Using Cognitive Apprenticeship Framework in Technology Education by Pre-Service Teachers

Dr Pranita Gopal Asst Professor

Army Institute of Education Delhi Cantt

New Delhi 110010 pranitagopal@gmail.com

Abstract Technology education is a study of technology,

which provides an opportunity for students to learn about the processes and knowledge related to technology. In the field of education, computers have become an important metaphor to denote technology in the classroom. Keeping this in mind, most teacher education institutes in India have introduced a course in Computers in Education, but due to the paucity of time in the academic year, many teacher education institutes briefly cover the aspects of technology education in their classroom. A methodology was required that would allow the Pre-service teachers learn basic technical knowledge of relevant software effectively and hence allow more time for dwelling into the pedagogical constructs that makes the application technology in the teaching learning process – effective, interesting, challenging and satisfying. It was in this context that a Self learning material was developed for Open Office Impress – a free presentation software. Presentation software allows teachers to present text and images, including photographs, in color; to animate text and graphics; and to include audio and video files to a large audience, like the classroom.

The cognitive apprenticeship framework specifies four dimensions for designing powerful environments, namely: content, method, sequence, and sociology. This paper discusses adapting an Interactive Video Based Self Learning Module on Open Office Impress in the Dimensions of the Cognitive Apprenticeship Framework. It further discusses the affect of this module on the Quality of Presentation made by Pre-service teachers vis-a-vis their Cognitive Style and their Gender. The results of the study showed that this material augmented the Pre-service teachers’ technology skills in directly using, applying and learning technology.

Keywords Cognitive Apprenticeship, Technology Education, Pre-Service Teachers, Open Office Impress, Presentation Software

I. INTRODUCTION Technology education is a study of technology,

which provides an opportunity for students to learn about the processes and knowledge related to technology (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_education ; accessed on 20 Feb 2011). In the field of education, computers have become an important metaphor to denote technology in the classroom. Teachers at all levels are expected to use technology

(i.e. computers) as it is considered to enhance the teaching learning process in the classroom (for example: Christmann and Badgett , 2000 ; Waxman, Connell, and Gray, 2002 ; Blok, Oostdam, Otter, and Overmaat, 2002). Thus, pre-service educational institutes across the country have begun augmenting their curriculum with a course on Computers in Education. The experience of the researcher has shown that due to the paucity of time in the academic year, the course is unable to do justice to both the technical knowledge of commonly used software in the teaching learning process, like, Document Processing Software, Presentation Software or Spreadsheet Software, etc. and the pedagogical constructs involved in using technology in the classroom, like, instructional design, storyboarding, developing technology based problem based learning environments, although they do find a mention in the course syllabus. Consequently, pre-service teachers often miss out on either on technical knowledge or pedagogical constructs aspects during their Pre-service course. A methodology was required that would allow the Pre-service teachers learn basic technical knowledge of relevant software effectively and hence allow more time for dwelling into the pedagogical constructs that makes the application technology in the teaching learning process – effective, interesting, challenging and satisfying. It was in this context that a Self learning material was developed for Open Office Impress – free presentation software. Research suggests that using presentation software (e.g., Keynote or PowerPoint® or Open Office Impress) in teaching may have a positive impact on student learning (Kulik, Kulik, & Cohen, 1980). Presentation software allows teachers to present text and images, including photographs, in color; to animate text and graphics; and to include audio and video files to a large audience, like the classroom. Open Office Impress is free under the GNU License and it is relatively easy to implement and use, making it a particularly important tool in maximizing the number of students who may benefit from the integration of technology into teaching.

II. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP FRAMEWORK

Cognitive apprenticeship (Collins et al., 1991) is a well-recognized instructional approach with extensive roots in the instructional design literature (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Ceci, Rosenblum, & De Bruyn, 1998; Quinn, 1994,

2011 International Conference on Technology for Education

978-0-7695-4534-9/11 $26.00 © 2011 IEEE

DOI 10.1109/T4E.2011.36

183

2011 IEEE International Conference on Technology for Education

978-0-7695-4534-9/11 $26.00 © 2011 IEEE

DOI 10.1109/T4E.2011.36

183

1995; Tripp, 1994) that is prescribed for designing learning environments. This approach has been put into practice in a variety of instructional fields and studied for its impact by various scholars. The cognitive apprenticeship framework specifies four dimensions for designing powerful environments, namely: content, method, sequence, and sociology.

• The first dimension, content, holds that it is important to differentiate between different types of knowledge, such as conceptual, factual, procedural, and strategic knowledge. Collins et al. (1991) suggested that heuristic strategies and control strategies can be learned through observation of experts demonstrating their decision-making process, and by discussing what they did and why.

• The second dimension, method, provides guidelines for teaching methods (i.e. modeling, coaching, scaffolding and fading, articulation, reflection, and exploration) to help learners acquire and integrate cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies for constructing, using, and managing knowledge. Collins et al. (1991) argue that" [A] key goal in the design of the teaching methods should be to help students acquire and integrate cognitive and metacognitive strategies for using, managing, and discovering knowledge". Effective teaching methods in the practice setting must also have the capacity to externalize the largely internal knowledge and thought processes underlying practice.

o Modeling occurs when a student observes an expert perform a task to develop an understanding of the procedures required to carry out that task

o Coaching entails observing students while they perform a task and offering specific verbal or physical assistance to help them bring their performance to a higher level of expertise.

o Articulation requires students to describe their knowledge, reasons, or thinking processes. Articulation is a critical teaching method because cognitive apprenticeship depends on

effectively externalizing the knowledge and processes that usually occur internally. Once articulated, knowledge and thinking processes can be observed, understood, shared, or elaborated through dialogue with teachers or other students.

o Reflection is characterized by learning experiences that encourage students to compare their practice with previous practice or with the practice of expert practitioners or other students.

o Exploration involves creating opportunities for students to identify and solve real practice problem on their own.

• Sequence, the third dimension, prescribes how to identify changing learning needs and how to adjust the sequence and structure of learning materials accordingly. There are three principles central to sequencing, namely: increasing complexity, increasing diversity, and acquiring global skills before local skills. These principles are important for learners to help them integrate and generalize knowledge and complex skills.

• The final dimension, sociology, refers to the sociology of the learning environment, a critical dimension that has received increasing attention lately (e.g. Loyens, Rikers and Schmidt 2006; Sluijsmans, Straetmans and Merriënboer 2008). Important elements of this dimension are situated learning, culture of expert practice, promoting intrinsic motivation, exploiting cooperation, and exploiting competition. Here it is important that learners encounter different levels of expertise in a situated and authentic environment; they need to engage immediately in the authentic context and become part of the community of practitioners.

The Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress demonstrates all the four dimensions that are present in the Cognitive Apprenticeship Environment; (Table 1)

Table 1: Adapting the Interactive Video Based Self- Learning Module to the Cognitive Apprenticeship Framework

Dimensions in a Cognitive Apprenticeship Environments

The Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress in the Dimensions of the CA framework

Content • The advanced organizer that forms a part of the welcome screen presents an overview of the various aspects of Open Office Impress.

184184

• Each module was consisted of two parts: one an Introduction (demonstrating domain knowledge) and the second videos (demonstrating heuristic strategies; control strategies and learning strategies).

• As each video progressed the heuristic strategies used by the researcher in making decisions, like, why to save the file in the D drive while working in a MS Windows environment (Module 2); why to save all images in a single folder for a particular presentation (Module 4); why to plan the presentation before applying hyperlinks (Module 8) etc are discussed in detail.

• The control strategies of the researcher used in the Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress discuss why certain options were preferred.

Method

• Modeling: the videos helped the Pre-service teachers model the steps to utilize the features of Impress, like, saving the presentation, adding an image, inserting header or footer or inserting an animation etc.

• Coaching: The Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress was developed in a hypermedia environment. The Modules also allowed the Pre-service teacher to view the steps as many times as they wished and also provided control the pre-service teacher to stop at whatever point they wished and continue from thereon.

• Scaffolding: According to Greenfield (1999) "The scaffold, as it is known in building construction, has five characteristics: it provides a support; it functions as a tool; it extends the range of the worker; it allows a worker to accomplish a task not otherwise possible; and it is used to selectively aid the worker where needed." McKenzie (1999) gave characteristics of scaffolding that are used to explain the characteristics of the Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress (Table 2).

• Articulation: Articulation of the pre-service teachers use of the material and their learning of Open Office Impress was done at two levels one during the Interviews and second while the pre-service teachers were using the material and making their own presentations. This helped the pre-service teachers clarify ambiguities they experienced while working in a hypermedia environment and demonstrate their thinking process. (The pre-service teachers also maintained a journal wherein they made entries as they progressed through the material.)

• Reflection and Exploration: During the interviews the researcher allowed pre-service teachers to look into the presentations made by other pre-service teachers and then revisit their own presentations. In this process, many pre-service teachers explored the features of Impress which although they knew, but did not use in their presentation. Also a discussion group was created where a few sample presentations made by teachers shared. This helped the pre-service teachers compare, learn and modify their presentations.

Sequence

• Increasing Complexity and Diversity: The developed self learning material was conceptually seriated in a manner that the pre-service teachers moved from simple skills (Beginning a Presentation) to complex skills (Adding Hyperlinks and Action Buttons) required while using the Impress. In the interviews the pre-service teachers stated clearly that inspite of having the freedom to choose their learning path( due to the hypermedia environment) they preferred to follow the sequence of the modules as it moved from simple to complex concepts.

• Global to Local Skills: The story board the pre-service teachers had designed for their presentation gave them a broad framework to work on. This acted as a map for the pre-service teachers as to how their presentation would look like. The advanced organizer presented at the global skills required to use Open office Impress while the individual videos augmented the local skills.

Sociology • Situated Learning: Collins et al (1991) state that situated learning allows

students to apply existing knowledge or to acquire new knowledge "in an environment that reflects the multiple uses to which their knowledge will be

185185

put in the future." Once, the Pre-service teachers began using the developed Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress they simultaneously started their work on making their own presentation based on their story board.

• Community of Practice and Cooperation: Through dialogs and discussions among peers and with the researcher a community of practice and cooperation was established. This proved to be a platform where the pre-service teachers discussed the various aspects of their learning of Open Office Impress through the self-instructional material.

• Intrinsic Motivation: The novelty and freedom that came with the self learning hypermedia environment to learn Open Office, was the intrinsic motivator.

Table 2: The Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress as a Scaffold Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress as a Scaffold

Features of a Scaffold -McKenzie (1999)

The launch pad of the modules is an advanced organizer of the self learning material..

Provides clear direction and reduces students’ confusion

Once the Pre-service teacher has visited the advanced organizer, she is free to look into any module of her choice. The Advanced organizer provides a description of the features of Open Office Impress

Clarifies purpose

In all the Modules, the activeness of the Pre-service Teacher was decided by two aspects: learner control – where the Pre-service teacher had the freedom to choose which module she wished to explore; at what speed; and the number of times and secondly the Story board that the Pre-service teachers had made on Paper. The Storyboard was made based on their assumptions, experiences and knowledge of the classroom for which they had made the presentation. The Storyboard also added as a guide map for teachers to see what features of Open Office Impress they needed to learn in order to convert the Storyboard into a Presentation.

Keeps students on task

The expectation learning from the Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress was the ability to translate the Storyboard into a Presentation for the Teaching Learning Process. Apart from this the Pre-service Teachers were also given an activity where they had to evaluate several presentations made by other teachers across the globe on various aspects of their subjects, so as to learn and see what constituted as an Effective Presentation. Also, as the students proceeded with each module, a question was supplied at the end of each Introduction for which the Pre-service teachers required to write answers in their log books.

Clarifies expectations and incorporates assessment and feedback

As the Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress showed and explained clearly whatever skill mastery that was expected of the Pre-service teachers, it helped reduce their uncertainty and disappointment. Secondly, as the material allowed for the video to be replayed as many times as the teacher wished, it helped understand and translate the instructions clearly

Reduces uncertainty, surprise, and disappointment

99 Pre-service Teachers who participated in the study were able to learn to make presentations using Open Office Impress. They were able to translate their Story boards into Presentations. Interviews also revealed that many Pre-service teachers made changes to their Storyboard so that they could use the power of the Presentation Software (especially by using Hyperlinks and Action Buttons).

Delivers efficiency

Evidence from the personal interviews with the Pre-service teachers suggested that the Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress was such a great support system to learn Impress, most Pre-service teachers completed the task before the allotted time of a week.

Creates momentum

III. RESEARCH QUESTIONS The research questions for the study were:

1. What affect does the Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress

186186

have on the Quality of Presentation made by Pre-service teachers vis-a-vis their Cognitive Style?

2. What affect does the Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress have on the Quality of Presentation made by Pre-service teachers vis-a-vis their Gender?

IV. METHODOLOGY

A. Design

This study used a mixed method design that included a single group posttest only design, open ended questionnaire and

personal interviews. The rationale to use a weak experimental design like the single group posttest only design was inability of majority of the Pre-service Teachers to make Presentation using any Presentation Software and the paucity of both the subjects and time left for the completion of the academic year. The questionnaire and the personal interviews helped in gauging the Pre-service Teachers perceptions about influence of the Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress on their presentation making abilities and the Learning Path followed by them.

Table 3: Schematic Representation of the Experiment

Activity Process Time

Orientation to Story Boards

The Pre-service Teachers were introduced to the concept of Story Boards and oriented towards use of Presentation Software in the Teaching Learning Process.

2 hrs

Preparation of Story Boards

The Pre-service teachers were divided into their respective teaching subjects viz. Sciences ( included Physics, Chemistry, Biology), Mathematics, Social Sciences (included History, Civics and Geography) and Languages(English and Hindi (students did not opt for Hindi as they were unfamiliar with the typing of Hindi although assistance was assured to them) They were free to choose any topic of their choice from their teaching subject. They were advised to take a class which they had taught during their teaching practice as it would help them in understanding the depth and breadth of the topic to be covered in the presentation.

30 Working Hours over a period of 2 months

Treatment

The Pre-service teachers were introduced to the Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress. They were then divided into groups: the students who wished to make the presentation at home and those who wished to use the laboratory. The students who used the laboratory were given 30 hrs of lab time for a week. At the end of the week both the groups had to submit their presentations. There were 44 students who opted to work at home while the rest used the lab as they did not access to a personal computer.

1 week.

Administration of the Questionnaire

After making their presentations an Open Ended Questionnaire was administered 1 hours

Interviews and Evaluation of the Presentations using the Rubrics

Interviews were conducted of the Pre-service teachers to gain an understanding of their perceptions of learning with the Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress. Simultaneously the Presentations made by the Pre-service teachers was evaluated using a Rubric

3 weeks

B. Sample Ninety nine pre-service teachers were enrolled at the Bachelor’s of Education at the Army Institute of Education, Delhi Cantt., batch

2009-2010. Eleven males and eighty eight females provided gender differences among the participants.

187187

C. Tools for Collecting Data Quality of Presentation: The Pre-service teachers made a presentation based on their Story-board in Impress. This presentation was evaluated using a Presentation Scoring Rubric. Scoring rubrics are descriptive scoring schemes that are developed by teachers and other evaluators to guide the analysis of the products or processes of students’ efforts (Brookhart,1999). The Rubrics evaluated the students on the following aspects of the Presentation: Research and Note-taking; Reproduction of Plan: Storyboard; Introduction; Content; Text elements; Layout; References; Graphics and Animations and Language.

Cognitive Style: Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) developed by Oltman, Raskin, and Witkin (1971) was used to assess Cognitive Style. Witkin, Oltman, Raskin, and Karp (1971) described the GEFT as a valid and reliable measure of field Dependence- Independence. Witkin, Oltman, Raskin, and Karp (1971) reported correlations of 0.82 and 0.63 between scores on the GEFT and the individually administered Embedded Figures Test for male and female undergraduates.

V. PROCEDURE FOR DATA COLLECTION Before the Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress was given to the Pre-service teachers, they were introduced to the concept of Story boards for Presentation. The Pre-service teachers then had to prepare a Story board on a particular topic on which they wished to make the presentation. The preparation of Story board was an extensive exercise and the Pre-service teachers took nearly 30 working hours over 2 months to complete the exercise. They were encouraged during this time to interact among themselves and their respective Subject Methodology Teachers. Once the Story board was ready, the Pre-service teachers were shown the Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress. They were only shown how to use this material and it was clearly told to them that they are free to follow whatever sequence they wished to follow once they opened the first page. The Pre-service teachers then used their Story boards and the Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress to make their Presentation. During the course of the study the Pre-service Teachers were administered the Cognitive Style Test as per the instructions in the manual.

VI. RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

A. Affect of Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress on the Quality of Presentation made by Pre-service teachers vis-a-vis their Cognitive Style

The data for the affect of Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress on the Quality of Presentation made by Pre-service teachers

vis-a-vis their Cognitive Style were analyzed using the One Way ANOVA. The results are given in Table 4.

Table 4: Summary of One Way ANOVA of Quality of Presentation

Source of Variance

df SS MSS F value

Cognitive Style

2 18.62 9.31 1.34 Within Group 96 664.74 6.92

Total 98 From Table 4 it is evident that the F value is 1.34 which is not significant. It shows that means scores of Quality of Presentation of students with different cognitive styles did not differ significantly. In this context the null hypothesis that the mean scores of Quality of Presentation of Pre-service teachers of different cognitive styles do not different significantly is not rejected. It may be said that the Quality of Presentation did not vary significantly as the cognitive style of the Pre-service Teachers. It further implies that the Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress was effective as a scaffold for this group of Pre-service Teachers to learn Technology through Technology.

B. Affect of Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress on the Quality of Presentation made by Pre-service teachers vis-a-vis their Gender

The data for the affect of Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress on the Quality of Presentation made by Pre-service teachers vis-a-vis their Gender was analyzed with the help of t-test. The results are given in Table 5.

Table 5: Gender wise Mean, SD, and t-values of Quality of Presentation

Gender N Mean SD t-value Males 11 32.90 2.61 0.75 Females 88 32.79 2.98 From Table 5 it is evident that the t-value is 0.75, which is not significant. It indicates that the mean scores of Quality of Presentation of Males and Females did not differ significantly and hence the null hypothesis is not rejected. It can further be said that when the Pre-service teachers used Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress as a scaffold the Quality of Presentation remains the same; showing that both males and females are able to learn equally well from the Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress.

VII. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The developed Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress was a computer-based learning environment that provided the pre-service teachers with apprenticeship like experience: close

188188

attention, modeling, repetition and demonstration of heuristic strategies. The Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress based on the principles of Cognitive Apprenticeship has shown to be effective with both male and female Pre-service teachers and also with Pre-service teachers with different cognitive style. (see Stalmeijer, Dolmans, et al., 2009 and van Velzen andVolman, 2009). This material augmented the Pre-service teachers’ technology skills in directly using, applying and learning technology. Being a self-instructional material it gave the Pre-service teachers an opportunity to learn at their own pace; time and convenience. The hypermedia based learning environment in the material gave ample opportunities for the Pre-service teachers to control their own learning (Azevedo 2005).

The use of instructional material like the developed Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress in Teacher Education would help:

• Teacher educators o by imparting technology skills to Pre-

service teacher without compromising on time for imparting Pedagogical skills

o by demonstrating their thinking skills and rationale for actions individually

o by discussing with Pre-service teachers their own learning process. This would give the Pre-service teachers the much needed individual attention to overcome the personal barriers with regard to the use and application of technology in the teaching learning process

• Pre-service teachers o will get an opportunity to witness the

domain expertise that the teacher educator posses in using technology for the teaching learning process

o will be able to articulate their learning experience and in the process develop an insight into their own learning experience

o will be able to view the material at their own pace, time and convenience

o will be able to view repeatedly any aspect of the material and gain mastery over a sub-skill that would augment their domain knowledge

Using the developed Interactive Video Based Self Learning Modules on Open Office Impress the Pre-service teachers were able to acquire skills required to develop Presentations using Open Office Impress. As a cognitive apprentice the self learning modules gave the pre-service teachers an opportunity gain an insight not only into their own learning but also into the expert knowledge. This added to their skill base and made

them more confident in using Open Office Impress (as discussed in their personal interviews).

REFERENCES [1] Azevedo, R. (2005):Using hypermedia as a metacognitive

tool for enhancing student learning? The role of self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 40

[2] Blok, H., Oostdam, R., Otter, M. E., & Overmaat, M. (2002). Computer-assisted instruction in support of beginning reading instruction: A review. Review of Educational Research, 72.

[3] Brookhart, S. M. (1999). The Art and Science of Classroom Assessment: The Missing Part of Pedagogy. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report (Vol. 27, No.1). Washington, DC: The George Washington University, Graduate School of Education and Human Development.

[4] Brown, Collins, & Duguid(1989): Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher. 18,(1).

[5] Ceci, Rosenblum, & De Bruyn(1998): Laboratory versus field approaches to cognition. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The Nature of Cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

[6] Christmann, E. P., & Badgett, J. L. (2000). The comparative effectiveness of CAI on collegiate academic performance. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 11(2).

[7] Collins et al.(1989): Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the craft of reading, writing, and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

[8] Collins, et al. (1991): A cognitive apprenticeship for disadvantaged students. In B. Means, C. Chelemer & M. S. Knapp (Eds.) Teaching advanced skills to at-risk students. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

[9] Foddy, W. (1993): Constructing questions for interviews and questionnaires: theory and practice in social research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[10] Greenfield, P. M. (1999). Historical change and cognitive change: A two-decade follow-up study in Zincantan, a Maya community in Chiapas, Mexico. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 6.

[11] Kulik, Kulik, & Cohen (1980): Effectiveness of computer-based teaching: A meta-analysis of findings. Review of Educational Research, 50(4).

[12] Loyens, S.M.M., R.M.J.P. Rikers, and H.G. Schmidt.(2006): Students’ conceptions of constructivist learning: A comparison between a traditional and a problem-based learning curriculum. Advances in Health Sciences Education 11.

[13] Mayer, R. E. (1979). Can advance organizers influence meaningful learning? Review of Educational Research, 49.

[14] McKenzie, J. (2000). Scaffolding for Success. [Electronic version] Beyond Technology, Questioning, Research and the Information Literate School Community. Retrieved on May 02,2010 from http://fno.org/dec99/scaffold.html

[15] Merrill, M.D. (1980). Learner control in computer based learning. Computers and Education, 4.

[16] Moos & Marroquin(2010): Multimedia, hypermedia, and hypertext: Motivation considered and reconsidered, Computers in Human Behavior, 26.

[17] Niemiec et al.(1996): Learner-control effects: A review of reviews and a meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 15.

[18] Quinn, J. (1994), Connecting education and practice in an instructional design graduate program, ETR&D, 42(3).

[19] Quinn, J. (1995), The education of instructional designers: reflections on the Tripp paper. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 8 (3).

[20] Reja, et.al.(2003): Open-ended vs. Close-ended Questions in Web Questionnaires. Developments in Applied

189189

Statistics, Metodološki zvezki, 19, Ljubljana: FDV, 2003 (Retrieved on May 02,2010 from http://mrvar.fdv.uni-lj.si/pub/mz/mz19/reja.pdf

[21] Sluijsmans, D., G. Straetmans, and J. Merriënboer(2008): Integrating authentic assessment with competence-based learning in vocational education: The protocol portfolio scoring. Journal of Vocational Education and Training 60.

[22] Stalmeijer, R. E., D. H. J. M. Dolmans, et al. (2009). "Cognitive Apprenticeship in Clinical Practice: Can It Stimulate Learning in the Opinion of Students?" Advances in Health Sciences Education 14(4).

[23] Tripp (1994): How should instructional designers be educated? Performance Improvement Quarterly, 7(3).

[24] van Velzen, C. and M. Volman (2009). "The Activities of a School-Based Teacher Educator: A Theoretical and Empirical Exploration." European Journal of Teacher Education 32(4):

[25] Waxman, H. C., Connell, M. L., & Gray, J. (2002). A quantitative synthesis of recent research on the effects of Teaching and learning with technology on student outcomes. Naperville, Illinois: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory

[26] Witkin, H. A., Oltman, P. K., Raskin, E., & Karp, S. A. (1971) A manual for the embedded figures tests. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

190190