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Impact of Self-Help Groups on the Standard of Living: A Case Study of Female SHG...F F

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Impact of Self-Help Groups on the Standard ofLiving: A Case Study of Female SHG Members of

Thane District of Maharashtra

Dolly Sunny1 and Marina Pereira2

1Professor, Department of Economics, University of Mumbai, Mumbai-98;E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Professor, Nagindas Khandwala College, University ofMumbai, Mumbai-65;

ABSTRACT: Women play a pivotal role in the success of povertyalleviation programmes. Their resourceful nature and responsibilitytowards their families play a significant role in improving the standardof living and family welfare. Income earned by women is generallyused to meet basic household needs. Credit targeted to women wasmore likely to benefit a whole family whereas in the case of men it isnot so. However, historically access and terms of credit have discrimi-nated against women. The marginalisation of rural women withrespect to credit was the prime reason which resulted in the emergenceof Self-Help Groups (SHGs). The micro-credit programme for womenthrough SHGs plays a significant role in improving the standard ofliving and family welfare. It has a positive impact on economic growthand the social status of women.This article makes a strong case for Microfinance through SHGs as apoverty-alleviation tool to break the vicious cycle of poverty fromgeneration to generation. By creating self-employment opportunitiesthrough microcredit it enhances the income level of women, standardof living and family welfare. This study is based on the premise thatthe concept of group formation is the best strategy to provide creditand to meet women’s practical and strategic needs.Section 1 of this article is an introduction discussing the concepts ofpoverty, microfinance and Self-Help Groups. The objectives of thestudy and methodology are explained in Section 2. Section 3 examinesthe impact of SHGs on the standard of living and family welfare.

Journal of Digital MarketingJanuary-June 2011, Volume 1, Number 1, pp. 1– 22

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1. INTRODUCTIONWomen play a pivotal role in the success of poverty alleviationprogrammes. Their resourceful nature and responsibility towardstheir families play a significant role in improving the standard ofliving and family welfare. They use their income to meet the basichousehold needs and to help in breaking the vicious cycle of povertyfrom generation to generation. Acharya and Ghimire (2005) andKabeer (2005) define economic poverty as lack of income necessaryto satisfy basic needs like food, clothing and shelter. Human povertyincludes absence or reduced capabilities such as illiteracy,malnutrition, poor maternal health, lack of access to medical servicesand death from preventable diseases.

In recent years, microfinance programmes have been used notonly as a tool for economic upliftment but also an effective way tomeet women’s practical and strategic needs. In India, Microfinancehas been defined as provision of thrift, credit and other financialservices and products of very small amounts to the poor in rural,semi-urban or urban areas for enabling them to raise their incomelevels and living standards.

Credit targeted to women was more likely to benefit a wholefamily whereas in the case of men it is not so. Women makeproductive use of credit for self-employed micro-enterprises andare prompt in repayments, with average repayment rates above 90per cent, much better than recoveries under normal lending.They are also more responsive to peer pressure and hence the defaultrate in payment among women is almost nil. Women are not onlymuch better borrowers than men but they also exhibit a whole rangeof human skills. However, historically access and terms of credithave discriminated against women. The marginalisation of ruralwomen with respect to credit was causative in the emergence ofSelf-Help Groups (SHGs). The micro-credit programme for womenthrough SHGs plays a significant role in improving the standardof living and family welfare (Usha, 2003). Studies conducted byMuthayya (1980), Misra (1994), Sithalakshmi and Jothimani (1994),Mishra (1999), Steele et al (2001), Swaminathan (2002), Chiranjeevulu


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(2003), Sarangi (2003) and Kabeer (2005) have highlighted the factthat it has a positive impact on economic growth and the social statusof women.

2. CONCEPT OF SELF-HELP GROUPSA Self-Help Group (SHG) is a group that consists of about 10 to 20persons of a homogenous class who come together with a view toaddress common problems. Voluntary savings are collected on aregular basis and the pooled resources are used to make smallinterest bearing-loans to members. In the dark environment of creditindiscipline, Women’s Thrift and Credit Societies have emerged astorch bearers of thrift and self-reliance (Parthasarathy, 2003).In performing this function, they also emerge as training groundsfor economic democracy of women.

SHGs have become a powerful source for identification ofproblems and intervention. Regular meetings of the SHGs serve asa useful forum to women who otherwise live in isolation. Besidesfocusing on entrepreneurial development of the beneficiaries andthe village as a whole, the groups undertake the responsibility ofdelivering non-credit services such as literacy. Adult educationhopes to remedy the educational deprivation of the adult populationin order to develop their full potential and make the developmentprocess self-reliant and self-generating in regard to opportunitiesand initiative.

Women’s SHGs are spreading a silent revolution in terms ofeconomic and social empowerment across poverty-stricken swathesof rural India (Roy, 2006). Jawaharlal Nehru has rightly stated, “Thegreatest revolution in a country is one that affects the status andliving conditions of its women” (Thenmozhi et al, 2002). Remedios(2006) quotes Patankar-Mhaiskar who characterises the SHGmovement of tribal women as a revolution of sorts. The studysubstantiated the view that the normally submissive and weakersections suddenly begin to feel empowered. Small economicactivities may not even make a dent on the economy of the State butthey work wonders for the rural woman who is otherwise at themercy of her environment.


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2.1. Objectives of the Study• To examine the impact of SHGs on the standard of living and

family welfare.• To study the role of SHGs in promoting socio-economic

development of women.• To explore the role of SHGs in tackling the practical problems

of village women.

2.2. Research Methodology and Data CollectionInorder to study the impact of women SHGs on the standard ofliving and family welfare, Thane district in North Maharashtra waschosen. In response to massive food shortage in the tribal areas ofMaharashtra, many development economists have raised a voice,“Death of a large number of tribal children (Bang et al, 2002) due tomalnutrition even in this most developed state is a crying shameand shows how insensitive the State Government is to this scourge(Godbole, 2002; Patel 2003). This tragedy has been highlighted invarious newspaper reports time and again in areas like Jawhar,Vikramgad, Dahanu, Wada and other tribal belts of Maharashtra(Anthony, 2004; Deshpande, 2004; Parmar, 2004 and Rajadhyaksha,2006).

Das (2000) has highlighted the significance of Mahila Mandals-the traditional local organisations of women in gender politics inThane district. Mahila Mandals are groups of women that seek tobuild a collective of women for joint action and provide forums toarticulate the practical problems of village women. The improvementin the quality of diet, access to clean drinking water, housingstructure, female literacy and education of children through SHGswere explored in five talukas of Thane district namely Dahanu,Talasari, Jawhar, Vikramgad and Wada.

Secondary data pertaining to SHGs was collected fromPanchayat Samiti Block Development Official records betweenOctober and December 2003. A pilot survey was undertaken in May2004 to test the questionnaires in the villages of Ambesari, Chikla


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and Modgaon in Dahanu and Karazgaon in Talasari and accordinglythe questionnaire was modified to accommodate relevant entries.Primary data was collected in the period between October 2004 toMay 2005 through the interview method, questionnaires andobservation. Due to the homogeneous nature of the population,Simple Random sampling was used. The questionnaires weredirectly administered by door-to-door visits to the dwelling unitsof the respondents. In many cases data was collected fromrespondents at their workplaces such as fields, anganwadis andbalwadis, flour mills, retail shops, poultry, buffalo-sheds, vegetable-gardens, vermiculture – compost pits or at the Gram Panchayatwhere they had gathered. Actual observation of their lifestylescorroborated the veracity of the data collected through thequestionnaire.

2.3. Sample Profile• In Dahanu, Primary data was collected from 51 female SHGs

out of the then existing 148 female SHGs and the sub-sampleconsisted of 224 female respondents.

• In Jawhar, Primary data was collected from 34 female SHGs outof the then existing 98 female SHGs and the sub-sample consistedof 260 female respondents.

• In Talasari, Primary data was collected from 39 female SHGsout of the then existing 85 female SHGs and the sub-sampleconsisted of 201 female respondents.

• In Vikramgad, Primary data was collected from 17 female SHGsout of the then existing 29 female SHGs and the sub-sampleconsisted of 100 female respondents.

• In Wada, Primary data was collected from 37 female SHGs outof the then existing 102 female SHGs and the sub-sampleconsisted of 282 female respondents.

Thus the total sample size was 38.52 per cent of the population.It consisted of 178 female SHGs out of a population of 462 femaleSHGs and 1,067 female respondents.


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3. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

3.1. A Age Profile of Members

Table 1Age Profile of Members

Sr. No. Age Dahanu Jawhar Talasari Vikramgad Wada All fivecategory

1. 18-25 34 44 32 19 48 177(15.18) (16.92) (15.92) (19.00) (17.02) (16.59)

2. 25-35 110 123 101 39 100 473(49.11) (47.31) (50.25) (39.00) (35.46) (44.33)

3. 35-45 50 70 44 28 96 288(22.32) (26.92) (21.89) (28.00) (34.04) (26.99)

4. Above 45 30 23 24 14 38 129(13.39) (08.85) (11.94) (14.00) (13.48) (12.09)

Total 224 260 201 100 282 1067(100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)

*Figures in parentheses indicate percentages.

Out of the 1067 respondents, in all the five blocks the maximumnumber viz. 110 (49.11 per cent) from Dahanu, 123 (47.31 per cent)from Jawhar, 101 (50.25 per cent) from Talasari, 39 (39 per cent)from Vikramgad and 100 (35.46 per cent) were from the age-category 25-35. A sizeable number of respondents viz.129 (12.09)were from the age category above 45. This age group was generallyconsidered to be less productive both by Bank personnel andmembers.

3.2. Marital Status

Out of the 1067 respondents, the maximum number of respondentsviz. 1015 (95.13 per cent) were married. 25 (02.34 per cent)respondents were widowed. There were 27 (02.53 per cent)unmarried respondents. None of the respondents were found to bedivorced or separated.


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Table 2Marital Status

Sr.No. Marital Dahanu Jawhar Talasari Vikramgad Wada All fiveStatus

1. Unmarried 13 04 02 02 06 27(05.80) (01.54) (00.99) (02.00) (02.13) (02.53)

2. Married 207 252 193 96 267 1015(92.41) (96.92) (96.02) (96.00) (94.68) (95.13)

3. Widowed 04 04 06 02 09 25(01.79) (01.54) (02.99) (02.00) (03.19) (02.34)

Total 224 260 201 100 282 1067(100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)


3.3. Caste Profile

Table 3Caste Profile

Sr.No. Caste Dahanu Jawhar Talasari Vikramgad Wada All five

1. Warli 137 73 89 67 06 372(61.16) (28.08) (44.28) (67.00) (02.13) (34.86)

2. Kunbi 24 - - 19 175 218(10.71) (19.00) (62.06) (20.43)

3. Konkana 02 150 20 07 - 179(00.89) (57.70) (09.95) (07.00) (16.78)

4. Adivasi 07 - 82 - 03 92(03.13) (40.79) (01.06) (08.62)

5. Maachi, 34 - - - 02 36Aagri (15.18) (00.71) (03.37)

6. Maratha - - - - 26 26(09.22) (02.44)

7. Buddhist - - - - 24 24(08.51) (02.25)

8. Ka Thakur - 18 - 04 - 22(06.92) (04.00) (02.06)

9. Kolis 19 19 - 01 39 14(08.48) (07.31) (01.00) (13.83) (01.31)

Table 3 Contd.


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10. Gujarati, - - 10 02 - 12Lohar, (04.98) (02.00) (01.12)VaishyaVani

11. Nai - - - - 07 07(02.48) (00.66)

12. Muslim 01 - - - - 01(00.45) (00.09)

Total 224 260 201 100 282 1067(100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)

*Figures in parentheses indicate percentages.**Kolis include Malhar Kolis, Mahadev Kolis and Dhor Kolis.

The members of an SHG have a similar identity, heritage,religion, caste, status, neighbourhood or traditional occupations.SHGs are formed to attain some common goal and manage resourcesfor the benefit of group members. According to Sithalakshmi andJothimani (1994), formation of groups with ‘like-minded’ membersgoes a long way in making the members feel that the group is apleasant entity to be part of. If group formation is satisfactory,opportunities for participation are greater.

The study revealed that out of the 1067 respondents, themaximum number 372 (34.86 per cent) were Warlis. They wereconcentrated in the talukas of Dahanu, Vikramgad, Talasari andalso a sizeable number in Jawhar. 218 (20.43 per cent) respondentswere Kunbis, predominantly found in Wada. In Jawhar, themaximum number of respondents i.e. 150 (57.70) were Konkanas.In Talasari also, the maximum number of respondents were Warlisbut a major proportion of the sample viz. 82 (40.79 per cent)respondents comprised Adivasis who were followers of Christianity.Other communities included Maachis, Aagris, Ka Thakurs, DhorKolis, Mahadev Kolis, Malhar Kolis referred to as Katkaris andMarathas. Nais and Buddhists were found only in Wada. There wasa Gujarati-speaking SHG Asha Mahila Bachat Gat at Patilpada, Uplatin Talasari taluka near the Gujarat border. There was only 1 Loharrespondent from Vikramgad. All the respondents except two viz. aMuslim respondent from Dahanu and a Vaishya Vani fromVikramgad belonged to the SC/ST/OBC category. None of therespondents belonged to the Hindu Upper Castes.


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4. PURPOSE OF FINANCEMicrocredit refers to credits of very small amounts. It can be definedas a process of meeting the capital investment needs of individualsand groups for the start-up and sustenance of small businessenterprises for income-generation and poverty alleviation amongpoor women (Reddy, 2002). Microcredit enhances the productivecapacity of poor women by helping them to acquire new assets inorder to produce goods and services needed by society.

Table 4Purpose of Finance

Sr.No. Purpose Dahanu Jawhar Talasari Vikramgad Wada All five 1. Production 142 128 176 65 75 586

(94.67) (79.01) (100.00) (90.28) (90.36) (91.14) 2. Emergencies 17 38 34 20 09 118

(11.33) (23.46) (19.32) (27.78) (10.84) (18.35)3. Housing and 05 03 03 01 08 20

House Repairs (03.33) (01.85) (1.70) (01.39) (09.64) (03.11)4. Children’s 03 04 07 03 10 27

Education (02.00) (02.47) (03.98) (04.17) (12.05) (04.20)5. Ceremonies 01 04 - 01 - 06

(00.67) (02.47) (01.39) (00.93)6. Digging 08 - - - - 08

Bore wells (05.33) (01.24)Total 150 162 176 72 83 643

(100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)*Figures in parentheses indicate percentages.**Respondents took loans for more than one purpose at a time therefore sub-totalsmay not add up to the total.***Emergencies include illness and sudden household expenditure.

The 643 respondents who took loans did so, for more than onepurpose at a time. Maximum respondents viz. 586 (91.14 per cent)took loans for production – 142 in Dahanu, 128 in Jawhar, all the176 in Talasari, 65 in Vikramgad and 75 in Wada. 118 (18.35)respondents took loans for emergencies like illness and suddenhousehold expenditure. 27 (04.20 per cent) respondents took loansfor children’s education.


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5. MONTHLY INCOME OF RESPONDENTSWomen prefer to invest meagre earnings on child well-being andunderscore the point that the income poor people earn yield highersocial benefits than income earned by men (Narasaiah, 2004). Thereis also evidence from a number of countries that the benefits forfamily welfare of increased incomes for women are greater than thebenefits from increases in men’s incomes. Women’s income tendsto be consistently utilised for expenditure on health, food and schoo-ling which benefit the whole family (Usha, 2003). According toSithalakshmi and Jothimani (1994), nutritious food topped the listof items of expenditure from incremental income reflecting the priorityassigned by the poor women for feeding their children and familywith better food. A considerable percentage of beneficiaries accor-ded greater significance to better quality of living in terms of betterhealth care, education for children and better environment to live in.

Taking all five blocks together, the respondents earning monthlyincome between ‘501/- and ‘1000/- increased by more than threetimes, that is from 213 (19.96 per cent) to 656 (61.48 per cent) andthose earning between ‘1001/- and ‘ 3000/- almost doubled from 37(03.47 per cent) to 73 (06.84 per cent). 2 (00.19 per cent) respondents- 1 in Dahanu and 1 in Talasari earned monthly income above ‘3000/-after joining the SHG.

Table 5Monthly Income

Sr. Monthly Category Dahanu Jawhar Talasari Vikra- Wada AllNo. Income mgad five1. ‘ 500/- Before 197 221 186 92 121 817

and joining (87.95) (85.00) (92.53) (92.00) (42.91) (76.57)Below the SHG

2. Between 17 39 10 06 141 213‘501/- and (07.59) (15.00) (04.98) (06.00) (50.00) (19.96) ‘1000/-

3. Between 10 - 05 02 20 37‘1001/- (04.46) (02.49) (02.00) (07.09) (03.47)and ‘3000/-Total 224 260 201 100 282 1067

(100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)Table 5 Contd.


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1. ‘500/- After 96 82 31 22 105 336and joining (42.86) (31.54) (15.42) (22.00) (37.23) (31.49)Below the SHG

2. Between 103 169 161 71 152 656‘501/- and (45.98) (65.00) (80.10) (71.00) (53.90) (61.48)Rs 1000/-

3. Between 24 09 08 07 25 73‘1001/- and (10.71) (03.46) (03.98) (07.00) (08.87) (06.84)Rs. 3000/-

4. Above 01 - 01 - - 02‘‘3000/- (00.45) (00.50) (00.19)Total 224 260 201 100 282 1067

(100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)


In Dahanu, Jawhar, Talasari and Vikramgad there was asignificant improvement in the monthly income of the respondentswhile in Wada, there was a marginal change in comparison to otherfour blocks.

6. LITERACY AND EDUCATIONAL STATUS OFRESPONDENTS

Women play an important role in food production, processing andeven distribution. Experience in the area of agriculture andwatershed management have indicated that the failure of manyagriculture programmes in developing countries could be directlyrelated to the neglect of women’s productive roles, particularly inrelation to food crop production. Generally women farmers are morereceptive to innovations and incentives. In agriculture the Govern-ment has introduced a programme for empowerment of womenfarmers which provides micro capital assistance and revolving fundsexclusively for women. “Women Feed the World” was the themefor the World Food Day observed by the Food and AgriculturalOrganisation in 1998. To attain the goal of food and nutrition securitythe empowerment of women through education, income-generationand capacity-building is essential. Therefore their role should beenhanced in decision making in order to improve the general healthand nutrition status of the family (Swaminathan, 2005).


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Table 6Educational Status

Sr. Educa- Category Dahanu Jawhar Talasari Vikra- Wada All fiveNo. tional mgad

Status1. Illiterate Before 123 188 141 61 62 575

joining (54.91) (72.31) (70.15) (61.00) (21.99) (53.89)the SHG

2. Literate 13 18 09 05 - 45(05.80) (06.92) (04.48) (05.00) (04.22)

3. Educated 88 54 51 34 220 447(39.29) (20.77) (25.37) (34.00) (78.01) (41.89)

Primary 23 11 11 02 38 85(10.27) (04.23) (05.47) (02.00) (13.48) (07.97)

Secondary 63 41 32 29 170 335(28.13) (15.77) (15.92) (29.00) (60.28) (31.39)

Beyond Matric 02 02 08 03 12 27or SSC (00.89) (0.77) (03.98) (03.00) (04.25) (02.53)Total 224 260 201 100 282 1067

(100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)

1. Illiterate After 99 181 96 49 54 479Joining (44.19) (69.61) (47.76) (49.00) (19.15) (44.89)

the SHG2. Literate 37 25 54 17 08 141

(16.52) (09.62) (26.87) (17.00) (02.84) (13.22)3. Educated 88 54 51 34 220 447

(39.29) (20.77) (25.37) (34.00) (78.01) (41.89)Primary 23 11 11 02 38 85

(10.27) (04.23) (05.47) (02.00) (13.48) (07.97)Secondary 63 41 32 29 170 335

(28.13) (15.77) (15.92) (29.00) (60.28) (31.39)Beyond Matric 02 02 08 03 12 27or SSC (00.89) (00.77) (03.98) (03.00) (04.25) (02.53)

Total 224 260 201 100 282 1067(100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)


Besides focusing on entrepreneurial development of thebeneficiaries and the village as a whole, the groups undertake theresponsibility of delivering non-credit services such as literacy,


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health and environmental issues. Adult education hopes to remedythe educational deprivation of the adult population in order todevelop their full potential and make the development processself-reliant and self-generating in regard to opportunities andinitiative.

In 1978, the Government of India launched a countrywide ruralfunctional literacy project and the National Adult EducationProgramme started its operation in eradicating literacy. The NationalLiteracy Mission became operational in 1988. The Women’s Policy2001 aimed at intensifying efforts for promoting literacy amongwomen and SHGs were to be an important instrument for thispurpose (Pathan and Mangnale, 2004).

The study revealed that there are enterprising women who havebeen attending adult education classes in their leisure time and tryingto learn. It was found that some respondents were members of SHGswherein such training classes were conducted. Apart from formalliteracy there is a category of women who ‘can only sign’ but canneither read nor write. Majority of tribal women are able to putsignature in place of thumb impressions. In fact a few tribal womenwere found to be members in the Gram Panchayat owing to thecapacity of signing their names only. Some of the respondentsnotably of Vajreshwari SHG, Urse of Dahanu taluka learnt toput their signature through their sons/daughters and are proud tosign at this age. In this study neoliterate women were found to beactive in development activities and in mobilising women to formSHGs.

Taking all the Five Blocks together, the number of literaterespondents increased from 45 (04.22 per cent) to 141 (13.22 per cent)mainly due to Proudh Shikshan Programmes conducted throughSHGs. For the purpose of the study, literate respondents have beendefined as those who can either read or write or at least be able tosign their names. Talasari witnessed the most spectacular increasewith the number increasing by six times from 9 (4.48 per cent) to 54(26.87 per cent). Incidentally, in this taluka a large number of SHGswere co-ordinated by Anganwadi teachers. In Dahanu, the numberincreased from 13 (05.80 per cent) to 37 (16.52 per cent); in Jawhar,


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the number increased from 18 (06.92 per cent) to 25 (09.62 per cent);in Vikramgad the number of literate respondents increased by threetimes from 5 (05.00 per cent) to 17 (17 per cent). In Wada thenumber of educated respondents being the highest in all the fiveblocks i.e. 220 (78.01 per cent) even before joining the SHGonly 8 (02.84 per cent) respondents became literate after joining theSHG.

Educated respondents have been defined for the purpose of thisstudy as those who are enrolled or have completed any level offormal education. Respondents who had enrolled or completed theireducation from Class 1 to 4 have been ascribed as those having aprimary educational status. Respondents who had enrolled orcompleted their education from Class 5 to 10 have been categorisedas those having a secondary educational status. Educational statusbeyond Matric or SSC refers to educational enrolment for HSC orfor any degree or diploma.

However, it was observed that there was no significantimprovement in the educational status of the respondents evenafter joining the SHG. Out of the 447 (41.89 per cent) educatedrespondents 85 (7.97 per cent) respondents had enrolled orcompleted primary education; 335 (31.39 per cent) respondents hadenrolled or completed secondary education; 27 (2.53 per cent)respondents had studied beyond matric or SSC. Wada ranked firstwith respect to all the levels of education viz. Primary, Secondaryand beyond matric or SSC. It has to be noted that many SHGs werein the formative stage when the survey was conducted. Thechangeover from literate to educate demands significant amount oftime.

The World Bank lists among others the benefits of educatingwomen as lowering infant mortality and increasing the use ofcontraception. It puts forward the possibility of increased femaleautonomy and reasoned decisions about fertility due to increasedfemale literacy. The SHG movement and education of tribals canhelp in reducing considerably infant or even child mortality due tomalnutrition.


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7. NUMBER OF CHILDREN

Table 7Number of Children

Sr. No. Category Dahanu Jawhar Talasari Vikramgad Wada All five1. Nil 12 12 05 05 14 48

(05.68) (04.69) (02.51) (05.10) (05.07) (04.62)2. Upto two 59 95 57 35 122 368

(27.96) (37.11) (28.64) (35.71) (44.20) (35.38)3. Three to 103 114 97 42 120 476

four (48.82) (44.53) (48.75) (42.86) (43.48) (45.77)4. More than 37 35 40 16 20 148

four (17.54) (13.67) (20.10) (16.33) (07.25) (14.23)Total 211** 256** 199** 98** 276** 1040**

(100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)*Figures in parentheses indicate percentages.**Married Respondents.

Out of the 1040 married respondents, the maximum number ofrespondents 476 (45.77 per cent) had three to four children. All thechildren were found to be vaccinated. The study is testimony to thefact that general awareness on vaccination and preventive measuresimproved considerably in remote villages.

The study revealed that not only economic poverty, but alsosocial and gender issues can be tackled effectively through SHGs.Channelising loans through women’s groups rather than toindividual women substantially increased the likelihood of femaledecision-making and bargaining. The findings of the researchrevealed that access to credit empowered women by increasing theirautonomy, bargaining position and decision-making within thehousehold which allowed them to attain unrealised fertility goals.At Vasa, Kumbharpada in Talasari taluka members of Kamlini,Shraddha and Shramdeep SHGs revealed that they had becomeaware of Family Planning through group meetings.

8. EDUCATIONAL PROFILE OF CHILDREN OFRESPONDENTS

Women’s income tends to be consistently utilised for expenditureon health, food and schooling which benefit the whole family. The


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desire to acquire higher level of education was reflected among thechildren of SHG members. Self-Help Group members educate theirchildren and ensure that they could earn enough to pay for theirchildren’s education.

Table 8Educational Profile of Male Children.

Sr. No. Category Dahanu Jawhar Talasari Vikramgad Wada All five1. No 63 105 156 23 27 374

Education (19.75) (27.49) (43.45) (14.94) (07.36) (23.66)2. Non-Formal 07 38 13 19 26 103

(02.19) (09.95) (03.62) (12.33) (07.08) (06.52)3. Primary 103 87 63 32 54 339

(32.30) (22.77) (17.55) (20.78) (14.72) (21.44)4. Secondary 125 124 105 73 186 613

(39.18) (32.46) (29.25) (47.40) (50.68) (38.77)5. HSC and 21 28 22 07 74 152

Above (06.58) (07.33) (06.13) (04.55) (20.16) (09.61)Total 319 382 359 154 367 1581

(100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)


Table 9Educational Profile of Female Children.

Sr.No. Category Dahanu Jawhar Talasari Vikramgad Wada All five1. No 104 108 82 31 24 349

Education (31.52) (29.68) (26.89) (20.80) (06.82) (23.27)2. Non-Formal 18 26 20 16 15 95

(05.45) (07.14) (06.56) (10.74) (04.26) (06.33)3. Primary 102 85 64 41 68 360

(30.91) (23.35) (20.98) (27.52) (19.32) (24.00)4. Secondary 101 136 132 57 182 608

(30.61) (37.36) (43.28) (38.26) (51.70) (40.53)5. HSC and 05 09 07 04 63 88

Above (01.51) (02.47) (02.29) (02.68) (17.90) (05.87)Total 330 364 305 149 352 1500

(100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)



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As displayed in Tables 8 and 9, the maximum number of childrenof respondents both male and female were enrolled in or hadcompleted secondary education viz. out of the 1581 male children,613 (38.77 per cent) while out of the 1500 female children, 608 (40.53per cent). 152 (09.61 per cent) male children were enrolled in or hadcompleted Higher Secondary or an equivalent level of educationwhile 374 (23.66 per cent) had not received any education at all. 88(05.87 per cent) female children of respondents were enrolled in orhad completed Higher Secondary or an equivalent level of educationwhile 349 (23.27 per cent) had not received any education at all.Thus with respect to secondary and higher education overall figuresdo not reveal any gender bias.

9. HOUSING STRUCTURE AND NUTRITIONSignificant improvements in the quality of diet, access to cleandrinking water and housing structure were observed in thisresearch.

Table 10Housing Structure Before Joining the SHG

Sr.No. Housing Dahanu Jawhar Talasari Vikramgad Wada All fiveStructure

1. Kaccha with 161 143 86 37 20 447one room (71.87) (55.00) (42.79) (37.00) (07.09) (41.89)

2. Kaccha with 29 35 96 45 65 270two or more (12.95) (13.46) (47.76) (45.00) (23.05) (25.30)rooms

3. Pucca with 17 44 04 06 57 128one room (07.59) (16.92) (01.99) (06.00) (20.21) (12.00)

4. Pucca with 10 32 12 10 140 204two Rooms (04.46) (12.31) (05.97) (10.00) (49.65) (19.12)

5. Pucca with 07 06 03 02 - 18more than (03.13) (02.31) (01.49) (02.00) (01.69)two rooms

Total 224 260 201 100 282 1067(100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)



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Table 11Housing Structure After Joining the SHG

Sr.No. Housing Dahanu Jawhar Talasari Vikramgad Wada All fiveStructure

1. Kaccha with 160 141 82 34 18 435one room (71.43) (55.00) (40.79) (34.00) (06.38) (40.77)

2. Kaccha with 28 35 88 45 65 261two or rooms (12.50) (13.46) (43.78) (45.00) (23.05) (24.46)

3. Pucca with 17 45 04 06 57 129one room (07.59) (17.31) (01.99) (06.00) (20.21) (12.09)

4. Pucca with 10 32 18 11 140 211two Rooms (04.46) (12.31) (08.96) (11.00) (49.65) (19.77)

5. Pucca with 07 06 03 02 - 18more than (03.13) (02.31) (01.49) (02.00) (01.69)two rooms

6. Gharkul 02 01 06 02 02 13(00.89) (00.38) (02.99) (02.00) (00.71) (01.22)

Total 224 260 201 100 282 1067(100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)


As revealed by the present study, microfinance could offer asolution to the housing problem. After joining the SHG the numberof respondents having a pucca house with one room increasedmarginally from 128 (12 per cent) to 129 (12.09 per cent) while thosewith pucca houses with two rooms increased notably from 204 (19.12per cent) to 211 (19.77 per cent). 13 (1.22 per cent) respondents havingkaccha houses earlier received a Gharkul from the government - 6from Talasari, 2 each from Dahanu, Vikramgad and Wada and 1from Jawhar.

While considering the aggregate of all five blocks together, outof the 643 respondents who took loans 20 (03.11 per cent) took it forhousing and house repairs. The Indira Awas Yojana is beingimplemented by the Government of India since 1985-86 in order toprovide dwelling units to the poor (Das, 2000; Mathur, 2003;Prabhakar, 2004). Funds are provided for construction of puccadwellings for upgradation of kaccha houses into pucca or semi-puccahouses. The study observed that SHG members were bothbeneficiaries as well as were involved in beneficiary selection for


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the rural housing programme of the Government. Thus womenbecome agents of development and do not remain mere objects inthe development process.

The SHG besides offering a means to access resources startsfunctioning as a collective which can address common problemsthrough group action, can be heard by policy-makers and candemand its rightful share in the development process (Mishra, 1999;Reddy, 2002). Apart from acquiring individual assets for income-generation and skilled training, women have struggled to constructbuildings of their own which were partly funded under governmentschemes and partly self-help efforts. SHGs have helped to improvewater supply in the area. The study revealed that in Pimpalshet,Kotimal, the SHG Ganga built a well with the savings generatedwhile in Nandanmal, Jawhar, a tank was built with the funds of theSHG Santoshi. Similarly in Vijaygad, Pashtipada, Wada the SHGDurgamata and in Dahanu, the SHGs Renuka and Mahila Samruddhiin Gaitipada, Dhanivri, and Shanti Mahila in Awarpada, Osarvira,have been instrumental in improving water supply in the area.

Since the study area comprised mostly of remote villages beforejoining the SHGs, food was in short supply and not easily available.People survived mostly on a diet of basic cereals, roots, some saltfish with a dash of tamarind water. The study revealed that theproblem of child malnutrition was tackled in most of the villages byproviding Khichdi to the anganwadi children through the middaymeal scheme. In this context, It is suggested that SHGs could beengaged to provide quality meals to anganwadis.

It was also observed that women-SHGs grow vegetables allround the year, eat plenty of them and sell the surplus. In Dahanu,Talasari and Wada around 50 per cent respondents consumedvegetables and fruits after joining the SHG. Respondents revealedthat while this was partly due to a rise in incomes, the othersignificant factor was the awareness of the nutritive value of fruitsobtained through Proudh Shikshan classes conducted by SHGs.As many SHGs adopted dairying as their group activity there was asignificant improvement in milk consumption in Dahanu, Jawharand Wada. Most respondents reported that after joining SHGscommunity medical facilities improved.


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Microfinance has contributed to building the self-esteem andself-reliance of the poor and especially the underprivilegedwomenfolk, giving them the confidence and the economic means tomove them out of poverty into survival and beyond. Many institu-tions are now integrating microcredit into their development progra-mmes such as health, nutrition and education so that the clients ofsuch programmes can absorb non-financial inputs more effectively.

10. CONCLUSIONWomen play a pivotal role in poverty alleviation programmesbecause they use their income to meet the basic household needs.Marginalisation of poor rural women with respect to credit was theprime factor behind the emergence of SHGs. Microcredit is asignificant tool to break the vicious cycle of poverty from generationto generation. It has contributed to building the self-esteem and self-reliance of poor rural women giving them the confidence and theeconomic means to move out of poverty into the threshold of survivaland beyond. By creating self-employment opportunities it enhancesthe income level of women and raises family welfare. Credit targetedto women is more likely to benefit a whole family compared withcredit to men.

In recent years, microfinance programmes have been used notonly as a tool for economic upliftment but also an effective way tomeet women’s practical and strategic needs. It has a positive impacton economic growth and improves the social status of women. SHGsserve as a useful forum to women for identification of problemsand intervention. Besides offering a means to access resources theSHG starts functioning as a collective which can address commonproblems through group action, can be heard by policy-makers anddemand its rightful share in the development process.

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