Industrial Energy Management

‘Overview on Conventional and Unconventional Natural Gas’

Submitted to:

Advisor: Prof. Dr. Jürgen Joseph

Advisor: Dipl.-Ing. Sascha Meng

by:

Mahmoud Eid, 173663

Ahmed Hussein, 173666

19th December 2012

Hochschule Offenburg

Badstraße 24, 77652 Offenburg

Department: Mechanical- and Process-Engineering

Study program: Energy Conversion and Management

Study course: Industrial Energy Management

Page II of VI [Eid, Hussein]

Abstract

Natural gas is considered one of the vital primary used energy sources in our

daily-life activities. Being one of the cleanest and safest energy sources, makes it a

real principle component of the world’s energy supply. As a mixture of other

flammable gases (Methane, Ethane, Propane and Butane), it is a real prosperous

value for a wide range of various utilizations. Since the proven world’s natural gas

reserves have been estimated to exceed the oil reserves at the same equivalent

scale, more attention have been paid for both exploration and mining technologies in

Europe and worldwide. In this seminar paper, we are going to address both

conventional and unconventional techniques that are used for natural gas exploration

and mining concerning the possible future developments and forecasts in Germany,

Europe and worldwide.

Page III of VI [Eid, Hussein]

Declaration of Authorship

We declare in lieu of an oath that the seminar paper submitted has been produced

by us without illegal help from other persons. We state that all passages which have

been taken out of publications of all means or unpublished material either whole or in

part, in words or ideas, have been marked as quotations in the relevant passage. We

also confirm that the quotes included show the extent of the original quotes and are

marked as such. We know that a false declaration will have legal consequences.

Mahmoud Eid, Ahmed Hussein

Offenburg, Januar 9, 2013

Page IV of VI [Eid, Hussein]

Table of Contents

Abstract ................................................................................................. II

Declaration of Authorship ................................................................... III

Table of Contents ................................................................................ IV

List of Figures and Illustrations.......................................................... VI

List of Tables ....................................................................................... VI

List of Abbreviations ............................................................................ 1

1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 2

2 Overview of natural gas mining and the exploration of natural

gas in the world ..................................................................................... 3

3 Basics ............................................................................................... 9

3.1 What is Natural Gas? ............................................................................................... 9

3.2 Conventional Natural Gas ..................................................................................... 10

3.2.1 Exploration of Conventional Natural Gas ...................................................... 10

3.2.1.1 Geological Surveys ................................................................................... 11

3.2.1.2 Seismic Exploration .................................................................................. 12

3.2.1.3 Magnetometers ......................................................................................... 13

3.2.1.4 Gravimeters .............................................................................................. 13

3.2.1.5 Exploratory Wells ..................................................................................... 13

3.2.1.6 Logging ..................................................................................................... 13

3.2.1.7 Computer Assisted Exploration ................................................................ 15

3.2.2 Mining of Conventional Natural Gas ............................................................. 16

3.3 Unconventional Natural Gas ................................................................................. 17

Deep Natural Gas ........................................................................................... 17

Tight Natural Gas ........................................................................................... 17

Shale Natural Gas ........................................................................................... 17

Coalbed Methane ............................................................................................ 18

Geopressurized Zones .................................................................................... 18

3.3.1 Exploration of Unconventional Natural Gas .................................................. 19

3.3.1.1 Surface Geochemistry (SG) ...................................................................... 19

Page V of VI [Eid, Hussein]

3.3.1.2 Coal Microfracture Analysis .................................................................... 19

3.3.1.3 Vitrinite Reflectance ................................................................................. 20

3.3.2 Mining of Unconventional Natural Gas ......................................................... 20

3.3.2.1 Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking) ............................................................... 20

3.3.2.2 Electric Fracturing .................................................................................... 21

3.3.2.3 Horizontal Drilling ................................................................................... 21

3.3.2.4 Enhanced Coalbed Recovery (CB recovery) ............................................ 21

4 Financial Comparison ................................................................... 22

5 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 23

6 Bibliography ................................................................................... 24

Page VI of VI [Eid, Hussein]

List of Figures and Illustrations

Figure 1: World natural gas production in 2006 in m3 .......................................................... 3

Figure 2: World technically recoverable shale-gas resources ............................................... 4

Figure 3: World estimated natural gas resources in 2009 ..................................................... 5

Figure 4: Global Unconventional Natural Gas Technologies Market, 2009-2016................ 5

Figure 5: US gas production after employing unconventional gas extraction ...................... 7

Figure 6: Sources of gas production ...................................................................................... 7

Figure 7: Potential shale gas basins in Europe ...................................................................... 8

Figure 8: Seismic Sea survey............................................................................................... 12

Figure 9: A Well electric log data ....................................................................................... 14

Figure 10: CAE interface ..................................................................................................... 15

Figure 11: Hydraulic fracturing ........................................................................................... 20

Figure 12: Coalbed Recovery .............................................................................................. 21

List of Tables

Table 1: Natural gas mixture composition ............................................................................ 9

Table 2: Comparison between Conventional and Unconventional drilling ........................ 22

of XXIV [Eid, Hussein]

List of Abbreviations

Abbreviation Definition

bcfd Billion cubic feet per day

tdf Trillion cubic feet


1 Introduction

Considering the natural gas as an abundant energy source, an affordable

energy choice, a safe, reliable and the cleanest-burning hydrocarbon fuel, natural

gas is a foundational element in the future energy supply mix. Natural gas that is

produced from conventional (easy to produce) and unconventional (more difficult to

produce) resources is subjected to varying parameters like ease and cost of

extraction assuming an analogous exploration techniques.

Since the employment of the traditional (conventional) techniques of natural

gas extraction all over the world have been the same for decades, the

unconventional gas extraction techniques have been adopted to evolve mining in its

both conceptual and engineering senses.

Only 10 years ago, the unconventional gas was a nascent resource; now it’s a

core for a large business trends which involves it for wider commercial deployment

and more viable applications which are able to revolutionize he gas markets all over

the world


2 Overview of natural gas mining and the exploration of natural

gas in the world

According to the Energy Information Administration EIA, the Global Oil and Gas

Exploration and Production industry is expected to generate revenue of $4.37 trillion

in 2012. This is up from $3.03 trillion in 2007 with a yielding annualized growth of

7.5%.

i

The global market for unconventional natural gas extraction technologies was

valued at nearly $61.2 billion in 2010 and nearly $61.6 billion in 2011. The market

should reach $91.3 billion in 2016 after increasing at a five-year compound annual

growth rate (CAGR) of 8.2%.

Figure 1: World natural gas production in 2006 in m3


In the 1980s and 1990s, Mitchell Energy and Development Corporation has

announced the shale gas production by the hydraulic fracturing and the horizontal

drilling for the first time on a commercial level.

As the US is a leading world producer for shale gas by hydraulic fracturing, North

America (US and Canada) accounted for $54.8 billion in 2011 and is projected to

total $63.8 billion in 2016, a CAGR of 3.1%.

Asia/Australia was valued at $5.5 billion in 2011 and should reach nearly $19

billion in 2016 with a CAGR of 28.1% since China is already leading the whole world

in the shale gas resources.

ii

Figure 2: World technically recoverable shale-gas resources


iii

iv

Figure 4: Global Unconventional Natural Gas Technologies Market, 2009-2016

Figure 3: World estimated natural gas resources in 2009


Unconventional gas reservoirs are found worldwide, including onshore US,

Canada, Australia, Europe, Nigeria Russia, China, and India. Unconventional gas

production in the US reached a peak of 24 bcfd (8.6 tcf/year) in 2006, up from 14

bcfd (5.0 tcf/year) 10 years ago. With a 43 share, it is now the dominant source

natural gas production.

From an investment standpoint, conventional natural gas exploration holds more

risk. Gas reservoirs are typically smaller and/or more difficult to locate.

On the other hand, unconventional gas reservoirs can exist over a large area

penetrated by older conventional wells, reducing the exploration risk. Horizontal

drilling techniques may enhance and extend production of unconventional natural

gas.

Unconventional reservoirs exist in a self contained environment where the

productive formation may act as source, reservoir and seal. After test wells prove the

economic viability of a given area, unconventional resources can be developed on a

large scale.


As the graph below describes, the boom in the US shale gas production in the

middle of 2010 has given a new potential for North America to dominate the World

natural gas production by the least of next 100 years.

v

BP's report went on to explain why North America will be almost completely self-

sufficient when it comes to energy by 2030, saying North America's deficiency would

become a small surplus. In 2030, more than half of North America's natural gas

supply is projected to be from shale gas and coal bed methane.

vi

Figure 5: US gas production after employing unconventional gas extraction

Figure 6: Sources of gas production


In Germany, shale gas exploration projects exist within the states of North Rhine

Westphalia, Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia and Baden-Wuerttemberg. In

North Rhine Westphalia, one commercial project of ExxonMobil Production

Deutschland GmbH (“ExxonMobil” or “EPMG”) aiming at the exploration of shale gas

received an authorisation. Nine requests for granting an exploration authorisation are

pending. In Lower Saxony nine exploration authorisations were granted to EMPG.

Two exploration authorisations are granted in Baden-Wuerttemberg (Three Leg

Resources) and Thuringia (BNK Petroleum) respectively. Saxony-Anhalt issued one

exploration authorisation to BNK Petroleum. In Lower Saxony ExxonMobil has drilled

five shale gas exploration wells plus an additional one in North Rhine Westphalia,

which results are currently being examined by ExxonMobil’s experts. ExxonMobil

has committed itself not to conduct any further shale gas fracturing activities until it

receives a “go-ahead” from an installed independent expert group, expected for

2012. In the other Länder test drillings are currently at a planning stage.vii

viii

Figure 7: Potential shale gas basins in Europe


3 Basics

3.1 What is Natural Gas?

Natural gas is a fossil fuel. Like oil and coal, this means that it is, essentially,

the remains of plants and animals and microorganisms that lived millions and millions

of years ago.

Natural gas is a colorless, shapeless, and odorless flammable gas which

consists of a set of different gases in its pure form and mostly accompanied with oil

deposits. Unlike other fossil fuels, natural gas is clean-burning and emits lower levels

of potentially harmful byproducts into the air.

Table 1: Natural gas mixture composition

Gas type Symbol Percentage

Methane CH4 70-90%

Ethane C2H6

0-20% Propane C3H8

Butane C4H10

Carbon Dioxide CO2 0-8%

Oxygen O2 0-0.2%

Nitrogen N2 0-5%

Hydrogen sulphide H2S 0-5%

Rare gases A, He, Ne, Xe trace

The natural gas is said to be pure as the percentage of pure Methane within the

extracted gas is increasing. When the natural gas has the majority of Methane

content, it can be cosidered as ‘dry’, while on the other hand, when the other

hydrocarbons are contained, the natural gas is then considered to be ‘wet’.


3.2 Conventional Natural Gas

When using the term of conventional natural gas, we typically mean an easy

and economically feasible way to extract the gas trapped (free gas) in multiple,

relatively small, porous zones in various naturally occurring rock formations such

as carbonates, sandstones, and siltstones.

The word conventional in its applicable description will closely relate to how

momentarily a certain technology has been used once ago. For example, what is

considered nowadays as conventional (due to the advance in both geological and

technological exploration knowledge), has used to be unconventional 100 years

ago when exploration of natural gas has just begun.

3.2.1 Exploration of Conventional Natural Gas

A long time ago, the only way to discover an underground petroleum and natural

gas formations was to search for surface evidence. As exploration technologies

have extremely developed in the past 20 years due to the increase of the

demand for the fossil fuel energy, the practice of locating natural gas and

petroleum deposits has been dramatically transformed.

Advanced technology and knowledge have allowed both geologists and

geophysicists to test and understand the properties of the underground rock

structures with which they could later be able to make educated guesses as to

where natural gas formations could exist. With the fact that exploration of natural

gas is actually looking for something that lies often thousands feets below the

ground, so uncertainty and complexity are twinned to the whole process.


3.2.1.1 Geological Surveys

It is when the geologists start to examine the surface structure of the earth, and

determine where is it most likely for a natural gas deposit to be found. It has been

discovered in the 18th century, that the “anticlinal slopes” are perfect zone for

trapping natural gas formations.

These anticlinal slopes are the areas where the earth has folded up on itself

forming a dome shape void which denotes a probable existence for gas reservoirs.

With the aid of mapping and surveying, the geologists can extrapolate the location of

gas formations. Information can also be attained from the rock cuttings and

outcropping of rocks on the surface.

Once the area is specified, then comes the role of the geophysicist to map out the

underground rock formations for more detailed data.


3.2.1.2 Seismic Exploration

Seismic technology is considered one of the most tremendous breakthroughs in

the field of natural gas exploration. Seismology simply refers to the study of how

energy waves can penetrate the earth’s crust and interacts differently with various

kinds of layers. By sending out these waves and receiving them back in a form of

vibrations, the geophysicists will be able to diagnose the properties of the geology

beneath using some kind of analogy.

Seismetic technology could also be used for exploring offshore natural gas fields

and could be used in an intelligent and mobile modules. It could also deliver highly

defined 2D, 3D and 4D images.

ix

Figure 8: Seismic Sea survey


3.2.1.3 Magnetometers

By measuring the small differences in the Earth’s magnetic field, the

Magnetometers could also be used to measure the magnetic properties of the

underground formations which really helps for gathering data concerning the

composition of the Earth’s crust.

3.2.1.4 Gravimeters

Similar to the differences between the Earth’s magnetic fields, the gravitational

fields could also vary giving the geophysicists a better understanding for what’s in the

underground. All different underground formations and rock types have a slight

different effect on the gravitational field that surrounds the Earth. By measuring these

minute differences with very sensitive equipments, geophysicists are able to analyze

underground formations.

3.2.1.5 Exploratory Wells

The best way to stand on the fact whether a natural gas deposits are existing in a

certain given area is to dig an exploratory well. Being similar to a trial and error

approach, this operation is considered as money, effort and time consuming. On the

other hand, it is considered as the best way for the geologists to obtain solid and

reliable information about the nature of the Earth’s crust and the composition of the

underground rock layers. Also, it is a very good way for the geologists to examine the

drill cuttings and fluids to gain a better understanding of the geologic features of the

area.

3.2.1.6 Logging

Logging is simply when the drilling experts and engineers start to perform tests

during and after the drilling process. They simply monitor and log the process of the

well drilling to gain clearer picture of the rock formation and underground rock

structure. It is important also to know, that there are more than 100 different kinds of

logging.


These 100 types include standard, electric, acoustic, radioactivity, density,

induction, caliper, directional and nuclear logging. Two of the most prolific and often

performed tests are standard logging and electric logging.

3.2.1.6.1 Standard logging

Standard logging is when the geologists start to physically examin the core

samples taken from a drilled well by using powerfull microscopes. This allows the

geologists to examine the porosity and fluid content of the subsurface rock, and to

gain a better understanding of the earth in which the well is being drilled.

3.2.1.6.2 Electric logging

Electric logging is a technique that uses the difference in the rocks’ resistance

values to monitor the difference in the properties of the different rock types. The

process is performed by lowering down an electric device that emits an electric

current and receives a resistance logging profile on a recipient for the geologists to

interpret.

x

Figure 9: A Well electric log data


3.2.1.7 Computer Assisted Exploration

Computer assisted exploration is a technology that has taken place after the

evolution of the microprocessors and computer graphical simulation. It simply uses

the data logged by the different logging techniques and starts to develop a 3D and

4D images for the geologists to understand; visually, how the rock structures and

formations would visually look like.

xi

Figure 10: CAE interface


3.2.2 Mining of Conventional Natural Gas

Once a potential natural gas deposit has been located, the drilling team will

start drilling a well. As it sometimes could be that the amount of the explored gas

has been wrongfully estimated, advancements have proven some successfull

techniques to reduce the drilling cost and increase its efficiency. Generally, the

drilling operation is very time and money consuming, so it could be sometimes to

happen that the amount of gas explored is not worthy enough to be extracted.

Once the gas deposit has been reached, the temperature inside the well drops

down by either the temperature difference between the well and the surface or by

using a liquid nitrogen, then the natural gas turns into a liquid phased material

which can be easily pumped to the surface and stored.


3.3 Unconventional Natural Gas

Unconventional natural gas is a terminology that is used to describe the

natural gas deposits that are found in any other unfamiliar ways. Depth,

geological nature of the rocks, rock formations surrounding the gas deposits, the

amount and condition of gas are pretty defining whether it is a conventional or

unconventional gas finding. On an economic scale, what is easy to be extracted

can be considered as conventional, while on the other hand, what is not so easy

to be mined could be considered unconventional. Generally, there are six main

categories of unconventional natural gas which are:

Deep Natural Gas

Deep natural gas is actually that natural gas deposits that lie so deep that makes it

in contrary to the conventional ways of extraction. Normally, a conventional natural

gas deposit would lie only a few thousand feet deep under the ground, but when it

lies at a depth of 15,000 feet or more, so it is definitely an unconventional gas finding.

Tight Natural Gas

Clearly from its name, a tight natural gas is that the gas formation which lies in a

very tight underground formations and in unusual impermeable. Hardrocks,

limestones and sandstones are considered unconventional gas holders. Expensive

techniques like hydraulic fracturing and acidizing are used to release this type of

natural gas.

Shale Natural Gas

Shale deposits are formed around 350 million years ago. A shale is a very fine-

grained sedimentary rock which can be easily broken in to thin parallel layers. The

process of extracting natural gas out of shales is very expensive cause it usually

employs both horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing which is considered a very

complicated drilling technique.


Coalbed Methane

Coal is another type of fossil fuel which is being extracted since a long time ago.

Since the coal is usually found in seams that run in the underground, it is usually

surrounded by natural gas either within the seam itself or the surrounding rock.

Geopressurized Zones

Geopressurized zones are these voids which are naturally found in the

underground under unusual high pressure due to their depth. These voids are formed

from layers of clay which were rapidly pressurized on the top of a porous and

absorbent material like sand or slit which acts like a mesh that separates both water

and natural gas from the clay in voids or deposits. For this operation to be done

naturally, it requires a very high depth (usually 10,000-25,000 feet) below the

surface. The combination of all these factors (high pressure and depth) makes the

extraction from these zones a very comlicated process.

Methane Hydrates

Recently and due to the exploration activities in the Arctic, a new gas formations

have been found in a frozen water cages. These water cages contain Methane which

is usually found a real interesting pure concentrations.


3.3.1 Exploration of Unconventional Natural Gas

From the different categories mentioned above, we can conclude that the

difference between both conventional and unconventional natural gas is not the

content or the nature of the gas itself but it is all about the way the conditions of the

deposits were found and the geological surroundings containing these formations.

For example, a Seismic survey would be able to explore unconventional gas

formations only if they are contained in a recognizable amounts disregarding their

depth from the Earth’s surface (e.g. Geopressurized zones). While the Coalbed

methane could not be explored using the conventional exploration techniques,

however they could be nearer to the surface and in large amounts.

3.3.1.1 Surface Geochemistry (SG)

The surface geochemistry exploration technique simply presumes that a near-to-

surface gas formation will actively leak gas as an indicator for a subsurface gas

finding. It has been also used by some companies to explore Coalbed methane gas

formations.

3.3.1.2 Coal Microfracture Analysis

Since coal is an important source for natural gas, it is considered as a reservoir

rock. Because of its adsorption properties, a piece of coal may contain two to seven

times more gas per unit volume as a reservoir rock than a conventional gas reservoir.

In order to produce gas at economic rates, the coal should have more

cleats/fractures networks within its microscopic structure. By using computed

tomography (CT scan), quantitative images showing density and atomic number

variation can be developed, and from that, cleat development in coal can be easily

identified and hence the potential of natural gas contained.


3.3.1.3 Vitrinite Reflectance

Vitrinite is one of the main components of coal. Explorationists have employed the

technology of Vitrinite reflectance to understand the thermal maturity of the coal

sediments and hence the rank of the Coalbeds. By analyzing the thermal conditions

and geological history of a certain area, geologists can decide whether there are a

feasible amounts of natural gas that could be found this area or not.

3.3.2 Mining of Unconventional Natural Gas

Mining of unconventional natural gas will not differ that much from the mining

techniques used for conventional gas findings except for certain conditions when the

deposits are so deep or the gas found is scattered between the rock slits and cleats.

3.3.2.1 Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking)

Hydraulic fracturing is an artificial fracturing technique used to release the gas

trapped in the rocky or coal sediments by using highly pressurized fluids (mostly

water). Usually after finding a gas deposit in a shale and after drilling a well, water is

pumped at very high pressure that causes cracks and release the gas from the

source rocks to the reservoir rocks.

xii

Figure 11: Hydraulic fracturing


3.3.2.2 Electric Fracturing

Similar to the hydraulic fracturing, the electric fracturing is done using an electric

gun that is inserted down along with the well dug hole and operated to release strong

electric shocks that cause cracks and release the trapped gas.

3.3.2.3 Horizontal Drilling

Horizontal drilling is one of the several types of the directional drilling technique

which follows a horizontal path. After a successful shale gas exploration is done, a

curved drilling process will begin at very high depth to start the gas extraction.

3.3.2.4 Enhanced Coalbed Recovery (CB recovery)

It is a mining technique which depends on pumping water inside the Coalbeds to

displace the scattered gas found in the rocky slits to another pipe directed to a gas

storage.

xiii

Figure 12: Coalbed Recovery


4 Financial Comparison

The expenditure in the natural gas industry is mostly on the extraction processes

as an operational running costs. As most of the conventional natural gas formations

are easily reached by vertical drilling, so comared to the most exploited technique in

the unconventional natural gas extraction which is the horizontal drilling, it could be

considered as relatively lower in the cost. Here is a short comparison between the

vertical and horizontal drilling techniques used in conventional and unconventional

natural gas extraction respectively.

Table 2: Comparison between Conventional and Unconventional drilling

Conventional drilling Unconventional drilling

Well type Vertical Horizontal

Well pad footprint >1 acre to 3 acres 3 to 6 acres

Road construction

footprint

Similar to unconventional

drilling 5.7 acres

Water required 20,000 to 80,000 gallons 2 to 9 million gallons

Chemical required None Benzene, Xylene and Toluene

Time to drill well 1 month 3 months

Hydraulic fracturing

required Sometimes Always

Source rock Large pocket of resource;

easy to extract

Resource scattered throughout

rock, hard to extract

As we can see from the table above that the unconventional gas extractions are

far way harder than the conventional techniques, which on an operational costs level

will definitely cost more money.


5 Conclusion

Taking into account the global boom in the unconventional natural gas exploration

and production, countries like the US, China and Russia are expected to be world

leaders in natural gas market. As it has already proven its reliability and sustainability

as a promising technology, the oil and gas corporations as well as gas producing

countries will no doubt invest more money on inventing new exploration and mining

technologies as well as developing and improving the existing techniques.

Disadvantages will also arise in the horizon of using new unconventional gas

extraction techniques, as in the USA; specially in Pennsylvania and in the last 6

years, an enormous amounts of shale gas formations have been causing some

problems that have been also accompanied with the extraction of the natural gas

from shales by fracking which led to the contamination of tab water due to the

migration of natural gas from drilled gas wells in to fresh water wells and spreading

out the diseases.


6 Bibliography

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ii http://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/2012/12/06/u-s-leads-world-in-natural-gas-production-from-hydraulic-fracturing/, 17

December, 2012

iii http://www.energyrealities.org/content/non-classical-gas/erp75F6EE9A4E107B0E7, 17 December, 2012

iv http://www.bccresearch.com/report/unconventional-natural-gas-extraction-global-markets-egy087a.html, 11 December, 2012

v http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US-gas-production-1900-2011.svg, 17 December, 2012

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