The American Indian in the Philosophy of the English and French EnlightenmentAuthor(s): Paul HonigsheimReviewed work(s):Source: Osiris, Vol. 10 (1952), pp. 91-108Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/301809 .Accessed: 21/02/2012 14:44

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The American Indian in the Philosophy of the English and French Enlightenment

The " Noble Savage," a representative figure in English and French literature of the eighteenth century, was destined later to become the object of careful scientific investigation (i). How the " savage " fares at the hands of the English and French novelists is certainly worthy of serious investigation. The purpose of this paper, however, is to review the contributions of English and French empiricists and enlighteners-from BACON to CONDORCET-to our knowledge of American Indians. Charac- teristic of the thought within this group was the belief in : ) the non-existence of a providence, which exerts an influence upon man and the world: 2) man's ethical and intellectual capacities, and 3) the natural right of man.

The most important thinkers with whom we must deal are the following: i) Lord BACON, the statesman for Queen ELIZABETH and King JAMES as well as the admirer and exponent of experimental sciences; 2) HOBBES, a supporter of absolutism as developed from the theory of the original social contract; 3) LOCKE, a defender of the supposedly inalienable rights of the individual based upon the same theory but used differently than by HOBBES; 4) HUME, an epistemologist, who dealt with the basis, methods, limits and validity of knowledge; 5) MONTESQUIEU, an historically-minded, moderate critic of French and admirer of English state and social structure; 6) VOLTAIRE, a writer in many theoretical and practical fields, but primarily a struggler for what he considered " tolerance"

(I) Cf. CHAUNCEY BREWSTER TINKER, Nature's Simple Plan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1922); BENJAMIN HEZEKIAH BISSEL, The American Indian in English Literature of the I8th Century (New Haven : Yale University Press, 1925); HOXIE NEALE FAIRCHILD, The Noble Savage (New York: Columbia University Press, 1928); LOIS WHITNEY, Primitivism and the Idea of Progress (Baltimore: The John Hopkin's Press, I934).

in religious life; 7) ROUssEAU, the advocate of the return to nature and the social contract; 8) DIDEROT, the editor of the Encyclopedie, and his collaborators known as the Encyclopedists (treated here as a unit); 9) CONDORCET, follower of VOLTAIRE'S historico- philosophical ideas. Before dealing with the concepts concerning the American Indians themselves we must first investigate the sources used, the eras studied, and the points of view and ideas expresssed (2).

Variety of sources. Sources of at least seven types fall into consideration. These include the following: i) Biblical reports; 2) Greek and Roman writings; 3) Jesuit missionaries; 4) Non- Jesuit missionaries; 5) Non-theological travellers; 6) Reports

(2) The writers under consideration have published countless pamphlets, often anonymously and without indication of place and date of publication. Such original editions often exist in a few copies only in outstanding libraries of the Old World and are often not obtainable in this country. There are standard editions however. The citations in the following footnotes will refer to them; they will only indicate the name of the author, the special title of the particular publication of his under consideration, and the number of the volume and pages within the standard edition where the particular publication is printed. These standard publications in the alphabetic sequence of the names of the authors are as follows : FRANCIS BACON, The Works, collected and edited by J. SPEDDING, R. L. ELLIS and D. D. HEALTH (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, and Co., N.D.), Vol. I-XV; JEAN ANTOINE NICOLAS DE CONDORCET, (Euvres, publi6s par A. CON- DORCET O'CONNOR et M. E. ARRAGO (Paris: Firmin Didot Freres, 1847), Vol. I-XII; DENISE DIDEROT, (Euvres Completes, publies par J. ASSEZAT (Paris : Garnier Freres, 1875-1877), Vol. I-XX; THOMAS HOBBES, The English Works, collected and edited by S. W. MOLESWORTH (London : J. Bohn, I839-I845), Vol. I-VI; DAVID HUME, Philosophical Works (London: Little, Brown and Co., 1854), Vol. I-IV; JOHN LOCKE, The Works, A New Edition (London: T. Tegg, 1823), Vol. IX; CHARLES DE MONTESQUIEU, (Euvres Completes, publiCs par E. LABOULAYE (Paris: Garnier Freres, 1875-1879), Vol. I-VII; MONTESQUIEU, Collection Borde- laisienne des inedits de Montesquieu (Vol. I-VII Bordeau: G. Gounouilhou; Vol. VIII-IX Paris: Librairie Ancienne H. Champion, 1891-1914); JEAN JACQUES RoussEAu, (Euvres (Paris: Levevre, 1819-1820), Vol. I-XX; FRANCOIS MARIE AROUET DE VOLTAIRE, (Euvres Completes, nouvelle edition (Paris: Garnier Freres, 1877-I885), Vol. I-LII. The complete title of the Encyclopedie is as follows: Encyclopedie ou Dictionnaire raisonne des sciences, des arts et des metiers par une societe de gens de lettres (Paris: Briasson, 1752-1772), Vol. I-XXVIII and Supple- ment, Vol. I-VII, ibid., 1772-1780. The author has accepted some statements made by SACKMANN concerning VOLTAIRE and has cited these publications. The publications of BROCKDORF, CHURCH, FAGUET, FRASER, HENDEL, KNIGHT, LANSON, MAHRENHOLZ, ROBERTSON, ROBINET and STRAUSS are of importance for the under- standing of the philosophers under consideration but are secondary to our purposes here.

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written by indigenous peoples and 7) Natives exhibited in Europe.

Like Catholicism and Protestantism, the English enlightenment faced the problem of bringing the peoples of newly-discovered countries into relation with the Biblical concept of the world (3). It may be said, however, that this problem diminished in importance from the time of BACON to the period of the French enlighteners. In discussing a flood which was supposed to have separated the Old and New Worlds, BACON, for example, discussed the possibility that it was identical with the deluge described in the Old Testa- ment. Insofar as the latter is concerned, he accepted it as a reliable source. Somewhat later, LOCKE ridiculed FILMER, who attempted to derive the paternal and royal power from ADAM and NOAH, and who asserted that natives of the New World obey their fathers and kings, although they never heard about NOAH. As to the French enlighteners, they lived in a Catholic environ- ment in which the Bible never played a great role anyway. Accordingly, conflicts between the reports of travelers and the Bible were at most used to ridicule the latter. As to the classic Greek and Roman writings (4), the enlighteners had to deal with the identity between the " Atlantis" and the New World, or the identity between the " Amazones " and socially powerful women

(3) BACON, " Essays or Councels, Civil and Moral," Vol. XII, p. 274; LOCKE, "Of Civil Government," Vol. V, p. 317; HUME, "The Natural History of Religion," Vol. IV, p. 421; R. FILMER, Patriarca (London : R. Chiswell, 1680). See also PAUL SACKMANN, Voltaire's Geistesart und Gedankenwelt (Stuttgart: Frommann, 1910), pp. 200-203, 215-216. As to other attempts made in the Renaissance to bring newly-discovered countries in relation to the Biblical concept of the world, cf. ADOLF SCHILL, Gianfrancesco Pico della Mirandola und die Ent- deckung Amerikas (Berlin : Breslauer, 1929), pp. 19-24.

(4) BACON, "The New Organon," Vol. VIII, pp. 102-110, 154; IDEM, "Essays...," Vol. XII, pp. 203, 206; IDEM, "An Advertisement Touching an Holy War," Vol. XIII, p. 214; HOBBES, " Physical Rudiment Concerning Govern- ment," Vol. II, p. 116; HUME, "A Treatise of Human Nature," Vol. I, p. 274; IDEM, "An Inquiry Concerning the Principles of Morale," Vol. IV, p. 389; VOLTAIRE, " Essai sur les mceurs et l'esprit des nations," Vol. XI, pp. 24-25; DIDEROT, " Lettres sur les Atlantides," Vol. IX, p. 231; Encyclopedie..., Supplement, Vol. IX, p. 231. As to other attempts to bring newly discovered peoples in relation to the classical Greek and Roman concept of the world see EDUARD FUETER, Geschichte der neueren Historiographie (Miinchen: Oldenburg, 191I), pp. 291-294.

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in South America. Such equalizations were still accepted by some English but rejected by some French enlighteners. Since the middle of the seventeenth century, the Jesuits (5) were at the same time the most powerful and most widely hated group within Catholicism. Especially as opposed to the Dominicans, the Jesuits insisted upon the possibility of maintaining some non- Catholic customs after conversion to Catholicism. Such debates were widely read and cited. Even some enlighteners based their judgment on such reports. While the English enlighteners scarcely referred to non-Jesuit missionaries (6) as sources, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and the Encyclopedists cited many of them. BACON, VOLTAIRE, and LOCKE cited some written reports

(5) BACON, " The History of the Winds," Vol. IX, p. 339, 412; LOCKE, " An Essay Concerning Human Understanding," Vol. XII, pp. 203-206; MONTESQUIEU, " De l'esprit des lois," (Euvres Completes, Vol. III, p. 330, Vol. V, p. 62, 218; IDEM, "Voyage en Italy," Collection Bordelaisienne...; Vol. IV, p. 198; IDEM, " Pens6es et Fragments," ibid., Vol. V, pp. 128, 142, 148, 155-156, 178, Vol. VI, p. 500; VOLTAIRE, "L'Orphelin-," Vol. V, p. 296; IDEM, "Pr6cis du siecle de Louis XV," Vol. XV, p. 68; IDEM, " Fragments sur l'histoire generale," Vol. XXIX, p. 109, footnote I; ROUSSEAU, " Discours sur l'origine et les fondements de l'inegalite," Vol. IV, pp. 337, 358; DIDEROT, " Supplement au voyage de Bougain- ville," Vol. II, p. 2Io; IDEM, " Sur l'eloge de la ville de Mugden," Vol. VI, p. 397; Encyclopedie..., Vol. II, pp. 338-347, Vol. XVII, pp. 240-242 and Supplement, Vol. I, PP. 346, 349, 353. See also GILBERT CHINARD, L'Amerique et le reve exotique dans la littdrature franfaise au XVIIe et XVIIIe siecle (Paris: Hachette, 1913), p. 347, and FAIRCHILD, The Noble Savage, op. cit., p. 129. As to The Jesuitic missionary work, cf. JACQUES AUGUSTIN CRETINEAU-JOLY, Histoire religieuse, poli- tique et litteraire de la Compagnie de Jesus (Paris: Paul Mellier, 1845-I846), Vol. I, pp. 368-387, Vol. II, pp. 104-130, 363-404, Vol. III, pp. I41-273, Vol. V, pp. I-1 3; EBERHARD GOTHEIN, Ignatius von Loyola und die Gegenreformation (Halle: Nie- meier, 1895), pp. 615-659; and JEAN DELANGLEZ, Some Lassalle Journeys (Chicago: Institut of Jesuit History, i938) passim. As to the conflicts of Jesuits with other Catholic groups in general cf. IGNAZ DOLLINGER und FRANZ HEINRICH REUSCH, Geschichte der Moralstreitigkeiten in der rdmisch-katholischen Kirche (Nordlingen: C. H. Beck, I889-1890) passim; GERHARD SCHNEEMANN, Die Entstehung der thomistisch-molinistischen Controverse (Freiburg : Herder, 1879), pp. 104-113; IDEM, Weitere Entwickelung der thomistisch-molinistischen Controverse, ibid., passim; and FRANZ HEINRICH REUSCH, Der Index der verbotenen Biicher (Bonn: Cohen, 1883- 1885), Vol. II, pp. 280-319, 341-354, 382-394, 487-539, 804-827, 919-923. As to the struggles between Jesuits and other Catholic groups concerning the atti- tude in missionary work cf. IDEM, ibid., Vol. II, pp. 771-772.

(6) MONTESQUIEU, " De l'esprit des lois," (Euvres Completes, Vol. IV, pp. I79, 231; IDEM, "Correspondance," Collection Bordelaisienne..., Vol. VIII, p. 271; VOLTAIRE," Essai...," Vol. XII, p. 395; Encyclopedie..., Vol. I, p. 318, and Supple- ment, Vol. I, p. 352.

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of non-theological character (7) as reliable sources, while BACON and VOLTAIRE sometimes even used oral reports. All of our philosophers became increasingly critical, however, even of written reports. Reports written by indigenous natives (8), especially those of Garcilasso, the Hispano-Incayan, were quoted by BACON, HUME, MONTESQUIEU, and the Encyclopedists. Representatives of exotic peoples, exhibited in Europe (9), were described by VOLTAIRE, ROUSSEAU and DIDEROT.

Eras, peoples, and cultures (io). At least five were considered interesting subjects: Pre-historic Europe, but only by LOCKE, MONTESQUIEU, CONDORCET, and VOLTAIRE (the latter nevertheless maintained his doubts about the accuracy of the reconstruction of early European society); non-Christian Orientals; especially after Jesuit reports and old writings of these peoples became known; the present-time Christians who had maintained their own folk cultures; Jews, judged antagonistically by the enlighteners themselves; simple cultures in non-European countries of that day, among them the American Indians.

(7) BACON, "The History...," Vol. IX, p. 398; MONTESQUIEU, "Pensees...," Collection Bordelaise..., Vol. V, p. 500; IDEM, " Correspondence," ibid., Vol. IX, p. 356; VOLTAIRE, " Essai...," Vol. XI, pp. 25-26; IDEM, " ITlements de la Philo- sophie de Newton," Vol. XXII, p. 420; IDEM, " Des singularitees de la nature," Vol. XXXVII, pp. 184-185; ROUSSEAU, "Discours sur l'origine...," Vol. IV, P. 337, 358, "l mile," Vol. IX, pp. 432-442; DIDEROT, "Voyage autour du monde," Vol. II, p. 260; IDEM, " Salon de 1767," Vol. XI, pp. 219-220. Cf. also SACKMANN, " Ein Beitrag zur Biographie Voltaire's," Historische Zeitschrift, 90, 273, and KARL ROSENKRANZ, Diderot's Leben und Werke (Leipzig: Brockhaus, i866), Vol. II, pp. 266-272.

(8) BACON, " An Advertisement...," Vol. XIII, p. 215; HUME, " Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary," Vol. III, p. 355; MONTESQUIEU, " De l'esprit des lois," (Euvres Completes, Vol. III, p. 264, Vol. IV, p. i80, Vol. V, p. 132; VOLTAIRE, "Essai...," Vol. XII, pp. 397-399; Encyclopedie..., Vol. VIII, pp. 641-642, Supple- ment, Vol. I, pp. 344-346.

(9) VOLTAIRE, " Essai...," Vol. XII, p. 388; IDEM, " Relation touchant un Maur blanc," Vol. XXIII, pp. I89-I9I; ROUSSEAU, " Discours sur l'origine...," Vol. IV, PP. 369-370; DIDEROT, " Supplement au voyage ...," Vol. II, pp. 211-212. Cf. also SACKMANN, " Ein Beitrag...," op. cit., p. 274.

(Io) Since it is impossible to enumerate all peoples and publications which fall into consideration cf. CHINARD, L'Amerique et le reve exotique..., op. cit., passim; SACKMANN, " Universalgeschichte in Voltaire's Beleuchtung," Zeitschrift fur franzosische Sprache und Literatur, 30, I9-57; PAUL HONIGSHEIM, "Voltaire as Anthropologist," American Anthropologist, 47, o04- 08. The attitude of the English and French enlighteners toward Oriental peoples will be the topic of a special article.

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Points of view represented. Three frames of reference were used by the scholars under consideration in viewing the newly discovered peoples. These may be listed as follows i) The anthropo-geographical (I i). -BACON, HUME, and especially iMIONTESQUIEU (the latter based on other English and French forerunners) emphasized the climatic factor, the importance of which was denied by others, as for example, VOLTAIRE. 2) The physico-anthropological (12).-This viewpoint increased in im- portance and was climaxed by VOLTAIRE and the Encyclopedists. 3) The cultural-historical (I3).-Like the former viewpoint, this one likewise increased in importance. Since the anthropo- geographical view was scarcely ever used in connection with the American Indians by the authors under consideration, we can omit it and limit our discussion to the various aspects of the other two frames of reference.

The physico-anthropological status of Indians (14). BACON (II) BACON, "The New Organon," Vol. VIII, p. 182; IDEM, "The History

of the Winds," Vol. IX, pp. 408, 412; IDEM, " Essays or Councils...," Vol. XII, p. 274; HUME, "Essays...," Vol. III, pp. 224, 229, 234, 480; MONTESQUIEU,

De l'esprit des lois," (Euvres Completes, Vol. III, p. 335, Vol. IV, pp. 145-252; IDEM, "Pensees...," Collection Bordelaisienne..., Vol. V, pp. 128, I46, 504; VOL- TAIRE, ( Dictionnaire philosophique," Article " Gout," Vol. XIX, p. 278; IDEM, " Traite de metaphysique," Vol. XXII, p. 224; IDEM, " Pensees sur le Gouverne- ment," Vol. XXIII, p. 533; IDEM, " Commentaire sur l'esprit des lois," Vol. XXX, pp. 442-445; ROUSSEAU, "Discours sur l'origine...," Vol. IV, p. 280; IDEM, " Emile," Vol. VIII, pp. 55-56, 284; Encyclopedie.... Supplement, Vol. I, p. 354; CONDORCET, " Esquisse d'un tableau historique," Vol. VI, passim. The reader interested in MONTESQUIEU's originality and his dependency on others will find valuable material in JOSEPH DEDIEU, Montesquieu et la tradition politique Anglaise en France (Paris: J. Gabalda& Cie, 1909), pp. 197, 204, 209-215; E. FOURNOL, Bodin, predecesseur de Montesquieu (Paris: Arthur Rousseau, I896), pp. 1 6- 44; LAWRENCE MEYER LEVIN, The Political Doctrine of Montesquieu's Esprit des Lois (New York: Columbia University, 1936), pp. 26-40.

(12) BACON, " Silva Silvarum," Vol. IV, p. 352; LOCKE, " An Essay Concerning Human Understanding," Vol. II, p. 222; VOLTAIRE, " Essay...," Vol. XII, p. 385; IDEM, "Traite de Metaphysique," Vol. XXII, p. 192; IDEM, " llements de la Philosophie de Newton," Vol. XXII, p. 427; IDEM, " Relation touchant un Maur blanc," Vol. XXIII, pp. I89-I9I, IDEM, " Articles extraits de la gazette litteraire," Vol. XXV, pp. 456-458; IDEM, " Des singularitees de la nature," Vol. XXVIII, pp. 145, I84; ROUSSEAU, " Discours sur l'origine...," Vol. IV, pp. 232-242; DIDEROT, " Entretien entre d'Alembert et Diderot," Vol. II, p. 107.

(I3) It is indeed impossible to make special citations as to this viewpoint since manv books of each of the philosophers under discussion fall into consideration.

(14) BACON, "Silva Silvarum," Vol. IV, p. 352; IDEM, " New Atlantis," Vol. V, P. 379; IDEM," The New Organon," Vol. VIII, p. i62; IDEM, " Essays...," Vol. XII,

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was not interested to a great extent, and some French philosophers only slightly, in the physico-anthropological status of Indians. The " Albinos " in Darien, however, attracted VOLTAIRE and the Encyclopedists. The latter scoffed at reports of travelers about giants and dwarfs.

The origin of Indians (I5). This problem was considered almost exclusively by VOLTAIRE and the Encyclopedists. Their theories however, are strictly antagonistic. VOLTAIRE expoused a polygenetic theory. For him the Indians originated in America independent of the origin of other human beings. The Encyclo- pedists, on the other hand, accepted a monogenetic theory. They felt that the Indians and all other human beings have a common origin. The cause for such divergent view is obvious. Since VOLTAIRE was a deist, he was led to rely on the theory of simultaneous independent creation and to place the varieties of men and animals in the various continents by the creative act of an omnipotent God. The Encyclopedists, on the other hand, were less deistically minded. Accordingly, the act of divine creation was eliminated, and from their materialist viewpoint, they could reaccept the Christian idea of common origin of all men, including an Asiatic origin for the Indians.

The number of Indians (i6). Both VOLTAIRE and the Encyclopedists considered the number of Indians to have been very small, even prior to their discovery. Among other reasons, the prevalence of deserts and swamps was given as an explanation for the scarcity of population. Moreover MONTESQUIEU insisted upon their decline in number. The English writers dealt as little with this question as with the one to follow.

Indian languages (I7). While already investigated by many Jesuits, the question of Indian language did not greatly concern the enlighteners. LOCKE declared that the Indian languages were

pp. 8, zo6, 416, 489, 519; VOLTAIRE, " Essai...," Vol. XI, pp. 7-9, 26, 386, 390; ROUSSEAU, " Discours sur l'origine...," Vol. IV, p. 242; Encyclopedie..., Suppliment, Vol. I, pp. 345-350.

(15) VOLTAIRE, "Essai...," Vol. XI, pp. 33-34; Encyclopedie..., Vol. I, pp. 343- 344, 347, 361.

(I6) VOLTAIRE, "Essai ...," Vol. XI, p. 25; Encyclopddie..., Suppliment, Vol. I, p. 346.

(17) VOLTAIRE, "Essai ...," Vol. XII, p. 387; Encyclopedie..., Suppliment, Vol. I, PP. 346, 349.

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undeveloped, while VOLTAIRE and the Encyclopedists insisted upon the large number of languages spoken by Indian tribes and explained the fact by the remoteness and isolation of many small tribes. This argument also played a role in an attempt to explain other aspects of Indian culture.

Indian culture and religion (i8). Four phenomena were of special interest to the enlighteners. First was the similarity of Indian culture and religion with that of pre-historic Europe. Even prior to the period of concern to us, Jesuits had already mentioned such a possibility. LOCKE and MONTESQUIEU also made the same observation but did not draw conclusions. Second was the supposedly extraordinary savageness of Indians and cruelty of their religion. LOCKE denied this charge and insisted that the Indians were actually atheists. In contrast, BACON and HUME considered them as polytheists, no better but also no worse than others. The reasons for the relatively slight interest in Indian religion are obvious. On the one hand, the four English writers lived in an epoch of the waning Reformation and Counter- Reformation, during which the problem of relating the religions of the New World to the whole religio-philosophical concept only decreasingly had to be met. The English deists were already too radical for this. On the other hand, they were not yet suffi- ciently radical to behave as their French followers. These were always inclined to consider religion as cruel. In the special case under consideration, they combined the problem of Indian religious

(18) BACON, "Silva Silvarum," Vol. IV, p. 172; IDEM, "Essays...," Vol. XII, p. 133; LOCKE, "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding," Vol. I, pp. 22, 6o, 128, Vol. II, p. 200; IDEM, "Of Civil Government," Vol. V, pp. 346, 391, 401; HUME, "The Natural History...," Vol. V, pp. 421; MONTESQUIEU, " Con- siderations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur decadence," (Euvres Completes, Vol. II, p. 230, Vol. IV, p. 256; IDEM, " De l'esprit des lois," ibid., Vol. III, p. 76, Vol. IV, p. 265; IDEM, " Pensees...," Collection Bordelaisienne, Vol. V, pp. 153, 490, Vol. VI, pp. 171, 293; VOLTAIRE, " Essai..., " Vol. XII, pp. 381, 388, 406, 410; IDEM," i6lements de la Philosophie de Newton," Vol. XXII, p. 420; IDEM, " Des conspirations contre les peuples," Vol. XXVI, p. 7; ROUSSEAU, " Discours sur l'origine...," Vol. IV, p. 248; DIDEROT, " Supplement au voyage de Bougainville," Vol. II, p. 2Io; IDEM, " Observations sur les saisons," Vol. V, p. 258; IDEM, "Fragments echappes au portefeuille d'un philosophe," Vol. VI, p. 453; IDEM, "Lettres," Vol. XIX, pp. 7, 8; Encyclopedie..., Vol. II, p. 582, Vol. VIII, pp. 356, 396, Supplement, Vol. I, pp. 344, 350-352; CONDORCET, " Notes sur Voltaire," Vol. IV, p. 356. Cf. also CHINARD, L'Exotisme Americain dans la litterature franfaise au XVIe siecle (Paris : Hachette, 1911), pp. I6-I8.

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cruelty with that of anthropophagy. Third was the custom of cannibalism. Some of the British as well as most of the French- men, did not try to deny cannibalism among Indians, but rather tried to excuse it. MONTESQUIEU, for example, asserted that hunters who eat meat exclusively do not consider the consumption of human flesh more cruel than the eating of any other flesh. VOLTAIRE said that eating aged parents is an act of piety, suggested by religion. The Encyclopedists and CONDORCET asserted that anthropophagy grew out of the religious practice of human sacrifice. The latter exists everywhere, they pointed out, and the burning of Protestants during the Spanish inquisition is nothing but an example of a human sacrifice and, accordingly, no less cruel than Indian cannibalism. Thus the Indian religion provide's an opportunity to ridicule Catholicism, even religion itself. For the latter enlighteners insisted that because of the cruelty of the religion, people themselves became cruel, while inherently it was good in itself. The belief in man's natural goodness was also applied to other aspects of Indian life.

Social, political, and economic aspects of primitive Indian life (19). Some phenomena of sex and family life and

(19) HOBBES, (The Citizen," Vol. II, p. 12; IDEM, "Leviathan," Vol. III, p. 114; LOCKE, "Of Civil Government," Vol. V, pp. 320, 328, 346, 355, 362, 400, 402; HUME, "A Treatise of Human Nature," Vol. II, p. 323; MONTESQUIEU, " De l'esprit des lois," (Euvres Completes, Vol. III, p. 98, Vol. IV, pp. 251, 275, 469, Vol. V, p. 62; IDEM, " Pensees...," Collection Bordelaisienne, Vol. V, pp. 153, 490, Vol. VI, pp. 171, 293; VOLTAIRE, "Essai," Vol. XI, p. 25, Vol. XII, pp. 387- 406; ROUSSEAU, " Narcisse," Vol. XI, p. 257; DIDEROT," Fragments echappes...," Vol. VI, p. 453; Encyclopedie..., Vol. II, p. 684, Vol. VIII, pp. 356, 906, Supplement, Vol. I, pp. 349-353. CONDORCET, "Vie de Mr. Turgot," Vol. V, p. 179. The reader interested in the development of the ideas of the social contract and inter- national law will find further details and citations of other books falling into consideration in PAUL HONIGSHEIM, " Neue Hobbes Literatur," Kolner Viertel- jahrshefte fur Soziologie, 8, 1930, 325-328; IDEM, " Le Gallicanisme precurseur du i8e siecle," Archives de la Philosophie du droit, 5, 1935, 216-235; IDEM, " La doctrine Allemande du droit naturel au 17e et x8e siecle," ibid., 9, I939, 216-237; IDEM, " An der Wiege der Volkerbundidee," Die Friedens-Warte, 38, 1938, pp. 209- 235; IDEM, " Voltaire und die Probleme der Volkeranniherung," ibid., 39, 1939, 121-136; IDEM, "Ernest Nys," ibid., 51, 1950, 315-322, where other publications are cited; ERNEST NYS, Les origines de la diplomatie (Bruxelles: Muguart, 1884); IDEM, Notes pour servir a l'histoire litteraire et dogmatique du droit international en Angleterre, ibid., 1888; IDEM, Le droit de la guerre et les precurseurs de Grotius,. ibid., 1895 ; IDEM, Les thiories politiques et le droit international (Bruxelles: Weissenbruch, 1891), pp. 108-123; IDEM, Les origines du droit international (Paris - Fontemoing, 1894), pp. 127-133, I53-I62.

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political rule among the Indians (except for those in Mexico and Peru with which we deal later) were considered by the englighteners. Insofar as sex and family life were concerned, there were three particulars which were given attention. These were homo- sexuality, endogamy, and totemism. In the French enlighten- ment, the spiritualistic philosophical concept of the world lost ground, while the materialistic philosophy gained, especially among and through some of the Encyclopedists. In this connec- tion some of the latter tolerated everything connected with body. These Encyclopedists took note of the supposedly existing homo- sexuality among Indians, but used it for comparison with ancient Greeks rather than a base from which to criticize the Indians themselves. Endogamy, or the obligation to marry within one's own tribe, is merely mentioned in the Encyclopedia without further comment. The subdivision of the society into families with animal names is also mentioned there. Perhaps it points to Totemism, although the name is not used.

As to the economic life, MONTESQUIEU and, mainly, the Ency- clopedists take it into consideration. MONTESQUIEU made the casual remark that Indians do not use gold for economic purpose. DIDEROT and his collaborators observed that Indians were not exclusively hunters and fishermen but rather, in part, maize planters, and that they were without domesticated animals capable of drawing a plow, and for this reason they found Indian economic development different from that of the Old World. The reasons for such interest in economic life are obvious. The Encyclopedists were enemies of religion and metaphysics but were rather involved in the problems concerning the changes supposed necessary in the structure of economic life.

As to the political structure of the Indian world, the following three questions found interest: First, are the Indians under despotic rule? Our Frenchmen, who opposed government which they considered despotic, were glad to feel able to deny such a govern- ment among Indians, just as did LOCKE, HUME, and HOBBES. But only HOBBES asserted that he had an explanation for this fact. This he did by pointing to the role of the social contract. Second, what role did the social contract play in the life of Indians ? Never since the time of the Stoics and Epicureans, had the social contract theory been forgotten, and once again it became important in the

I00

AMERICAN INDIAN AND PHILOSOPHY

social thinking of many empiricists and enlighteners. Among the latter, HOBBES especially falls into consideration. He argued as follows: The people had renounced the power supposed to be invested in them, and had transferred it, via the social contract, to the absolutistic ruler. The Indians, he argued, lived in a non- absolutistic society because their society was still pre-social contract. Through this line of reasoning, HOBBES was the only one who established any relationship between the social contract and Indian life. The cynic VOLTAIRE had always been skeptical as to the existence of an original contract. While ROUSSEAU talked in general about it, he had little interest in special peoples. DIDEROT and the Encyclopedists had other basic interests. MONTESQUIEU was a jurist with primarily an historical and geographical, i.e. empirical base. Thus he was not primarily theoretically minded. On the other hand, MONTESQUIEU brought Indians in relation to another question which was much cherished by the enlighteners, i.e., third, what was the role of international law? Based upon the impetus given by HUGO GROTIUS, the enlighteners became increasingly internationally minded. But only MONTESQUIEU viewed Indians with regard to international law and he was satisfied in finding that it was, at least to some extent, in force among some tribes.

The Aztecs and Incas (20). The discovery of the Aztecs and Incas provoked the publication of numerous books. In spite of all these publications only a few phenomena were of interest to a few among our philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth century. These were: I) cruelty, but considered by BACON as less horrible than that of the Turks, and by VOLTAIRE as no more horrible than even that of the Christians; 2) cannibalism, merely mentioned by LOCKE and in the Encyclopedia; 3) despotism, mentioned by LOCKE and indicated by MONTESQUIEU as one of the

(20) BACON, " An Advertisement...," Vol. XIII, pp. 197-199; HOBBES, " Levia- than," Vol. III, p. ro3; IDEM, " Behemoth," Vol. VI, p. 177; LOCKE, " An Essay Concerning Human Understanding," Vol. II, p. 40; IDEM, " Of Civil Govern- ment," Vol. V, pp. 254, 400; IDEM, " The Whole History of Navigation," Vol. X, pp. 384, 419; HUME, "The Natural History...," Vol. IV, p. 459; MONTESQUIEU; " De l'esprit des lois," (Euvres Completes, Vol. III, p. 264, Vol. IV, pp. 231, 25I, IDEM, " Discours sur les motifs qui doivent nous engager aux sciences," ibid., Vol. VII, p. 77; VOLTAIRE, " Alzaire," Vol. III, p. 379; Encyclopedie..., Vol. VIII, pp. 641-642, Supplement, Vol. I, p. 344.

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P. HONIGSHEIM

causes of undevelopment and defeat; 4) claims of Aztec and Inca kings to be representatives of divinities, which according to HOBBES, was just as justifiable as the analogous claims of Christian kings; 5) claims of Aztec and Inca kings of the right to own land, sup- ported by HOBBES; 6) lack of domesticated animals in Mexico, mentioned in the Encyclopedia. The reasons for these attitudes are obvious. BACON disliked Catholicism and, therefore, the 'I'urks who had been at times the allies of Catholic France. Hence he used every opportunity to ridicule the Turks. This he did by stressing the superiority of even the Aztecs and Incas. As we know, HOBBES advocated establishing a secular absolutism, founded on an original contract, transferring the power of the people to a monarch and his descendants, rather than a religious kingdom based primarily on divine right. Accordingly he says that the claims to divine origin on the part of Indian kings are neither more nor less justified than the corresponding claims of Christian kings. Moreover he disliked the Pope, who opposed an absolutistic England, which would contain her own state church, and therefore he objects to the Pope's attempt to interfere in Peru as well as to his efforts to encroach upon English affairs. LOCKE, on the contrary, remains the struggler for individual rights against absolutism, preferring even less complicated Indian societies to those of Mexico and Peru, which he considers absolutistic states. MONTESQUIEU'S anti-absolutistic status brings him to similar conclusions. VOLTAIRE as usual uses the opportunity to belittle Christianism, and DIDEROT and his friends use it to insist upon the importance of the economic factor.

White man's attitude toward Indians (21). Dominicans

(21) BACON, " An Advertisement...," Vol. XIII, p. I98; HUME, " The Natural History...," Vol. IV, p. 469; MONTESQUIEU, " Considerations sur les causes...," CEuvres Completes, Vol. II, p. 320; IDEM, " De l'esprit des lois," ibid., Vol. III, pp. I55, 361, Vol. IV, p. I80, Vol. V, p. 232; IDEM, "Pensees...," Collection Bordelaisienne, Vol. V, p. 40; VOLTAIRE, "Alzaire," Vol. III, pp. 386-390; IDEM, (Essai...," Vol. XI, pp. 220-221, 227, 233-234, Vol. XI, p. 424; IDEM, "Com- mentaire sur l'esprit des lois," Vol. XXX, p. 419; DIDEROT, " Les Jesuites chasses d'Espagne," Vol. II, p. 460; IDEM, " Fragments echappes...," Vol. VI, p. 452; Encyclopedie..., Vol. VIII, pp. 512-516, Vol. XI, pp. 900-903, Vol. XIV, p. 729, Supplement, Vol. I, pp. 350-354; CONDORCET, " Esquisse d'un Tableau...," Vol. VI, p. I45. As to the Jesuits in Paraguay cf. CR,TINEAU-JOLY, Histoire religieuse, politique..., op. cit., Vol. V, pp. 68-70; IDEM, Clement XIV et les Jidsuites (Bruxel- les: Societe des Bonnes Lectures, I847), pp. 5-io6; AUGUSTIN TiEINER, Histoire

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and Jesuits previously had criticized the white man's attitude toward the Indians, and the men under consideration follow suite. The discussion of the latter centers around four problems. First, the white man's attitude toward Indians in general: actually, only HUME made general charges. Second, the Spanish rule: while HOBBES, LOCKE, HUME, and ROUSSEAU did not mention the question, BACON and the remaining Frenchmen indicted the Spaniards. These differences in attitude can easily be explained. BACON as well as the Frenchmen were opposed to Catholicism, while the others did not really enter this struggle; and ROUSSEAU largely did not cite specific examples. Third, the rule of Jesuits in Paraguay: the Jesuits had built in Paraguay, seemingly under Spanish overrule, a virtually independent state of their own. The Indians themselves were completely dependent upon the Fathers in their " redu- ciones." Then Spain and Portugal agreed as to new boundary regulations, and accordingly many Jesuitic " reduciones," came under the control of Portugal. At that epoch Portugal was under the leadership of the " enlightened " Prime Minister POMBAL. He accused the Jesuits of inciting the Indians to revolt against the new rulers and subsequently expelled them from the colonies, even from Portugal itself. A large controversial literature grew out of these conditions. Also those enlighteners who dealt with the problem were not completely unanimous. MONTESQUIEU still admired the work accomplished by the Jesuits; VOLTAIRE took a middle growed, and, in this case, found the Jesuits relatively acceptable. Even the Encyclopedists were not completely un- animous among themselves. Only to a very small extent did they recognize that the Jesuits brought culture to the Indians. Rather they believed that the Indians remained barbarians under Jesuit guidance, and considered the attitude of the Jesuits dangerous to du Pontificat de Clement XIV (Paris, 1852), Vol. I, pp. 93, io6-iiI, 500-510; GOTHEIN, Der christlich-soziale Jesuitenstaat in Paraguay (Leipzig: Duncker und Humblot, 1883), passim; HONIGSHEIM, " Rural Collectivities," in C. P. LOOMIS and A. BEEGLE, Rural Social Systems (New York : Prentice Hall, 1950). As to the attitude of other political, religious, and philosophical groups and individuals, see NYS, Les origines du droit international, op. cit., pp. 127, 153- I54, 367-369, IDEM, Le droit de la guerre..., op. cit., pp. 166-170; VAN DER KRDEF, " Francisco Vitoria and the Nature of Colonial Policy," The Catholic Historical Review, 35, I949, pp. 129-I62; FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON DER HEYDTE, " Francisco de Vitoria und die Geschichte seines Ruhmes," Die Friedens-Warte, 49, 1949, 192-196.

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P. HONIGSHEIM

the state. These differences in attitude toward the Fathers in Paraguay may be explained in the following way: BACON, HOBBES, LOCKE, and MONTESQUIEU had died before the main conflict occurred and before the essential literature appeared. HUME was outside the struggle against Catholicism, and the conflict between the latter and the state; ROUSSEAU and CONDORCET, as so often, were little interested in specific examples. VOLTAIRE indeed struggled against what he called " intolerance" and " fanaticism." But he considered the Jesuits more open-minded than their adversaries, as for example, the Dominicans and the Jansenists. Accordingly, in this case, he was not an inexorable enemy of the Jesuits. The Encyclopedists themselves were directly involved in the struggle, which ends with the expulsion of the Jesuits from France and their suppression by Pope CLEMENT XIV. This explains the fact that they considered everything done by Jesuits bad, while they were willing to tolerate the attitude of other Christian groups toward Indians. Fourth, the attitude of William Penn and the Quakers toward Indians was highly approved by VOLTAIRE and the Encyclopedists. The fact that white men were supposed to have failed in educating the Indians in Paraguay reintroduced the problem, " Are the Indians educable? "

Adaptability of Indians to white man's culture (22). Only a few of our philosophers dealt with this problem. Among them was MONTESQUIEU who denied the adaptability of Indians to white man's culture. BACON, the Encyclopedists, and especially LOCKE, on the other hand, believed firmly in such possibilities. Thus they again conformed to the usual optimistic pattern they so frequently exhibited toward the Indians.

Conclusion : We may now summarize the results of our investigation in the following outline: I. The variety of interest found in the various topics and viewpoints was as follozos :

A. As to the kind of sources taken into consideration, reports of Jesuits were used by the greatest number of writers; oral reports made by travelers were used by the smallest number.

(22) BACON, " Essays...," Vol. XII, pp. 197-I99; LOCKE, " An Essay Concerning Human Understanding," Vol. II, p. 68; MONTESQUIEU, " Essai sur les causes...," Collection Bordelaisienne, Vol. II, p. I30; DIDEROT, " Fragments echappes...," Vol. VI, p. 455; Encyclopedie..., Vol. I, pp. 350-35I.

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AMERICAN INDIAN AND PHILOSOPHY

B. As to eras dealt with, primitive peoples and present-day non-Christian Orientals interested all our philosophers, while pre-historic Europe and present-day Christian peoples having maintained non-occidental cultural traits interested the smallest number.

C. As to the viewpoints taken into consideration, the historico-cultural approach was used by all the writers considered, while the anthropo-geographical and the physico-anthropological approaches, respectively, were used only by three of them.

D. As to the special topics concerning Indians themselves, the problem of despotic rule and cannibalism interested the greatest number of enlighteners. On the other hand, family life, economic structure, social contract, claims of Indian kings and white man's role generally were dealt with by only one of our writers.

II. The participation of the English and the French in these discussions was as follows: A. The participation of the English equals that of the French with regard

to the number of eras dealt with, the number of viewpoints taken into consider- ation, culture and religion of primitive Indians, and the Indian's adaptability to the white man's culture.

B, The participation of the English is smaller than that of the French as to all other matters.

C. The participation of the English is in no case larger than that of the French.

III. The degree to which the philosophers under discussion were interested in the main subjects outlined appears in the accompanying table.

In the final analysis, it must be said that the British writers lived in an earlier epoch, had fewer sources at their disposal, were less critically-minded of the Bible, writings of the classical antiquity, and traveler's reports, and they dealt with fewer problems, especially insofar as the social, political, and economic aspects of Indian life were concerned. Among the English enlighteners, BACON-and next to him LOCKE-were more interested in special facts concerning American natives than were HOBBES and HUME, whose writings were more abstract and general. The French thinkers were somewhat later and their conceptions were partly based on the British authors. Increasingly they shifted from the Gallican Catholicism of MONTESQUIEU to the Deism of the young VOLTAIRE, and from there to the mechanistic materialism of the later DIDEROT and his collaborators. Thus they became more and more interested in special peoples and single facts which they attempted to fit into systems. This certainly is not true of ROUSSEAU who neither knew nor was interested in particular peoples or single facts. Rather, he constructed his system from general

Io5

Degree to which the Philosophers under discussion were interested in the Main Subjects Outlined

Main Subjects Outlined BACON HOBBES LOCKE HUME MONTESQUIEU VOLTAIRE ROUSSEAU Encyclopedists CONDORCET Variety of Sources large small moderate small moderate large Ismall large small

Number of Eras, Peoples large large large large large large moderate large large and Cultures

Scope of Viewpoints moderate small small moderate moderate large small moderate small

Physico-Anthropological small none none none none small none small none Status of Indians

Origin of Indians none none none none none large none large none

Number of Indians none none none none small small none small none

Languages of Indians none none small none none small none small none

Culture and Religion of moderate ssmal largsmall large moderate moderate moderate small Indians

Social, Politic., and Econ. none moderate small small moderate small none large none Aspect of Indians

_

Aztecs and Incas small small small none small small none small none

White Man's Attitude Toward Indians

small

Indian's Adaptability to F large White Man's Culture

none none small moderate large none large none

large none none

0 o',

z 0 C1 cn zC m

large none large none none

AMERICAN INDIAN AND PHILOSOPHY

basic assumptions. Accordingly he dealt with Indians in rather meager fashion. Thus, the incorporation of countless facts, including details about American Indians, was accomplished by two other branches of the French enlightenment. These were the Encyclopedists, on one hand, and VOLTAIRE, on the other. In editing an encyclopedia the former were compelled to deal with almost everything. This was done by gradually shifting to materialism and by increasingly viewing the single phenomena, including the Indians, from the standpoint of the natural scientist. VOLTAIRE, on the other hand, increasingly tended to incorporate collected special facts into a system of non-Christian-centered philosophy of history. Accordingly, he looked at particular phenomena, including American Indians, from the viewpoint of the historian. Thus from two different angles, the Encyclopedists and VOLTAIRE, more so than other British or French enlighteners, had their reasons for dealing with many special aspects of Indian life. As to basic philosophy, material and methods used, CONDORCET'S system was largely based on VOLTAIRE. Even more so than his master, he attempted to build up a system of progres- sionist philosophy of history. Therefore he was more interested in the regularity and the automatic sequence of the forms of life and social structures, but less in the descriptive illustration of the general phenomena. Accordingly he dealt with the details of Indian life, less than his master and the Encyclopedists.

The Encyclopedists as well as VOLTAIRE and CONDORCET, both of whom had incorporated into their system British elements, have strongly influenced the thinking and feeling of various groups of the nineteenth century. This is especially true with regard to attempts to build up various systems of philosophy of history and to include pre-literary cultures and peoples into them. More so than others CONDORCET, the follower of VOLTAIRE, influenced CONTE and from him such ideas have radiated into English, French, and German anthropology and ethnology.

Perhaps every statement made by the English and French enlighteners about American Indians will be proven wrong. Nevertheless it certainly does not fall within the scope of this paper to pass judgment upon the correctness of such concepts of the enlighteners. But however this may be, it has been shown that present day anthropology and ethnology stand in an uninterrupted

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Io8 P. HONIGSHEIM

flow of events, which can be traced through CONDORCET or the Encyclopedists to VOLTAIRE or the English deists and back to Lord BACON. If for no other reason, than this, these English and French enlighteners deserve to be considered under the viewpoint of their concepts of the American Indian.

(Lewis and Clark College Portland, Oregon). PAUL HONIGSHEIM.

Article Contentsp. [91]p. 92p. 93p. 94p. 95p. 96p. 97p. 98p. 99p. 100p. 101p. 102p. 103p. 104p. 105p. 106p. 107p. 108

Issue Table of ContentsOsiris, Vol. 10 (1952), pp. 1-630Front Matter [pp. 1 - 1]Henri Berr [pp. 5 - 9]The Division of the Hour in Hebrew Literature [pp. 10 - 34]Goethe and Evolution [pp. 35 - 42]Goethe's Interest in the History of British Physics [pp. 43 - 66]Hobbes and Descartes in the Light of Some Unpublished Letters of the Correspondence between Sir Charles Cavendish and Dr. John Pell [pp. 67 - 90]The American Indian in the Philosophy of the English and French Enlightenment [pp. 91 - 108]Fact and Fiction in Hippopotamology (Sampling the History of Scientific Error) [pp. 109 - 116]Arab Geography and the Circumnavigation of Africa [pp. 117 - 128]The Silkworm and Chinese Culture [pp. 129 - 194]Multiple Explicits of a Medieval Dynamidia [pp. 195 - 205]Sir Thomas Browne's Theories of Respiration and Combustion [pp. 206 - 223]Politics, Economics and Medicine: Charles Maclean and Anticontagion in England [pp. 224 - 251]Tamil Astronomy: A Study in the History of Astronomy in India [pp. 252 - 276]Pendulums of Wren and Hooke [pp. 277 - 321]Lettres Inedites de Condorcet [pp. 322 - 327]Auguste Comte, Historian of Science: With a Short Digression on Clotilde de Vaux and Harriet Taylor [pp. 328 - 357]Quelques contributions moraves a la connaissance de la medecine prehistorique et protohistorique [pp. 358 - 367]A Biographical Sketch of Dr. William Gilbert of Colchester [pp. 368 - 384]Athanasius Kircher's: China Illustrata [pp. 385 - 411]The Establishment of the Mechanical Philosophy [pp. 412 - 541]Abbott Thayer and Natural History [pp. 542 - 555]The Planetary Theory of Ibn Rushd [pp. 556 - 586]Archimedes in the Middle Ages: The De mensura circuli [pp. 587 - 618]Back Matter [pp. 619 - 630]