BUSINESS ETHICS

Definitions of Business ethics

Business ethics is the branch of ethics that examines ethical rules and principles within a commercial context; the various moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business setting; and any special duties or obligations that apply to persons who are engaged in commerce. Those who are interested in business ethics examine various kinds of business activities and ask, "Is the conduct ethically right or wrong?"

Business ethics is a form of the art of applied ethics that examines ethical rules and principles within a commercial context, the various moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business setting and any special duties or obligations that apply to persons who are engaged in commerce.

In the increasingly conscience-focused marketplaces of the 21st century, the demand for more ethical business processes and actions (known as ethicism) is increasing. Simultaneously, pressure is applied on industry to improve business ethics through new public initiatives and laws (e.g. higher UK road tax for higher-emission vehicles).

Business ethics can be both a normative and a descriptive discipline. As a corporate practice and a career specialization, the field is primarily normative. In academia descriptive approaches are also taken. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the degree to which business is perceived to be at odds with non-economic social values. Historically, interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, today most major corporate websites lay emphasis on commitment to promoting non-economic social values under a variety of headings (e.g. ethics codes, social responsibility charters). In some cases, corporations have redefined their core values in the light of business ethical considerations (e.g. BP's "beyond petroleum" environmental tilt).

Overview of issues in business ethics

General business ethics

This part of business ethics overlaps with the philosophy of business, one of the aims of which is to determine the fundamental purposes of a company. If a company's main purpose is to maximize the returns to its shareholders, then it could be seen as unethical for a company to consider the interests and rights of anyone else.

Corporate social responsibility or CSR: an umbrella term under which the ethical rights and duties existing between companies and society is debated.

Issues regarding the moral rights and duties between a company and its shareholders: fiduciary responsibility, stakeholder concept v. shareholder concept.

Ethical issues concerning relations between different companies: e.g. hostile take-overs, industrial espionage.

Leadership issues: corporate governance. Political contributions made by corporations. Law reform, such as the ethical debate over introducing a crime of corporate

manslaughter. The misuse of corporate ethics policies as marketing instruments.

Professional ethics

Professional ethics covers the myriad of practical ethical problems and phenomena which arise out of specific functional areas of companies or in relation to recognized business professions.

Ethics of accounting information Creative accounting, earnings management, misleading financial analysis. Insider trading, securities fraud, bucket shop, forex scams: concerns (criminal)

manipulation of the financial markets. Executive compensation: concerns excessive payments made to corporate CEO's. Bribery, kickbacks, facilitation payments: while these may be in the (short-term)

interests of the company and its shareholders, these practices may be anti-competitive or offend against the values of society.

Ethics of human resource management

The ethics of human resource management (HRM) covers those ethical issues arising around the employer-employee relationship, such as the rights and duties owed between employer and employee.

Discrimination issues include discrimination on the bases of age (ageism), gender, race, religion, disabilities, weight and attractiveness. See also: affirmative action, sexual harassment.

Issues surrounding the representation of employees and the democratization of the workplace: union busting, strike breaking.

Issues affecting the privacy of the employee: workplace surveillance, drug testing. See also: privacy.

Issues affecting the privacy of the employer: whistle-blowing. Issues relating to the fairness of the employment contract and the balance of power

between employer and employee: slavery, indentured servitude, employment law. Occupational safety and health.

Ethics of sales and marketing

Marketing which goes beyond the mere provision of information about (and access to) a product may seek to manipulate our values and behaviour. To some extent society regards

this as acceptable, but where is the ethical line to be drawn? Marketing ethics overlaps strongly with media ethics, because marketing makes heavy use of media. However, media ethics is a much larger topic and extends outside business ethics.

Pricing: price fixing, price discrimination, price skimming. Anti-competitive practices: these include but go beyond pricing tactics to cover issues

such as manipulation of loyalty and supply chains. See: anti-competitive practices, antitrust law.

Specific marketing strategies: green wash, bait and switch, shill, viral marketing, spam (electronic), pyramid scheme, planned obsolescence.

Content of advertisements: attack ads, subliminal messages, sex in advertising, products regarded as immoral or harmful

Children and marketing: marketing in schools. Black markets, grey markets.

Ethics of production

This area of business ethics deals with the duties of a company to ensure that products and production processes do not cause harm. Some of the more acute dilemmas in this area arise out of the fact that there is usually a degree of danger in any product or production process and it is difficult to define a degree of permissibility, or the degree of permissibility may depend on the changing state of preventative technologies or changing social perceptions of acceptable risk.

Defective, addictive and inherently dangerous products and services (e.g. tobacco, alcohol, weapons, motor vehicles, chemical manufacturing, bungee jumping).

Ethical relations between the company and the environment: pollution, environmental ethics, carbon emissions trading

Ethical problems arising out of new technologies: genetically modified food, mobile phone radiation and health.

Product testing ethics: animal rights and animal testing, use of economically disadvantaged groups (such as students) as test objects.

The permissibility of international commerce with pariah states.

VALUES, ETHICS AND CONDUCT - THE DEFINITIONS

The terms 'values', 'ethics', 'integrity' and 'conduct' are often used interchangeably and uncertain language is one of the barriers to establishing a widely understood framework for ethics. For the purposes of this paper, the following definitions will apply:

Ethics - what ought to be; the ideals of what is just, good and proper; Values - the commonly held beliefs that guide judgment about what is good and

proper, and from which ethical principles derive;

Integrity - normally one of the key ethical values; but also used in the current Departmental Performance Assessment as synonymous with a departmental framework for ethics (see Part Five);

Codes of conduct - the rules that translate ideals and values into everyday practice; and

Conduct - the actual behaviour and actions of public servants.

Normative ethics is largely about values and the accepted norms for 'right' conduct. Applied ethics is the practical application of values and standards, which sometimes involves choosing between values in a particular context. This paper is concerned with applied ethics, where values are translated into conduct.

CULTURE IN AN ORGANIZATION

(a) Culture is `alive’Culture is an evolutionary concept. It is developed by individuals (managers) in an organization. A good organization is represented by its culture. Hence, culture is alive.

(b) Culture has `values’Culture is certain set of `practices’ followed by individuals. Such practices are evolved through proper experimentations. A live organization has got values. Such values are inseparable and are a product of labour.

(c) Culture has `image’Since an organization is represented by its practiced culture, it is `alive’ and has `values’. Image is nothing but an expression of `culture’ as is patronized by the `society’. It has a form and the same is imprinted in the minds and hearts of individuals.

(d) Culture is `representative’Culture is represented by each and every organisation in one way or the other and such practices forms part of organizational culture. It is through steady efforts and practices that such a culture is represented to the outside world, in the form of organizational culture.

(e) Culture is `fundamental’Culture is the backbone of each and every organization. It is based on this image that an organization is built and hence culture acts as a foundation based on which it is formed.

(f) Culture is an `unique’ propertyThe essential quality of culture is that it is unique for each and every organization. It is built based on steady and steadfast efforts as nourished by the individuals through hard core labour.

(g) Culture and `polygamy’When an organization absorbs another organization then a `wedding’ of different culture takes place. This is the principle of polygamy.

(B) Business ethos principles practiced by Indian Companies:-

Indian companies are guided by certain rules of conduct in the form of ethical and moral standards. Some of the business ethos principles, practiced by Indian companies are listed below:

1. Principle of `sacrifice’An individual is trained by the principle of `sacrifice’ through the process of `give and take’ policy. A person, who is willing to sacrifice part of his bread or effort, commands a superior place in the organization.

2. Principle of `harmony’An individual is trained in such a way that to avoid conflicts and friction one should be guided by certain set of moral conducts and principles.

3. Principle of `non-violence’This principle protects an organization from strikes and lockouts and unnecessary avoidable conflicts.

4. Principle of `reward’The one who performs well are encouraged to do so. This implies that the activities of individuals need to be monitored and encouragement in th form of `rewards’ may cultivate the spirit of higher productivity among groups.

5. Principle of `justice’The one who works hard is `rewarded’ and the one who fails to do so is `punished’. This is essence the principle of Justice.

6. Principle of `taxation’The one who is taxed more is encouraged to stay fit for a longer period by proper appreciation and encouragement. This principle applies to individuals who are hardworking and productive.

7. Principle of `Integrity’An integrated mind is more productive. Groups are encouraged to stay united in order to reap the benefits of division of labour.

8. Principle of `Polygamy’This is nothing but the wedding of two different cultures by absorption or takeover.

(c) How are `values’ formed?

Values are formed through the process of efforts. Such efforts never go invain. The following point throws valuable insights on formation of values, from an organizational perspective.

1) Efforts and values.Efforts undertaken in order to enrich productivity among labourers by the process of experimentation, never go in vain. Efforts are milestones and the frequency with which one labours the more, the value in an organization grows, in the same proportion.

2) Vision and valuesThe vision of the entrepreneur generally tallies with the organizational goals. Vision acts as a foundation stone and pillar for enriching values in each and every organization.

3) Dedication and valuesA dedicated mind is God’s workshop. Values are formed through dedicated efforts.

4) Morality and valuesThe more an organization concentrates on morality or ethics, the more it brings fertility to the ‘tree’ called values.

5) Culture and valuesA well developed culture evolves positive values.

6) Ethics and valuesEthics are guided by certain moral principles. An ethical organization has got values and hence it thrives for a longer period. Such organizations generally have an infinite existence.

SECULAR Vs SPIRITUAL VALUES IN MANGEMENT

1) By secular view on values in management, it refers to the worldly thoughts and philosophies as reproduced by management Gurus or experts. By spiritual values in management, it refers to the insights thrown on management by Vedas and Upanishads (or) by spiritual Gurus.

2) Secularists thoughts and views on management finds its way from Maslows need hierarchy and culminate till the most modern thoughts on management. Spiritual values in management find its base from the age old Vedas and Upanishads with special reference to Bhagavat Gita.

3) Secularists treat management values, as a science rather than ordaining it as a philosophy. Spiritualists treat management values as a philosophy rather than by ordaining it as a science.

4) Secularists treat management values as an evolutionary concept. Spiritualists believe sources like Bhagavat Gita, as a ready reckoner on value based management.

5) Secularists views on values in management are not generally ethical by nature.Spiritualists find their reference one value based management as ethical or moral, in its true sense.

6) The contribution of Indian thoughts towards secular values on management as reproduced by management science is comparatively poor, with reference to spiritual values on management. The contribution of Indian thoughts towards spiritual values on management has magnificent theories, when compared to secular values on management.

7) The secular views on management as propounded by management experts lack any ideals. The Indian spiritual values in management have divinity as the ideal to be portrayed.

Ethics management:-

Ethics management is a new science in the field of management. With the rapid evolution in the field of management, the role of ethics has been recognized, by and large, by the management experts. By ethics, it refers to the principles of conduct governing an individual or group in a society is known as ethics management.

Role of organizational culture in ethics:-

By culture, it refers to the ideas, customs, skills, arts etc. of a people or group, which are transferred, communicated or passed along, as in or to succeeding generations.

The organization that manages such ideas, customs etc. of a particular people or group in a particular period evolves a distinct culture as drastically different from that of other similar organizations in the field. This is known as organizational culture. With the involvement of management in ethical related issues in an undertaking, the roles of organizational culture in ethics need to be recognized.

The rapid involvement of the organization towards upbringing an emerging culture or nourishing a new culture enforces rigid constraints on the working style on group or individuals by emphasising on a set of code of conduct, in terms of morality.

ETHICS OFFICERS

Ethics officers (sometimes called "compliance" or "business conduct officers") have been appointed formally by organizations since the mid-1980s. One of the catalysts for the creation of this new role was a series of fraud, corruption and abuse scandals that afflicted the U.S. defense industry at that time. This led to the creation of the Defense Industry Initiative (DII), a pan-industry initiative to promote and ensure ethical business practices.

Another critical factor in the decisions of companies to appoint ethics/compliance officers was the passing of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines for Organizations in 1991, which set standards that organizations (large or small, commercial and non-commercial) had to follow to obtain a reduction in sentence if they should be convicted of a federal offense. Although intended to assist judges with sentencing, the influence in helping to establish best practices has been far-reaching.

In the wake of numerous corporate scandals between 2001-04 (affecting large corporations like Enron, WorldCom and Tyco), even small and medium-sized companies have begun to appoint ethics officers. They often report to the Chief Executive Officer and are responsible for assessing the ethical implications of the company's activities, making recommendations regarding the company's ethical policies, and disseminating information to employees. They are particularly interested in uncovering or preventing unethical and illegal actions.

The effectiveness of ethics officers in the marketplace is not clear. If the appointment is made primarily as a reaction to legislative requirements, one might expect the efficacy to be minimal, at least, over the short term. In part, this is because ethical business practices result from a corporate culture that consistently places value on ethical behavior, a culture and climate that usually emanates from the top of the organization. The mere establishment of a position to oversee ethics will most likely be insufficient to inculcate ethical behaviour: a more systemic programme with consistent support from general management will be necessary.

WHISTLE BLOWER

A whistleblower is an employee, former employee, or member of an organization, especially a business or government agency, who reports misconduct to people or entities that have the power and presumed willingness to take corrective action. Generally the misconduct is a violation of law, rule, regulation and/or a direct threat to public interest— fraud, health, safety violations, and corruption are just a few examples.

Overview

Any kind of misconduct may prompt whistle blowing. The vast majority of cases are based on relatively minor misconduct. The most common type of whistleblowers is internal whistleblowers, who report misconduct to another employee or superior within their company or agency. In contrast, external whistleblowers report misconduct to outside persons or entities.

In these cases, depending on the severity and nature of the wrong-doing, whistleblowers may report the misconduct to lawyers, the media, law enforcement or watchdog agencies, or to other local, state, or federal agencies.

Legal protection for whistleblowers

Legal protection for whistle blowing varies from country to country. In the United Kingdom, the Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998 provides a framework of legal protection for individuals who disclose information so as to expose malpractice and matters of similar concern. In the vernacular, it protects whistleblowers from victimization and dismissal.

ETHICAL RELATIVISM

Ethical relativism is the position that there are no moral absolutes, no moral right and wrongs. Instead, right and wrong are based on social norms. Some have heard of the term situational ethics which is a category of ethical relativism. At any rate, ethical relativism would mean that our morals have evolved, that they have changed over time, and that they are not absolute.

Ethical relativism is the theory that holds that morality is relative to the norms of one's culture. That is, whether an action is right or wrong depends on the moral norms of the society in which it is practiced. The same action may be morally right in one society but be morally wrong in another. For the ethical relativist, there are no universal moral standards -- standards that can be universally applied to all peoples at all times. The only moral standards against which a society's practices can be judged are its own. If ethical relativism is correct, there can be no common framework for resolving moral disputes or for reaching agreement on ethical matters among members of different societies.

Advantage of ethical relativism is that it allows for a wide variety of cultures and practices.  It also allows people to adapt ethically as the culture, knowledge, and technology change in society.  This is good and a valid form of relativism.

The disadvantage of ethical relativism is that truth, right and wrong, and justice is all relative. Just because the group of people thinks that something is right does not make so. Slavery is a good example of this.  Two hundred years ago in America, slavery was the norm and morally acceptable.  Now it is not.  

Within ethical relativism, right and wrong are not absolute and must be determined in society by a combination of observation, logic, social preferences and patterns, experience, emotions, and "rules" that seem to bring the most benefit. Of course, it goes without saying that a society involved in constant moral conflict would not be able to survive for very long. Morality is the glue that holds a society together. There must be a consensus of right and wrong for a society to function well.  Ethical relativism undermines that glue.

Organizational Culture

One of the most important building blocks for a highly successful organization and an extraordinary workplace is "organizational culture." We define organizational culture as the set of shared beliefs, truths, assumptions, and values that operate in organizations.  Organizational culture has been described as "...how people behave when no one is looking." 

"...We believe that organizations will ultimately get only as far as their organizational cultures take them."

Why should you think about this in your organization? Because "behind the scenes" of what happens in the day-to-day life of organizations and employees... is culture. Culture is everywhere. It directly impacts what happens...or does not happen in organizations. At Dynamic Foundations, we place so much stock in organizational culture that we believe organizations will ultimately get only as far as their organizational cultures take them. 

Furthermore, something is driving the development of your culture and sustaining it. Organizational culture is a result of that which precedes it. Why this is so important to understand and what does this mean for you in your organization? It means that if you want to address issues related to your culture, you must focus on the key elements that come together to create and sustain it.

Organizations are more than they appear to be on the surface. Behind products, policies, services, and rewards are the ingredients which determine the results in organization. We believe that organizational culture is a primary, if not the primary determinant of that which separates "champion" from "also-ran" organizations. We believe an organization can go only as far as its culture takes it. We help organizations get their "cultural bearings," get a clear sense of how far they are from where they wish to be, and what it will take to get "there." Then we help organizations move themselves forward.

Organizational Cultural Transformation

Organizational cultural transformation is not for the faint of heart. In fact, many attempts at transforming an organization fail, for a variety of reasons:

"Playing at it" or "dabbling" with it until it's no longer fun Not applying the kind of leadership that would best meet the needs of the situation

Intervening in the wrong places or at the wrong time

Not taking this work seriously enough

Not giving it enough time or attention

Senior leaders "delegating" this work (rather than committing and investing their own time and energies)

Knowing what needs to be done but being unwilling to do it...to go all the way

Not having the people and tools available internally to get the job done

Inability to engage all the right people in the process

Elements of organizational culture may include:

Stated and unstated values. Overt and implicit expectations for member behavior. Customs and rituals. Stories and myths about the history of the group. Shop talk—typical language used in and about the group. Climate—the feelings evoked by the way members interact with each other, with

outsiders, and with their environment, including the physical space they occupy. Metaphors and symbols—may be unconscious but can be found embodied in

other cultural elements.

HOLISTIC APPROACH

What does holistic mean?

Holistic Therapies have been around for thousands of years and were commonly used in ancient Egypt, China, and India for their therapeutic effects. Holistic means Care for the whole person, mind, body and spirit.

Mind - Our mind is our brain. It is also the part of us that thinks, that is logical, the part that works things out through thought. Body - Our body is our physical shell. Spirit - Spirit is the hardest to define. It is the part that makes us who we are, the part that expresses our uniqueness and the origination of our feelings.

The holistic approach to health differs from the conventional medical approach in that it takes into account the whole patient rather than just focusing on the symptom or the part that has the problem. Holistic therapists believe that the body has a vital force or life energy. It is this force that protects the body from disease and allows it to heal. We often refer to it as the "immune system". When the balance of the immune system is disturbed we the see the various symptoms of Dis-ease. Holistic therapies aim to help the patient restore the balance, thus allowing the body to heal itself naturally.

WORK ETHICS

Work Ethic is a set of values based on the moral qualities of hard work and attentiveness. It is also a belief in moral benefit of work and its ability to enhance character. An example would be the Protestant work ethic or Chinese work ethic. A work ethic may include being reliable, having initiative or maintaining social skills.Workers exhibiting a good work ethic in theory (and ideally in practice) should be selected for better positions, more responsibility and ultimately promotion. Workers who fail to exhibit a good work ethic may be regarded as failing to provide fair value for the wage the employer is paying them and should not be promoted or placed in positions of greater responsibility.

The so-called work ethic is generally construed to be a good and impressive thing. It fancies itself a high quality, but like most double-edged swords, it must be handled with care.An ethic, by definition, is a set of moral principles. The word derives from the Greek ethos -- which in turn is “the characteristic spirit or attitudes of a community, people, or system.” Applying work as a modifier, suggests that the work ethic is a characteristic attitude of a group toward what constitutes the morality of work. This can, unfortunately, be taken to boundaries.

CHIEF FINANCIAL OFFICER

The Chief Financial Officer (CFO) of a company or public agency is the corporate officer primarily responsible for managing the financial risks of the business or agency. This officer is also responsible for financial planning and record-keeping, as well as financial reporting to higher management. (In recent years, however, the role has expanded to encompass communicating financial performance and forecasts to the analyst community.) The title is equivalent to finance director, commonly seen in the United Kingdom. The CFO typically reports to the Chief Executive Officer, and is frequently a member of the board of directors.

PURUSHARTHAS

Purusharthas are the canonical four ends or aims of human life. These goals are, from lowest to highest: Purusha means human being and Artha means object or objective. Purusharthas means objectives of man. According to Hindu way of life, a man should strive to achieve four chief objectives (Purusharthas) in his life. They are: 

Kāma - pleasure or love or desire Artha - wealth Dharma - righteousness or morality Moksha - liberation from the cycle of reincarnation or salvation

Every individual in a society is expected to achieve these four objectives and seek fulfillment in his life before departing from here. The concept of Purusharthas clearly establishes the fact that Hinduism does not advocate a life of self negation and hardship, but a life of balance, achievement and fulfillment. 

Dharma

Dharma is a very complicated word, for which there is no equivalent word in any other language, including English. Dharma actually means that which upholds this entire creation. It is a Divine law that is inherent and invisible, but responsible for all existence. Dharma exists in all planes, in all aspects and at all levels of creation. In the context of human life, dharma consists of all that an individual undertakes in harmony with Divine expectations and his own inner spiritual aspirations, actions that would ensure order and harmony with in himself and in the environment in which he lives. Since this world is deluded, a human being may not know what is right and what is wrong or what is dharma and what is adharma. Hence he should rely upon the scriptures and adhere to the injunctions contained there in. In short, dharma for a human being means developing divine virtues and performing actions that are in harmony with the divine laws. 

Dharma is considered to be the first cardinal aim because it is at the root of everything and upholds everything. For example see what happens when a person amasses wealth without observing dharma or indulges in sexual passion against the social norms or established moral values. Any action performed without observing dharma is bound to bring misery and suffering and delay ones salvation. Hinduism therefore considers it rightly as the first cardinal aim of life.

In ancient India dharmashastras (law books) provided guidance to people in their day to day lives and helped them to adhere to dharma. These law books were written for a particular time frame and are no more relevant to the modern world. The best way to know what is dharma and what is adharma, is to follow the religious scriptures such as the Bhagavad-Gita and the Upanishads or any other scripture that contains the words of God.

Artha

Artha means wealth. Hinduism recognizes the importance of material wealth for the overall happiness and well being of an individual. A house holder requires wealth, because he has to perform many duties to uphold dharma and ensure the welfare and progress of his family and society. A person may have the intention to uphold the dharma, but if he has no money he would not be able to perform his duties and fulfill his dharma. Hinduism therefore rightly places material wealth as the second most important objective in human life. Lord Vishnu is the best example for any householder who wants to lead a life of luxury and still be on the side of God doing his duties. As the preserver of the universe, Lord Vishnu lives in Vaikunth amid pomp and glory, with the goddess of

wealth herself by his side and yet helps the poor and the needy, protects the weak, upholds the dharma and sometimes leaving everything aside rushes to the earth as an incarnation to uphold dharma.

Hinduism advocates austerity, simplicity and detachment, but does not glorify poverty. Hinduism also emphasizes the need to observe dharma while amassing the wealth. Poverty has become a grotesque reality in present day Hindu society. Hindus have become so poverty conscious that if a saint or a sage leads a comfortable life, they scoff at him, saying that he is not a true yogi. They have to remind themselves of the simple fact that none of the Hindu gods and goddesses are really poor.

Hinduism believes that both spiritualism and materialism are important for the salvation of human beings. It is unfortunate that Hinduism came to be associated more with spiritualism, probably because of the influence of Buddhism, where as in truth Hinduism does not exclude either of them. As Swami Vivekananda rightly said religion is not for the empty stomachs. Religion is not for those whose main concern from morning till evening is how to make both ends meet. Poverty crushes the spirit of man and renders him an easy prey to wicked forces.

In ancient India Artha shastras (scriptures on wealth) provided necessary guidance to people on the finer aspects of managing their wealth. Kautilya's Artha Shastra, which is probably a compilation of many independent works, gives us a glimpse of how money matters were handled in ancient India.

 Kama

Kama in a wider sense means desire and in a narrow sense, sexual desire. Hinduism prescribes fulfillment of sexual passions for the householders and abstinence from it for the students and ascetics who are engaged in the study of the scriptures and in the pursuit of Brahman. 

The Bhagavad-Gita informs us that desire is an aspect of delusion and one has to be wary of its various movements and manifestations. The best way to deal with desires is to develop detachment and perform desireless actions without seeking the fruit of ones actions and making an offering of all the actions to God. This way our actions would not bind us to the cycle of births and deaths. 

Hinduism permits sexual freedom so long as it is not in conflict with the first aim, i.e. dharma. Hindu scriptures emphasize that the purpose of sex is procreation and perpetuation of family and society, while the purpose of dharma is to ensure order in the institution of family and society. A householder has the permission to indulge in sex, but also has the responsibility to pursue it in accordance with the laws of dharma. Marriage is a recognized social institution and marriage with wife for the purpose of producing children is legitimate and in line with the aims of dharma. Sex in any other form, including sex with wife for pleasure is adharma. (Here we are explaining the logic of the Purusharthas. We are not advocating an opinion.)

 One of the important sects of Hinduism is Tantricism. It recognizes the importance of sexual freedom in the liberation of soul. The Tantrics accept sex as an important means to experience the blissful nature of God and the best way to experience God in physical form. They also refer to the concept of Purusharthas to justify their doctrines. They believe that sexual energy is divine energy and it can be transformed into spiritual energy through controlled expression of sex.

Just as the dharmashastras were written for the sake of dharma, and artha shastras for artha, Kama shastras were composed in ancient India for providing guidance in matters of sex. We have lost many of them because of the extreme secrecy and social disapproval associated with the subject. What we have today is Vatsayana's Kamasutra, which like the Arthashastra seems to be a compilation of various independent works rather the work of a single individual.

Moksha

If dharma guides the life of a human being from below acting as the earth, showing him the way from above like a star studded mysterious sky is Moksha. Dharma constitutes the legs of a Purusha that walk upon the earth; both artha and Kama constitute his two limbs active in the middle region; while Moksha constitutes the head that rests in the heaven. 

Human life is very precious because of all the beings in all the worlds, only human beings have the best opportunity to realize the higher self. It is also precious because it is attained after many hundreds and thousands of lives. Rightly, salvation should be its ultimate aim.

Moksha actually means absence of moha or delusion. Delusion is caused by the inter play of the triple gunas. When a person overcomes these gunas, he attains liberation. The gunas can be overcome by detachment, self control, surrender to god and offering ones actions to God

If dharma is the center of the wheel of human life, artha and Kama are the two spokes and Moksha is its circumference. If dharma is at the center of human life, beyond Moksha there is no human life, but only a life divine. 

The four Purusharthas are also like the four wheels of a chariot called human life. They collectively uphold it and lead it. Each influences the movement of the other three, and in the absence of any one of them, the chariot comes to a halt.

DHARMA

The Sanskrit term Dharma signifies the underlying order in nature human life and behaviour considered to be in accord with that order. Ethically, it means 'right way of living' or 'proper conduct,' especially in a religious sense. With respect to spirituality, dharma might be considered the Way of the Higher Truths. Dharma is a central concept in religions and philosophies originating in India. These religions and philosophies are

called Dharma religions. The principal ones are Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, all of which emphasize Dharma (the correct understanding of Nature) in their teachings. In these traditions, beings that live in accordance with Dharma proceed more quickly toward Dharma Yukam, Moksha or Nirvana (personal liberation). Dharma also refers to the teachings and doctrines of the founders of these traditions, such as those of Gautama Buddha and Mahavira. In traditional Hindu society with its caste structure, Dharma constituted the religious and moral doctrine of the rights and duties of each individual. Dharma in its universal meaning shares much in common with the way of Tao or Taoism.

Dharma (customs)

For many Buddhists, the Dharma most often means the body of teachings expounded by the Buddha. The word is also used in Buddhist phenomenology as a term roughly equivalent to phenomenon, a basic unit of existence and/or experience.

In scripture translations dharma is often best left untranslated, as it has acquired a lively life of its own in English that is more expressive than any simplistic translation. Common translations and glosses include "right way of living," Divine Law, Path of Righteousness, order, faith, "natural harmony," rule, fundamental teachings, and duty. Dharma may be used to refer to rules of the operation of the mind or universe in a metaphysical system, or to rules of comportment in an ethical system.

In modern Indian languages, such as Hindi, dharma can also mean simply "religion." In this meaning, for example, a Muslim is a person who follows "Islam dharma".

NISHKAMA KARMA

Only those prayers which have their origins in the spirit of Nishkama karma, infinite and pure love and an unsullied heart reach the Lord directly. It is not possible for prayers of any other kind to reach Himdirectly. Therefore, it is only through these three media, that is, nishkama karma, boundless love, and an unsullied heart, that we can hope to secure direct contact with the Lord and obtain His Divine sanction to our request.

The Bhagavad-Gita has proclaimed the path of nishkama karma as the royal road to perfection. It exhorts man not to crave for the fruits of action and merely perform one’s duties in a detached manner, leaving the results thereof to the Lord. God does not enjoin man to do any work in particular. He is only the dispenser of the results of the deeds done by humans. He gives the fruits of actions according to the kind of work performed by man. If, without performing good deeds, you pray for personal gain, God merely listens to your entreaties, but does not favour you with His benediction.

ETHICS COMMITTEE

Definitions of Ethics Committee:

An independent group of medical and non-medical people who verify the integrity of a study and ensure the safety, integrity, and human rights of the study participants.

A mandated committee of an institution (hence institutional ethics committee, or IEC, or human research ethics committee, or HREC) that conducts medical research.

A consultative committee in a hospital or other institution whose role is to analyze ethical dilemmas and to advise and educate health care providers, patients, and families regarding difficult treatment decisions.

This is an independent group of people that includes doctors, nurses, medical staff, members of the public and sometimes lawyers. This committee considers and decides if proposed clinical trials are ethical. The details of the proposed trial are considered and that it is looking at an important question that cannot be answered through existing information.

A committee appointed to consider ethical issues

Main functions of the Committee:

The Committee on Ethics was first constituted on March 4, 1997 to oversee the moral and ethical conduct of Members and to examine the cases referred to it with reference to ethical and other misconduct of Members.  In respect of procedure and other matters, the rules applicable to Committee on Privileges were to apply to the Committee with such variations and modifications as the Chairman.

ETHICAL AUDIT

Ethical audit is a new technology which is being developed at the European Institute for Business Ethics (EIBE). There is nothing new about ethical behaviour in business, nor about programmes designed to improve and perhaps formalise an ethical approach to decision making within companies. In recent years many companies have appointed a senior manager with dedicated responsibility for promoting ethical behaviour throughout the company.

Ethical auditing is a process which measures the internal and external consistency of an organization’s values base. The key points are that it is value-linked, and that it incorporates a stakeholder approach.

Its objectives are two-fold: It is intended for accountability and transparency towards stakeholders and it is intended for internal control, to meet the ethical objectives of the organization.

The value of the ethical audit is that it enables the company to see itself through a variety of lenses: it captures the company's ethical profile. Companies recognize the importance of their financial profile for their investors, of their service profile for their customers, and of their profile as an employer for their current and potential employees. An ethical profile brings together all of the factors which affect a company's reputation, by

examining the way in which it does business. By taking a picture of the value system at a given point in time, it can:

Clarify the actual values to which the company operates

Provide a baseline by which to measure future improvement

Learn how to meet any societal expectations which are not currently being

met

Give stakeholders the opportunity to clarify their expectations of the

company's behaviour

Identify specific problem areas within the company

Learn about the issues which motivate employees

Identify general areas of vulnerability, particularly related to lack of

openness

MYTHS (TRADITION) ABOUT BUSINESS ETHICS

1. Business ethics is more a matter of religion than management.

2. Our employees are ethical so we don't need attention to business ethics.

3. Business ethics is a discipline best led by philosophers and academics

4. Business ethics is a matter of the good guys preaching to the bad guys.

5. Ethics can't be managed---Actually, ethics is always "managed" -- but, too often,

indirectly.

6. Business ethics and social responsibility is the same thing.

7. Our organization is not in trouble with the law, so we're ethical.

8. Managing ethics in the workplace has little practical relevance.

BENEFITS OF MANAGING ETHICS IN THE WORKPLACE

1. Attention to business ethics has substantially improved society.

2. Ethics programs help maintain a moral course in turbulent times.

3. Ethics programs cultivate strong teamwork and productivity.

4. Ethics programs support employee growth and meaning.

5. Ethics programs are an insurance policy -- they help ensure that policies are legal.

6. Ethics programs help avoid criminal acts “of omission” and can lower fines.

7. Ethics programs help manage values associated with quality management, strategic

planning and diversity management -- this benefit needs far more attention.

8. Ethics programs promote a strong public image.

BENEFITS OF MANAGING ETHICS

Establish organizational roles to manage ethics

Establish required operating values and behaviours

Align organizational behaviours with operating values

Develop awareness and sensitivity to ethical issues

Integrate ethical guidelines to decision making

Facilitate ongoing evaluation and updates to the program

Help convince employees that attention to ethics is not just a knee-jerk reaction done to get out of trouble or improve public image