simple guidelines. In order to appear poised and confident, you should stand at ease. If you are too stiff, the audience may feel uncomfortable. At the other extreme, a very relaxed posture may be

perceived as too casual. A skillful speaker should appear confident but comfortable.

As a speaker, your movements, like your posture, should be natural not forced. Although you should stand relatively still and avoid pacing, natural movements can add to your delivery. A speaker who does not move from one space seems dull and restrained.

Gestures In addition to movements of the whole body,

you can use a variety of gestures. Gestures can convey many different meanings, depending upon the context. Some gestures convey meanings in and of themselves, while others are used as a part of the verbal message.

Traditional gestures are those movements of the hands and arms. They are emphatic in nature and tend to punctuate the verbal message. For example a speaker may wave an index finger to focus the audience's attention on a particular thought. Gestures can serve to underscore the speaker's message, but should be used sparingly so that they don't lose their effectiveness.

Gestures can be descriptive in nature and work to enhance the verbal message. Descriptive gestures are particularly effective when you ask the audience to visualise what you are saying. A simple gesture to illustrate size, quantity, shape, or distance can lend support to the speaker's description. All gestures -


traditional, emphatic and descriptive - must be used purposefully if they are to add to your delivery.

Facial ExpressionsIn public speaking, as in other interpersonal

exchanges, facial expressions are important to communication. A look of disappointment, a smile of delight or a frown of disapproval can all be more powerful than a spoken message. In fact, it has been found that facial expressions have greater impact than verbal messages when the two are inconsistent.

Facial expressions are important in establishing rapport with the audience. But the skillful speaker will not use them to manipulate the audience. An audience can usually sense when a smile is phony. Once again, as with all body movements, facial expressions should be natural extensions of the verbal message. If you are genuine about the content of your speech, then your facial expressions will be consistent with your words.

Eye Contact Of all the different parts of the face, the eyes

are the most important in establishing the speaker-audience relationship. Good eye contact helps to establish rapport and speaker credibility. A speaker who looks at the audience appears more straightforward and honest than one who does not. It is a fact that eye contact produces the greatest effects on the audience and makes the speech much more powerful.

Although eye contact is important in delivery, it is impossible to look at the entire audience at one time. The effective speaker scans the audience and looks directly at individual members seated in various locations. An empty stare or unfocused, wandering eyes do not add to your delivery. To increase the effectiveness of eye contact, you should try to make all the members the audience feel as if you are talking to them individually.

The Lectern and Note Cards When speaking to an audience, it is usually

more comfortable to stand behind a lectern. The key word here is stand, not hide. Since body movement is essential aspect of delivery, you must be clearly visible to the audience. A speaker can either move away from the lectern to develop rapport with the audience or remain behind it to preserve formality.

A lectern provides a space for your notes or outline. Of course, the use of written materials depends on the type of delivery. An impromptu speech, which by definition is without preparation, would not involve the use of notes. However, a speech, which is carefully prepared but not memorised, might require notes or an outline, especially if the speech is long or complicated. Of course, when a speech is to be read the whole text must be available to the speaker.

When using note cards, you must be sure that they are written carefully; also, the number of cards should be limited to as few as possible. You should also be careful not to rustle cards or papers, especially when using a microphone.

VOCAL DELIVERY The second major element of a speaker's

presentation is the voice. Vocal delivery involves the mechanics of vocalization, vocal characteristics (including pitch, volume, rate and quality) and pronunciation. Inexperienced speakers often pay little attention to their vocal delivery, incorrectly believing that the voice cannot he altered in any way. This judgement is erroneous, since much can be done to improve vocal delivery. For this mechanics of vocalization should be studied and practice is necessary.

Articulation It should be emphasised that faulty articulation

is particularly bad for the public speaker, since an audience is easily distracted by poor speech. Mumbling and speaking carelessly affect the audience's perception of you. A speaker whose articulation is clear and distinct makes a more favourable impression than someone whose speech is sloppy.

Pronunciation Pronunciation can be important to the

improvement of both speech and voice. Standards of pronunciation are often determined by geographical area or imposed by occasion or education. Certain situations, such as job interviews or press conferences, require careful pronunciation. Any person speaking before a group should pay special attention to pronunciation. If a speaker makes an error, the

audience's attention may be temporarily distracted. Poor pronunciation can create a bad impression.

Education affects pronunciation in the sense that exposure to language through reading, speaking and listening results in increased vocabulary and knowledge of the way different words are pronounced.

The truth about pronunciation, whether we like to admit it or not - and most of us don't - is that the correct pronunciation of a word is the way in which it is generally pronounced, and there are a great many words that are pronounced in more ways than one.

Pronunciation and articulation have always, been concerns of the public speaker. Since we all rely on voice and speech for much of our communication, we should strive to improve our vocal delivery.

RateRate of speech is another important

characteristic of effective presentation. If talk too quickly the audience may not be able to keep pace. At the other extreme, if your speaking rate is too slow, the audience may lose interest. An effective speaker will vary the rate of speech, pausing and slowing down to give emphasis to some material and speed up at other points. Results of the study indicate that the speaker with a moderate rate was judged more competent and socially attractive.

Characteristics of styleIn simple terms, style is the way an individual

speaker gives ideas meaning through his or her particular brand of verbal expression and delivery.


Style deals with both the wording and the delivery of the message. It includes the speaker's choice of words, the use of language, sentence structure and the characteristics of delivery. Since style is made up of so many variables, each speaker's style is somewhat different.

Our primary concern here is with the element of style that applies to a speaker's physical and vocal delivery. Of course, while every speaker develops a personal style, you should be able to adapt your style to fit the audience, occasion, topic and purpose of your speech. Basically, your style may be formal or informal, with varying degrees in between.

The characteristics of formal style include serious and impersonal tone, correct use of grammar, sophisticated stylistic devices and avoidance of slang. The physical and vocal delivery should be dignified and serious. A serious tone is projected by the manner in which you present yourself and your message. To emphasise the importance of the message, you should keep an impersonal tone by avoiding the use of personal pronouns. An informal style is characterised by a light and personal tone, use of fairly simple sentence structure and vocabulary. An informal style allows the speaker to add warmth to the presentation with informal language and humour.

Very few speaking situations are either strictly formal or strictly informal. Since most fall within the two extremes, you will have to adapt your style accordingly and evaluate each speaking situation individually to determine the right delivery.

Although each speaker is different, there are certain desirable characteristics that help to make any speaker's style effective. The first of these is accuracy, which requires a precise use of words. You may know what you want to say but have trouble getting the idea across to the audience. As a speaker, you must choose the words that most accurately convey your message. Avoid words that are too abstract or general, as well as words that are open to many different interpretations. Words such as ‘good’, ‘bad’ and ‘nice’ are really ambiguous and add little to a presentation.

Closely related to accuracy is clarity. The main consideration here is audience comprehension. A complicated description of a medical procedure that is perfectly clear to a surgeon may be totally confusing to an audience of laymen. Therefore, you must adapt your language and style to fit the needs of the audience.

Appropriateness is another characteristic of style. As mentioned previously, a speaker's style should fit the occasion, the audience, and the type and purpose of the speech. Each presentation should reflect consideration of all of these factors.

Another characteristic of effective style is economy, or the greatest efficiency of language. If you use the right words in the most efficient way, your message will be more meaningful. There is no need to use many words when a few will do. If you are concise, accuracy and clarity will be achieved as well. However, conciseness should not undermine comprehension, which sometimes makes it necessary to repeat ideas.

Questions:1. How is the material for a presentation usually selected?2. What should you know before making a presentation?3. What rules should be followed to make your presentation a success?4. What are the principles of good delivery?5. What physical aspects of a presentation are important for a speaker to consider?6. What are the vocal aspects of a presentation?7. What are various styles of a presentation?8. What characteristics can make your style effective?9. How can communication apprehensiveness be used to enhance your delivery of a message?10. What are the basic factors to consider in the presentation of a speech? Is there any

one factor more important than the others?

Topics for a composition: 1. What things make you "unique" as a speaker? (Consider style, vocal quality of delivery and so on).2. What methods can you use to improve your delivery?

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