In a Unitary Government

8/12/2019 In a Unitary Government

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In a unitary government, the central government possesses much authority and decision-making power. Local governing bodies simply serve as administrative arms of the centralgovernment. Great Britain is a familiar example of a unitary government; individual Britishcounties have little of the power commonly exercised by American states. France, with 90departments grouped into 36 provinces, also has a unitary form of government. It isimportant, however, to note that unitary governments are not inherently less democratic thanother forms.

In a federal government, power is split between a central government authority and itsconstituent states. Usually, an overriding law of the land, known as a constitution, allocatesduties, rights, and privileges to each level of government. The constitution usually defineshow power is shared between national, state, and local governments; the power to amendthis constitution is usually granted to the citizens or their governmental representatives.Federal vs. Unitary Governments

In a unitary government the power is held by one central authority but in a federalgovernment, the power is divided between national (federal) government and local (state)governments. In recent years there has been a strong global trend toward federalgovernments. Unitary systems have been sharply curtailed in a number of countries andscrapped together in others. France is a good example of a nation-state that has a longtradition of a unitary government in which a very strong national government dominates localgovernment decisions. Their basic form of governments consists of 96 departments thateach has an elected general council. The administrative head is elected by the national

government as opposed to being elected by the people. The French government hasgranted additional legal powers to the departments and communes over recent years. Localgovernments can now borrow money freely to finance local projects without governmentapproval. In a unitary government, the central government possesses much authority anddecision-making power. Local governing bodies simply serve as administrative arms of thecentral government. Great Britain is a familiar example of a unitary government; individualBritish counties have little of the power commonly exercised by American states. Places likethe United Kingdom, where England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland have their owninternal governments are still subject to the laws created by the Parliament of the UnitedKingdom. The devolved governments cannot challenge the constitutionality of acts ofParliament, and the powers of the devolved governments can be revoked or reduced by thecentral government (the Parliament with a government comprising the Cabinet, headed by

the Prime Minister).


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In a federal government, power is split between a central government authority and itsconstituent states. Usually, an overriding law of the land, known as a constitution, allocatesduties, rights, and privileges to each level of government. The constitution usually defineshow power is shared between national, state, and local governments. The United States isconsidered the first modern federation. After declaring independence from Britain, the U.S.adopted its first constitution, the Articles of Confederation in 1781. This was the first steptowards federalism by establishing the federal Congress. This is a government with strongcentral powers.

Federal Versus Unitary GovernmentThe government of any state is organized generally in two main ways: The unitary system orthe federal system. As more and more ethnicities move towards self-determinism,governments restructure their system to transfer limited authority to regional or localgovernments from the national government. In this sense, ethnicities can possess majoritycontrol of a local unit of government without compromising a higher power.

Unitary State: Places most power in the hands of central government officials.

Federal State: Allocates strong power to units of local government within a country.

What also must be taken into consideration is that a countrys cultural and physicalcharacteristics influence the type of government that is in existence. An example would be atheocratic government, which is a government based on religion and the law provided. Thistype of government is in existence in many Middle Eastern countries because the religionthat is dominant there encompasses directional law that covers all aspects of life includingthe system of government.

Federal governmentFederal Government System: This type of government system distributes power from thenational government to local governments in order to adopt their own laws within reason of

the country. Multinational states tend to adopt a federal system of government to empowerdifferent nationalities and avoid political instability. Under a federal system, local governmentboundaries can be drawn to encompass a region inhabited by a certain ethnicity. The federalsystem also works effectively for larger states because the capital may be too far away toefficiently control further regions. However the size of state does not always reveal its type ofgovernment because Belgium for example, is a small country with a federal system for thepurpose of managing two majority ethnicities. Another example would be the large state ofChina, which has a unitary government to spread and diffuse Communist values.* Has multiple hierarchy levels, with both the central authority and the states (or provinces)both being sovereign.* The central (national) rules override the state rules* Has a balance between them. (The US)

* Shared between national and local levels. In a federal form of government, the term"federal" is also used to refer to the national level of government.

Federal Government-a government with strong central powers-Allows much authority-Goes along with a multi national state-Power is diffused-Gives more power to local territories/ provinces to make rules/laws-The U.S. has a federal government-Students of federal governments will note that within a basic federal political system, thereare two or more levels of government that exist within an established territory and governthrough common institutions with overlapping or shared powers as prescribed by aconstitution.


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Unitary governmentUnitary Government System: This type of government system works best in nation-stateswhere few cultural differences exist within the state and a strong sense of national pride andunity is prevalent. Since the power is centralized in a unitary system, there must be efficientcommunication throughout the country, therefore smaller states tend to have unitarygovernment systems. Governments of this type are common in Europe. Although typicallynation-states tend to have a unitary system in place, multi-national states have also had aunitary system in the past. When a unitary system exists in a multinational state, it is oftenpredictable that values and beliefs of one nationality are imposed over the lesser ones.When Communist parties controlled government, many Eastern European countries hadunitary systems to spread and promote diffusion of Communist values.* There is no hierarchy of sovereign powers.* States have no authority to pass their own laws, and the central (national) government canorder the states to do anything. (Just like a state can order a town to do anything, becausethe town is not sovereign.)* The federal government has a huge percentage of the power. (Japan)

Unitary-Government system-Central government possesses most of the authority-Uniformly applied-Tends to be dictatorship/totalitarianism-France is a unitary government but is democratic-Power is centrally concentrated-Little to no provincial authority-Major decisions are made by the central government-Tends to go along with nation-state-A unitary state is a country whose three organs of state are governed as one single unit.

-In a unitary state, any sub-governmental units can be created or abolished, and have theirpowers varied, by the central government.-A unitary state can broaden and narrow the functions of such devolved governmentswithout formal agreement from the affected bodies.

Nation vs. Multinational StateNation-State?-The nation-state is a certain form of state that derives its legitimacy from serving as asovereign entity for a nation as a sovereign territorial unit.-a specific form of state, which exists to provide a sovereign territory for a particular nationand which derives its legitimacy from that function.-Minimizes conflict and makes for stronger states

-Organized by race or cultural background- On the other hand, there are strong states with sizeable minorities-a single nation comprises the bulk of the population- Examples: Japan, Denmark, and Poland-The term "nation-state" implies that the two geographically coincide, and this distinguishesthe nation state from the other types of state, which historically preceded it.-Has different attitudes to their territory and other territory-has defined borders and territories-cannot exist when there is a defined ethnic and cultural group that exists without territorialborders.

Multinational State-A state in which consists of two or more ethnically distinct nations of significant size-Contrast with nation-state


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-Majority of population is not ethnically homogenous-China and India are the two largest multinational states in the world; having more than abillion peoples each.-Examples: UK of England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland

Supranationalism-Definition: The tendency for states to give up political power to a higher authority in pursuitof common objectives. (Political, Economic, Military, Environmentally)- Method of decision-making in multi-national political communities, wherein power istransferred to an authority broader than governments of member states.- A supranational authority, by definition, can have some independence from member stategovernments, although not as much independence as with federal governments.-Organizations that take part in supranationalism: EU, EEC, Common market, Benelux,NAFTA, ASEAN, UN, NATO, Warsaw Pact, League of Nations, Arab League, SEATO, OAS,CARICOM, ACS, Andean Group, MERCOSUR, AU, ECOWAS, APEC, CIS, OPEC,NORDEN, Central American Common Market

-The USSR, East and West Germany, and the United Kingdom are NOT supranationalistorganizations.-Supranationalism has had a great effect on most European countries. Some of the changesthat have been brought uponThese countries are as follows:1. Larger markets (greater trade, free trade, reduced tariffs, greater economic property)2. Greater international influence (greater political/economic power, greater ability tocompeteTo compete with economies of other countries3. Open borders (labor, tourists)4. Common Currency5. Common policy {resources, agriculture, economic,

Environment, trade, military)Loss of controls over individual policy-Another method of decision-making in international organizations is intergovernmental, inwhich state governments play a more prominent role.

Devolution-Definition: The process whereby regions within a state demand and gain political strengthand growing autonomy at the expense of the central government.-The process in which sub-government units and/or national or regional parliaments arecreated by a central government.- The statutory granting of powers from the central government of a state to government at asubnational level, such as a regional, local, or state level.

- The devolution can be mainly financial, e.g. giving areas a budget which was formerlyadministered by central government.-The breakup of a state, which is the process of balkanization.-Europe is one of the places that have changed through devolution as well. The results wereas follows:1. Formation of new states/governments2. More power to regions3. Political instability (civil war, fighting, hostility, conflict, etc.)4. Mass migration-Examples of devolution:1. Balkanization in Yugoslavia/ Balkans2. Demand for greater autonomy (required I.D. of internal units or groups) in countries withinthe U.K., Belgium, Canada, Spain, Italy, France, U.S., India, and Pakistan.


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Literacy inIndiais key for socio-economic progress,[1]and the Indianliteracy rate grew to

74.04% in 2011 from 12% at the end ofBritish rule in 1947.[2][3]Although this was a greater

than sixfold improvement, the level is well below the world average literacy rate of

84%,[4]and of all nations, India currently has the largestilliterate population.[5]Despite

government programmes, India's literacy rate increased only "sluggishly,"[6]and a 1990

study estimated that it would take until 2060 for India to achieve universal literacy at then-

current rate of progress.[7]The 2011 census, however, indicated a 20012011 decadal

literacy growth of 9.2%, which is the slower than the growth seen during the previous

decade.

There is a wide gender disparity in the literacy rate in India: effective literacy rates (age 7

and above) in 2011 were 82.14% for men and 65.46% for women.[8]The low female literacy

rate has had a dramatically negative impact on family planning and population stabillisation

efforts in India. Studies have indicated that female literacy is a strong predictor of the use of

contraception among married Indian couples, even when women do not otherwise have

economic independence.[9]The census provided a positive indication that growth in female

literacy rates (11.8%) was substantially faster than in male literacy rates (6.9%) in the 2001

2011 decadal period, which means the gender gap appears to be narrowing.

Comparative literacy statistics

The table below shows the adult and youth literacy rates for India and some neighbouring

countries in 2002.[11]Adult literacy rate is based on the 15+ years age group, while Youth

literacy rate is for the 1524 years age group (i.e. youth is a subset of adults).

Country Adult Literacy Rate Youth Literacy Rate

China 95.9% (2009)[12] 99.4% (2009)[13]

Sri Lanka 90.8 (2007) 98.0

Burma 89.9% (2007)[14] 94.4% (2004)[15]

Iran 82.4% (2007)[16] 95% (2002)[17]

World Average 84% (1998)[4] 88% (2001)[18]

India 74.04% (2011)[19] 82% (2011)[3]

Nepal 56.5% (2007) 62.7%
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India#cite_note-popstu1996gyq-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_planning_in_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_planning_in_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India#cite_note-ewc1990gyq-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India#cite_note-indiainfo2008ghf-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India#cite_note-rediff2007gsh-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illiteracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India#cite_note-nytimes1998hsj-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India#cite_note-nayaka1974-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India#cite_note-nayaka1974-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_rajhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_ratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India#cite_note-unesco2009sda-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India


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Pakistan 62.2% (2007)[20] 73.9% (2010)

Bangladesh 53.5% (2007) 74%

Reasons for low literacy rate

The absence of adequate school infrastructure like improper facilities and inefficient teaching

staff is one of the main factors affecting literacy in India. There is a shortage of classrooms

to accommodate all the students in 20062007.[21]In addition, there is no proper sanitation in

most schools. The study of 188 government-run primary schools in central and northern

India revealed that 59% of the schools had no drinking water facility and 89% no toilets .[22]In

600,000 villages and multiplying urban slum habitats, 'free and compulsory education' is the

basic literacy instruction dispensed by barely qualified 'para teachers'.[23]The average Pupil

Teacher Ratio for All India is 1:42, implying teacher shortage.[24]

Such inadequacies resultedin a non-standardized school system where literacy rates may differ.[23]Furthermore, the

expenditure allocated to education was never above 4.3% of the GDP from 19512002

despite the target of 6% by the Kothari Commission.[25]This further complicates the literacy

problem in India.

Severe caste disparities also exist.[23]Discrimination of lower castes has resulted in high

dropout rates and low enrolment rates. The National Sample Survey Organisation and the

National Family Health Survey collected data in India on the percentage of children

completing primary school which are reported to be only 36.8% and 37.7%

respectively.[26]On 21 February 2005, the Prime Minister of India said that he was pained to

note that only 47 out of 100 children enrolled in class I reach class VIII, putting the dropoutrate at 52.78 per cent.[24]It is estimated that at least 35 million, and possibly as many as 60

million, children aged 614 years are not in school.[23]

Absolute poverty in India has also deterred the pursuit of formal education as education is

not deemed of as the highest priority among the poor as compared to other basic

necessities. The MRP-based (mixed recall period) poverty estimates of about 22% of

poverty in 200405 which translated to 22 out of per 100 people are not meeting their basic

needs, much less than meeting the need for education.[27]

The large proportion of illiterate females is another reason for the low literacy rate in India.

Inequality based on gender differences resulted in female literacy rates being lower at

65.46% than that of their male counterparts at 82.14%.[28]Due to strong stereotyping of

female and male roles, Sons are thought of to be more useful and hence are educated.

Females are pulled to help out on agricultural farms at home as they are increasingly

replacing the males on such activities which require no formal education.[29]Fewer than 2%

of girls who engaged in agriculture work attended school.
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Growth of literacy

The British Period

Literacy in India grew very slowly until independence in 1947. An acceleration in the rate of

literacy growth occurred in the 19912001 period.

Prior to the British era, education in Indian commenced under the supervision of a guru in

traditional schools calledgurukuls.The gurukuls were supported by public donation and were

one of the earliest forms of public school offices. However these Gurukuls catered only to

the Upper castes of the Indian society and the overwhelming masses were denied any

formal education.

In the colonial era, the gurukul system began to decline as the system promoted by the

British began to gradually take over. Between 188182 and 194647, the number of English

primary schools grew from 82,916 to 134,866 and the number of students in English Schools

grew from 2,061,541 to 10,525,943. Literacy rates in accordance to British in India rose from3.2 per cent in 1881 to 7.2 per cent in 1931 and 12.2 per cent in 1947 .[2]

In 200001, there were 60,840 pre-primary and pre-basic schools, and 664,041 primary and

junior basic schools.[30]Total enrolment at the primary level has increased from 19,200,000

in 195051 to 109,800,000 in 200102.[31]The number of high schools in 200001 was

higher than the number of primary schools at the time of independence.[2][30]

In 1944, the Government of British India presented a plan, called theSergeant Scheme for

the educational reconstruction of India, with a goal of producing 100% literacy in the country

within 40 years, i.e. by 1984.[32]Although the 40-year time-frame was derided at the time by

leaders of theIndian independence movement as being too long a period to achieve

universal literacy,[32]India had only just crossed the 74% level by the 2011 census.

Post Independence

The provision of universal and compulsory education for all children in the age group of 614

was a cherished national ideal and had been given overriding priority by incorporaton as

aDirective Policy in Article 45 of the Constitution,but it is still to be achieved more than half

a century since the Constitution was adopted in 1949.Parliament has passed the

Constitution 86th Amendment Act, 2002, to make elementary education aFundamental

Right for children in the age group of 614 years.[33]In order to provide more funds for

education, an education cess of 2 per cent has been imposed on all direct and indirectcentral taxes through the Finance (No. 2) Act, 2004.[34]
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The literacy rate grew from 18.33 per cent in 1951, to 28.30 per cent in 1961, 34.45 per cent

in 1971, 43.57 per cent in 1981, 52.21 per cent in 1991, 64.84 per cent in 2001 and 74.04

per cent in 2011.[35]During the same period, the population grew from 361 million to 1,210

million.

Literacy rate variations between states

The literacy rates ofdifferent Indian states in 2001 and 2011.

Kerala is the most literate state in India, with 93.91% literacy, followed byLakshadweep at

92.28%.Bihar is the least literate state in India, with a literacy of 63.82%.[36]Several other

social indicators of the two states are correlated with these rates, such as life expectancy at

birth (71.61 for males and 75 for females inKerala,65.66 for males and 64.79 for females in

Bihar), infant mortality per 1,000 live births (10 in Kerala, 61 in Bihar), birth rate per 1,000

people (16.9 in Kerala, 30.9 in Bihar) and death rate per 1,000 people (6.4 in Kerala, 7.9 in

Bihar).[37]

Every census since 1881 had indicated rising literacy in the country, but the population

growth rate had been high enough that the absolute number of illiterates rose with every

decade. The 20012011 decade is the second census period (after the 19912001 census

period) when the absolute number of Indian illiterates declined (by 31,196,847 people),

indicating that the literacy growth rate is now outstripping the population growth rate.[38]

[Bihar]is the only remaining Indian state in the 2011 census where less than 65% of the

population was literate.[38]It is also only one of two states where less than 75% of the male

population (the other being Arunachal Pradesh) was literate and only one of two states

where less than 55% of the female population (the other beingRajasthan)was literate.

[38]

SixIndian states account for about 70% of all illiterates inIndia:Uttar Pradesh,Bihar,Madhya

Pradesh,Rajasthan,Andhra Pradesh andWest Bengal.[39]Slightly less than half of all Indian

illiterates (48.12%) are in the six Hindi-speaking states ofUttar Pradesh, Bihar,Rajasthan,

Madhya Pradesh,Jharkhand andChhattisgarh.[39]

Large variations in literacy exist even between contiguous states. While there are few states

at the top and bottom, most states are just above or below the national average.

Learnings from State Literacy Efforts in India

Several states in India have executed successful programmes to boost literacy rates. Over

time, a set of factors have emerged as being key to success: official will to succeed,deliberate steps to engage the community in administering the programne, adequate funding
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for infrastructure and teachers, and provisioning additional services which are considered

valuable by the community (such as free school lunches).

Bihar Literacy Challenges

Bihar has significantly raised the literacy rate as per the 2011 census. The literacy rate has

risen from 39% in 1991 to 47% in 2001 to 63.8% in 2011.[38]

The Government of Bihar haslaunched several programmes to boost literacy, and its Department of Adult Education even

won a UNESCO award in 1981.[40]

Extensive impoverishment, entrenched hierarchical social divisions and the lack of

correlation between educational attainment and job opportunities are often cited in studies of

the hurdles literacy programmes face in Bihar. Children from "lower castes" are frequently

denied school attendance and harassed when they do attend.[41]In areas where there is no

discrimination, poor funding and impoverished families means that children often cannot

afford textbooks and stationery.[41]

When children do get educated, the general lack of economic progress in the state means

that government jobs are the only alternative to farm labour, yet these jobs, in practice,

require bribes to secure which poorer families cannot afford.[41]This leads to educated

youths working on the farms, much as uneducated ones do, and leads parents to question

the investment of sending children to school in the first place.[41]Bihar's government schools

have also faced teacher absenteeism, leading the state government to threaten withholding

of salaries of teachers who failed to conduct classes on a regular basis .[42]To incentivise

students to attend, the government announced a Rupee 1 per school-day grant to poor

children who show up at school.[42]

Kerala literacy successes

Kerala has the highest literacy rate among the states of India, followed by the stateofMizoram.Kerala topped the Education Development Index (EDI) among 21 major states

in India in year 20062007.[143] More than 94% of the rural population has access to

primary school within 1 km, while 98% of population benefits one school within a distance of

2 km. An upper primary school within a distance of 3 km is available for more than 96% of

the people, whose 98% benefit the facility for secondary education within 8 km. The access

for rural students to higher educational institutions in cities is facilitated by widely subsidised

transport fares.Kerala's educational system has been developed by institutions owned or

aided by the government. In the educational system prevailed in the state, schooling is for 10

years which is subdivided into lower primary, upper primary and high school. After 10 years

of secondary schooling, students typically enroll in Higher Secondary Schooling in one of thethree major streamsliberal arts, commerce or science. Upon completing the required

coursework, students can enroll in general or professional undergraduate

programmes.Kerala undertook a "campaign for total literacy" inErnakulam district in the late

1980s, with a "fusion between the district administration headed by its Collector on one side

and, on the other side, voluntary groups, social activists and others".[43]On 4 February 1990,

. TheGovernment of Kerala then replicated the initiative on a statewide level, launching the

Kerala State Literacy Campaign.[43]First, households were surveyed with door-to-door,

multistage survey visits to form an accurate picture of the literacy landscape and areas that

needed special focus. Then, Kala Jthas(cultural troupes) and Sksharata Pada

Ytras(Literacy Foot Marches) were organised to generate awareness of the campaign and

create a receptive social atmosphere for the programme.[43]An integrated management
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system was created involving state officials, prominent social figures, local -officials and

senior voluntary workers to oversee the execution of the campaign.[43]

Himachal Pradesh literacy successes

Strong government action and community support made Himachal Pradeshone of India's

most literate states by 2001

Himachal Pradesh underwent a "Schooling Revolution" in the 19612001 period that has

been called "even more impressive thanKerala's."[44]Keralahas led the nation in literacy

rates since the 19th century and seen sustained initiatives for over 150 years, whereas

Himachal Pradesh's literacy rates in 1961 were below the national average in every age

group.[44]In the three decadal 19611991 period, female literacy in the 1519 years age

group went from 11% to 86%.[44]School attendance for both boys and girls in the 614-year

age group stood at over 97% each when measured in the 199899 school year.[44]

A key factor that has been credited for these advances is Himachal's cultural background.

Himachal Pradesh is aHimalayan state with lower social stratification than many other

states, which enables social programmes to be carried out more smoothly. Once theGovernment of Himachal Pradesh was able to establish a social norm that "schooling is an

essential part of every child's upbringing," literacy as a normal attribute of life was adopted

very rapidly.[44]Government efforts in expanding schools and providing teachers were

sustained after the 1960s and communities often responded very collaboratively, including

with constructing school rooms and providing firewood essential during the Himalayan

winters.[44]

Mizoram literacy successes

Mizoram is the second most literate state in all of India, second only to Kerala, with Serchhip

and Aizawl districts being the two most literate districts in India (literacy rate is 98.76% and

98.50%),both in Mizoram[38]Mizoram's literacy rate rose rapidly after independence: from31.14% in 1951 to 88.80% in 2001.[45]As in Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram has a social

structure that is relatively free of hierarchy and strong official intent to produce total

literacy.[46]The government identified illiterates and organised an administrative structure

that engaged officials and community leaders, and manned by "animators" who were

responsible for teaching five illiterates each.[47]Mizoram established 360 continuing

education centres to handle continued education beyond the initial literacy teaching and to

provide an educational safety net for school drop-outs.[47]

Tamil Nadu literacy successes

Tamil Nadu is the most literate state of India according to the HRD ministry of India's 2003

statistics. One of the pioneers of the scheme is the Madras that started providing cooked
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meals to children in corporation schools in the Madras city in 1923.The programme was

introduced in a large scale in 1960s under the Chief Ministership of K. Kamaraj.The first

major thrust came in 1982 when Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, Dr. M. G. Ramachandran,

decided to universalise the scheme for all children up to class 10.Tamil Nadu's midday meal

programme is among the best known in the country.[48]Starting in 1982, Tamil Nadu took an

approach to promoting literacy based on free lunches for schoolchildren, "ignoring cynics

who said it was an electoral gimmick and economists who said it made little fiscal

sense."[49]The then chief minister of Tamil Nadu,MGR launched the programme, which

resembled a similar initiative in 19th century Japan, because "he had experienced as a child

what it was like to go hungry to school with the family having no money to buy food".[49]

Eventually, the programme covered all children under the age of 15, as well as pregnant

women for the first four months of their pregnancy. Tamil Nadu's literacy rate rose from

54.4% in 1981 to 80.3% in 2011.[49]In 2001, theSupreme Court of India instructed all state

governments to implement free school lunches in all government-funded schools, but

implementation has been patchy due to corruption and social issues.[49]Despite these

hurdles, 120 million receive free lunches in Indian schools every day, making it the largest

school meal program in the world.[50]

Rajasthan literacy successes

Although the decadal rise from 200111 was only 7% (60.4% in 2001 to 67.1% in

2011)Rajasthan had the biggest percentage decadal (19912001) increase in literacy of all

Indian states, from about 38% to about 61%, a leapfrog that has been termed "spectacular"

by some observers.[51]Aggressive state government action, in the form of theDistrict

Primary Education Programme, theShiksha Karmi initiative and theLok

Jumbish programme, are credited with the rapid improvement.[52]Virtually every village in

Rajasthan now has primary school coverage.[51]

When statehood was granted to Rajasthanin 1956, it was the least literate state in India with a literacy rate of 18%.[52]

Social commentary

Apart from above, the corporate sector in India has pitched in with the aim of improving

literacy, primarily in villages around their factories.For example J K group has helped so far

29,000 plus citizens of India, mostly village women, to move towards literacywhich means

being able to sign their name / read sign boards & handle money, in local languages in eight

different states. TATA group claims to have added 175,000 literates using their Computer

Based Functional Literacy (CBFL) method.

Literacy efforts

Theright to education is a fundamental right,[53]and UNESCO aims at education for all by

2015.[53]India, along with the Arab states and sub-Saharan Africa, has a literacy level below

the threshold level of 75%, but efforts are on to achieve that level. The campaign to achieve

at least the threshold literacy level represents the largest ever civil and military mobilisation

in the country.[54]International Literacy Dayis celebrated each year on 8 September with the

aim to highlight the importance of literacy to individuals, communities and societies.

Government schemes

National Literacy Mission

The National Literacy Mission, launched in 1988, aimed at attaining a literacy rate of 75 percent by 2007. It imparts functional literacy to non-literates in the age group of 1535 years.
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The Total Literacy Campaignis the principal strategy of the NLM for eradication of illiteracy.

The Continuing Education Schemeprovides a learning continuum to the efforts of the Total

Literacy andPost literacy programmes.[33]

The Census 2001 provisional reports indicate that India has made significant progress in the

field of literacy during the decade since the previous census in 1991.The literacy rate in 2001has been recorded at 64.84% as against 52.21% in 1991.The 12.63 percentage points

increase in the literacy rate during the period is the highest increase in any decade.Also for

the first time there is a decline in the absolute number of non-literates during the past 10

years.The total number of non literates has come down from 328 million in 1991 to 304

million in 2001.During 1991-2000, the population in 7+ age group increased by 176 millions

while 201 million additional persons became literate during that period.Out of 864 million

people above the age of 7 years, 560 million are now literates.Three-fourths of our male

population and more than half of the female population are literate.This indeed is an

encouraging indicator for us to speed up our march towards the goal of achieving a

sustainable threshold literacy rate of 75% by 2007. The Census 2001 provisional figures

also indicate that the efforts of the nation during the past decade to remove the scourge of

illiteracy have not gone in vain.The eradication of illiteracy from a vast country like India

beset by several social and economic hurdles is not an easy task.Realising this the National

Literacy Mission was set up on 5th May,1988 to impart a new sense of urgency and

seriousness to adult education.After the success of the areas specific,time bound, voluntary

based campaign approach first in Kottayam city and then in Ernakulum district in Kerala in

1990,the National Literacy Mission had accepted the literacy campaigns as the dominant

strategy for eradication of illiteracy. Out of 600 districts in the country,597 districts have

already been covered under Total Literacy Campaigns.The number of continuing education

districts is 328.The creditable performance of the National Literacy Mission received

international recognition when it was awarded the UNESCO Noma Literacy Prize for1999.The International Jury while selecting NLM for the prize recognised its initiation of the

Total Literacy Campaigns and also its efforts in galvanising activities towards integration,

conservation of the environment,promotion of women's equality,and the preservation of

family customs and traditions.The Jury also appreciated the training imparted by NLM,the

teaching learning material produced by it and the awareness created by it for the demand for

raising both the quality and quantity of primary education.The Bureau of Adult Education and

National Literacy Mission under the Department of School Education and Literacy of the

Ministry of Human Resource Development functions as the Secretariat of the National

Literacy Mission Authority.The General Council of the NLMA is headed by the Minister of

Human Resource Development and the Executive Council is headed by the Secretary(Elementary Education and Literacy).The Directorate of Adult Education provides necessary

technical and resource support to the NLMA.The National Literacy Mission was revitalised

with the approval of the Union Government on 30th September, 1999.The Mission's goal is

to attain total literacy i.e. a sustainable threshold literacy rate of 75% by 2007.The Mission

seeks to achieve this by imparting functional literacy to non-literates in the 15-35 age

group.To tackle the problem of residual illiteracy,now it has been decided to adopt an

integrated approach to Total Literacy Campaigns and Post Literacy Programme. This means

the basic literacy campaigns and post literacy programmes will be implemented under one

literacy project called 'Literacy Campaigns an Operation Restoration' to achieve

continuity,efficiency and convergence and to minimise unnecessary time lag between the

two.Post literacy programmes are treated only as a preparatory phase for launching

Continuing Education with the ultimate aim of creating a learning society.In order to promote
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decentralization,the State Literacy Mission Authorities have been given the authority to

sanction continuing education projects to Districts and literacy related projects to voluntary

agencies in their States.The scheme of Jan Shikshan Sansthan or Institute of People's

Education ,previously known as the Scheme of Shramik Vidyapeeth was initially evolved as

a non-formal continuing education programme to respond to the educational and vocational

training needs of adults and young people living in urban and industrial areas and for

persons who had migrated from rural to urban settings.Now the Institutes' activities have

been enlarged and infrastructure strengthened to enable them to function as district level

repositories of vocational and technical skills in both urban and rural areas.At present there

are 221 Jan Shikshan Sansthans in the India.

Ever since its inception the National Literacy Mission has taken measures to strengthen its

partnership with NGOs and to evolve both institutional and informal mechanisms to give

voluntary organisations active promotional role in the literacy movement.Now under the

scheme of Support to NGOs they are encouraged and provided with financial assistance to

run post literacy and continuing education programmes in well defined areas.In order to

revitalise,re-energise and expand the role of State Resource Centres,not only their number

is being increased but also their infrastructure and resource facilities are being strengthened

to enable them to play the role of catalytic agents in adult education.There are 25 State

Resource Centres working across the country.They are mainly responsible for organising

training programmes for literacy functionaries in the State and to prepare literacy material in

local languages.The Directorate of Adult Education ,a sub-ordinate office of the Department

of School Education and Literacy has been entrusted with the task ofmonitoring and

evaluating the various literacy programmes being launched under the aegis of the National

Literacy Mission.It also provides technical and resource support to the NLM including media

support to enable it to achieve its objectives.

The National Literacy Mission is laying great stress on vigorous monitoring and systematic

evaluation of adult education programmes launched under its aegis in the country.It has

developed and circulated guidelines for concurrent and final evaluation of the Total Literacy

Campaigns and Post Literacy Programmes. A comprehensive set of guidelines on

continuing education have also been prepared.So far about 424 Total Literacy Campaign

districts and 176 Post Literacy districts have been evaluated by the external evaluation

agencies.So far 32 districts have been externally evaluated during continuing education

phase.It is hoped that the new approach of evaluating literacy campaigns and Continuing

Education Schemes will ensure complete transparency and enhance the credibility of the

results and impact assessments.

Sarva Siksha Abhiyan

The Sarva Siksha Abhiyan(Hindi for Total Literacy Campaign) was launched in 2001 to

ensure that all children in the 614-year age-group attend school and complete eight years

of schooling by 2010. An important component of the scheme is the Education Guarantee

Scheme and Alternative and Innovative Education, meant primarily for children in areas with

no formal school within a one kilometre radius. The centrally sponsored District Primary

Education Programme, launched in 1994, had opened more than 160,000 new schools by

2005, including almost 84,000 alternative schools.[33]
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Non-governmental efforts

The bulk of Indian illiterates live in the country's rural areas, where social and economic

barriers play an important role in keeping the lowest strata of society illiterate. Government

programmes alone, however well intentioned, may not be able to dismantle barriers built

over centuries. Major social reformation efforts are sometimes required to bring about a

change in the rural scenario. Several non-governmental organisations such as Pratham,

ITC,Rotary Club,Lions Club have worked to improve the literacy rate in India.

Mamidipudi Venkatarangaiya Foundation

Shantha Sinha won a Magsaysay Award in 2003 in recognition of "her guiding the people of

Andhra Pradesh to end the scourge of child labour and send all of their children to school."

As head of an extension programme at theUniversity of Hyderabad in 1987, she organised

a three-month-long camp to prepare children rescued frombonded labour to attend school.

Later, in 1991, she guided her family'sMamidipudi Venkatarangaiya Foundationto take up

this idea as part of its overriding mission in Andhra Pradesh. Her original transition camps

grew into full-fledged residential "bridge schools." The foundation's aim is to create a socialclimate hostile to child labour,child marriage and other practices that deny children the right

to a normal childhood. Today the MV Foundation's bridge schools and programmes extend

to 4,300 villages.[55]

Definition of literacy

TheUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) has drafted

a definition of literacy as the "ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate,

compute and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy

involves a continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop

their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their community and widersociety."[56]

TheNational Literacy Mission defines literacy as acquiring the skills of reading, writing and

arithmetic and the ability to apply them to one's day-to-day life. The achievement of

functional literacy implies (i) self-reliance in 3 R's, (ii) awareness of the causes of deprivation

and the ability to move towards amelioration of their condition by participating in the process

of development, (iii) acquiring skills to improve economic status and general well being, and

(iv) imbibing values such as national integration, conservation of environment, women's

equality, observance of small family norms.

The working definition of literacy in the Indian census since 1991 is as follows:[57]

Literacy rate: The total percentage of the population of an area at a particular time aged

seven years or above who can read and write with understanding. Here the denominator

is the population aged seven years or more.

Crude literacy rate: The total percentage of the people of an area at a particular time

aged seven years or above who can read and write with understanding, taking the total

population of the area (including below seven years of age) as the denominator.
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