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1In this chapter we cover...

Individuals and variables

Categorical variables: piecharts and bar graphs

Quantitative variables:histograms

Interpreting histograms

Quantitative variables:stemplots

Time plots

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Picturing Distributionswith Graphs

Statistics is the science of data. The volume of data available to us is overwhelm-ing. For example, the Census Bureau’s American Community Survey collects datafrom 250,000 households each month. The survey records facts about the house-hold, even what type of plumbing is available. It also records facts about each per-son in the household—age, sex, weight, occupation, income, travel time to work,insurance, and much more. The first step in dealing with such a flood of data is toorganize our thinking about data.

Individuals and variablesAny set of data contains information about some group of individuals. The infor-mation is organized in variables.

INDIVIDUALS AND VARIABLES

Individuals are the objects described by a set of data. Individuals may bepeople, but they may also be animals or things.A variable is any characteristic of an individual. A variable can takedifferent values for different individuals.

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4 C H A P T E R 1 • Picturing Distributions with Graphs

A college’s student data base, for example, includes data about every currentlyenrolled student. The students are the individuals described by the data set. Foreach individual, the data contain the values of variables such as date of birth,choice of major, and grade point average. In practice, any set of data is accom-panied by background information that helps us understand the data. When youplan a statistical study or explore data from someone else’s work, ask yourself thefollowing questions:

1. Who? What individuals do the data describe? How many individuals appearin the data?

2. What? How many variables do the data contain? What are the exactdefinitions of these variables? In what units of measurement is each variablerecorded? Weights, for example, might be recorded in pounds, in thousandsof pounds, or in kilograms.

3. Why? What purpose do the data have? Do we hope to answer some specificquestions? Do we want answers for just these individuals, or for some largergroup that these individuals are supposed to represent? Are the individualsand variables suitable for the intended purpose?

Some variables, like a person’s sex or college major, simply place individualsinto categories. Others, like height and grade point average, take numerical valuesfor which we can do arithmetic. It makes sense to give an average income for acompany’s employees, but it does not make sense to give an “average” sex. Wecan, however, count the numbers of female and male employees and do arithmeticwith these counts.

How much snow?

The TV weather report says Bostongot 24 inches of white stuff. Toreport the value of a variable, wemust first measure it. This isn’talways easy. You can stick a ruler inthe snow . . . but some snow melts,some turns to vapor, and later snowpacks down earlier snow. A tree or ahouse in the neighborhood has a bigeffect. The high-tech methodbounces an ultrasonic beam off thesnow from a tall pole . . . but it worksonly after snow has stopped falling.So we don’t really know how muchsnow Boston got. Let’s just say “alot.”

Courtesy U.S. Census Bureau

CATEGORICAL AND QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES

A categorical variable places an individual into one of several groups orcategories.A quantitative variable takes numerical values for which arithmeticoperations such as adding and averaging make sense. The values of aquantitative variable are usually recorded in a unit of measurement such asseconds or kilograms.

E X A M P L E 1 . 1 The American Community Survey

At the Census Bureau Web site, you can view the detailed data collected by the Amer-ican Community Survey, though of course the identities of people and households areprotected. If you choose the file of data on people, the individuals are more than one mil-lion people in households contacted by the survey. More than 120 variables are recordedfor each individual. Figure 1.1 displays a very small part of the data.

Each row records data on one individual. Each column contains the values ofone variable for all the individuals. Translated from the Census Bureau’s abbreviations,the variables are



Individuals and variables 5

SERIALNO An identifying number for the household.PWGTP Weight in pounds.AGEP Age in years.JWMNP Travel time to work in minutes.SCHL Highest level of education. The categories are designated by numbers.

For example, 9 = high school graduate, 10 = some college but no degree,and 13 = bachelor’s degree.

SEX Sex, designated by 1 = male and 2 = female.WAGP Wage and salary income last year, in dollars.

Look at the highlighted row in Figure 1.1. This individual is a member of Household370. He is a 53-year-old man who weighs 234 pounds, travels 10 minutes to work, has abachelor’s degree, and earned $83,000 last year. Two other people also live in Household370, a 46-year-old woman and an 18-year-old woman.

In addition to the household serial number, there are six variables. Education andsex are categorical variables. The values for education and sex are stored as numbers,but these numbers are just labels for the categories and have no units of measurement.The other four variables are quantitative. Their values do have units. These variablesare weight in pounds, age in years, travel time in minutes, and income in dollars.

The purpose of the American Community Survey is to collect data that representthe entire nation in order to guide government policy and business decisions. To do this,the households contacted are chosen at random from all households in the country. Wewill see in Chapter 8 why choosing at random is a good idea.

SERIAL NO PWGTP AGEP JWMNP SCHL SEX WAGP

A B12

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Each row in the spreadsheetcontains data on one individual.370 234 53 10 13 1 83000

F I G U R E 1 . 1 A spreadsheetdisplaying data from theAmerican Community Survey.

Most data tables follow this format—each row is an individual, and each col-umn is a variable. The data set in Figure 1.1 appears in a spreadsheet program that spreadsheethas rows and columns ready for your use. Spreadsheets are commonly used to enterand transmit data and to do simple calculations.




A P P L Y Y O U R K N O W L E D G E

1.1 Fuel economy. Here is a small part of a data set that describes the fuel economy(in miles per gallon) of 2006 model motor vehicles:

Make and Vehicle Transmission Number of City Highwaymodel type type cylinders MPG MPG...

Audi TT Roadster Two-seater Manual 4 20 29Cadillac CTS Midsize Automatic 6 18 27Dodge Ram 1500 Standard pickup truck Automatic 8 14 19Ford Focus Compact Automatic 4 26 32...

(a) What are the individuals in this data set?

(b) For each individual, what variables are given? Which of these variables arecategorical and which are quantitative?

1.2 Students and TV. You are preparing to study the television-viewing habits ofcollege students. Describe two categorical variables and two quantitative variablesthat you might measure for each student. Give the units of measurement for thequantitative variables.

Categorical variables: pie charts and bar graphsStatistical tools and ideas help us examine data in order to describe their mainfeatures. This examination is called exploratory data analysis. Like an explorerexploratory data analysiscrossing unknown lands, we want first to simply describe what we see. Here aretwo principles that help us organize our exploration of a set of data.

EXPLORING DATA

1. Begin by examining each variable by itself. Then move on to study therelationships among the variables.

2. Begin with a graph or graphs. Then add numerical summaries of specificaspects of the data.

We will also follow these principles in organizing our learning. Chapters 1 to3 present methods for describing a single variable. We study relationships amongseveral variables in Chapters 4 to 6. In each case, we begin with graphical displays,then add numerical summaries for more complete description.



Categorical variables: pie charts and bar graphs 7

The proper choice of graph depends on the nature of the variable. To examinea single variable, we usually want to display its distribution.

DISTRIBUTION OF A VARIABLE

The distribution of a variable tells us what values it takes and how often ittakes these values.The values of a categorical variable are labels for the categories. Thedistribution of a categorical variable lists the categories and gives eitherthe count or the percent of individuals who fall in each category.

E X A M P L E 1 . 2 Radio station formats

The radio audience rating service Arbitron places the country’s 13,838 radio stationsinto categories that describe the kind of programs they broadcast. Here is the distributionof station formats:1

Count PercentFormat of stations of stations

Adult contemporary 1,556 11.2Adult standards 1,196 8.6Contemporary hit 569 4.1Country 2,066 14.9News/Talk/Information 2,179 15.7Oldies 1,060 7.7Religious 2,014 14.6Rock 869 6.3Spanish language 750 5.4Other formats 1,579 11.4

Total 13,838 99.9

It’s a good idea to check data for consistency. The counts should add to 13,838, thetotal number of stations. They do. The percents should add to 100%. In fact, they addto 99.9%. What happened? Each percent is rounded to the nearest tenth. The exactpercents would add to 100, but the rounded percents only come close. This is roundofferror. Roundoff errors don’t point to mistakes in our work, just to the effect of roundingoff results.

Columns of numbers take time to read. You can use a pie chart or a bar graph

roundoff error

to display the distribution of a categorical variable more vividly. Figure 1.2 illus-trates both displays for the distribution of radio stations by format. Pie charts are pie chartawkward to make by hand, but software will do the job for you. A pie chart mustinclude all the categories that make up a whole. Use a pie chart only when you want to

CAUTIONUTIONemphasize each category’s relation to the whole. We need the “Other” formats categoryin Example 1.2 to complete the whole (all radio stations) and allow us to make apie chart. Bar graphs are easier to make and also easier to read, as Figure 1.2(b) bar graph




Religious RockSpanish

Other

Adultcontemporary

Adult standardsContemporary hitCountry

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This wedge occupies 14.9% ofthe pie because 14.9% of stationsfit the "Country" format.

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F I G U R E 1 . 2 You can use either a pie chart or a bar graph to display the distributionof a categorical variable. Here are a pie chart and a bar graph of radio stations by format.

illustrates. Bar graphs are more flexible than pie charts. Both graphs can displaythe distribution of a categorical variable, but a bar graph can also compare any setof quantities that are measured in the same units.

E X A M P L E 1 . 3 Do you listen while you walk?

Portable MP3 music players, such as the Apple iPod, are popular—but not equally pop-ular with people of all ages. Here are the percents of people in various age groups whoown a portable MP3 player.2

Michael A. Keller/CORBIS

Age group Percent owning(years) an MP3 player

12–17 2718–24 1825–34 2035–44 1645–54 1055–64 665+ 2



Categorical variables: pie charts and bar graphs 9

18 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 65 and older12 to 17

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The height of this bar is 20, thepercent of people aged 25 to 34who own an MP3 player.

F I G U R E 1 . 3 Bar graph comparing the percents of several age groups who ownportable MP3 players.

It’s clear that MP3 players are popular mainly among young people. We can’t make a piechart to display these data. Each percent in the table refers to a different age group, notto parts of a single whole. The bar graph in Figure 1.3 compares the seven age groups.

Bar graphs and pie charts help an audience grasp data quickly. They are, how-ever, of limited use for data analysis because it is easy to understand data on a singlecategorical variable without a graph. We will move on to quantitative variables,where graphs are essential tools. But first, here is a question that you should alwaysask when you look at data:

E X A M P L E 1 . 4 Do the data tell you what you want to know?

Let’s say that you plan to buy radio time to advertise your Web site for downloadingMP3 music files. How helpful are the data in Example 1.2? Not very. You are interested,not in counting stations, but in counting listeners. For example, 14.6% of all stations arereligious, but they have only a 5.5% share of the radio audience. In fact, you aren’t eveninterested in the entire radio audience, because MP3 users are mostly young people. Youreally want to know what kinds of radio stations reach the largest numbers of youngpeople. Always think about whether the data you have help answer your questions. CAUTIONUTION





1.3 The color of your car. News from the auto color front: fewer luxury car buyersare choosing “neutral” colors (silver, white, black). Here is the distribution of themost popular colors for 2005 model luxury cars made in North America:3

Color Percent

Silver 20White, pearl 18Black 16Blue 13Light brown 10Red 7Yellow, gold 6

(a) What percent of vehicles are some other color?

(b) Make a bar graph of the color data. Would it be correct to make a pie chart ifyou added an “Other” category?

1.4 Never on Sunday? Births are not, as you might think, evenly distributed acrossthe days of the week. Here are the average numbers of babies born on each day ofthe week in 2003:4

Day Births

Sunday 7,563Monday 11,733Tuesday 13,001Wednesday 12,598Thursday 12,514Friday 12,396Saturday 8,605

Present these data in a well-labeled bar graph. Would it also be correct to make apie chart? Suggest some possible reasons why there are fewer births on weekends.

1.5 Do the data tell you what you want to know? To help you plan advertising fora Web site for downloading MP3 music files, you want to know what percent ofowners of portable MP3 players are 18 to 24 years old. The data in Example 1.3 donot tell you what you want to know. Why not?

Quantitative variables: histogramsQuantitative variables often take many values. The distribution tells us what val-ues the variable takes and how often it takes these values. A graph of the distribu-tion is clearer if nearby values are grouped together. The most common graph ofthe distribution of one quantitative variable is a histogram.histogram



Quantitative variables: histograms 11

E X A M P L E 1 . 5 Making a histogram

The percent of a state’s adult residents who have a college degree says a lot about thestate’s economy. For example, states heavy in agriculture and manufacturing have fewercollege graduates than states with many financial and technological employers. Table 1.1presents the percent of each state’s residents aged 25 and over who hold a bachelor’sdegree.5 The individuals in this data set are the states. The variable is the percent ofcollege graduates among a state’s adults. To make a histogram of the distribution of thisvariable, proceed as follows:

Step 1. Choose the classes. Divide the range of the data into classes of equal width.The data in Table 1.1 range from 17.0 to 44.2, so we decide to use these classes:

15.0 < percent with bachelor’s degree ≤ 20.0

20.0 < percent with bachelor’s degree ≤ 25.0...

40.0 < percent with bachelor’s degree ≤ 45.0

Be sure to specify the classes precisely so that each individual falls into exactly one class.Florida, with 25.0% college graduates, falls into the second class, but a state with 25.1%would fall into the third.

T A B L E 1 . 1 Percent of population aged 25 and over with a bachelor’s degree

State Percent State Percent State Percent

Alabama 21.2 Louisiana 21.3 Ohio 23.0Alaska 26.6 Maine 25.9 Oklahoma 21.9Arizona 24.3 Maryland 34.5 Oregon 26.4Arkansas 19.0 Massachusetts 35.8 Pennsylvania 24.2California 29.1 Michigan 24.3 Rhode Island 29.1Colorado 34.7 Minnesota 30.6 South Carolina 23.2Connecticut 34.6 Mississippi 18.7 South Dakota 23.1Delaware 27.6 Missouri 24.1 Tennessee 21.5Florida 25.0 Montana 25.8 Texas 24.5Georgia 25.7 Nebraska 25.3 Utah 26.2Hawaii 28.2 Nevada 19.5 Vermont 32.0Idaho 24.0 New Hampshire 30.3 Virginia 32.2Illinois 28.1 New Jersey 32.1 Washington 30.2Indiana 21.0 New Mexico 23.7 West Virginia 17.0Iowa 22.5 New York 29.7 Wisconsin 23.8Kansas 28.7 North Carolina 24.3 Wyoming 23.7Kentucky 18.6 North Dakota 25.0 District of Columbia 44.2




Step 2. Count the individuals in each class. Here are the counts:

Class Count

15.1 to 20.0 520.1 to 25.0 2125.1 to 30.0 1430.1 to 35.0 935.1 to 40.0 140.1 to 45.0 1

Check that the counts add to 51, the number of individuals in the data (the 50 statesand the District of Columbia).

Step 3. Draw the histogram. Mark the scale for the variable whose distribution you aredisplaying on the horizontal axis. That’s the percent of a state’s adults with a collegedegree. The scale runs from 15 to 45 because that is the span of the classes we chose.The vertical axis contains the scale of counts. Each bar represents a class. The base ofthe bar covers the class, and the bar height is the class count. There is no horizontalspace between the bars unless a class is empty, so that its bar has height zero. Figure 1.4is our histogram.

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The height of this bar is 14 because14 of the observations have valuesbetween 25.1 and 30.

F I G U R E 1 . 4 Histogram ofthe distribution of the percent ofcollege graduates among theadult residents of the 50 statesand the District of Columbia.

Although histograms resemble bar graphs, their details and uses are different.A histogram displays the distribution of a quantitative variable. The horizontalaxis of a histogram is marked in the units of measurement for the variable. A bar



Quantitative variables: histograms 13

graph compares the size of different items. The horizontal axis of a bar graph neednot have any measurement scale but simply identifies the items being compared.These may be the categories of a categorical variable, but they may also be separate,like the age groups in Example 1.3. Draw bar graphs with blank space between thebars to separate the items being compared. Draw histograms with no space, toindicate that all values of the variable are covered.

Our eyes respond to the area of the bars in a histogram.6 Because the classesare all the same width, area is determined by height and all classes are fairly repre-sented. There is no one right choice of the classes in a histogram. Too few classeswill give a “skyscraper” graph, with all values in a few classes with tall bars. Toomany will produce a “pancake”graph, with most classes having one or no observa-tions. Neither choice will give a good picture of the shape of the distribution. Youmust use your judgment in choosing classes to display the shape. Statistics softwarewill choose the classes for you. The software’s choice is usually a good one, but youcan change it if you want. The histogram function in the One Variable Statistical

APPLETAPPLET

Calculator applet on the text CD and Web site allows you to change the numberof classes by dragging with the mouse, so that it is easy to see how the choice ofclasses affects the histogram.


1.6 Traveling to work. How long must you travel each day to get to work orschool? Table 1.2 gives the average travel time to work for workers in each state

T A B L E 1 . 2 Average travel time to work (minutes) for adults employed outside the home

State Time State Time State Time

Alabama 22.7 Louisiana 23.3 Ohio 22.1Alaska 18.9 Maine 22.6 Oklahoma 19.1Arizona 23.4 Maryland 30.2 Oregon 21.0Arkansas 19.9 Massachusetts 26.0 Pennsylvania 23.8California 26.5 Michigan 22.7 Rhode Island 21.8Colorado 22.9 Minnesota 21.7 South Carolina 23.0Connecticut 23.6 Mississippi 21.6 South Dakota 15.2Delaware 22.5 Missouri 23.3 Tennessee 23.4Florida 24.8 Montana 16.9 Texas 23.7Georgia 26.1 Nebraska 16.5 Utah 19.7Hawaii 24.5 Nevada 21.8 Vermont 20.3Idaho 19.5 New Hampshire 24.6 Virginia 25.8Illinois 27.0 New Jersey 28.5 Washington 24.8Indiana 21.2 New Mexico 19.4 West Virginia 24.7Iowa 18.1 New York 30.4 Wisconsin 20.4Kansas 17.5 North Carolina 23.2 Wyoming 17.5Kentucky 22.1 North Dakota 15.4 District of Columbia 28.4




who are at least 16 years old and don’t work at home.7 Make a histogram of thetravel times using classes of width 2 minutes starting at 15 minutes. (Make thishistogram by hand even if you have software, to be sure you understand theprocess. You may then want to compare your histogram with your software’schoice.)

1.7 Choosing classes in a histogram. The data set menu that accompanies the One

APPLETAPPLET

Variable Statistical Calculator applet includes the data on college graduates in thestates from Table 1.1. Choose these data, then click on the “Histogram” tab to seea histogram.

(a) How many classes does the applet choose to use? (You can click on the graphoutside the bars to get a count of classes.)

(b) Click on the graph and drag to the left. What is the smallest number ofclasses you can get? What are the lower and upper bounds of each class? (Click onthe bar to find out.) Make a rough sketch of this histogram.

(c) Click and drag to the right. What is the greatest number of classes you canget? How many observations does the largest class have?

(d) You see that the choice of classes changes the appearance of a histogram.Drag back and forth until you get the histogram you think best displays thedistribution. How many classes did you use?

Interpreting histogramsMaking a statistical graph is not an end in itself. The purpose of the graph isto help us understand the data. After you make a graph, always ask, “What do Isee?” Once you have displayed a distribution, you can see its important features asfollows.

EXAMINING A HISTOGRAM

In any graph of data, look for the overall pattern and for striking deviationsfrom that pattern.You can describe the overall pattern of a histogram by its shape, center, andspread.An important kind of deviation is an outlier, an individual value that fallsoutside the overall pattern.

One way to describe the center of a distribution is by its midpoint, the valuewith roughly half the observations taking smaller values and half taking largervalues. For now, we will describe the spread of a distribution by giving the small-est and largest values. We will learn better ways to describe center and spread inChapter 2.



Interpreting histograms 15

E X A M P L E 1 . 6 Describing a distribution

Look again at the histogram in Figure 1.4. Shape: The distribution has a single peak,which represents states in which between 20% and 25% of adults have a college degree.The distribution is skewed to the right. Most states have no more than 30% college grad-uates, but several states have higher percents, so that the graph extends to the right ofits peak farther than it extends to the left. Center: The counts in Example 1.5 showthat 26 of the 51 states (including DC) have 25% or fewer college graduates. So themidpoint of the distribution is 25%. Spread: The spread is from 17% to 44.2%, but onlytwo observations fall above 35%. These are Massachusetts at 35.8% and the District ofColumbia at 44.2%.

Outliers: In Figure 1.4, the two observations greater than 35% are part of thelong right tail but don’t stand apart from the overall distribution. This histogram, withonly 6 classes, hides much of the detail in the distribution. Look at Figure 1.5, a his-togram of the same data with twice as many classes. It is now clear that the District ofColumbia, at 44.2%, does stand apart from the other observations. It is 8.4% higher thanMassachusetts, the second-highest value.

Once you have spotted possible outliers, look for an explanation. Some outliers aredue to mistakes, such as typing 10.1 as 101. Other outliers point to the special nature ofsome observations. The District of Columbia is a city rather than a state, and we expecturban areas to have lots of college graduates.

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An outlier is an observationthat falls outside theoverall pattern.

F I G U R E 1 . 5 Anotherhistogram of the distribution ofthe percent of college graduates,with twice as many classes asFigure 1.4. Histograms withmore classes show more detailbut may have a less clearpattern.

Comparing Figures 1.4 and 1.5 reminds us that the choice of classes in a histogram

CAUTIONUTION

can influence the appearance of a distribution. Both histograms portray a right-skeweddistribution with one peak, but only Figure 1.5 shows the outlier.

When you describe a distribution, concentrate on the main features. Look formajor peaks, not for minor ups and downs in the bars of the histogram. Look for




clear outliers, not just for the smallest and largest observations. Look for roughsymmetry or clear skewness.

SYMMETRIC AND SKEWED DISTRIBUTIONS

A distribution is symmetric if the right and left sides of the histogram areapproximately mirror images of each other.A distribution is skewed to the right if the right side of the histogram(containing the half of the observations with larger values) extends muchfarther out than the left side. It is skewed to the left if the left side of thehistogram extends much farther out than the right side.

Courtesy Riverside Publishing

Here are more examples of describing the overall pattern of a histogram.

clusters

E X A M P L E 1 . 7 Iowa Test scores

Figure 1.6 displays the scores of all 947 seventh-grade students in the public schools ofGary, Indiana, on the vocabulary part of the Iowa Test of Basic Skills.8 The distributionis single-peaked and symmetric. In mathematics, the two sides of symmetric patterns areexact mirror images. Real data are almost never exactly symmetric. We are content todescribe Figure 1.6 as symmetric. The center (half above, half below) is close to 7. Thisis seventh-grade reading level. The scores range from 2.0 (second-grade level) to 12.1(twelfth-grade level).

Notice that the vertical scale in Figure 1.6 is not the count of students but the percentof Gary students in each histogram class. A histogram of percents rather than counts isconvenient when we want to compare several distributions. To compare Gary with LosAngeles, a much bigger city, we would use percents so that both histograms have thesame vertical scale.

E X A M P L E 1 . 8 College costs

Jeanna plans to attend college in her home state of Massachusetts. On the CollegeBoard’s Web site she finds data on tuition and fees for the 2004–2005 academic year.Figure 1.7 displays the charges for in-state students at all 59 four-year colleges and uni-versities in Massachusetts (omitting art schools and other special colleges). As is of-ten the case, we can’t call this irregular distribution either symmetric or skewed. Thebig feature of the overall pattern is three peaks, corresponding to three clusters ofcolleges.

Clusters suggest that several types of individuals are mixed in the data set. Twelvecolleges charge less than $10,000; 11 of these are the 11 state colleges and universitiesin Massachusetts. The remaining 47 colleges are all private institutions with tuitionand fees exceeding $13,000. These appear to fall into two clusters, roughly described asregional institutions that charge between $15,000 and $25,000 and national institutions(think of Harvard and Mount Holyoke) with tuitions above $28,000. Only a few collegesfall between these clusters.



Interpreting histograms 17

2 10 12

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F I G U R E 1 . 6 Histogram ofthe Iowa Test vocabulary scoresof all seventh-grade students inGary, Indiana. This distributionis single-peaked and symmetric.

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F I G U R E 1 . 7 Histogram ofthe tuition and fee charges forfour-year colleges inMassachusetts. The threeclusters distinguish publiccolleges at the left from twogroups of private institutions atthe right.




Giving the center and spread of this distribution is not very useful because the datamix several kinds of colleges. It would be better to describe public and private collegesseparately.

The overall shape of a distribution is important information about a vari-able. Some variables have distributions with predictable shapes. Many biologi-cal measurements on specimens from the same species and sex—lengths of birdbills, heights of young women—have symmetric distributions. On the other hand,data on people’s incomes are usually strongly skewed to the right. There are manymoderate incomes, some large incomes, and a few enormous incomes. Many dis-tributions have irregular shapes that are neither symmetric nor skewed. Some datashow other patterns, such as the clusters in Figure 1.7. Use your eyes, describe thepattern you see, and then try to explain the pattern.


1.8 Traveling to work. In Exercise 1.6, you made a histogram of the averagetravel times to work in Table 1.2. The shape of the distribution is a bit irregular.Is it closer to symmetric or skewed? About where is the center (midpoint)of the data? What is the spread in terms of the smallest and largestvalues?

1.9 Foreign-born residents. The states differ greatly in the percent of theirresidents who were born outside the United States. California leads with 26.5%foreign-born. Figure 1.8 is a histogram of the distribution of percent foreign-bornresidents in the states.9 Describe the shape of this distribution. Within whichclass does the midpoint of the distribution lie?

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F I G U R E 1 . 8 Histogram ofthe percents of state residentsborn outside the United States,for Exercise 1.9.



Quantitative variables: stemplots 19

Quantitative variables: stemplotsHistograms are not the only graphical display of distributions. For small data sets,a stemplot is quicker to make and presents more detailed information.

STEMPLOT

To make a stemplot:1. Separate each observation into a stem, consisting of all but the final

(rightmost) digit, and a leaf, the final digit. Stems may have as manydigits as needed, but each leaf contains only a single digit.

2. Write the stems in a vertical column with the smallest at the top, anddraw a vertical line at the right of this column.

3. Write each leaf in the row to the right of its stem, in increasing orderout from the stem.

E X A M P L E 1 . 9 Making a stemplot

Table 1.1 presents the percents of state residents aged 25 and over who have collegedegrees. To make a stemplot of these data, take the whole-number part of the percentas the stem and the final digit (tenths) as the leaf. The Kentucky entry, 18.6%, has stem18 and leaf 6. Mississippi, at 18.7%, places leaf 7 on the same stem. These are the onlyobservations on this stem. Arrange the leaves in order, so that 18 | 6 7 is one row inthe stemplot. Figure 1.9 is the complete stemplot for the data in Table 1.1.

The vital few

Skewed distributions can show uswhere to concentrate our efforts.Ten percent of the cars on the roadaccount for half of all carbondioxide emissions. A histogram ofCO2 emissions would show manycars with small or moderate valuesand a few with very high values.Cleaning up or replacing these carswould reduce pollution at a costmuch lower than that of programsaimed at all cars. Statisticians whowork at improving quality inindustry make a principle of this:distinguish “the vital few” from “thetrivial many.”

A stemplot looks like a histogram turned on end. Compare the stemplot in Fig-ure 1.9 with the histograms of the same data in Figures 1.4 and 1.5. The stemplot islike a histogram with many classes. You can choose the classes in a histogram. Theclasses (the stems) of a stemplot are given to you. All three graphs show a distribu-tion that has one peak and is right-skewed. Figures 1.5 and 1.9 have enough classesto make clear that the District of Columbia (44.2%) is an outlier. Histograms aremore flexible than stemplots because you can choose the classes. But the stemplot,unlike the histogram, preserves the actual value of each observation. Stemplots do CAUTIONUTION

not work well for large data sets, where each stem must hold a large number of leaves.Don’t try to make a stemplot of a large data set, such as the 947 Iowa Test scoresin Figure 1.6.

Courtesy Department of Civil Engineering,University of New Mexico

E X A M P L E 1 . 1 0 Pulling wood apart

Student engineers learn that although handbooks give the strength of a material as asingle number, in fact the strength varies from piece to piece. A vital lesson in all fieldsof study is that “variation is everywhere.” The following are data from a typical studentlaboratory exercise: the load in pounds needed to pull apart pieces of Douglas fir 4 incheslong and 1.5 inches square.




0

6 7

0 5

0 2 3 5 9

5

0 1 2 7 7 8

0 1 2 3 3 3 5

0 0 3 7 8 9

2 4 6

6

1 2 7

1 1 7

2 3 6

0 1 2

5 6 7

8

2

The 18 stem contains thevalues 18.6 for Kentuckyand 18.7 for Mississippi.

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

F I G U R E 1 . 9 Stemplot ofthe percents of adults withcollege degrees in the states.Each stem is a percent andleaves are tenths of a percent.

33,190 31,860 32,590 26,520 33,28032,320 33,020 32,030 30,460 32,70023,040 30,930 32,720 33,650 32,34024,050 30,170 31,300 28,730 31,920

A stemplot of these data would have very many stems and no leaves or just one leaf onmost stems. So we first round the data to the nearest hundred pounds. The rounded dataroundingare

332 319 326 265 333 323 330 320 305 327230 309 327 337 323 241 302 313 287 319

Now we can make a stemplot with the first two digits (thousands of pounds) as stemsand the third digit (hundreds of pounds) as leaves. Figure 1.10 is the stemplot. Rotatethe stemplot counterclockwise so that it resembles a histogram, with 230 at the left endof the scale. This makes it clear that the distribution is skewed to the left. The midpointis around 320 (32,000 pounds) and the spread is from 230 to 337. Because of the strongskew, we are reluctant to call the smallest observations outliers. They appear to be partof the long left tail of the distribution. Before using wood like this in construction, weshould ask why some pieces are much weaker than the rest.



Quantitative variables: stemplots 21

23

24

25

26

2 7

28

29

30

31

32

33

0

5

7

2 5 9

3 9 9

0 3 3 6 7 7

0 2 3 7

1

F I G U R E 1 . 1 0 Stemplotof the breaking strength ofpieces of wood, rounded tothe nearest hundred pounds.Stems are thousands ofpounds and leaves arehundreds of pounds.

Comparing Figures 1.9 (right-skewed) and 1.10 (left-skewed) reminds us thatthe direction of skewness is the direction of the long tail, not the direction where most

CAUTIONUTIONobservations are clustered.You can also split stems in a stemplot to double the number of stems when all splitting stems

the leaves would otherwise fall on just a few stems. Each stem then appears twice.Leaves 0 to 4 go on the upper stem, and leaves 5 to 9 go on the lower stem. If yousplit the stems in the stemplot of Figure 1.10, for example, the 32 and 33 stemsbecome

32

32

33

33

0 3 3

6 7 7

0 2 3

7

Rounding and splitting stems are matters for judgment, like choosing the classes ina histogram. The wood strength data require rounding but don’t require splittingstems. The One Variable Statistical Calculator applet on the text CD and Web site

APPLETAPPLETallows you to decide whether to split stems, so that it is easy to see the effect.

Karen Kasmauski/CORBIS


1.10 Traveling to work. Make a stemplot of the average travel times to work inTable 1.2. Use whole minutes as your stems. Because the stemplot preserves theactual value of the observations, it is easy to find the midpoint (26th of the 51observations in order) and the spread. What are they?

1.11 Glucose levels. People with diabetes must monitor and control their bloodglucose level. The goal is to maintain “fasting plasma glucose” between about 90and 130 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl). The following are the fasting plasmaglucose levels for 18 diabetics enrolled in a diabetes control class, five monthsafter the end of the class:10

141 158 112 153 134 95 96 78 148172 200 271 103 172 359 145 147 255

Make a stemplot of these data and describe the main features of the distribution.(You will want to round and also split stems.) Are there outliers? How well is thegroup as a whole achieving the goal for controlling glucose levels?




Time plotsMany variables are measured at intervals over time. We might, for example, mea-sure the height of a growing child or the price of a stock at the end of each month.In these examples, our main interest is change over time. To display change overtime, make a time plot.

Courtesy U.S. Geological Survey

TIME PLOT

A time plot of a variable plots each observation against the time at which itwas measured. Always put time on the horizontal scale of your plot and thevariable you are measuring on the vertical scale. Connecting the datapoints by lines helps emphasize any change over time.

E X A M P L E 1 . 1 1 Water levels in the Everglades

Water levels in Everglades National Park are critical to the survival of this unique region.The photo shows a water-monitoring station in Shark River Slough, the main path forsurface water moving through the “river of grass” that is the Everglades. Figure 1.11 is atime plot of water levels at this station from mid-August 2000 to mid-June 2003.11

1/1/2001 7/1/2001 1/1/2002 7/1/2002 1/1/2003 7/1/2003

Date

Wat

er d

epth

(m

eter

s)

−0.4

−0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8 Water level peaked at

0.52 meter on October4, 5, and 6, 2000.

F I G U R E 1 . 1 1 Time plot ofwater depth at a monitoringstation in Everglades NationalPark over a period of almostthree years. The yearly cyclesreflect Florida’s wet and dryseasons.



Chapter 1 Summary 23

When you examine a time plot, look once again for an overall pattern and forstrong deviations from the pattern. Figure 1.11 shows strong cycles, regular up- cyclesand-down movements in water level. The cycles show the effects of Florida’s wetseason (roughly June to November) and dry season (roughly December to May).Water levels are highest in late fall. In April and May of 2001 and 2002, waterlevels were less than zero—the water table was below ground level and the surfacewas dry. If you look closely, you can see year-to-year variation. The dry seasonin 2003 ended early, with the first-ever April tropical storm. In consequence, thedry-season water level in 2003 never dipped below zero.

Another common overall pattern in a time plot is a trend, a long-term upward trendor downward movement over time. Many economic variables show an upwardtrend. Incomes, house prices, and (alas) college tuitions tend to move generallyupward over time.

Histograms and time plots give different kinds of information about a variable.The time plot in Figure 1.11 presents time series data that show the change in time serieswater level at one location over time. A histogram displays cross-sectional data, cross-sectionalsuch as water levels at many locations in the Everglades at the same time.


1.12 The cost of college. Here are data on the average tuition and fees charged bypublic four-year colleges and universities for the 1976 to 2005 academic years.Because almost any variable measured in dollars increases over time due toinflation (the falling buying power of a dollar), the values are given in “constantdollars,” adjusted to have the same buying power that a dollar had in 2005.12

Year Tuition Year Tuition Year Tuition Year Tuition

1976 $2,059 1984 $2,274 1992 $3,208 2000 $3,9251977 $2,049 1985 $2,373 1993 $3,396 2001 $4,1401978 $1,968 1986 $2,490 1994 $3,523 2002 $4,4081979 $1,862 1987 $2,511 1995 $3,564 2003 $4,8901980 $1,818 1988 $2,551 1996 $3,668 2004 $5,2391981 $1,892 1989 $2,617 1997 $3,768 2005 $5,4911982 $2,058 1990 $2,791 1998 $3,8691983 $2,210 1991 $2,987 1999 $3,894

(a) Make a time plot of average tuition and fees.

(b) What overall pattern does your plot show?

(c) Some possible deviations from the overall pattern are outliers, periods ofdecreasing charges (in 2005 dollars), and periods of particularly rapid increase.Which are present in your plot, and during which years?

C H A P T E R 1 SUMMARYA data set contains information on a number of individuals. Individuals may bepeople, animals, or things. For each individual, the data give values for one ormore variables. A variable describes some characteristic of an individual, such asa person’s height, sex, or salary.




Some variables are categorical and others are quantitative. A categoricalvariable places each individual into a category, like male or female. Aquantitative variable has numerical values that measure some characteristic ofeach individual, like height in centimeters or salary in dollars.Exploratory data analysis uses graphs and numerical summaries to describe thevariables in a data set and the relations among them.After you understand the background of your data (individuals, variables, units ofmeasurement), the first thing to do is almost always plot your data.The distribution of a variable describes what values the variable takes and howoften it takes these values. Pie charts and bar graphs display the distribution of acategorical variable. Bar graphs can also compare any set of quantities measuredin the same units. Histograms and stemplots graph the distribution of aquantitative variable.When examining any graph, look for an overall pattern and for notabledeviations from the pattern.Shape, center, and spread describe the overall pattern of the distribution of aquantitative variable. Some distributions have simple shapes, such as symmetricor skewed. Not all distributions have a simple overall shape, especially whenthere are few observations.Outliers are observations that lie outside the overall pattern of a distribution.Always look for outliers and try to explain them.When observations on a variable are taken over time, make a time plot thatgraphs time horizontally and the values of the variable vertically. A time plot canreveal trends, cycles, or other changes over time.

C H E C K Y O U R S K I L L S

The Check Your Skills multiple-choice exercises ask straightforward questions aboutbasic facts from the chapter. Answers to all of these exercises appear in the back of thebook. You should expect all of your answers to be correct.

1.13 Here are the first lines of a professor’s data set at the end of a statistics course:

Name Major Points GradeADVANI, SURA COMM 397 BBARTON, DAVID HIST 323 CBROWN, ANNETTE BIOL 446 ACHIU, SUN PSYC 405 BCORTEZ, MARIA PSYC 461 A

The individuals in these data are

(a) the students.

(b) the total points.

(c) the course grades.

1.14 To display the distribution of grades (A, B, C, D, F) in a course, it would becorrect to use



Check Your Skills 25

(a) a pie chart but not a bar graph.

(b) a bar graph but not a pie chart.

(c) either a pie chart or a bar graph.

1.15 A study of recent college graduates records the sex and total college debt indollars for 10,000 people a year after they graduate from college.

(a) Sex and college debt are both categorical variables.

(b) Sex and college debt are both quantitative variables.

(c) Sex is a categorical variable and college debt is a quantitative variable.

Figure 1.7 (page 17) is a histogram of the tuition and fee charges for the 2004–2005academic year for 59 four-year colleges in Massachusetts. The following two exercisesare based on this histogram.

1.16 The number of colleges with tuition and fee charges covered by the leftmost barin the histogram is

(a) 4000.

(b) 6.

(c) 7.

1.17 The leftmost bar in the histogram covers tuition and fee charges ranging fromabout

(a) $3500 to $7500.

(b) $4000 to $7000.

(c) $4500 to $7500.

1.18 Here are the IQ test scores of 10 randomly chosen fifth-grade students:

145 139 126 122 125 130 96 110 118 118To make a stemplot of these scores, you would use as stems

(a) 0 and 1.

(b) 09, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14.

(c) 96, 110, 118, 122, 125, 126, 130, 139, and 145.

1.19 The population of the United States is aging, though less rapidly than in otherdeveloped countries. Here is a stemplot of the percents of residents aged 65 andolder in the 50 states, according to the 2000 census. The stems are whole percentsand the leaves are tenths of a percent.

10

1 1

12

13

14

15

16

17

7

5

6 7 9

6

0 2 2 3 3 6 7 7

0 0 1 1 1 1 3 4 4 5 7 8 9

0 0 0 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 5 5 6 8

0 3 4 5 7 9

3 6

6

5

6

7

89




There are two outliers: Alaska has the lowest percent of older residents, andFlorida has the highest. What is the percent for Florida?

(a) 5.7%

(b) 17.6%

(c) 176%

1.20 Ignoring the outliers, the shape of the distribution in Exercise 1.19 is

(a) somewhat skewed to the right.

(b) close to symmetric.

(c) somewhat skewed to the left.

1.21 The center of the distribution in Exercise 1.19 is close to

(a) 12.7%.

(b) 13.5%.

(c) 5.7% to 17.6%.

1.22 You look at real estate ads for houses in Sarasota, Florida. There are many housesranging from $200,000 to $400,000 in price. The few houses on the water,however, have prices up to $15 million. The distribution of house prices will be

(a) skewed to the left.

(b) roughly symmetric.

(c) skewed to the right.

C H A P T E R 1 EXERCISES

1.23 Protecting wood. How can we help wood surfaces resist weathering, especiallywhen restoring historic wooden buildings? In a study of this question, researchersprepared wooden panels and then exposed them to the weather. Here are some ofthe variables recorded. Which of these variables are categorical and which arequantitative?

(a) Type of wood (yellow poplar, pine, cedar)

(b) Type of water repellent (solvent-based, water-based)

(c) Paint thickness (millimeters)

(d) Paint color (white, gray, light blue)

(e) Weathering time (months)

1.24 Baseball players. Here is a small part of a data set that describes Major LeagueBaseball players as of opening day of the 2005 season:

Player Team Position Age Height Weight Salary

Ortiz, David Red Sox Outfielder 29 6-4 230 5,250,000Nix, Laynce Rangers Outfielder 24 6-0 200 316,000Perez, Antonio Dodgers Infielder 25 5-11 175 320,500Piazza, Mike Mets Catcher 36 6-3 215 16,071,429Rolen, Scott Cardinals Infielder 30 6-4 240 10,715,509



Chapter 1 Exercises 27

(a) What individuals does this data set describe?

(b) In addition to the player’s name, how many variables does the data setcontain? Which of these variables are categorical and which are quantitative?

(c) Based on the data in the table, what do you think are the units ofmeasurement for each of the quantitative variables?

1.25 Car colors in Europe. Exercise 1.3 (page 10) gives data on the most popularcolors for luxury cars made in North America. Here are similar data for luxurycars made in Europe:13

Color Percent

Black 30Silver 24Gray 19Blue 14Green 3White, pearl 3

What percent of European luxury cars have other colors? Make a graph of thesedata. What are the most important differences between color preferences inEurope and North America?

1.26 Deaths among young people. The number of deaths among persons aged 15 to24 years in the United States in 2003 due to the leading causes of death for thisage group were accidents, 14,966; homicide, 5148; suicide, 3921; cancer, 1628;heart disease, 1083; congenital defects, 425.14

(a) Make a bar graph to display these data.

(b) What additional information do you need to make a pie chart?

1.27 Hispanic origins. Figure 1.12 is a pie chart prepared by the Census Bureau toshow the origin of the 35.3 million Hispanics in the United States, according tothe 2000 census.15 About what percent of Hispanics are Mexican? Puerto Rican?You see that it is hard to determine numbers from a pie chart. Bar graphs aremuch easier to use.

Puerto Rican

Cuban

Mexican

Central American

South American

All otherHispanic

F I G U R E 1 . 1 2 Pie chart ofthe national origins of Hispanicresidents of the United States,for Exercise 1.27.




1.28 The audience for movies. Here are data on the percent of people in several agegroups who attended a movie in the past 12 months:16

Age group Movie attendance

18 to 24 years 83%25 to 34 years 73%35 to 44 years 68%45 to 54 years 60%55 to 64 years 47%65 to 74 years 32%75 years and over 20%

(a) Display these data in a bar graph. What is the main feature ofthe data?

(b) Would it be correct to make a pie chart of these data?Why?

(c) A movie studio wants to know what percent of the total audience formovies is 18 to 24 years old. Explain why these data do not answer thisquestion.

1.29 Spam. Email spam is the curse of the Internet. Here is a compilation of the mostcommon types of spam:17

Type of spam Percent

Adult 14.5Financial 16.2Health 7.3Leisure 7.8Products 21.0Scams 14.2

Make two bar graphs of these percents, one with bars ordered as in the table(alphabetically) and the other with bars in order from tallest to shortest.Comparisons are easier if you order the bars by height. A bar graph ordered fromtallest to shortest bar is sometimes called a Pareto chart, after the Italianeconomist who recommended this procedure.

1.30 Do adolescent girls eat fruit? We all know that fruit is good for us. Many of us

Pareto chart

don’t eat enough. Figure 1.13 is a histogram of the number of servings of fruit perday claimed by 74 seventeen-year-old girls in a study in Pennsylvania.18 Describethe shape, center, and spread of this distribution. What percent of these girls atefewer than two servings per day?

1.31 Returns on common stocks. The return on a stock is the change in itsmarket price plus any dividend payments made. Total return is usuallyexpressed as a percent of the beginning price. Figure 1.14 is a histogram of the




0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

010

15

Servings of fruit per day

Nu

mb

er o

f su

bje

cts

5

F I G U R E 1 . 1 3 Thedistribution of fruitconsumption in a sample of 74seventeen-year-old girls, forExercise 1.30.

−25 −20 −10−15 −5 0 5 10 15

010

2030

6050

40

Percent return on common stocks

Co

un

t o

f m

on

ths

F I G U R E 1 . 1 4 Thedistribution of monthly percentreturns on U.S. common stocksfrom January 1980 to March2005, for Exercise 1.31.




distribution of the monthly returns for all stocks listed on U.S. markets fromJanuary 1980 to March 2005 (243 months).19 The extreme low outlier is themarket crash of October 1987, when stocks lost 23% of their value in onemonth.

(a) Ignoring the outliers, describe the overall shape of the distribution ofmonthly returns.

(b) What is the approximate center of this distribution? (For now, take thecenter to be the value with roughly half the months having lower returns andhalf having higher returns.)

(c) Approximately what were the smallest and largest monthly returns,leaving out the outliers? (This is one way to describe the spread of thedistribution.)

(d) A return less than zero means that stocks lost value in that month. Aboutwhat percent of all months had returns less than zero?

1.32 Name that variable. A survey of a large college class asked the followingquestions:

1. Are you female or male? (In the data, male = 0, female = 1.)

2. Are you right-handed or left-handed? (In the data, right = 0,left = 1.)

3. What is your height in inches?

4. How many minutes do you study on a typical weeknight?

Figure 1.15 shows histograms of the student responses, in scrambled order andwithout scale markings. Which histogram goes with each variable? Explain yourreasoning.

1.33 Tornado damage. The states differ greatly in the kinds of severe weather thatafflict them. Table 1.3 shows the average property damage caused by tornadoes peryear over the period from 1950 to 1999 in each of the 50 states and Puerto Rico.20

(To adjust for the changing buying power of the dollar over time, all damageswere restated in 1999 dollars.)

(a) What are the top five states for tornado damage? The bottom five? (IncludePuerto Rico, though it is not a state.)

(b) Make a histogram of the data, by hand or using software, with classes“0 ≤ damage < 10,” “10 ≤ damage < 20,” and so on. Describe the shape, center,and spread of the distribution. Which states may be outliers? (To understandthe outliers, note that most tornadoes in largely rural states such as Kansascause little property damage. Damage to crops is not counted as propertydamage.)

(c) If you are using software, also display the “default” histogram that yoursoftware makes when you give it no instructions. How does this compare withyour graph in (b)?

Reuters/CORBIS 1.34 Where are the doctors? Table 1.4 gives the number of active medical doctorsper 100,000 people in each state.21

(a) Why is the number of doctors per 100,000 people a better measure of theavailability of health care than a simple count of the number of doctors in astate?




(a) (b)

(c) (d)

F I G U R E 1 . 1 5 Histograms of four distributions, for Exercise 1.32.

(b) Make a histogram that displays the distribution of doctors per 100,000people. Write a brief description of the distribution. Are there any outliers? If so,can you explain them?

1.35 Carbon dioxide emissions. Burning fuels in power plants or motor vehiclesemits carbon dioxide (CO2), which contributes to global warming. Table 1.5displays CO2 emissions per person from countries with populations of at least20 million.22

(a) Why do you think we choose to measure emissions per person rather thantotal CO2 emissions for each country?

(b) Make a stemplot to display the data of Table 1.5. Describe the shape, center,and spread of the distribution. Which countries are outliers?




T A B L E 1 . 3 Average property damage per year due to tornadoes

Damage Damage DamageState ($millions) State ($millions) State ($millions)

Alabama 51.88 Louisiana 27.75 Ohio 44.36Alaska 0.00 Maine 0.53 Oklahoma 81.94Arizona 3.47 Maryland 2.33 Oregon 5.52Arkansas 40.96 Massachusetts 4.42 Pennsylvania 17.11California 3.68 Michigan 29.88 Puerto Rico 0.05Colorado 4.62 Minnesota 84.84 Rhode Island 0.09Connecticut 2.26 Mississippi 43.62 South Carolina 17.19Delaware 0.27 Missouri 68.93 South Dakota 10.64Florida 37.32 Montana 2.27 Tennessee 23.47Georgia 51.68 Nebraska 30.26 Texas 88.60Hawaii 0.34 Nevada 0.10 Utah 3.57Idaho 0.26 New Hampshire 0.66 Vermont 0.24Illinois 62.94 New Jersey 2.94 Virginia 7.42Indiana 53.13 New Mexico 1.49 Washington 2.37Iowa 49.51 New York 15.73 West Virginia 2.14Kansas 49.28 North Carolina 14.90 Wisconsin 31.33Kentucky 24.84 North Dakota 14.69 Wyoming 1.78

T A B L E 1 . 4 Medical doctors per 100,000 people, by state (2002)

State Doctors State Doctors State Doctors

Alabama 202 Louisiana 258 Ohio 248Alaska 194 Maine 250 Oklahoma 163Arizona 196 Maryland 378 Oregon 242Arkansas 194 Massachusetts 427 Pennsylvania 291California 252 Michigan 230 Rhode Island 341Colorado 236 Minnesota 263 South Carolina 219Connecticut 360 Mississippi 171 South Dakota 201Delaware 242 Missouri 233 Tennessee 250Florida 237 Montana 215 Texas 204Georgia 208 Nebraska 230 Utah 200Hawaii 280 Nevada 174 Vermont 346Idaho 161 New Hampshire 251 Virginia 253Illinois 265 New Jersey 305 Washington 250Indiana 207 New Mexico 222 West Virginia 221Iowa 178 New York 385 Wisconsin 256Kansas 210 North Carolina 241 Wyoming 176Kentucky 219 North Dakota 228 District of Columbia 683




T A B L E 1 . 5 Carbon dioxide emissions, metric tons per person

Country CO2 Country CO2 Country CO2

Algeria 2.3 Italy 7.3 Poland 8.0Argentina 3.9 Iran 3.8 Romania 3.9Australia 17.0 Iraq 3.6 Russia 10.2Bangladesh 0.2 Japan 9.1 Saudi Arabia 11.0Brazil 1.8 Kenya 0.3 South Africa 8.1Canada 16.0 Korea, North 9.7 Spain 6.8China 2.5 Korea, South 8.8 Sudan 0.2Colombia 1.4 Malaysia 4.6 Tanzania 0.1Congo 0.0 Mexico 3.7 Thailand 2.5Egypt 1.7 Morocco 1.0 Turkey 2.8Ethiopia 0.0 Myanmar 0.2 Ukraine 7.6France 6.1 Nepal 0.1 United Kingdom 9.0Germany 10.0 Nigeria 0.3 United States 19.9Ghana 0.2 Pakistan 0.7 Uzbekistan 4.8India 0.9 Peru 0.8 Venezuela 5.1Indonesia 1.2 Philippines 0.9 Vietnam 0.5

1.36 Rock sole in the Bering Sea. “Recruitment,” the addition of new members to afish population, is an important measure of the health of ocean ecosystems. Hereare data on the recruitment of rock sole in the Bering Sea from 1973 to2000:23

Sarkis Images/Alamy

Recruitment Recruitment Recruitment RecruitmentYear (millions) Year (millions) Year (millions) Year (millions)

1973 173 1980 1411 1987 4700 1994 5051974 234 1981 1431 1988 1702 1995 3041975 616 1982 1250 1989 1119 1996 4251976 344 1983 2246 1990 2407 1997 2141977 515 1984 1793 1991 1049 1998 3851978 576 1985 1793 1992 505 1999 4451979 727 1986 2809 1993 998 2000 676

Make a stemplot to display the distribution of yearly rock sole recruitment.(Round to the nearest hundred and split the stems.) Describe the shape, center,and spread of the distribution and any striking deviations that you see.

1.37 Do women study more than men? We asked the students in a largefirst-year college class how many minutes they studied on a typical weeknight.




Here are the responses of random samples of 30 women and 30 men from theclass:

Women Men

180 120 180 360 240 90 120 30 90 200120 180 120 240 170 90 45 30 120 75150 120 180 180 150 150 120 60 240 300200 150 180 150 180 240 60 120 60 30120 60 120 180 180 30 230 120 95 150

90 240 180 115 120 0 200 120 120 180

(a) Examine the data. Why are you not surprised that most responses aremultiples of 10 minutes? We eliminated one student who claimed to study 30,000minutes per night. Are there any other responses you consider suspicious?

(b) Make a back-to-back stemplot to compare the two samples. That is, use oneback-to-back stemplotset of stems with two sets of leaves, one to the right and one to the left of thestems. (Draw a line on either side of the stems to separate stems and leaves.)Order both sets of leaves from smallest at the stem to largest away from the stem.Report the approximate midpoints of both groups. Does it appear that womenstudy more than men (or at least claim that they do)?

1.38 Rock sole in the Bering Sea. Make a time plot of the rock sole recruitmentdata in Exercise 1.36. What does the time plot show that your stemplot inExercise 1.36 did not show? When you have time series data, a time plot is oftenneeded to understand what is happening.

1.39 Marijuana and traffic accidents. Researchers in New Zealand interviewed 907drivers at age 21. They had data on traffic accidents and they asked their subjectsabout marijuana use. Here are data on the numbers of accidents caused by thesedrivers at age 19, broken down by marijuana use at the same age:24

Marijuana Use per Year

Never 1–10 times 11–50 times 51+ times

Drivers 452 229 70 156Accidents caused 59 36 15 50

(a) Explain carefully why a useful graph must compare rates (accidents per driver)rather than counts of accidents in the four marijuana use classes.

(b) Make a graph that displays the accident rate for each class. What do youconclude? (You can’t conclude that marijuana use causes accidents, because risktakers are more likely both to drive aggressively and to use marijuana.)

1.40 Dates on coins. Sketch a histogram for a distribution that is skewed to the left.Suppose that you and your friends emptied your pockets of coins and recorded theyear marked on each coin. The distribution of dates would be skewed to the left.Explain why.




1.41 General Motors versus Toyota. The J. D. Power Initial Quality Study pollsmore than 50,000 buyers of new motor vehicles 90 days after their purchase. Atwo-page questionnaire asks about “things gone wrong.” Here are data onproblems per 100 vehicles for vehicles made by Toyota and by General Motors inrecent years. Make two time plots in the same graph to compare Toyota and GM.What are the most important conclusions you can draw from your graph?

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

GM 187 179 164 147 130 134 120Toyota 156 134 116 115 107 115 101

1.42 Watch those scales! The impression that a time plot gives depends on thescales you use on the two axes. If you stretch the vertical axis and compress thetime axis, change appears to be more rapid. Compressing the vertical axis andstretching the time axis make change appear slower. Make two more time plots ofthe college tuition data in Exercise 1.12 (page 23), one that makes tuition appearto increase very rapidly and one that shows only a gentle increase. The moral ofthis exercise is: pay close attention to the scales when you look at a time plot.

1.43 Orange prices. Figure 1.16 is a time plot of the average price of fresh orangeseach month from March 1995 to March 2005.25 The prices are “index numbers”given as percents of the average price during 1982 to 1984.

Year

Ret

ail p

rice

of

fres

h o

ran

ges

20052004200320022001200019991998199719961995

200

250

300

350

400

F I G U R E 1 . 1 6 Time plot of the monthly retail price of fresh oranges from March1995 to March 2005, for Exercise 1.43.




(a) The most notable pattern in this time plot is yearly cycles. At what season ofthe year are orange prices highest? Lowest? (To read the graph, note that the tickmark for each year is at the beginning of the year.) The cycles are explained bythe time of the orange harvest in Florida.

(b) Is there a longer-term trend visible in addition to the cycles? If so, describe it.

1.44 Alligator attacks. Here are data on the number of unprovoked attacks byalligators on people in Florida over a 33-year period:26

Year Attacks Year Attacks Year Attacks Year Attacks

1972 5 1981 5 1990 18 1999 151973 3 1982 6 1991 18 2000 231974 4 1983 6 1992 10 2001 171975 5 1984 5 1993 18 2002 141976 2 1985 3 1994 22 2003 61977 14 1986 13 1995 19 2004 111978 5 1987 9 1996 131979 2 1988 9 1997 111980 4 1989 13 1998 9

Make two graphs of these data to illustrate why you should always make a timeplot for data collected over time.

(a) Make a histogram of the counts of attacks. What is the overall shape of thedistribution? What is the midpoint of the yearly counts of alligator attacks?

(b) Make a time plot. What overall pattern does your plot show? Why is thetypical number of attacks from 1972 to 2004 not very useful in (say) 2006? (Themain reason for the time trend is the continuing increase in Florida’s population.)

1.45 To split or not to split. The data sets in the One Variable Statistical Calculator

APPLETAPPLET

applet on the text CD and Web site include the “pulling wood apart” data fromExample 1.10. The applet rounds the data in the same way as Figure 1.10(page 21). Use the applet to make a stemplot with split stems. Do you prefer thisstemplot or that in Figure 1.10? Explain your choice.

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