I-O PSY EXAM 2 SG

8/14/2019 I-O PSY EXAM 2 SG

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I-O PSYCH EXAM #2 STUDY GUIDE

*** CH 12: Stress in the Workplace *** Stress: a threat you perceive acquiring adjustment which taxes the

individual to near, or beyond the limits of his/her resources. Stimulusdefinition: stimulus factors that are impinging upon us

NOT a threat- NOT stress NOT the same for everyone

NOT event that caused stress BUTperceivedaspect

Response definition: how we respond to stress Physiologically &

Psychologically Psychological security- (resources) like motivation comes from

within Difficult to measure

Perceived demand that causes us to adopt our resources Threat, frustration = causes of stress

Threat: anticipation of harm

Future oriented/ hasnt happened yet Some spend their whole life worrying

Harm/Frustration: form of stress thats already occurred

Past oriented Some spend whole life fixated/ruminating about past events One reason women are more likely to be depressed (2:1) ratio, they

ruminate while men change activities. Conflict: occurrence simultaneously of 2 or more non-compatible action tendencies

or goals. Approach - Approach: 2 alternatives/choices that are both (+) in

valance/nature Gift of Lexus or Mercedes, cant have both

Approach - Avoidance: Single choice that has both (+) and (-) valances

Offered supervisor promotion: increased stress (-) & increased money

(+) Classic example is marriage Avoidance - Avoidance: 2 choices that are both (-) in valance

Dont want to study but will fail the exam if not 9/11: Jump or burn

Causes of Stress in Work Place: W ork overload - too much work to perform in the time available (quantitative)

or work that is too difficult for the employee to perform (qua lita tive). Work underload - work that is too simple or insufficiently challenging for ones

abilities. Role Ambiguity or Conflict :Ambiguity: a situation that arises job

responsibilities are unstructured or poorly defined. Conflict: a situation thatarises when there is a disparity btw job demands and the employees personal

standards. Performance criteria ambiguity : uncertain of evaluation standards for

job performance Work method ambiguity : uncertain of appropriate methods for

successful performance Scheduling ambiguity : uncertainty of timing/sequencing of work

Effects of Work Stress Psychosomatic Diseases/Disorders: actual physical disorders caused or related to

emotional factors such as stress on the job. Involve specific organ or tissue damage


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where origins lie in psychological and emotional factors that have a definite physicalimpact on the body. Often these lead to more stress.

Include:

High BP (hypertension) ulcers

colitis heart disease arthritis skin diseases allergies headaches neck & lower back pain cancer


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Costly to organizations reflected by reduced motivation, lower productivity,

increased errors/accidents, increased turnover & related counterproductivebehavior (substance abuse/theft)

Mass Psychogenic Illness: a stress related disorder manifested in a variety ofphysical symptoms that spread rapidly among a group of workers; popularly calledassembly-line hysteria. Affects greater number of women than men. It strikes

suddenly, has no physical origin and spreads by contagion. Triggers include: employee isolation (women esp. susceptible), noise, speed,

poor lighting, variable temperatures, unpleasant odors, and work overload

Burnout: a condition of job stresses that result from overwork. 3 components tosuch include;emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, & reduced sense of personalaccomplishment.

Age is a significant predictor of burnout; more likely to occur in those under

40 Sometimes labeled workaholics; So-called addiction to work b/c of anxiety &

insecurity or b/c of a genuine liking for the job. They have highJob engagement: the true enjoyment of work, characterizing

ppl who score high in energy, involvement, and efficacy.

Hans Selye; in our everyday life we experience wear & tear =stress General Adaptation Syndrome:

Alarm - mobilizes, increases heart rate, digestions slows, fight or flight Resistance - tries to cope/resist a threat we are working our bodies

harder Exhaustion - body begins to succumb to illness, signaling high lvl of

stress Psycho/neuro/immunology (PNI): External conflict causes physical degradation

then illness, Dr.Adler Post Tramatic Stress Disorder: Extreme situation of death or serious trauma.

Those vulnerable to PSD are marked by: worry, irritability, and/or aggression. Itaffects ones way of concentration; the self-preoccupied can be consumed withaddictive habits.

Methods For Reducing Stress Behavior Modification: changes response to a stimulus, effective in rendering Type

A personalities less vulnerable to stress. Conditioning positive emotional responses tostressful events.

Cognitive retraining therapy: given opportunities to help each other, self-

esteem builders, make independent; gives meaning to life Biofeedback: stress-reduction technique that involves electronic monitoring

of physiological processes, such that ppl can learn to control muscle tension,blood pressure, and brain waves.

Relaxation Training: stress reduction technique that concentrates on

relaxing one part of the body after another.

Individual Differences in Stress Responses Job Satisfaction

As stress lvls increase job satisfaction & morale decreases Increases in autonomy & control increase satisfaction Challenge related stress : time pressure, high lvl of responsibility that lead to

feelings of fulfillment & achievement. Showing not all stress as harmful. Hindrance related stress : excessive job demands and constraints that

interfere with achieving goals. Type A/B Personalities: Personality patterns related to ones ability to tolerate

stress;


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Type A : characterized by high competitive drive & time urgency. Are persons

are associated w/ heart disease anger, hostility, time urgency & depression. Type B may work as hard as Type A, but show fewer stress effects.

Self-Efficacy: the belief in ones ability to accomplish a task; a sense of howadequate, efficient and competent we feel about coping w/ lifes demands.

The determining factor in stress tolerance .

Ppl high in self-efficacy are less bothered by stress Locus of Control: personality variable of internal vs external attribution for source

of rewards. Internal- believe they can affect the outcomes in their world, are in control

External- attribute outcomes to ppl, outside events & forces such as

luck/chance Have higher lvls of stress & burnout

Self-Esteem: how we feel about ourselves based on value or worth; in workplacecalled-

Organization-based Self-Esteem: a personality dimension relating to our

assessment of our adequacy and worth w/ regard to our place in theemploying organization.

Low in (OBSE) are more affected by job stress, more susceptible to

effects of role conflict & tend to be more passive in coping with stress. Negative Affectivity: A personality dimension characterized by a generalized life

and job dissatisfaction and by a focus on (-) aspects of life events. Closely related toneutroticism.

Those rated High are likely to experience distress & dissatisfaction in ALL

areas of life. Hardiness: ppl who can survive stressful situations show traits for control, that

doesnt mean of environment but over self, emotions & behavior Ppl respond differently to stress, stimuli are not universally agitating; the way

an individual interprets & evaluates experiences determines stress. They do something about a problem- best antidote for stress

Think of solutions creatively- then seek to carry them out.

*** CH 7: Leadership *** Leadership: interpersonal influences exercised in a situation and directed

through the communication process, toward the achievement process oforganizational goals. The ability to persuade individuals to follow his/her directionsand achieve a goal

Leaders behave the specific actions by which they play out their leadership

roles- are based on certain assumptions about human nature; they operate onthe basis of some personal theory of human behavior, a view of what theirsubordinates are like as ppl.

3 Poor Leadership Traits: Lack of training

Lack of cognitive ability

Cant think strategically or find alternatives Lack of Personality/ Personality pblms

Most damning quality- narcissism Must be center of attention take all the credit for success & none for

failure Counter factual Thinking: what might/would have been

Leaders are usually decisive; consider these variables that may be derisive to

organizational goal. 3 Facets

Characters of Leaders


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Followers Nature of the situation

Transactional: focuses on the relationship btw leaders and followers, what theleader can do is based on followers.

Transformational: can transform or change beliefs of their followers; those whochallenge or inspire followers by creating a vision and communicating it well. Score

high on extroversion & agreeableness and are charismatic. High energy Lvl

Individualized consideration

Intellectual Stimulation

Approaches to Leadership Scientific Management: (F. Taylor) management philosophy concerned with

increasing productivity that regarded workers as extensions of the machines theyoperated.

Taylor was concerned w/ finding ways to increase productivity by getting

machines & their workers to run faster and more efficiently Human Relations Approach: (D. McGregor) regard satisfaction of employee needs

as a legitimate corporate responsibility. Arose in 1920/30s under the impact of theHawthorne studies

Trait Approach Theory: attempted to find what set leaders apart from others

Didnt find any consistent pattern

Followership: the pattern between leaders and followers Its not about the characteristics, it takes an interpersonal relation to direct a

set of followers Behaviorist Approach: only observable trait is behavior, what leaders do

X & Y Theory:

(X) approach to management assumes ppl are lazy & dislike worktherefore they have to be led; consideration is low. Compatible withbureaucracy & Scientific Management

(Y) Assumes ppl find satisfaction in their work when their leader allowsthem to participate in working toward goals; structure is high.

Consideration: (Like Theory Y)

Causes an increase in production rates Initiating Structure: (Like Theory X)

Setting goals, syst. Of rewards & punishments International Harvestor Study: (no longer in business)

Kennedy-if you dont lower prices on steel Ill buy your material from other

(foreign) industries If you take care of employees productions will take care of your production Formen Opinion Questionnaire: like theory X&Y

Measured consideration and structure Found high scores on (X) pre-training, low on consideration @

supervisor lvl. To correct they sent them to a (human relationsoriented) training facility. After training the results were flipped, more(Y). Followed them back and continued study which resulted in

structure being even higher and consideration at all time low. Top Dog must be fixed first, you must start at the top b/c ppl will lead

as their directed to lead. If leader doesnt do it he doesnt validate or give it credibility.

Prudential Study: find an organization large enough that they could find severalgroups performing the same job under the same circumstances b/c invariably somegroups will produce more than others- does leadership have an effect on production?

Commonalities with leaders of High Producing groups: emergencies

should be at a minimum!


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Less direct emphasis on production as a goal Theyre ppl oriented ppl taken care will take care of production

Less close supervision from their own supervisors We treat ppl differently when already doing what we want

Employee centered More time in supervision in straight production work

More confident in role as supervisor Knew where they stood in organization Encourage Employee involvement/ participation decision-making

Classic b/c it was replicated several times

Characteristics of 1st-line supervisors (**ESSAY**) Person centered

Supportive & helpful

Democratic

Flexible

Emphasize quality

Provide clear directions

Give timely feedback

Power: allows us to influence others, right to make a decision 3 Main traits:

Able to obtain more resources Able to dictate policy/changes/standards Advance further in the organization

3 Types of Power (derived from formal organization):

Legitimate : derived from organizations formal power structure Coercive : ability to punish Reward : ability to reward

2 Types of Power (derived from leaders themselves):

Expert : expertise believedto be had Referent : respect & likableness, derived from followers are easily

identifiable to them. To move up in an organization you have to make yourself visible, allow yourself to be

known.Obstacles to Women Progress

Women perform as well as or better than men in assessment centers, highlycompetitive, adopt leadership styles more interactive & democratic, just assuccessful, entrepreneurial BUT only 2-4% of corporations are run by Females. 42%less in pay than men and often restricted to staff/ advisory positions. There is still aglass ceiling, to change this we need to change the socialization of our children.

Reasons for these disparities: Persistence of Male stereotypes

Exclusion from informal networks

Lack of line experience [sales asst -> finance -> ]

Inhospitable corporate culture

The Glass Ceiling

When women succeed their success is attributed to circumstance/ external

factors- males, ability Martina Horner- went to a large mid-west university and distributed paper to Males

and Females: At the end of the year Annie finds herself at the top of med. Schoolgrad class (F); where males were asked to write about John. Asked to write afictitious story about their character

10% of males said negative things about John

60% of Females said negative things about Annie


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Motivation to Avoid Success: catch so much flack its not worth-while to

pursue

*** CH 5 : Performance Appraisal*** Performance Evaluation/Review: Formal structured system of measuring &

evaluating an employees job related behaviors and out-comes. The purpose for appraisals is

1.) Administrative reasons; pay increases & promotions 2.) Research; validating selection instruments

EEOC is concerned with the Reasonableness and Validity of the test

Burden of proof rests with the corporation

Out-Comes = Productivity; Most important aspect

One to measure behavior & another to see what they produce

In a Meta-Analysis, it was revealed that student reviews of teachers, say nothing ofwhat a professor does but rather what they make students do.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC): sets guidelines foremployment decisions and selection procedures not ltd. to hiring but also promotion,demotion, transfer, layoff discharge or early retirement. Increases chances of success

when defending against claims of discrimination. Race Bias: known to persist in job assignment, pay, promotion, & other

personnel decisions. Age Bias: Older workers receive significantly lower ratings on measures of

self-development, interpersonal skills & overall job performance. Labor Unions: represent 11% of US workforce, assert seniority opposed to

assessment of merit be cause for promotion. Common Goals:

Record of Performance

documentation of pro/demotions, pay increases used to justify actions taken with an employee

Provide an Employees Potential for Advancement:

Maintains employee initiative, Helps identify those w/ potential.

To determine Performance & Training Needs :

Lets employees know where they stand Should provide feed-back Necessary at all lvls to be effective (Prudential Study)

Motivate Employees

When employees receive (+) evaluations it doesnt necessarilyproduce an increase in productivity BUT (-) evaluations WILL decreaseit.

Provides a Validation for Selection Tests

Validity is dependent on correlation to some measure of jobperformance

Provide information for validating employee selection techniques. Has a bad name b/c criterion to evaluate are fraught w/ error Anytime one person tests another, there is some lvl of subjectivity

Inherent Problems with Tests Halo Effect: tendency to judge all aspects of a persons behavior or

character on the basis of a single characteristic.Appearance is the #1attribute looked at.

Constant/Systematic Bais: A source error in performance appraisal based

on the different standards used by raters; each person has a unique lvl ofstandards


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Most-Recent Performance Error: A source error in performance appraisal

where rater tends to evaluate most recent job behavior rather than behaviorthroughout period since last appraised. We cant let the most recent activityto affect our judgment, the total performance is key.

Inadequate information Error: A source of error in performance appraisal

in which supervisors rate their subordinates even though they may not know

enough about them to do so fairly & accurately. Being able to pass the blameon to another. Decentralization allows us to reduce this error? AVG Rating/(Leniency)Error: rater is unwilling to assign extreme scores

one way or another, consequently most fall in the mid-range BUT if everyoneis AVG then no one is really apt.

20/80 Rule: 20% carry 80% of the work Attribution: A source of error in performance appraisal in which rater

attribute/assign (+) or (-) explanations to an employees behavior/ attributingcause. Why do ppl perform poorly? Supervisors will blame employees of beinglazy in nature when rather, they may only need training. OR InterpersonalAffect: Our feelings or emotions toward another person. In performanceappraisal, the emotional tone of the relationship btw the manager and theemployee, whether (+) or (-) can influence the assigned ratings

Role Conflict: A situation that arises when job responsibilities areunstructured or poorly defined.

Judgmental Performance Appraisal Methods: Merit Rating : objective rating method designed to provide an objective

evaluation of work performance. Rating Method: specify how or to what degree worker posses

relevant job characteristics. Attempts to reduce personal bias byobserving worker performance; not nearly reliable or effective. Difffrom ranking b/c it relates an individuals past performance withcurrent.

Ranking Method: A Performance appraisal technique in whichsupervisors list the workers in their groups in order from (highest to

lowest) or (best to worst). Diff from rating b/c it relates individualperformance with all others in group- Not a direct measure of jobperformance.

Paired-Comparison Technique: A Performance appraisal techniquethat compares the performance of each worker with that of every otherworker in the group. Similar to Ranking but more systematic/controlledbut confined to small groups no more than 6-8 ppl

Forced-Distribution Technique: performance appraisal technique inwhich supervisors rate employees according to a prescribeddistribution of ratings/categories (top 10%, top 50%). makes anassumption that tests have normal distributions/bell curve, but itdoesnt adequately appropriate what AVG is; group may all be betterthan AVG.

Forced-Choice Technique: performance appraisal technique inwhich raters are presented with groups of descriptive statements andare asked to select the phrase in each group that is most descriptive orleast descriptive of worker being evaluated. Not used often, difficult totest.

Behavioral Observation Scales (BOS) : A performance appraisal technique in

which appraiser rates the frequency of critical employee behaviors.


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Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS) : A performance appraisal

technique in which appraiser rates critical employee behaviors specific tosuccess or failure.

MBO Management By Objective (MBO): [now use Total Quality Mgt.]

involves a mutual agreement btw employee and manager on goals to beachieved in a given period. --Being at lowest lvl, they report their goals to the

next lvl above. It creates tremendous accountability. Problem with set goals isthat they tend to be set low b/c they tend to be raised. The result is settlingfor mediocrity if you dont have control over the contingencies in theenvironment, which is almost never the case. Not valid or reliable.

How to Improve Performance Appraisals: Training: (persons who conduct appraisal) creates awareness that abilities and

skills are usually distributed in a bell curve & developing the ability to defineobjective criteria for work behavior.

Provide Feed-back to Raters: reduces leniency errors

Subordinate Participation: leads to trust in employee management, increases

satisfaction, increased reports of fairness & motivation to improve.

*** CH 14 : Consumer Psychology *** Consumer Psychology: Consumer decides success of an organization or/object so we

have to have them surs- Market, Advertise & Sell our product Caveat emptor = let the buyer beware 3 Major Purposes of Advertising

Produce an Awareness of & Knowledge about a company, service, or product Create a (+) regard; make ppl feel good about company

To (Stimulate) a Desire; you cant create a desire, like a motivation, it has to

already exist. Important b/c I-O Psychologists were accused of brainwashingessentially.

Research Methods Focus Groups: A method of surveying public opinion through the paid participation

of 8 to 12 group members who meet to describe their reactions to a product oradvertisement or to specific issues. Responses tend to be more qualitative than thosefrom questionnaires.

Survey Consumer Method: Actual buying behavior or response/reactions to aproduct. Ppl not always accurate/reliable. False responses either by memory lapsesor deliberate distortions cause inaccuracy. Phone surveys have all but died however,online surveys show increases in response and accuracy.

Most Popular methodology

Dont tell the truth

Cant articulate meaningful information

Much of responses subconscious- unaware of intentions

Motivational Analysis (In-Depth): (E. Dichter) Not interested in preference rather(WHY?) motivation for purchasing product.

Ernest Dichter used Freudian psychoanalysis to uncover subconscious

motivations for neurotic behavior and then applied it to consumer behavior. Pretest of focus group.

What kinds of cognitions/affects group perceives from ad. Is what theyre

looking at Projective Techniques: ppl are presented with ambiguous stimulus and they then

project their needs, fears and values onto the stimulus in the act of interpreting it. uncover subjective, unconscious reasons

Rorschach Ink Blot Test/ Thematic Apperception Test

Physiological Measures


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Eye Camera: in dpt. Studies b/c want to know where/what ppl are fixating on.

(end of aisle) Pupil Dilator/Autonomic Response: pupils increase when perceiving a

desirable object, constrict on decreased desirability. Gives validity EMG Electromyography: detects electrical activity of the muscles; when

applied to certain facial muscles it measures a persons reaction to emotional

stimuli. Sales Test: Run ad in one area/ not another; if sales increased in the place as was

run and not the other, then it worked. A way of testing the effectiveness of anadvertising campaign by introducing the new advertising in selected test markets.Allows for control of variables

Aided Recall: Most frequently used method show part of ad & ask the group tofill in the missing part of the advertisement. A test of advertising effectiveness todetermine the extent to which ad content can be recalled. The interviewer aids therecall by asking specific questions.

Recognition Techniques: used to test advertising effectiveness by asking ppl ifthey recognize a particular ad, where they saw it, and what they can recall about it.Better for TV commercials

Packaging: Ppl consider convince, security, does it fit where its usually kept,

aesthetics, packaging makes up more of product cost than product itself Can spend so much on advertising b/c they pass the bulk on to the consumer

Nature of Advertisement 2 Major Pblms w/ Sexy Ads

Very little recall on product

Appeal to wrong audience

TV Ads/Commercials: scientists describe viewers as nomads b/c they wander or surf Channel nomads: surf channels looking for programs of interest Mental nomads: multi-taskers doing other things while TV is on, occasionally

glance at TV Physical nomads: busy in other parts of house only catch snippets of TV In lab setting, aprox. 1/3rd forgot what they had seen when questioned

immediately after

Has to appeal to different ethnic group. High status by up high quantity.

High SES shop down b/c they dont have anyone to impress Social Climbers buy ridiculous $800 Jimmy Choo Shoes

*** CH 10 : Working Conditions *** Psychological and Physical factors that satisfy efficientcy Environmental Psychology: the study of the effect of workplace design on

behavior and attitudes. Office lay-outs have implications on communication btw & w/in depts., flow of

job tasks, relationships btw managers and subordinates, and work groupcohesiveness. Though this type does improve socializing; complaints include

lack of privacy, noise & concentration pblms Hoteling is a term used when calling to reserve a cubicle when visiting ones

home office. It is known by those who spend much time on-site/ traveling toclient areas

Factors: Physical: Location, design, size, landscape

Temporal: work hours, rest pauses

Psychological: boredom, fatigue, job simple

Sm. Corporations : have increased interaction


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Lg. Corporations very impersonal, very structured Indoor Pollution: very LG buildings, enclosed with polluted air in recirculation

Air planes are a perfect example Illumination Important*

Illumination, Noise & Temperature are analogous with Herzbergs hygiene

needs, affect satisfaction

Constant exposure to inadequate lighting is harmful to ones eyesight Intensity : lvl of brightness, varies w/ nature of task & age of worker (56-70

ftcnds) Distribution of Light : ideally it should be uniform or else results in eyestrain.

Indirect lighting, which all light is reflected is preferable to direct, whichfocuses and causes glare.

Glare : reduces visual efficiency, is caused by light of brighter intensity than

one is accustomed to Natural light : full spectrum, is a physiological need. Windows assist in this w/

added scenery Foot-candle: (standards candle at a distance of one ft) aprox. The brightness

produced by 100-watt bulb held 10 ft about your head on a dark night. Noise

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health reports; 20% of US empswork in environments prone to hearing damage.

Govt rule, no noise over 90 decibels for 8h workday

130 + cause near instant hearing loss

Interferes w/ effective communication in office place

Color No validity to correlations w/ color & productivity, fatigue, or job satisfaction

Coding devices are the way color is used to indicated fire (red), danger

(yellow) & first-aid stations (green) Can prevent eye strain b/c reflectivity, white walls reflect more than dark

Dark rooms seem smaller Most employees prefer pastels or cool colors but these often affect perception

of temp. Most thermostats are fakes only giving illusion of control

Music in work place, humanizing attempt doesnt increase production unless the jobis repetitious

Nominal work hours, shift work (esp. Rotating) is extremely deleterious to ones health. Work Hours:

The 5-day, 40hour work week became the norm in 1938 w/ passage of the

Fair Labor Standards Act. Nominal Working Hours:The prescribed number of hours employees are

supposed to spend on the job; not all of these hours are actually spentperforming job tasks

The longer the work week/time; the less productive an individual becomes

Shift Work: when industry works around the clock a worker is assigned to a

particular time period or (rotated- switching workers periodically), those which worklate shift are often compensated through pay. Less productive, more prone to error & have more serious accidents, have

greater lvls of stress, lower feelings of control at work, less social support &have higher lvls of conflict

Diurnal rhythm, a regular daily cycle, becomes disrupted with this & body

undergoes dramatic changes due to shift. Fewer pblms are experience w/ fixed shifts

25% performs white/blue-collar work, 25% part-time work.


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Flextime: A sys of flexible working hours combining core mandatory work periodswith elective work periods at the beginning and end of the workday

Permits emp. To choose and increases freedom with several productivity

advantages Job Simplification:The reduction of manufacturing jobs to the simplest components

that can be mastered by unskilled or semiskilled workers.

Leads to Bordom and Fatigue

I-O PSY EXAM 2 SG

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