Hungry For Profit.doc

8/13/2019 Hungry For Profit.doc

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HUNGRY FOR PROFIT


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HUNGRY FOR PROFIT

THE AGRIBUSINESS THREAT TO FARMERS,

FOOD, AND THE ENVIRONMENT

edited by FRED MAGDOFF, JOHN BELLAMY FOSTER,

and FREDERICK H. BUTTEL

MONTHLY REVIEW PRESS

New York

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CONTENTS

AN OVERVIEW ..................................................................................... 4

THE AGRARIAN ORIGINS OF CAPITALISM ............................................. 12

LIEBIG, MARX, AND THE DEPLETION OF SOIL FERTILITY: RELEVANCE FOR

TODAY'S AGRICULTURE ...................................................................... 21

CONCENTRATION OF OWNERSHIP AND CONTROL IN AGRICULTURE ....... 29

ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURE AND POSSIBILITIES

FOR TRULY SUSTAINABLE FARMING ................................................... !

THE MATURING OF CAPITALIST AGRICULTURE: FARMER AS PROLETARIAN

........................................................................................................ 44

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AN OVERVIEW

FRED MAGDOFF. JOHN BELLAMY FOSTER

AND FREDERICK H. BUTTEL

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'&$e "%"e$ee"$ !e"$)r &"+. &* & re*)'$ o0 $e r%*e o0 $e &(r%-)*%"e** **$e1 %" $e 1%+/$we"$%e$ !e"$)r/&* 'e0$

1&" o-*er#er* o0 $e !o"$e1or&r %**)e* w%$ $e %1re**%o" $&$ $o +e&' w%$ &(r%!)'$)re %* e**e"$%&'' $o

0o!)* o" o'%$%!&'/e!o"o1%! %*$or, r&$er $&" !o"$e1or&r o'%$%!&' e!o"o1. No$%"( !o)'+ -e 0)r$er 0ro1

$e $r)$. Te )ro*e o0 $%* -ook %* $o e' !o1e"*&$e 0or $e "e('e!$ $&$ &(r%!)'$)re &* o0$e" *)00ere+ %"

o'%$%!&'/e!o"o1%! '%$er&$)re o0 $e '&$e $we"$%e$ !e"$)r, &"+ $o &**%*$ w&$ %* 0&*$ -e!o1%"( & ower0)'re*%*$&"!e 1o#e1e"$ %" $e &(r%!)'$)r&' re&'1.

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o#ere1&*%2e+. Te +e#e'o1e"$ o0 !&%$&'%*1 %" E"('&"+ +ee"+e+ o" $e %"!re&*%"( *)r')*e* re*)'$%"( 0ro1

&" &(r%!)'$)re %" $e $roe* o0 1&3or $e!"%!&' &"+ *o!%&' $r&"*0or1&$%o"*. A"+ E"('&"+4* +%*$%"!$%#e &$$er"* o0

'&"+ o'+%"( !re&$e+ & "ew k%"+ o0 1&rke$ +ee"+e"! %" &(r%!)'$)r&' ro+)!$%o" $&$ w&* !r%$%!&' $o $e %"%$%&$%o"

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+e#e'o1e"$, $e r%*e o0 %"+)*$r %" "o w& 'e0$ &(r%!)'$)re -e%"+ -)$ w&* 1%rrore+ 5%"+ee+ %" *o1e !&*e*

re0%()re+7 &$ e&! *$&(e - !&"(e* %" $e '&$$er.

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wor'+, - '&r(e &(r%-)*%"e** !oror&$%o"*, %* "ow o"!e &(&%" )"+er(o%"( r&%+ e#e" )"re!e+e"$e+ !&"(e. To-e *)re, 1)! o0 $%* *$or / !o"!e"$r&$%o" &"+ !e"$r&'%2&$%o" o0 !&%$&' &"+ e9o+)* o0 e&*&"$* &"+ 0&r1er* 0ro1

$e '&"+ / %* "o$ "ew. B)$ $e $re"+* w%$"e**e+ %" &(r%!)'$)re %" $e '&$e $we"$%e$ !e"$)r &re +%*$%"!$%#e %"

*e#er&' %1or$&"$ re*e!$*. Co"!e"$r&$%o" &"+ !e"$r&'%2&$%o" &"+ r)r&' +%*o**e**%o" w%$%" $%* *e!$or &re -e%"(

re%"0or!e+ - "ew $e!"o'o(%!&' %""o#&$%o"*, &r$%!)'&r' %" $e &re& o0 -%o$e!"o'o(, 'e&+%"( $o *)!

+e#e'o1e"$* &* $e ro'e$&r%&"%2&$%o" o0 $e 0&r1er, &"+ $o $e &ror%&$%o" o0 ow"er*% &"+ !o"$ro' o0

%"+%(e"o)* '&"$* &"+ &"%1&'* %" $%r+ wor'+ !o)"$r%e*. Te ('o-&' !o11o+%0%!&$%o" o0 &(r%!)'$)re &* %$*

!o)"$er&r$ %" $e +e*$r)!$%o" o0 e&*&"$ &"+ *1&''/*!&'e &(r%!)'$)re $ro)(o)$ $e wor'+. S)-*%*$e"!e 0&r1%"( %*

%" +e!'%"e %" $e $%r+ wor'+ w%'e $e ro+)!$%o" o0 ')9)r !ro* 0or e9or$ $o $e r%! !o)"$r%e* %* -e%"(

e9&"+e+ &* "e#er -e0ore. Te re*)'$ %* & r%*e %" wor'+ 0oo+ *)'%e*, $o(e$er w%$ &" %"!re&*e %" wor'+ )"(er.

So *&r &re $e*e !o"$r&+%!$%o"* $&$ )"(er %* e9&"+%"( %" $e U"%$e+ S$&$e* %$*e'0, &$ $e #er e&r$ o0 $e

**$e1, were %$ %* "o 'o"(er *)rr%*%"( $o *ee 0oo+ '%"e* &"+ *o) k%$!e"* e#e" +)r%"( e!o"o1%! e9&"*%o"*.Te (row$ o0 &(r%-)*%"e** &* &'*o (e"er&$e+ 1ore &"+ 1ore e!o'o(%!&' ro-'e1* $ro)( $e *)-+%#%*%o" o0

$r&+%$%o"&' +%#er*%0%e+ 0&r1%"( %"$o *e!%&'%2e+ ro+)!$%o", $e -re&k %" $e *o%' ")$r%e"$ !!'e, $e o'')$%o" o0

'&"+ &"+ w&$er 5&"+ 0oo+ %$*e'07 w%$ !e1%!&'*, *o%' ero*%o" &"+ o$er 0or1* o0 +e*$r)!$%o" o0 &(r%!)'r)r&'

e!o**$e1*, &"+ *o o". Te*e +e#e'o1e"$* %" wor'+ &(r%!)'$)re, owe#er, e "o$ (o"e )"&"*were+.

Mo#e1e"$* +e+%!&!e+ $o ro1o$%"( *)*$&%"&-'e &(r%!)'$)re, 0%($%"( )"(er, *)or$%"( 0&1%'/ &"+ *1&''/*!&'e

0&r1%"(, &"+ *$%"( o00 e!o'o(%!&' +e*$r)!$%o" e *ro)$e+ 0ro1 $e r)r&' &"+ )r-&" (r&**roo$* e#erwere:

'o!&'', "&$%o"&'', &"+ ('o-&''. O)r )ro*e %" !o1%'%"( $e e**&* 0or $%* -ook %* $o ro#%+e $e -&*%* 0or &

!oere"$ &"&'*%* o0 $e*e +e#e'o1e"$*.

Te e**&* %" H)"(r 0or Pro0%$ &re 0o!)*e+ o" $e o'%$%!&' e!o"o1 o0 &(r%!)'$)re, 0oo+, &"+ e!o'o(. E&!

&r$%!'e &+o$* & %*$or%!&' &ro&! w%'e &$ $e *&1e $%1e 0o!)*%"( o" %**)e* o0 !)rre"$ !o"!er" &"+ o0%1or$&"!e 0or $e 0)$)re. F)r$er, e&! o0 $e e**&* %* & !r%$%8)e %" $e !'&**%!&' *e"*e o0 *$r%#%"( $o e"e$r&$e &

!o"$r&+%!$or re&'%$ %" or+er $o +e#e'o $e 1e&"* 0or $r&"*!e"+%"( %$. C&%$&'%*1 re*e"$* )* w%$ $e

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&r&+o9%!&' re&'%$ o0 & r&%+ (row$ o0 0oo+ ro+)!$%o" &"+ ere$)&$%o" o0 o#erro+)!$%o" 5re'&$%#e $o 1&rke$*

&"+ %"!o1e +%*$r%-)$%o"7 o" o"e &"+, &!!o1&"%e+ - $e re%"0or!e1e"$ o0 *o!%&' e9!')*%o" &"+ $)* $e (row$

o0 )"(er o" $e o$er. Te '&$$er %* "o$, &* %* *o1e$%1e* $o)($, 1&%"' & re*)'$ o0 o)'&$%o" (row$ 5w%!

&* (e"er&'' -ee" *)r&**e+ - $e (row$ o0 ro+)!$%#%$ %" &(r%!)'$)re7, -)$ %"*$e&+ & !o"*e8)e"!e o0 $e 0&!$

$&$ $e %11e+%&$e o-3e!$ o0 0oo+ ro+)!$%o" %* "o$ )1&" *)*$e"&"!e &"+ we''/-e%"( -)$ $e (row$ o0 ro0%$*.

Te !o%"!%+e"!e o0 )"(r 1o)$* w%$ o#er0'ow%"( (r&%" *%'o* 1& *ee1 $o -e & &r&+o9, -)$ %$ %* & &r&+o9 "o$o0 o)r &"&'*%*, -)$ o0 !&%$&'%*$ &(r%-)*%"e** %$*e'0.

HISTORICAL TURNING POINT

Tere !&" "o 'o"(er -e &" +o)-$ $o+&, &$ $e $)r" o0 $e $we"$/0%r*$ !e"$)r, $&$ we &re %" $e 1%+*$ o0 &"

)")*)&'' r&%+ !&"(e %" &'' &*e!$* o0 $e wor'+4* &(r%!)'$)re/0oo+ **$e1. T%* **$e1 !o"*%*$* o0 $e 0&r1er*

wo ro+)!e $e 0oo+, -)$ &'*o $e )(e %"+)*$r $&$ *)'%e* 0&r1er* w%$ %")$*, 0ro1 *ee+* $o 0er$%'%2er* $o

$r&!$or* $o 0)e', &"+ $e e#e" '&r(er %"+)*$r $&$ ro!e**e*, &!k&(e*, &"+ +%*$r%-)$e* $e 0oo+. A"+, &'$o)(

%"$er"&$%o"&' $r&+e %" &(r%!)'$)r&' ro+)!$* &* o!!)re+ 0or !e"$)r%e*, $e &!e &$ w%! $e wor'+ %* -e%"( -o)"+

$o(e$er - $r&+e &"+ $e e"e$r&$%o" o0 $%r+ wor'+ &(r%!)'$re - $e '&r(e*$ o0 !oror&$%o"* %* &'*o 8)%!ke"%"(

5*ee M!M%!&e'. !&$er ;7.

Tr&+%$%o"&'', $e #&r%o)* &!$%#%$%e* o0 +%00ere"$ &r$* o0 $e &(r%!)'!)re0oo+ **$e1 e %"#o'#e+ 1&" '&er*/

")1ero)* *)'%er* o0 %")$*, 1%''6%o"* o0 0&r1er*, 1&" )r!&*er* o0 &(r%!)'$)r&' !o11o+%$%e*, &"+ ro!e**or*

&"+ +%*$r%-)$or* o0 0oo+/&"+ e o0$e" -ee" or$r&e+ &* $e $e9$-ook e9&1'e o0 0ree/1&rke$ !o1e$%$%o". I"Monopoly Capital56


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6!o"*)1er re0ere"!e*,> !o"*)1er* 1ore o0$e" $&" "o$ oo*e0&!$or 0&r1%"(, &"+ $ere &e&r $o -e 0ew -e"e0%$* 0or !o"*)1er* 0ro1 $e*e $e* o0 ro+)!$%o" **$e1*. Te

+e#e'o1e"$ o0 0&!$or 0&r1*, w%! ro+)!e &"%1&'* )"+er $e 1o*$ !r)e' !o"+%$%o"* &* &r$ o0 & #er$%!&''

%"$e(r&$e+ ro+)!$%o" **$e1, &* &'*o re*)'$e+ %" $e *e&r&$%o" o0 $e &"%1&'* 0ro1 $e '&"+ $&$ ro+)!e* $e%r

0ee+ 5*ee Fo*$er &"+ M&(+o00, !&$er 7. T%* e"o1e"o" %* %" &++%$%o" $o $e *e&r&$%o" o0 $e 1&** o0 $e

o)'&$%o" 0ro1 $e '&"+ $&$ o!!)rre+ we" %"+)*$r%&'%2&$%o" !&)*e+ $e 1%(r&$%o"* $o )r-&" !e"$er* 5& ro!e**

$&$ !o"$%")e* $o $%* +& %" T%r+ Wor'+ !o)"$r%e*, w%$ or w%$o)$ !o11e"*)r&$e %"+)*$r%&'%2&$%o"7. Te

e!o'o(%!&' !o"*e8)e"!e* o0 $&$ e&r'%er ro!e** were o)$'%"e+ - M&r9 %" Capital.

TECHNOLOGY AND EVER/INCREASING SCALE

A* %* (e"er&'' $e !&*e 0or re'&$%#e' *1&''/*!&'e ro+)!er* o0 !o11o+%$%e* )"+er !&%$&'%*1, 0&r1er* &re o" &

$r&+1%'' %" w%! $e +ow"w&r+ re**)re o" r%!e* $e re!e%#e/&"+or $e )w&r+ re**)re o" %")$* "ee+e+ 0or

ro+)!$%o"/0or!e $e1 $o &+o$ "ew $e!"o'o(%e* &"+ $o %"!re&*e $e *!&'e o0 ro+)!$%o" %" &" &$$e1$ $o *$& %"

-)*%"e**. 5I$ &* -ee" *&%+ $&$ 0&r1%"( %* o"e o0 $e 0ew -)*%"e**e* $&$ &* re$&%' r%!e* 0or %")$* &"+ *e''* %$*

ro+)!$* &$ wo'e*&'e r%!e*.7 A* $e 0%"&"!%&' re$)r"* o0 0&r1er* +e!'%"e er )"%$ o0 o)$)$, %" or+er $o re& $e

*&1e re$)r"* &* -e0ore $e 0&r1er* &re $o'+ $&$ $e 1)*$ (e$ '&r(er or (e$ o)$. Te $re&+1%'' $&$ $%* !re&$e* %*

%"+%!&$e+ - &" o'+ New E"('&"+ *&%"(:we (row 1ore !or", $o 0ee+ 1ore !ow*, $o 1&ke 1ore 1%'k, $o -)

1ore '&"+, $o (row 1ore !or",> Howe#er, & re!e"$ *$)+ o0 +&%r 0&r1er* %" New York S$&$e *owe+ $&$ $e%r

ro0%$ er !ow +e!re&*e+ &* ro+)!$%o" er !ow &"+ er+ *%2e %"!re&*e+. More ro+)!$%o" %* "ee+e+ 3)*$ $o *$&"+

*$%''

Te *%!&' &+#&"$&(e* $&$ &!!r)e $o %"!re&*%"( ro+)!$%o" *!&'e 51&%"' 1ore e00%!%e"$ )*e o0 '&-or &"+

1&!%"er7 re&! $e%r '%1%$* 0&%r' 8)%!k' %" &(r%!)'$)re. For 1o*$ !o11o+%$%e* 1e+%)1/*%2e+ 0&1%' 0&r1* &re&* or 1ore e00%!%e"$ $&" '&r(er, 1ore %"+)*$r%&' o"e*, B)$ $&$ +oe*"4$ 1e&" $&$ $ere &re"4$ re&' e!)"%&r

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&+#&"$&(e* $o #er '&r(e 0&r1* %" & !&%$&'%*$ e!o"o1 $e r%!&'' re!e%#e & re1%)1 0or $e !o11o+%$%e*

$e *e'' -e!&)*e o0 $e%r '&r(e #o')1e*, & 'e** 0or )r!&*e+ %")$* &"+ 0or %"$ere*$ o" -orrowe+ 1o"e, &"+

e 1ore oor$)"%$ 0or 1&k%"( ro0%$* $ro)( $e )*e o0 %re+ '&-or.

I" $e 1o*$ %"+)*$r%&'%2e+ &"+ >%"$e(r&$e+> *e!$or* *)! &* -ro%'er*, >oe" 1&rke$*> +%*&e&r, &"+ o"' $o*e

ro+)!er* wo e ro+)!$%o" !o"$r&!$* w%$ ro!e**or* &"+ o$er &(r%-)*%"e** >%"$e(r&$or*> &re &-'e $o 0%"+ &

1&rke$ 0or $e%r ro+)!$*. A ")1-er o0 )-'%!' 0)"+e+ &(r%!)'$)r&' e9er%1e"$ *$&$%o"* e &'*o $e"+e+ $o (%#e

1ore &$$e"$%o" $o 0&!$or ro+)!er*/wo &!!o)"$ 0or & #er *1&'' *&re o0 $e%r !'%e"$e'e/$&" $o $e 0&r 1ore

")1ero)*, -)$ 'e** %"0')e"$%&' 0&1%'/*!&'e 0&r1er*.

To*e wo !&"4$ kee ) w%$ $e $re&+1%'' o0 ro+)!%"( o" &" e#er/%"!re&*%"( *!&'e $e"+ $o -e 0or!e+ o)$ o0

0&r1%"(, &"+ $e%r !%'+re" &re +%*!o)r&(e+ 0ro1 e"$er%"( 0&r1%"(. T%* %* w&$ &* -ee" re*o"*%-'e 0or $e

+r&*$%! +e!'%"e %" $e ")1-er* o0 0&r1* %" 1&" !o)"$r%e*@ %" $e U"%$e+ S$&$e* 0ro1 !'o*e $o ; 1%''%o" %" $e

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re#er*e+. Te %"!re&*e+ %11%(r&$%o" o0 0&r1worker* 0ro1 Me9%!o &"+ Ce"$r&' A1er%!&, &"+ $e %( r&$e o0

worker $)r"o#er &* 1&+e %$ e9!ee+%"(' +%00%!)'$ $o 1&%"$&%" $e or(&"%2%"( 1o1e"$)1.

TECHNOLOGY TO THE RESCUE

A ")1-er o0 $e!"o'o(%!&' 0%9e* e -ee" roo*e+ 0or $e e"#%ro"1e"$&' ro-'e1* o0 &(r%!)'$)re &"+ 0oo+. For

e9&1'e, %"*$e&+ o0 *o'#%"( 0oo+ *&0e$ ro-'e1* - *or$e"%"( $e +%*$&"!e -e$wee" $e o%"$ o0 ro+)!$%o" &"+

$e o%"$ o0 !o"*)1$%o", &"+ ro+)!%"( &"%1&'* %" & *1&''/*!&'e, *$re**/0ree, 'e&*&"$ &"+ !'e&" e"#%ro"1e"$,

%"+)*$r &* -ee" ro1o$%"( %rr&+%&$%o" o0 1e&$ &* & !)re $o -&!$er%&' !o"$&1%"&$%o".

A (oo+ e9&1'e o0 1%*'&!e+ r%or%$%e* %* $&$ o0 >re!%*%o" 0&r1%"(.> O#er $e &*$ 0ew e&r* !e1%!&' &"+

0&r1/1&!%"er !o1&"%e* e -ee" )*%"( re!%*%o" 5or >Pre*!r%$%o">7 0&r1%"(, were- $ro)( $e )*e o0

('o-&' o*%$%o"%"( $e!"o'o( 5+e#e'oe+ - 1%'%$&r !o"$r&!$or* &* &r$ o0 Re&(&"4* >S$&r W&r*> %"%$%&$%#e7,

%e'+ 1o"%$or*, e9$e"*%#e 0%e'+ *&1'%"( &"+ 1&%"(, &"+ #&r%&-'e &'%!&$%o" r&$e 1&!%"er, %$ %* o**%-'e $o

&' &(r%!e1%!&'* &!!or+%"( $o $e *)o*e+ "ee+* o0 +%00ere"$ )$* o0 & 0%e'+. I$ %* !'e&r' $e !&*e $&$ 0or

+e!&+e* 1&" 0er$%'%2er* &"+ e*$%!%+e* e -ee" &'%e+ &$ %(er r&$e* $&" &re e!o"o1%!&'' 3)*$%0%&-'e.

Proo"e"$* o0 re!%*%o" 0&r1%"( -e'%e#e $&$ $%* $e!"o'o( !&" $&%'or +o*e* o0 !e1%!&'* $o $e *e!%0%!

!&r&!$er%*$%!* o0 *1&'' &r$* o0 & 0%e'+, &"+ $ere- o%+ o#er)*%"( !e1%!&'* o" 'o$* o0 '&"+ were $e!e1%!&'* re*)'$ %" '%$$'e &++%$%o"&' %e'+. Tere %* '%$$'e e#%+e"!e, owe#er, $&$ $e re!%*%o" $e!"o'o( -r%"(*

&" -e$$er e"#%ro"1e"$&' re*)'$* $&" !o)'+ -e o-$&%"e+ w%$ !o11o" *e"*e re+)!$%o"* %" $e )*e o0

&(r%!e1%!&'* -&*e+ o" re#%o)*' &%'&-'e 1e$o+*. A"+ %" 1&" !&*e* %$ &* -ee" 0o)"+ $&$ 0&r1er*

e1'o%"( re!%*%o" 0&r1%"( $e!"%8)e* )*e & (re&$er o#er&'' 'e#e' o0 !e1%!&'* $&" $e +%+ -e0ore.

Te )* $ow&r+ -%o$e!"o'o( %* -e%"( +r%#e" - !oror&$%o"* 'ook%"( 0or w&* $o e9&"+ $e%r ro0%$/1&k%"(

o$e"$%&' 5*ee Lewo"$%" &"+ M%++e"+or0 e$ &'., !&$er* &"+ =7. W%'e $e 8)e*$ 0or ro0%$* %* &r+' )"%8)e $o

-%o$e!"o'o( 0%r1*, $e w& $&$ $e -%o$e!"o'o( %"+)*$r +e#e'oe+ %*$or%!&'' &* 1&+e $%* 8)e*$ &

&r$%!)'&r' 0r&"$%! o"e. Te &(r%!)'$)r&' -%o$e!"o'o( %"+)*$r +&$e* 0ro1$e e&r' 6%+e"$%$/re*er#e+> -%o$e!"o'o(

ro+)!$*, w%! !&" o$e"$%&'' %"!re&*e $e 8)&'%$ o0 0oo+ ro+)!$*, &re '%ke' $o *er#e &* $e "ewe*$ 0ro"$%er 0or

!&%!&' $o e9$r&!$ ro0%$* 0ro1 &(r%!)'$)re, &"+ $ro)( >%"$e(r&$%o"> w%'' *er#e $o !o"#er$ 1ore 0&r1er* %"$o

e**e"$%&'' -e%"( & ro'e$&r%&$ $&$ "o1%"&'' >ow"*,> -)$ &* 'o*$ !o"$ro' o#er, %$* ow" '&"+ 5*ee Lewo"$%",

!&$er 7.

RESPONSES TO THE ONSLAUGHT

Tere e -ee" 1&" re*o"*e* &ro)"+ $e wor'+ $o $e "e(&$%#e e00e!$* o0 $e +e#e'o%"( 1o"oo' !&%$&'

!o"$ro' o0 $e &(r%!)'$)re/0oo+ **$e1. I" T%r+ Wor'+ !o)"$r%e* $ere e -ee" e00or$* &(&%"*$ $e &$e"$%"( o0

'&"$ (e"er%! %"0or1&$%o" 5w%! re&'' !o"*$%$)$e* $e !o11o" er%$&(e o0 $e wor'+4* eo'e, &"+ %* $o & '&r(e

e9$e"$ $e !)'$)r&' ro+)!$ o0 %"+%(e"o)* eo'e* o#er 1&" (e"er&$%o"*7, &* we'' &* *$r)(('e* &(&%"*$ $e $r&+e

$re&$%e*, *)! &* $e Wor'+ Tr&+e Or(&"%2&$%o" &"+ NAFTA, $&$ $%e !o)"$r%e* !'o*er $o(e$er - e9o*%"( &'' $o

$e 0)'' 0or!e o0 $e 1&rke$ %" w%! $e 1ore ower0)' (&%" &"+ $e 'e** ower0)' 'o*e o)$. F&r1er* &"+ $e

(e"er&' )-'%! %" E)roe &re $r%"( $o re*%*$ $e %1or$&$%o" o0 (e"e$%!&'' 1o+%0%e+ (r&%"* 5'%ke >Ro)"+)Re&+4 *o-e&"*7 &"+ -ee0 ro+)!e+ )*%"( or1o"e *$%1)'&"$*.

8


9/105

I" $e U"%$e+ S$&$e*, '%$er&'' )"+re+* o0 or(&"%2&$%o"* e -ee" 0or1e+ $o *$r)(('e &(&%"*$ o"e or &"o$er o0

$e 1&" ro-'e1* 5*ee He"+er*o", !&$er 67. Te*e or(&"%2&$%o"* &"+ (ro)* e 0o)($ 0or !&"(e* %" *$&$e

&"+ "&$%o"&' '&w*, e ro1o$e+ re*e&r! &%1e+ &$ +e#e'o%"( r&!$%!e* $&$ &re &ror%&$e 0or

e"#%ro"1e"$&'' *o)"+ 0&r1%"( o" & *1&'' $o 1e+%)1 *!&'e, e *e!%0%!&'' ro1o$e+ or(&"%! &(r%!)'$)re, &"+

e ro#%+e+ +%re!$ &**%*$&"!e 0or 0&r1er* $o e' $e1 *)r#%#e %" & #er o*$%'e !'%1&$e.

Cr%$%!&' +e#e'o1e"$* +)r%"( 6$er1%"&$or> (e"e.7 T%* -&!k'&* &* 0or!e+ Mo"*&"$o

0%r*$ $o )$ $e %"$ro+)!$%o" o0 $e $e!"o'o( o" o'+ &"+ $e" $o -&!k o)$ o0 $e &!8)%*%$%o" $&$ wo)'+ e

(%#e" $e1 &!!e** $o $e $er1%"&$or $e!"o'o(. I" re*o"*e $o !o"!er"* -o$ &$ o1e &"+ &-ro&+ &-o)$

e"#%ro"1e"$&' &"+ 0oo+ *&0e$ e00e!$*, %$ %* ro3e!$e+ $&$ 'ower r%!e* w%'' -e &%+ $o 0&r1er* (row%"(

(e"e$%!&'' 1o+%0%e+ !ro*. T%*, !o1-%"e+ w%$ $e 1e&(er re$)r"* e#e" e0ore $ere w&* & r%!e +%00ere"$%&',

&* 1&+e 1&" 0&r1er* 8)e*$%o" $e e!o"o1%!* o0 !o"$%")%"( $o (row $e*e !ro*. For $e 0%r*$ $%1e *%"!e $e%r

%"$ro+)!$%o", & 1&3or +e!re&*e %" &!re&(e '&"$e+ $o (e"e$%!&'' 1o+%0%e+ !ro* %* ro3e!$e+ 0or 5Wall Street

Journal, No#. 6


10/105

C%"&, %" !o"$r&*$, %* 1o#%"( %" & #er +%00ere"$ +%re!$%o". Te (o#er"1e"$, &* &r$ o0 %$* ro(r&1 $o &!%e#e &"+

1&%"$&%" #er %( r&$e* o0 %"!o1e (row$ $ro)( re%"$ro+)!%"( !&%$&'%*$ re'&$%o"*, &* '&r(e' +%*-&"+e+ $e

&(r%!)'$)r&' !ooer&$%#e*. A(r%!)'$)r&' 'o$* e -ee" *'%!e+ ) %"$o "&rrow *$r%* 5*ee H%"$o", !&$er 6?7.

Be!&)*e $ere %* '%$$'e &"%1&' ower &%'&-'e &"+ $e %"+%#%+)&' *$r%* &re $oo *1&'' $o 3)*$%0 )*e o0 $r&!$or*

5w%! &re "ow 1&%"' )*e+ 0or $r&"*or$&$%o"7, 1o*$ 0&r1er* &re "o$ &-'e $o +o & (oo+ 3o- o0 1&"&(%"( $e%r

0%e'+*. F&r1er* ro)$%"e' -)r" !ro re*%+)e*, 3)*$ $o (e$ r%+ o0 $e1, %"*$e&+ o0 %"!oror&$%"( $e1 %"$o $e *o%' $o1&ke %$ 1ore 0er$%'e, %1ro#e %$* *$r)!$)re, &"+ 1&ke %$ 1ore e&'$. I"*$e&+ o0 *)or$%"( *1&''/*!&'e, re*o)r!e/

e00%!%e"$ &(r%!)'$)re &* %" C)-&, $e %"0r&*$r)!$)re -e%"( +e#e'oe+ )"+er (o#er"1e"$ +%re!$%o" 50er$%'%2er &"+

o$er &(r%!e1%!&' 0&!$or%e*7 %* &%1e+ &$ %(/%")$ **$e1*. Be$$er *o%' &"+ !ro 1&"&(e1e"$ )"+er $e*e

!o"+%$%o"* wo)'+ *ee1 $o !&'' 0or !o"*o'%+&$%"( *1&'' *$r%* %"$o '&r(er )"%$* o0 ro+)!$%o". Iro"%!&'', $e e00e!$*

o0 $e e9$e"*%#e '&"+ re0or1 o0 6r%($ $o 0&r1> '&w* 5w%! %"*)'&$e ro+)!er* 0ro1 >")%*&"!e>

'&w*)%$* &"+ 0ro1 1&" 'o!&' '&"+ )*e or e"#%ro"1e"$&' re()'&$%o"*7 &"+ >0oo+ +%*&r&(e1e"$> '&w* 5'%ke $e

Te9&* '&w $&$ w&* $e -&*%* o0 $e Te9&* C&$$'e1e"4* A**o!%&$%o" *)%$ &(&%"*$ Or& W%"0re7 $&" $e &re w%$

e"#%ro"1e"$&' re()'&$%o"* or )-'%! ro(r&1* $o 0ee+ $e )"(r. F&r1worker* !o"$%")e $o *$r%#e 0or %1ro#e+

work%"( !o"+%$%o"* &* we'' &* %(er w&(e*. E"#%ro"1e"$&' (ro)* $e"+ $o 0%"+ w%'+er"e** %**)e* &"+ ('o-&'e"#%ro"1e"$&' !o"!er"* 1o*$ %1or$&"$, &"+ +o "o$ )*)&'' (%#e 1)! e1&*%* $o &(r%!)'$)re. Co"*)1er

10


11/105

1o#e1e"$* !&" w%e'+ (re&$ ower o#er $e *or$ $er1/0or e9&1'e, $e -o!o$$ o0 (r&e* +)r%"( $e C&'%0or"%&

0&!1worker )"%o"%2&$%o" +r%#e $ree +e!&+e* &(o w&* !r%$%!&' $o %$* *)!!e**, &"+ !o"*)1er re*%*$&"!e $o

-%o$e!"o'o( ro+)!$* *)! &* -o#%"e (row$ or1o"e &"+ er-%!%+e/$o'er&"$ !ro #&r%e$%e* &* re!e"$' -ee"

*%("%0%!&"$. B)$ !o"*)1er 1o#e1e"$* $e"+ "o$ $o 0o!)* o" &"o"e %**)e 0or #er 'o"(/& &r$%!)'&r' +r&1&$%!

e9&1'e -e%"( $e +e!'%"e o0 &"$%/BGH 5-o#%"e (row$ or1o"e7 &!$%#%$%e* %" $e U"%$e+ S$&$e* o#er $e &*$

$ree e&r*. Tere !o"$%")e $o -e 1&3or -&rr%er* $o !ooer&$%o" -e$wee" 0&r1er*, 0&r1worker*, e"#%ro"1e"$&'(ro)*, *)*$&%"&-'e &(r%!)'$)re (ro)*, &"+ !o"*)1er or(&"%2&$%o"*.

Te*e (ro)*4 *$r)(('e* o00er 1&" oo")r)$%e* 0or 'e0$ &!$%#%$ - $o*e wo -e'%e#e $&$ & !o1'e$e

$r&"*0or1&$%o" o0 *o!%e$ %* "ee+e+ $o 1ee$ $e (o&'* o0 & $r)' 3)*$ &"+ e"#%ro"1e"$&'' *o)"+ 0oo+ **$e1.

Te%r +%00er%"( %"$ere*$*, owe#er, r&%*e $e +%00%!)'$ 8)e*$%o" o0 ow $o )"%$e $e 1&" (ro)* $&$ 0o!)* o"

%"+%#%+)&' -)$ %"$erre'&$e+ %**)e*, &'' -e*$ &ro&!e+ w%$ & )"%0%e+ 0o!)*.

THE MORAL OF THE TALE

To*e wow%* $o r&+%!&'' $r&"*0or1 $e re*e"$ &(r%!)'$)r&'/0oo+ **$e1 o0$e" 0o!)* o" %**)e* *)! &* $e

roer *!&'e o0 &(r%!)'$)re, $e 8)e*$%o" o0 we$er 0oo+ *o)'+ -e or(&"%2e+ %" 'o!&' or ('o-&' **$e1*, &"+ $e

&ror%&$e $e!"o'o( $o -e &+o$e+. A'$o)( &'' o0 $e*e 8)e*$%o"* &re *%("%0%!&"$/&"+ we *o)'+ e1&*%2e$e %1or$&"!e o0 re'&$%#e' *1&''/*!&'e 5- $o+&4* *$&"+&r+*7, 'o!&' ro+)!$%o" %" &(r%!)'$)$e, )*%"( $e!"o'o(

&ror%&$e $o & (%#e" *e$ o0 *o!%&'%*$or%!&'e!o'o(%!&' !o"+%$%o"*/%$ %* we'' $o re1e1-er $&$ *)! %**)e* &re

e**e"$%&'' *e!o"+&r )"+er re*e"$ !%r!)1*$&"!e* $o $e 8)e*$%o" o0 $e !o11o+%0%!&$%o" o0 &(r%!)'$)re 5&"+

%"+ee+ o0 "&$)re %$*e'07 ro1o$e+ - $e !&%$&'%*$ e!o"o1 w%$ o"' o"e e"+ %" 1%"+: $e ro+)!$%o" o0 ro0%$*.

>Te 1or&' o0 $e $&'e, M&r9 wro$e %" Capital5#o'. III, !&$er =, *e!$%o" 7,

%* $&$ $e !&%$&'%*$ **$e1 r)"* !o)"$er $o & r&$%o"&' &(r%!)'$)re, or $&$ & r&$%o"&' &(r%!)'$)re %* %"!o1&$%-'e

w%$ $e !&%$&'%*$ **$e1 5e#e" %0 $e '&$$er ro1o$e* $e!"%!&' +e#e'o1e"$ %" &(r%!)'$)re7 &"+ "ee+* e%$er

*1&'' 0&r1er* work%"( 0or $e1*e'#e* or $e !o"$ro' o0 $e &**o!%&$e+ ro+)!er*.

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C&$er O"e

THE AGRARIAN ORIGINS OF CAPITALISM

ELLEN MEIKSINS WOOD

O"e o0 $e 1o*$ we'' e*$&-'%*e+ !o"#e"$%o"* o0 We*$er" !)'$)re %* $e &**o!%&$%o" o0 !&%$&'%*1 w%$ !%$%e*.C&%$&'%*1 %* *)o*e+ $o e -ee" -or" &"+ -re+ %" $e !%$. B)$ 1ore $&" $&$, $e %1'%!&$%o" %* $&$ &" !%$

w%$ %$* !&r&!$er%*$%! r&!$%!e* o0 $r&+e &"+ !o11er!e%* - %$* #er "&$)re o$e"$%&'' !&%$&'%*$ 0ro1 $e*$&r$, &"+ o"' e9$r&"eo)* o-*$&!'e* e *$oo+ %" $e w& o0 &" )r-&" !%#%'%2&$%o" (%#%"( r%*e $o !&%$&'%*1.O"' $e wro"( re'%(%o", $e wro"( k%"+ o0 *$&$e, or &" k%"+ o0 %+eo'o(%!&', o'%$%!&', or !)'$)r&' 0e$$er* $%"( $e&"+* o0 )r-&" !'&**e* e re#e"$e+ !&%$&'%*1 0ro1 *r%"(%"( ) &"were &"+ e#erwere, *%"!e $%1e

%11e1or%&'or &$ 'e&*$ *%"!e $e!"o'o( &* er1%$$e+ $e ro+)!$%o" o0 &+e8)&$e *)r')*e*.

W&$ &!!o)"$* 0or $e +e#e'o1e"$ o0 !&%$&'%*1 %" $e We*$, &!!or+%"( $o $%* #%ew, %* $e )"%8)e &)$o"o1 o0%$* !%$%e* &"+ o0 $e%r 8)%"$e**e"$%&' !'&**, $e -)r(er* or -o)r(eo%*. I" o$er wor+*, !&%$&'%*1 e1er(e+ %" $eWe*$ 'e** -e!&)*e o0 w&$ w&* re*e"$ $&" -e!&)*e o0 w&$ w&* &-*e"$: !o"*$r&%"$* o" )r-&" e!o"o1%!

r&!$%!e*. I" $o*e !o"+%$%o"*, %$ $ook o"' & 1ore or 'e** "&$)r&' e9&"*%o" o0 $r&+e $o $r%((er $e +e#e'o1e"$ o0!&%$&'%*1 $o %$* 0)'' 1&$)r%$. A'' $&$ w&* "ee+e+ w&* & 8)&"$%$&$%#e (row$ w%! o!!)rre+ &'1o*$ %"e#%$&-'w%$ $e &**&(e o0 $%1e 5%" *o1e #er*%o"*, o0 !o)r*e, e'e+ &'o"( -)$ "o$ or%(%"&'' !&)*e+ - $e Pro$e*$&"$E$%!7.

Tere &re 1&" $%"(* $o -e *&%+ &(&%"*$ $e*e &**)1$%o"* &-o)$ $e "&$)r&' !o""e!$%o" -e$wee" !%$%e* &"+!&%$&'%*1. A1o"( $e1 %* $e 0&!$ $&$ $e $e"+ $o "&$)r&'%2e !&%$&'%*1, $o +%*()%*e %$* +%*$%"!$%#e"e** &* &%*$or%!&'' *e!%0%! *o!%&' 0or1, w%$ & -e(%""%"( &"+ 5"o +o)-$7 &" e"+. Te $e"+e"! $o %+e"$%0 !&%$&'%*1w%$ !%$%e* &"+ )r-&" !o11er!e &* (e"er&'' -ee" &!!o1&"%e+ - &" %"!'%"&$%o" $o 1&ke !&%$&'%*1 &e&r &*& 1ore or 'e** &)$o1&$%! !o"*e8)e"!e o0 r&!$%!e* &* o'+ &* )1&" %*$or, or e#e" $e &)$o1&$%! !o"*e8)e"!e o0)1&" "&$)re, $e >"&$)r&'> %"!'%"&$%o", %" A+&1 S1%$4* wor+*, $o >$r)!k, -&r$er, &"+ e9!&"(e.>

Per&* $e 1o*$ *&')$&r !orre!$%#e $o $e*e &**)1$%o"*&"+ $e%r %+eo'o(%!&' %1'%!&$%o"*%* $ere!o("%$%o" $&$ !&%$&'%*1, w%$ &'' %$* #er *e!%0%! +r%#e* o0 &!!)1)'&$%o" &"+ ro0%$/1&9%1%2&$%o", w&* -or""o$ %" $e !%$ -)$ %" $e !o)"$r*%+e, %" & #er *e!%0%! '&!e, &"+ #er '&$e %" )1&" %*$or. I$ re8)%re+ "o$ &*%1'e e9$e"*%o" or e9&"*%o" o0 -&r$er &"+ e9!&"(e -)$ & !o1'e$e $r&"*0or1&$%o" %" $e 1o*$ -&*%! )1&"re'&$%o"* &"+ r&!$%!e*, & r)$)re %" &(e/o'+ &$$er"* o0 )1&" %"$er&!$%o" w%$ "&$)re %" $e ro+)!$%o" o0 '%0e4*1o*$ -&*%! "e!e**%$%e*. I0 $e $e"+e"! $o %+e"$%0 !&%$&'%*1 w%$ !%$%e* %* &**o!%&$e+ w%$ & $e"+e"! $o o-*!)re$e *e!%0%!%$ o0 !&%$&'%*1, o"e o0 $e -e*$ w&* o0 )"+er*$&"+%"( $&$ *e!%0%!%$ %* $o !o"*%+er $e &(r&r%&"or%(%"* o0 !&%$&'%*1.

WHAT WAS >AGRARIAN CAPITALISM>

For 1%''e""%&, )1&" -e%"(* e ro#%+e+ 0or $e%r 1&$er%&' "ee+* - work%"( $e '&"+. A"+ ro-&-' 0or"e&r' &* 'o"( &* $e e e"(&(e+ %" &(r%!)'$)re $e e -ee" +%#%+e+ %"$o !'&**e*, -e$wee" $o*e woworke+ $e '&"+ &"+ $o*e wo &ror%&$e+ $e '&-or o0 o$er*. T&$ +%#%*%o" -e$wee" &ror%&$or* &"+

ro+)!er* &* $&ke" 1&" 0or1* %" +%00ere"$ $%1e* &"+ '&!e*, -)$ o"e (e"er&' !&r&!$er%*$%! $e e &+ %"!o11o" %* $&$ $e +%re!$ ro+)!er* e $%!&'' -ee" e&*&"$*. Te*e e&*&"$ ro+)!er* e re1&%"e+ %"

o**e**%o" o0 $e 1e&"* o0 ro+)!$%o", *e!%0%!&'' '&"+. A* %" &'' re/!&%$&'%*$ *o!%e$%e*, $e*e ro+)!er* e&+ +%re!$ &!!e** $o $e 1e&"* o0 $e%r ow" rero+)!$%o". T%* &* 1e&"$ $&$ we" $e%r *)r')* '&-or &* -ee"&ror%&$e+ - e9'o%$er*, %$ &* -ee" +o"e - w&$ M&r9 !&''e+ >e9$r&/e!o"o1%!> 1e&"*$&$ %*, - 1e&"* o0+%re!$ !oer!%o", e9er!%*e+ - '&"+'or+* &"+or *$&$e* e1'o%"( *)er%or 0or!e, r%#%'e(e+ &!!e** $o 1%'%$&r,

3)+%!%&', &"+ o'%$%!&' ower.

Here, $e", %* $e 1o*$ -&*%! +%00ere"!e -e$wee" &'' re/!&%$&'%*$ *o!%e$%e* &"+ !&%$&'%*1. I$ &* "o$%"( $o +ow%$ we$er ro+)!$%o" %* )r-&" or r)r&' &"+ e#er$%"( $o +o w%$ $e &r$%!)'&r roer$ re'&$%o"* -e$wee"

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ro+)!er* &"+ &ror%&$or*, we$er %" %"+)*$r or &(r%!)'$)re. O"' %" !&%$&'%*1 %* $e +o1%"&"$ 1o+e o0*)r')* &ror%&$%o" -&*e+ o" $e +%*o**e**%o" o0 $e +%re!$ ro+)!er* wo*e *)r')* '&-or %* &ror%&$e+ -

)re' >e!o"o1%!> 1e&"*. Be!&)*e +%re!$ ro+)!er* %" & 0)'' +e#e'oe+ !&%$&'%*1 &re roer$'e**, &"+-e!&)*e $e%r o"' &!!e** $o $e 1e&"* o0 ro+)!$%o", $o $e re8)%re1e"$* o0 $e%r ow" rero+)!$%o", e#e" $o $e1e&"* o0 $e%r ow" '&-or, %* $e *&'e o0 $e%r '&-or/ower %" e9!&"(e 0or & w&(e, !&%$&'%*$* !&" &ror%&$e $eworker*4 *)r')* '&-or w%$o)$ +%re!$ !oer!%o".

T%* )"%8)e re'&$%o" -e$wee" ro+)!er* &"+ &ror%&$or* %*, o0 !o)r*e, 1e+%&$e+ - $e >1&rke$.> M&rke$* o0#&r%o)* k%"+* e e9%*$e+ $ro)(o)$ re!or+e+ %*$or &"+ "o +o)-$ -e0ore, &* eo'e e e9!&"(e+ &"+ *o'+$e%r *)r')*e* %" 1&" +%00ere"$ w&* &"+ 0or 1&" +%00ere"$ )ro*e*. B)$ $e 1&rke$ %" !&%$&'%*1 &* &+%*$%"!$%#e &"+ )"re!e+e"$e+ 0)"!$%o". V%r$)&'' e#er$%"( %" !&%$&'%*$ *o!%e$ %* & !o11o+%$ ro+)!e+ 0or$e 1&rke$. A"+ e#e" 1ore 0)"+&1e"$&'', -o$ !&%$&' &"+ '&-or &re )$$er' +ee"+e"$ o" $e 1&rke$ 0or $e1o*$ -&*%! !o"+%$%o"* o0 $e%r ow" rero+)!$%o". J)*$ &* worker* +ee"+ o" $e 1&rke$ $o *e'' $e%r '&-or/ower&* & !o11o+%$, !&%$&'%*$* +ee"+ o" %$ $o -) '&-or/ower, &* we'' &* $e 1e&"* o0 ro+)!$%o", &"+ $o re&'%2e$e%r ro0%$* - *e''%"( $e (oo+* or *er#%!e* ro+)!e+ - $e worker*. T%* 1&rke$/+ee"+e"!e (%#e* $e 1&rke$&" )"re!e+e"$e+ ro'e %" !&%$&'%*$ *o!%e$%e*, &* "o$ o"' & *%1'e 1e!&"%*1 o0 e9!&"(e or +%*$r%-)$%o" -)$ &*$e r%"!%&' +e$er1%"&"$ &"+ re()'&$or o0 *o!%&' rero+)!$%o". Te e1er(e"!e o0 $e 1&rke$ &* & +e$er1%"&"$ o0*o!%&' rero+)!$%o" re*)o*e+ %$* e"e$r&$%o" %"$o $e ro+)!$%o" o0 '%0e4* 1o*$ -&*%! "e!e**%$, 0oo+.

T%* )"%8)e **$e1 o0 1&rke$/+ee"+e"!e e"$&%'* *o1e #er +%*$%"!$%#e >'&w* o0 1o$%o",> *e!%0%! **$e1%!re8)%re1e"$* &"+ !o1)'*%o"* *&re+ - "o o$er 1o+e o0 ro+)!$%o": $e %1er&$%#e* o0 !o1e$%$%o",&!!)1)'&$%o", &"+ ro0%$/1&9%1%2&$%o". A"+ $e*e %1er&$%#e*, %" $)r", 1e&" $&$ !&%$&'%*1 !&", &"+ 1)*$,!o"*$&"$' e9&"+ %" w&* &"+ +e(ree* )"'%ke &" o$er *o!%&' 0or1!o"*$&"$' &!!)1)'&$%"(, !o"*$&"$'*e&r!%"( o)$ "ew 1&rke$*, !o"*$&"$' %1o*%"( %$* %1er&$%#e* o" "ew $err%$or%e* &"+ "ew *ere* o0 '%0e, o")1&" -e%"(* &"+ $e "&$)r&' e"#%ro"1e"$.

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Now o-#%o)*' $e 'o"( &"+ !o1'e9 %*$or%!&' ro!e**e* $&$ )'$%1&$e' 'e+ $o $%* !o"+%$%o" o0 1&rke$+ee"+e"!e !o)'+ -e $r&!e+ -&!k %"+e0%"%$e'. B)$ we !&" 1&ke $e 8)e*$%o" 1ore 1&"&(e&-'e - %+e"$%0%"( $e0%r*$ $%1e &"+ '&!e $&$ & "ew *o!%&' +"&1%! %* !'e&r' +%*!er"%-'e, & +"&1%! $&$ +er%#e* 0ro1 $e 1&rke$+ee"+e"!e o0 $e 1&%" e!o"o1%! &!$or*. A"+ we !&" $e" e9'ore $e *e!%0%! !o"+%$%o"* *)rro)"+%"( $&$)"%8)e *%$)&$%o".

A* '&$e &* $e *e#e"$ee"$ !e"$)r, &"+ e#e" 1)! '&$er, 1o*$ o0 $e wor'+, %"!')+%"( E)roe, w&* 0ree o0 $e1&rke$/+r%#e" %1er&$%#e* o)$'%"e+ ere. A #&*$ **$e1 o0 $r&+e !er$&%"' e9%*$e+, - "ow e9$e"+%"( &!ro** $e('o-e. B)$ "owere, "e%$er %" $e (re&$ $r&+%"( !e"$er* o0 E)roe "or %" $e #&*$ !o11er!%&' "e$work* o0 $eI*'&1%! wor'+ or A*%&, w&* e!o"o1%! &!$%#%$, &"+ ro+)!$%o" %" &r$%!)'&r, +r%#e" - $e %1er&$%#e* o0!o1e$%$%o" &"+ &!!)1)'&$%o". Te +o1%"&"$ r%"!%'e o0 $r&+e e#erwere w&* >ro0%$ o" &'%e"&$%o",> or>-)%"( !e& &"+ *e''%"( +e&r>$%!&'', -)%"( !e& %" o"e 1&rke$ &"+ *e''%"( +e&r %" &"o$er.

I"$er"&$%o"&' $r&+e w&* e**e"$%&'' >!&rr%"(> $r&+e, w%$ 1er!&"$* -)%"( (oo+* %" o"e 'o!&$%o" $o -e *o'+ 0or &ro0%$ %" &"o$er. B)$ e#e" w%$%" & *%"('e, ower0)', &"+ re'&$%#e' )"%0%e+ E)roe&" k%"(+o1 '%ke Fr&"!e,-&*%!&'' $e *&1e r%"!%'e* o0 "o"!&%$&'%*$ !o11er!e re#&%'e+. Tere w&* "o *%"('e &"+ )"%0%e+ 1&rke$, &1&rke$ %" w%! eo'e 1&+e ro0%$ "o$ - -)%"( !e& &"+ *e''%"( +e&r, "o$ - !&rr%"( (oo+* 0ro1 o"e1&rke$ $o &"o$er, -)$ - ro+)!%"( 1ore !o*$/e00e!$%#e' %" +%re!$ !o1e$%$%o" w%$ o$er* %" $e *&1e 1&rke$.

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e#er+& (oo+* '%ke !'o$%"(. Te 1%($ $&ke $e%r *)r')*e* $o 'o!&' 1&rke$*, were $e ro!ee+* !o)'+ -ee9!&"(e+ 0or o$er !o11o+%$%e* "o$ ro+)!e+ &$ o1e. A"+ 0&r1 ro+)!e 1%($ e#e" -e *o'+ %" 1&rke$*0)r$er &0%e'+. B)$ ere &(&%", $e r%"!%'e* o0 $r&+e were -&*%!&'' $e *&1e &* %" 1&")0&!$)re+ (oo+*.

13


14/105

Te*e "o"!&%$&'%*$ r%"!%'e* o0 $r&+e e9%*$e+ *%+e/-/*%+e w%$ "o"!&%$&'%*$ 1o+e* o0 e9'o%$&$%o". For%"*$&"!e, %" We*$er" E)roe, e#e" were 0e)+&' *er0+o1 &+ e00e!$%#e' +%*&e&re+, o$er 0or1* o0 >e9$r&/e!o"o1%!> e9'o%$&$%o" *$%'' re#&%'e+. I" Fr&"!e, 0or e9&1'e, were e&*&"$* *$%'' !o"*$%$)$e+ $e #&*$ 1&3or%$o0 $e o)'&$%o" &"+ *$%'' re1&%"e+ %" o**e**%o" o0 1o*$ '&"+, o00%!e %" $e !e"$r&' *$&$e *er#e+ &* &" e!o"o1%!re*o)r!e 0or 1&" 1e1-er* o0 $e +o1%"&"$ !'&**e*, & 1e&"* o0 e9$r&!$%"( *)r')* '&-or %" $e 0or1 o0 $&9e*0ro1 e&*&"$ ro+)!er*. A"+ e#e" re"$/&ror%&$%"( '&"+'or+* $%!&'' +ee"+e+ o" #&r%o)* e9$r&/e!o"o1%!

ower* &"+ r%#%'e(e* $o e"&"!e $e%r we&'$.

So e&*&"$* &+ &!!e** $o $e 1e&"* o0 ro+)!$%o", $e '&"+, w%$o)$ %"( $o o00er $e%r '&-or/ower &* &1&rke$ !o11o+%$. L&"+'or+* &"+ o00%!e/o'+er*, w%$ $e e' o0 #&r%o)* >e9$r&/e!o"o1%!> ower* &"+

r%#%'e(e*, e9$r&!$e+ *)r')* '&-or 0ro1 e&*&"$* +%re!$' %" $e 0or1 o0 re"$ or $&9. I" o$er wor+*, w%'e &''k%"+* o0 eo'e 1%($ -) &"+ *e'' &'' k%"+* o0 $%"(* %" $e 1&rke$, "e%$er $e e&*&"$/ror%e$or* wo

ro+)!e+, "or $e '&"+'or+* &"+ o00%!e/o'+er* wo &ror%&$e+ w&$ o$er* ro+)!e+, +ee"+e+ +%re!$' o" $e1&rke$ 0or $e !o"+%$%o"* o0 $e%r *e'0/rero+)!$%o", &"+ $e re'&$%o"* -e$wee" $e1 were "o$ 1e+%&$e+ - $e1&rke$.

B)$ $ere w&* o"e 1&3or e9!e$%o" $o $%* (e"er&' r)'e. E"('&"+, &'re&+ %" $e *%9$ee"$ !e"$)r, w&* +e#e'o%"(%" wo'' "ew +%re!$%o"*. A'$o)( $ere were o$er re'&$%#e' *$ro"( 1o"&r!%!&' *$&$e*, 1ore or 'e** )"%0%e+)"+er $e 1o"&r! 5*)! &* S&%" &"+ Fr&"!e7, "o"e w&* &* e00e!$%#e' )"%0%e+ &* E"('&"+ 5&"+ $e e1&*%*

ere %* o" E"('&"+, "o$ o$er &r$* o0 $e >Br%$%* I*'e*>7. I" $e *%9$ee"$ !e"$)r, E"('&"+&'re&+ 1ore)"%0%e+ $&" 1o*$ %" $e e'e#e"$ !e"$)r, we" $e Nor1&" r)'%"( !'&** e*$&-'%*e+ %$*e'0 o" $e %*'&"+ &* &0&%r' !oe*%#e 1%'%$&r &"+ o'%$%!&' e"$%$we"$ & 'o"( w& $ow&r+ e'%1%"&$%"( $e 0r&(1e"$&$%o" o0 $e *$&$e,$e >&r!e''%2e+ *o#ere%("$> %"er%$e+ 0ro1 0e)+&'%*1. Te &)$o"o1o)* ower* e'+ - 'or+*, 1)"%!%&' -o+%e*,&"+ o$er !oror&$e e"$%$%e* %" o$er E)roe&" *$&$e* were, %" E"('&"+, %"!re&*%"(' -e%"( !o"!e"$r&$e+ %" $e!e"$r&' *$&$e. T%* w&* %" !o"$r&*$ $o o$er E)roe&" *$&$e* were e#e" ower0)' 1o"&r!%e* !o"$%")e+ 0or & 'o"($%1e $o '%#e )"e&*%' &'o"(*%+e o$er o*$/0e)+&' 1%'%$&r ower*, 0r&(1e"$e+ 'e(&' **$e1*, &"+ !oror&$e

r%#%'e(e* wo*e o**e**or* %"*%*$e+ o" $e%r &)$o"o1 &(&%"*$ $e !e"$r&'%2%"( ower o0 $e *$&$e.

Te +%*$%"!$%#e o'%$%!&' !e"$r&'%2&$%o" o0 $e E"('%* *$&$e &+ 1&$er%&' 0o)"+&$%o"* &"+ !oro''&r%e*. F%r*$, &'re&+%" $e 6=$ !e"$)r, E"('&"+ &+ &" %1re**%#e "e$work o0 ro&+* &"+ w&$er $r&"*or$ $&$ )"%0%e+ $e "&$%o" $o &+e(ree )")*)&' 0or $e er%o+. Lo"+o", -e!o1%"( +%*roor$%o"&$e' '&r(e %" re'&$%o" $o o$er E"('%* $ow"* &"+$o $e $o$&' o)'&$%o" o0 E"('&"+ 5&"+ e#e"$)&'' $e '&r(e*$ !%$ %" E)roe7, w&* &'*o -e!o1%"( $e )- o0 &

+e#e'o%"( "&$%o"&' 1&rke$.

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roor$%o" o0 '&"+. T%* !o"!e"$r&$e+ '&"+ow"er*% 1e&"$ $&$ E"('%* '&"+'or+* were &-'e $o )*e $e%r roer$%" "ew &"+ +%*$%"!$%#e w&*. W&$ $e '&!ke+ %" >e9$r&/e!o"o1%!> ower* o0 *)r')* e9$r&!$%o" $e 1ore $&"1&+e ) 0or - $e%r %"!re&*%"( >e!o"o1%!> ower*.

T%* +%*$%"!$%#e !o1-%"&$%o" &+ *%("%0%!&"$ !o"*e8)e"!e*. O" $e o"e &"+, $e !o"!e"$r&$%o" o0 E"('%*'&"+o'+%"( 1e&"$ $&$ &" )")*)&'' '&r(e roor$%o" o0 '&"+ w&* worke+ "o$ - e&*&"$/ror%e$or* -)$ -$e"&"$* 5$e wor+ >0&r1er,> %"!%+e"$&'', '%$er&'' 1e&"* >$e"&"$>& )*&(e *)((e*$e+ - r&*e* 0&1%'%&r $o+&,*)! &* >0&r1%"( o)$>7. T%* w&* $r)e e#e" -e0ore $e we* o0 +%*o**e**%o", e*e!%&'' %" $e *%9$ee"$ &"+e%($ee"$ !e"$)r%e*, !o"#e"$%o"&'' &**o!%&$e+ w%$ >e"!'o*)re> 5&-o)$ w%! 1ore %" & 1o1e"$7, %" !o"$r&*$,0or e9&1'e, $o Fr&"!e, were & '&r(er roor$%o" o0 '&"+ re1&%"e+, &"+ 'o"( !o"$%")e+ $o re1&%", %" $e &"+*o0 e&*&"$*.

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14


15/105

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ro+)!er* we"$ $o $e w&'' &"+ 3o%"e+ $e roer$'e** !'&**e*.

I" &'' !&*e*, $e e00e!$ o0 1&rke$ %1er&$%#e* w&* $o %"$e"*%0 e9'o%$&$%o" %" or+er $o %"!re&*e ro+)!$%#%$we$er e9'o%$&$%o" o0 $e '&-or o0 o$er* or *e'0/e9'o%$&$%o" - $e 0&r1er &"+ %* 0&1%'. T%* &$$er" wo)'+

-e rero+)!e+ %" $e !o'o"%e*, &"+ %"+ee+ %" o*$/I"+ee"+e"!e A1er%!&, were $e %"+ee"+e"$ *1&'' 0&r1er*wo were *)o*e+ $o -e $e -&!k-o"e o0 & 0ree re)-'%! 0&!e+, 0ro1 $e -e(%""%"(, $e *$&rk !o%!e o0 &(r&r%&"!&%$&'%*1: &$ -e*$, %"$e"*e *e'0/e9'o%$&$%o", &"+ &$ wor*$, +%*o**e**%o" &"+ +%*'&!e1e"$ - '&r(er, 1ore

ro+)!$%#e e"$err%*e*.

THE RISE OF CAPITALIST PROPERTY

So - $e *%9$ee"$ !e"$)r E"('%* &(r%!)'$)re w&* 1&rke+ - & )"%8)e !o1-%"&$%o" o0 !o"+%$%o"*, &$ 'e&*$ %"!er$&%" re(%o"*, w%! wo)'+ (r&+)&'' *e$ $e e!o"o1%! +%re!$%o" o0 $e wo'e e!o"o1. Te re*)'$ w&* &"

&(r&r%&" *e!$or 1ore ro+)!$%#e $&" &" o$er %" %*$or. L&"+'or+* &"+ $e"&"$* &'%ke -e!&1e reo!!)%e+ w%$w&$ $e !&''e+ >%1ro#e1e"$,> $e e"&"!e1e"$ o0 $e '&"+4* ro+)!$%#%$ 0or ro0%$.

I$ %* wor$ +we''%"( 0or & 1o1e"$ o" $%* !o"!e$ o0 >%1ro#e1e"$,> -e!&)*e %$ $e''* )* & (re&$ +e&' &-o)$E"('%* &(r%!)'$)re &"+ $e +e#e'o1e"$ o0 !&%$&'%*1. Te wor+ >%1ro#e> %$*e'0, %" %$* or%(%"&' 1e&"%"(, +%+"o$ 1e&" 3)*$ >1&k%"( -e$$er> %" & (e"er&' *e"*e -)$ '%$er&'' 5-&*e+ o" $e o'+ Fre"! 0or >%"$o,> e", &"+ >ro0%$,>

ro*, or %$* o-'%8)e !&*e, re)7 +o%"( *o1e$%"( 0or 1o"e$&r ro0%$, &"+ e*e!%&'' !)'$%#&$%"( '&"+ 0or ro0%$. B$e *e#e"$ee"$ !e"$)r, $e wor+ >%1ro#er> w&* 0%r1' 0%9e+ %" $e '&"()&(e $o re0er $o *o1eo"e wo re"+ere+'&"+ ro+)!$%#e &"+ ro0%$&-'e, e*e!%&'' - e"!'o*%"( or re!'&%1%"( w&*$e. A(r%!)'$)r&' >%1ro#e1e"$> w&* -$e" & we'' e*$&-'%*e+ r&!$%!e, &"+ %" $e e%($ee"$ !e"$)r, %" $e (o'+e" &(e o0 &(r&r%&" !&%$&'%*1,>%1ro#e1e"$,> %" wor+ &"+ +ee+, !&1e $r)' %"$o %$* ow".

Te wor+ w&*, &$ $e *&1e $%1e, (r&+)&'' &!8)%r%"( & 1ore (e"er&' 1e&"%"(, %" $e *e"*e $&$ we k"ow %$ $o+&5we 1%($ '%ke $o $%"k &-o)$ $e %1'%!&$%o"* o0 & !)'$)re %" w%! $e wor+ 0or >1&k%"( -e$$er> %* roo$e+ %" $ewor+ 0or 1o"e$&r ro0%$7@ &"+ e#e" %" %$* &**o!%&$%o" w%$ &(r%!)'$)re, %$ e#e"$)&'' 'o*$ *o1e o0 %$* o'+*e!%0%!%$*o $&$, 0or e9&1'e, *o1e r&+%!&' $%"ker* %" $e "%"e$ee"$ !e"$)r 1%($ e1-r&!e >%1ro#e1e"$>%" $e *e"*e o0 *!%e"$%0%! 0&r1%"(, w%$o)$ %$* !o""o$&$%o" o0 !o11er!%&' ro0%$. B)$ %" $e e&r' 1o+er" er%o+,

ro+)!$%#%$ &"+ ro0%$ were %"e9$r%!&-' !o""e!$e+ %" $e !o"!e$ o0 >%1ro#e1e"$,> &"+ %$ "%!e' *)1* ) $e%+eo'o( o0 & r%*%"( &(r&r%&" !&%$&'%*1.

I" $e *e#e"$ee"$ !e"$)r, $e", & wo'e "ew -o+ o0 '%$er&$)re e1er(e+, & '%$er&$)re *e''%"( o)$ %")"re!e+e"$e+ +e$&%' $e $e!"%8)e* &"+ -e"e0%$* o0 %1ro#e1e"$. I1ro#e1e"$ w&* &'*o & 1&3or reo!!)&$%o"o0 $e Ro&' So!%e$, w%! -ro)($ $o(e$er *o1e o0 E"('&"+4* 1o*$ ro1%"e"$ *!%e"$%*$* 5I*&&! New$o" &"+Ro-er$ Bo'e were -o$ 1e1-er* o0 $e So!%e$7 w%$ *o1e o0 $e 1ore 0orw&r+/'ook%"( 1e1-er* o0 E"('&"+4*r)'%"( !'&**e*'%ke $e %'o*oer Jo" Lo!ke &"+ %* 1e"$or, $e 0%r*$ E&r' o0 S&0$e*-)r, -o$ o0 wo1 were

kee"' %"$ere*$e+ %" &(r%!)'$)r&' %1ro#e1e"$.

15


16/105

I1ro#e1e"$ +%+ "o$, %" $e 0%r*$ %"*$&"!e, +ee"+ o" *%("%0%!&"$ $e!"o'o(%!&' %""o#&$%o"*&'$o)( "ewe8)%1e"$ w&* )*e+, '%ke $e wee'/'ow. I" (e"er&', %$ w&* 1ore & 1&$$er o0 +e#e'o1e"$* %" 0&r1%"($e!"%8)e*: 0or e9&1'e, >!o"#er$%-'e> or >) &"+ +ow"> )*-&"+r&'$er"&$%"( !)'$%#&$%o" w%$ 0&''ow er%o+*,!ro ro$&$%o", +r&%"&(e o0 1&r* &"+ 'ow'&"+*, &"+ *o o".

B)$ %1ro#e1e"$ 1e&"$ *o1e$%"( 1ore $&" "ew 1e$o+* &"+ $e!"%8)e* o0 0&r1%"(. I$ 1e&"$, e#e" 1ore

0)"+&1e"$&'', "ew 0or1* &"+ !o"!e$%o"* o0 roer$. >I1ro#e+> 0&r1%"(, 0or $e e"$err%*%"( '&"+'or+ &"+%* ro*ero)* !&%$&'%*$ $e"&"$, %+e&'' re8)%re+ e"'&r(e+ &"+ !o"!e"$r&$e+ '&"+o'+%"(*. I$ &'*o&"+ er&*e#e" 1ore+e1&"+e+ $e e'%1%"&$%o" o0 o'+ !)*$o1* &"+ r&!$%!e* $&$ %"$er0ere+ w%$ $e 1o*$ ro+)!$%#e )*eo0 '&"+.

Pe&*&"$ !o11)"%$%e* e, *%"!e $%1e %11e1or%&', e1'oe+ #&r%o)* 1e&"* o0 re()'&$%"( '&"+ )*e %" $e%"$ere*$* o0 $e #%''&(e !o11)"%$. Te e re*$r%!$e+ !er$&%" r&!$%!e* &"+ (r&"$e+ !er$&%" r%($*, "o$ %" or+er$o e"&"!e $e we&'$ o0 '&"+'or+* or *$&$e* -)$ $o re*er#e $e e&*&"$ !o11)"%$ %$*e'0, er&* $o !o"*er#e $e'&"+ or $o +%*$r%-)$e %$* 0r)%$* 1ore e8)%$&-', &"+ o0$e" $o ro#%+e 0or $e !o11)"%$4* 'e** 0or$)"&$e 1e1-er*.E#e" >r%#&$e> ow"er*% o0 roer$ &* $%!&'' -ee" !o"+%$%o"e+ - *)! !)*$o1&r r&!$%!e*, (%#%"( "o"/ow"er* !er$&%" )*e/r%($* $o roer$ >ow"e+> - *o1eo"e e'*e. I" E"('&"+, $ere were 1&" *)! r&!$%!e* &"+!)*$o1*. Tere e9%*$e+ !o11o" '&"+*, o" w%! 1e1-er* o0 $e !o11)"%$ 1%($ e (r&2%"( r%($* or $er%($ $o !o''e!$ 0%rewoo+, &"+ $ere were &'*o #&r%o)* k%"+* o0 )*e/r%($* o" r%#&$e '&"+*)! &* $e r%($ $o

!o''e!$ $e 'e%"(* o0 $e &r#e*$ +)r%"( *e!%0%e+ er%o+* o0 $e e&r.

Fro1 $e *$&"+o%"$ o0 %1ro#%"( '&"+'or+* &"+ !&%$&'%*$ 0&r1er*, '&"+ &+ $o -e '%-er&$e+ 0ro1 &" *)!o-*$r)!$%o" $o $e%r ro+)!$%#e &"+ ro0%$&-'e )*e o0 roer$. Be$wee" $e *%9$ee"$ &"+ e%($ee"$ !e"$)r%e*,$ere w&* (row%"( re**)re $o e9$%"()%* !)*$o1&r r%($* $&$ %"$er0ere+ w%$ !&%$&'%*$ &!!)1)'&$%o". T%*!o)'+ 1e&" #&r%o)* $%"(*: %$ 1%($ 1e&" +%*)$%"( $e !o11)"&' ow"er*% o0 !o11o" '&"+* &"+ !'&%1%"(

r%#&$e ow"er*%@ %$ 1%($ 1e&" e'%1%"&$%"( #&r%o)* )*e/r%($* o" r%#&$e '&"+@ or %$ 1%($ 1e&" !&''e"(%"( $e!)*$o1&r $e")re* w%! (e 1&" *1&''o'+er* r%($* o0 o**e**%o" w%$o)$ )"&1-%()o)* 'e(&' $%$'e. I" &''$e*e !&*e*, $r&+%$%o"&' !o"!e$%o"* o0 roer$ &+ $o -e re'&!e+ - "ew, !&%$&'%*$ !o"!e$%o"* o0 roer$

roer$ &* "o$ o"' >r%#&$e> -)$ &'*o e9!')*%#e, '%$er&'' e9!')+%"( o$er %"+%#%+)&'* &"+ $e !o11)"%$, -e'%1%"&$%"( #%''&(e re()'&$%o" &"+ re*$r%!$%o"* o" '&"+ )*e, - e9$%"()%*%"( !)*$o1&r )*e/r%($*, &"+ *o o".

Te*e re**)re* $o $r&"*0or1 $e "&$)re o0 roer$ 1&"%0e*$e+ $e1*e'#e* %" #&r%o)* w&*, %" $eor &"+ %"

r&!$%!e. Te *)r0&!e+ %" !o)r$ !&*e*, %" !o"0'%!$* o#er *e!%0%! roer$ r%($*, o#er *o1e %e!e o0 !o11o"'&"+ or *o1e r%#&$e '&"+ $o w%! +%00ere"$ eo'e &+ o#er'&%"( )*e/r%($*. I" *)! !&*e*, !)*$o1&r

r&!$%!e* &"+ !'&%1* o0$e" +%re!$' !o"0ro"$e+ $e r%"!%'e* o0 >%1ro#e1e"$>&"+ 3)+(e* o0$e" re!o("%2e+re&*o"* o0 %1ro#e1e"$ &* 'e(%$%1&$e !'&%1* &(&%"*$ !)*$o1&r r%($* $&$ &+ -ee" %" '&!e &* 'o"( &* &"o"e!o)'+ re1e1-er.

New !o"!e$%o"* o0 roer$ were &'*o -e%"( $eor%2e+ 1ore **$e1&$%!&'', 1o*$ 0&1o)*' %" Jo" Lo!ke4*Se!o"+ Tre&$%*e o0 Go#er"1e"$. C&$er o0 $&$ work %* $e !'&**%! *$&$e1e"$ o0 & $eor o0 roer$ -&*e+ o"$e r%"!%'e* o0 %1ro#e1e"$. Here, roer$ &* & >"&$)r&'> r%($ %* -&*e+ o" w&$ Lo!ke re(&r+* &* $e +%#%"e%"3)"!$%o" $o 1&ke $e e&r$ ro+)!$%#e &"+ ro0%$&-'e, $o %1ro#e %$. Te !o"#e"$%o"&' %"$erre$&$%o" o0 Lo!ke4*$eor o0 roer$ *)((e*$* $&$ '&-or e*$&-'%*e* $e r%($ $o roer$, -)$ & !&re0)' re&+%"( o0 Lo!ke4* !&$ero" roer$ 1&ke* %$ !'e&r $&$ w&$ re&'' %* &$ %**)e %* "o$ '&-or &* *)! -)$ $e ro+)!$%#e &"+ ro0%$&-'e)$%'%2&$%o" o0 roer$, %$* %1ro#e1e"$. A" e"$err%*%"(, %1ro#%"( '&"+'or+ e*$&-'%*e* %* r%($ $o roer$ "o$

- %* ow" +%re!$ '&-or -)$ - $e ro+)!$%#e e9'o%$&$%o" o0 %* '&"+ &"+ o$er eo'e4* '&-or o" %$. U"%1ro#e+'&"+, '&"+ "o$ re"+ere+ ro+)!$%#e &"+ ro0%$&-'e 5*)! &* $e '&"+* o0 %"+%(e"o)* eo'e* %" $e A1er%!&*7, %*>w&*$e,> &"+ %$ %* $e r%($, e#e" $e +)$, o0 %1ro#er* $o &ror%&$e %$.

Te *&1e e$%! o0 %1ro#e1e"$ !o)'+ -e )*e+ $o 3)*$%0 !er$&%" k%"+* o0 +%*o**e**%o" "o$ o"' %" $e !o'o"%e*-)$ &$ o1e %" E"('&"+. T%* -r%"(* )* $o $e 1o*$ 0&1o)* re+e0%"%$%o" o0 roer$ r%($*: e"!'o*)re. E"!'o*)re %*o0$e" $o)($ o0 &* *%1' $e r%#&$%2&$%o" &"+ 0e"!%"( %" o0 0or1er' !o11o" '&"+, or o0 $e >oe" 0%e'+*> $&$!&r&!$er%2e+ !er$&%" &r$* o0 $e E"('%* !o)"$r*%+e. B)$ e"!'o*)re 1e&"$, 1ore &r$%!)'&r', $e e9$%"!$%o"5w%$ or w%$o)$ & *%!&' 0e"!%"( o0 '&"+7 o0 !o11o" &"+ !)*$o1&r )*e/r%($* o" w%! 1&" eo'e+ee"+e+ 0or $e%r '%#e'%oo+.

Te 0%r*$ 1&3or we o0 e"!'o*)re o!!)rre+ %" $e *%9$ee"$ !e"$)r, we" '&r(er '&"+ow"er* *o)($ $o +r%#e

!o11o"er* o00 '&"+* $&$ !o)'+ -e ro0%$&-' )$ $o )*e &* &*$)re 0or %"!re&*%"(' ')!r&$%#e *ee 0&r1%"(.Co"$e1or&r !o11e"$&$or* e'+ e"!'o*)re, 1ore $&" &" o$er *%"('e 0&!$or, re*o"*%-'e 0or $e (row%"('&()e o0 #&(&-o"+*, $o*e +%*o**e**e+ >1&*$er'e** 1e"> wo w&"+ere+ $e !o)"$r*%+e &"+ $re&$e"e+ *o!%&'

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or+er. Te 1o*$ 0&1o)* o0 $e*e !o11e"$&$or*, To1&* More, $o)( %1*e'0 &" e"!'o*er, +e*!r%-e+ $er&!$%!e &* >*ee +e#o)r%"( 1e".> Te*e *o!%&' !r%$%!*, '%ke 1&" %*$or%&"* &0$er $e1, 1& e o#ere*$%1&$e+$e e00e!$* o0 e"!'o*)re &'o"e, &$ $e e9e"*e o0 o$er 0&!$or* 'e&+%"( $o $e $r&"*0or1&$%o" o0 E"('%* roer$re'&$%o"*. B)$ %$ re1&%"* $e 1o*$ #%#%+ e9re**%o" o0 $e re'e"$'e** ro!e** $&$ w&* !&"(%"( "o$ o"' $eE"('%* !o)"$r*%+e -)$ $e wor'+: $e -%r$ o0 !&%$&'%*1.

E"!'o*)re !o"$%")e+ $o -e & 1&3or *o)r!e o0 !o"0'%!$ %" e&r' 1o+er" E"('&"+, we$er 0or *ee or %"!re&*%"('ro0%$&-'e &r&-'e 0&r1%"(. E"!'o*)re r%o$* )"!$)&$e+ $e *%9$ee"$ &"+ *e#e"$ee"$ !e"$)r%e*, &"+ e"!'o*)re*)r0&!e+ &* & 1&3or (r%e#&"!e %" $e E"('%* C%#%' W&r. I" %$* e&r'%er &*e*, $e r&!$%!e w&* $o *o1e +e(reere*%*$e+ - $e 1o"&r!%!&' *$&$e, %0 o"' -e!&)*e o0 $e $re&$ $o )-'%! or+er. B)$ o"!e $e '&"+e+ !'&**e* &+*)!!ee+e+ %" *&%"( $e *$&$e $o $e%r ow" !&"(%"( re8)%re1e"$*& *)!!e** 1ore or 'e** 0%"&'' !o"*o'%+&$e+%" 6=, %" $e *o/!&''e+ >G'or%o)* Re#o')$%o">$ere w&* "o 0)r$er *$&$e %"$er0ere"!e, &"+ & "ew k%"+ o0e"!'o*)re 1o#e1e"$ e1er(e+ %" $e e%($ee"$ !e"$)r, $e *o/!&''e+ P&r'%&1e"$&r e"!'o*)re*. I" $%* k%"+ o0e"!'o*)re, $e e9$%"!$%o" o0 $ro)-'e*o1e roer$ r%($* $&$ %"$er0ere+ w%$ *o1e '&"+'or+4* ower* o0&!!)1)'&$%o" $ook '&!e - &!$* o0 P&r'%&1e"$. No$%"( 1ore "e&$' $e*$%0%e* $o $e $r%)1 o0 &(r&r%&"!&%$&'%*1.

So %" E"('&"+, & *o!%e$ %" w%! we&'$ *$%'' +er%#e+ re+o1%"&"$' 0ro1 &(r%!)'$)r&' ro+)!$%o", $e *e'0/rero+)!$%o" o0 -o$ 1&3or e!o"o1%! &!$or* %" $e &(r&r%&" *e!$or+%re!$ ro+)!er* &"+ $e &ror%&$or* o0

$e%r *)r')*e*were, &$ 'e&*$ 0ro1 $e *%9$ee"$ !e"$)r, %"!re&*%"(' +ee"+e"$ o" w&$ &1o)"$e+ $o !&%$&'%*$r&!$%!e*: $e 1&9%1%2&$%o" o0 e9!&"(e #&')e - 1e&"* o0 !o*$/!)$$%"( &"+ %1ro#%"( ro+)!$%#%$, -*e!%&'%2&$%o", &!!)1)'&$%o", &"+ %""o#&$%o".

T%* 1o+e o0 ro#%+%"( 0or $e -&*%! 1&$er%&' "ee+* o0 E"('%* *o!%e$ -ro)($ w%$ %$ & wo'e "ew +"&1%! o0*e'0/*)*$&%"%"( (row$, & ro!e** o0 &!!)1)'&$%o" &"+ e9&"*%o" #er +%00ere"$ 0ro1 $e &(e/o'+ !!'%!&' &$$er"*$&$ +o1%"&$e+ 1&$er%&' '%0e %" o$er *o!%e$%e*. I$ w&* &'*o &!!o1&"%e+ - $e $%!&' !&%$&'%*$ ro!e**e* o0e9ror%&$%o" &"+ $e !re&$%o" o0 & roer$'e** 1&**. I$ %* %" $%* *e"*e $&$ we !&" *e&k o0 >&(r&r%&"!&%$&'%*1> %" e&r' 1o+er" E"('&"+.

WAS AGRARIAN CAPITALISM REALLY CAPITALIST

We *o)'+ &)*e ere $o e1&*%2e $wo 1&3or o%"$*. F%r*$, %$ w&* "o$ 1er!&"$* or 1&")0&!$)rer* wo were

+r%#%"( $%* ro!e**. Te $r&"*0or1&$%o" o0 *o!%&' roer$ re'&$%o"* w&* 0%r1' roo$e+ %" $e !o)"$r*%+e, &"+ $e$r&"*0or1&$%o" o0 E"('%* $r&+e &"+ %"+)*$r w&* re*)'$ 1ore $&" !&)*e o0 E"('&"+4* $r&"*%$%o" $o !&%$&'%*1.Mer!&"$* !o)'+ 0)"!$%o" er0e!$' we'' w%$%" "o"!&%$&'%*$ **$e1*. Te ro*ere+, 0or e9&1'e, %" $e!o"$e9$ o0 E)roe&" 0e)+&'%*1, were $e ro0%$e+ "o$ o"' 0ro1 $e &)$o"o1 o0 !%$%e* -)$ &'*o 0ro1 $e0r&(1e"$&$%o" o0 1&rke$* &"+ $e oor$)"%$ $o !o"+)!$ $r&"*&!$%o"* -e$wee" o"e 1&rke$ &"+ &"o$er.

Se!o"+', &"+ e#e" 1ore 0)"+&1e"$&'', re&+er* w%'' e "o$%!e+ $&$ $e $er1 >&(r&r%&" !&%$&'%*1> &* *o 0&r-ee" )*e+ w%$o)$ re0ere"!e $o w&(e/'&-or, w%! we e &'' 'e&r"e+ $o $%"k o0 &* $e e**e"!e o0 !&%$&'%*1.T%* re8)%re* *o1e e9'&"&$%o".

I$ *o)'+ -e *&%+, 0%r*$, $&$ 1&" $e"&"$* +%+ e1'o w&(e '&-or, *o 1)! *o $&$ $e >$r%&+> %+e"$%0%e+ - M&r9&"+ o$er*$e $r%&+ o0 '&"+'or+* '%#%"( o" !&%$&'%*$ (ro)"+ re"$, !&%$&'%*$ $e"&"$* '%#%"( o" ro0%$, &"+ '&-orer*'%#%"( o" w&(e*&* -ee" re(&r+e+ - 1&" &* $e +e0%"%"( !&r&!$er%*$%! o0 &(r&r%&" re'&$%o"* %" E"('&"+. A"+*o %$ w&*&$ 'e&*$ %" $o*e &r$* o0 $e !o)"$r, &r$%!)'&r' $e e&*$ &"+ *o)$e&*$, 1o*$ "o$e+ 0or $e%r&(r%!)'$)r&' ro+)!$%#%$. I" 0&!$, $e "ew e!o"o1%! re**)re*, $e !o1e$%$%#e re**)re* $&$ +ro#e o)$)"ro+)!$%#e 0&r1er*, were & 1&3or 0&!$or %" o'&r%2%"( $e &(r&r%&" o)'&$%o" %"$o '&r(er '&"+o'+er* &"+

roer$'e** w&(e '&-orer*, &"+ %" ro1o$%"( $e &(r&r%&" $r%&+. A"+, o0 !o)r*e, $e re**)re* $o %"!re&*ero+)!$%#%$ 1&+e $e1*e'#e* 0e'$ %" $e %"$e"*%0%e+ e9'o%$&$%o" o0 w&(e '&-or.

I$ wo)'+ "o$, $e", -e )"re&*o"&-'e $o +e0%"e E"('%* &(r&r%&" !&%$&'%*1 %" $er1* o0 $e $r%&+. B)$ %$ %* %1or$&"$$o kee %" 1%"+ $&$ !o1e$%$%#e re**)re*, &"+ $e "ew >'&w* o0 1o$%o"> $&$ we"$ w%$ $e1, +ee"+e+ %" $e0%r*$ %"*$&"!e "o$ o" $e e9%*$e"!e o0 & 1&** ro'e$&r%&$ -)$ o" $e e9%*$e"!e o0 1&rke$/+ee"+e"$ $e"&"$/

ro+)!er*. W&(e '&-orer*, &"+ e*e!%&'' $o*e wo '%#e+ e"$%re' o" w&(e '&-or, +ee"+%"( o" %$ 0or $e%r'%#e'%oo+ &"+ "o$ 3)*$ 0or *e&*o"&' *)'e1e"$* 5$e k%"+ o0 *e&*o"&' &"+ *)'e1e"$&r w&(e '&-or $&$ &*e9%*$e+ *%"!e &"!%e"$ $%1e* %" e&*&"$ *o!%e$%e*7 re1&%"e+ #er 1)! & 1%"or%$ %" *e#e"$ee"$ !e"$)r E"('&"+.

Be*%+e*, $e*e !o1e$%$%#e re**)re* oer&$e+ "o$ 3)*$ o" $e"&"$* wo +%+ e1'o w&(e '&-orer* -)$ &'*o o"0&r1er* wo$%!&'' w%$ $e%r 0&1%'%e*were $e1*e'#e* +%re!$ ro+)!er* work%"( w%$o)$ %re+ '&-or.

17


18/105

Peo'e !o)'+ -e 1&rke$ +ee"+e"$+ee"+e"$ o" $e 1&rke$ 0or $e -&*%! !o"+%$%o"* o0 $e%r *e'0/rero+)!$%o" w%$o)$ -e%"( !o1'e$e' +%*o**e**e+. To -e 1&rke$ +ee"+e"$ re8)%re+ o"' $e 'o** o0 +%re!$ "o"/1&rke$&!!e** $o $e 1e&"* o0 ro+)!$%o". I" 0&!$, o"!e 1&rke$ %1er&$%#e* were we'' e*$&-'%*e+, e#e" o)$r%($ow"er*% w&* "o ro$e!$%o" &(&%"*$ $e1. A"+ 1&rke$ +ee"+e"!e w&* & !&)*e, "o$ & re*)'$, o0 1&**

ro'e$&r%&"%2&$%o".

T%* %* %1or$&"$ 0or #&r%o)* re&*o"*&"+ I4'' e 1ore $o *& '&$er &-o)$ %$* -ro&+er %1'%!&$%o"*. For $e1o1e"$, $e %1or$&"$ o%"$ %* $&$ $e *e!%0%! +"&1%!* o0 !&%$&'%*1 were &'re&+ %" '&!e, %" E"('%*&(r%!)'$)re, -e0ore $e ro'e$&r%&"%2&$%o" o0 $e work 0or!e. I" 0&!$, $o*e +"&1%!* were & 1&3or 0&!$or %"

-r%"(%"( &-o)$ $e ro'e$&r%&"%2&$%o" o0 '&-or %" E"('&"+. Te !r%$%!&' 0&!$or w&* $e 1&rke$ +ee"+e"!e o0ro+)!er*, &* we'' &* &ror%&$or*, &"+ $e "ew *o!%&' %1er&$%#e* !re&$e+ - $&$ 1&rke$ +ee"+e"!e.

So1e eo'e 1& -e re')!$&"$ $o +e*!r%-e $%* *o!%&' 0or1&$%o" &* >!&%$&'%*$,> re!%*e' o" $e (ro)"+* $&$!&%$&'%*1 %*, - +e0%"%$%o", -&*e+ o" $e e9'o%$&$%o" o0 w&(e '&-or. T&$ re')!$&"!e %* 0&%r e"o)(&* 'o"( &*we re!o("%2e $&$, w&$e#er we !&'' %$, $e E"('%* e!o"o1 %" $e e&r' 1o+er" er%o+, +r%#e" - $e 'o(%! o0 %$*

-&*%! ro+)!$%#e *e!$or, &(r%!)'$)re, w&* &'re&+ oer&$%"( &!!or+%"( $o r%"!%'e* &"+ >'&w* o0 1o$%o"> +%00ere"$0ro1 $o*e re#&%'%"( %" &" o$er *o!%e$ *%"!e $e +&w" o0 %*$or. To*e '&w* o0 1o$%o" were $e

re!o"+%$%o"*w%! e9%*$e+ "owere e'*e0or $e +e#e'o1e"$ o0 & 1&$)re !&%$&'%*1 $&$ wo)'+ %"+ee+ -e-&*e+ o" $e 1&** e9'o%$&$%o" o0 w&(e '&-or.

W&$, $e", w&* $e o)$!o1e o0 &'' $%* F%r*$, E"('%* &(r%!)'$)re w&* )"%8)e' ro+)!$%#e. B $e e"+ o0 $e*e#e"$ee"$ !e"$)r, 0or %"*$&"!e, (r&%" &"+ !ere&' ro+)!$%o" &+ r%*e" *o +r&1&$%!&'' $&$ E"('&"+ -e!&1e &'e&+%"( e9or$er o0 $o*e !o11o+%$%e*. Te*e &+#&"!e* %" ro+)!$%o" were &!%e#e+ w%$ & re'&$%#e' *1&''&(r%!)'$)r&' '&-or 0or!e. T%* %* w&$ %$ 1e&"* $o *e&k o0 $e )"%8)e ro+)!$%#%$ o0 E"('%* &(r%!)'$)re.

So1e %*$or%&"* e $r%e+ $o !&''e"(e $e #er %+e& o0 &(r&r%&" !&%$&'%*1 - *)((e*$%"( $&$ $e >ro+)!$%#%$>o0 Fre"! &(r%!)'$)re %" $e e%($ee"$ !e"$)r w&* 1ore or 'e** e8)&' $o $&$ o0 E"('&"+. B)$ w&$ $e re&''1e&" %* $&$ $o$&' &(r%!)'$)r&' ro+)!$%o" %" $e $wo !o)"$r%e* w&* 1ore or 'e** e8)&'. W&$ $e 0&%' $o o%"$ o)$%* $&$ %" o"e !o)"$r, $&$ 'e#e' o0 ro+)!$%o" w&* &!%e#e+ - & o)'&$%o" $e #&*$ 1&3or%$ o0 w%! *$%''!o"*%*$e+ o0 e&*&"$ ro+)!er*, w%'e %" $e o$er !o)"$r, $e *&1e $o$&' ro+)!$%o" w&* &!%e#e+ - & 1)!*1&''er work 0or!e, %" & +e!'%"%"( r)r&' o)'&$%o". I" o$er wor+*, $e %**)e ere %* "o$ $o$&' o)$)$ -)$

ro+)!$%#%$ %" $e *e"*e o0 o)$)$ er )"%$ o0 work.

Te +e1o(r&%! 0&!$* &'o"e *e&k #o')1e*. Be$wee" 6 &"+ 6;, E"('&"+ e9er%e"!e+ & *)-*$&"$%&' (row$%" o)'&$%o"&* +%+ o$er E)roe&" !o)"$r%e*. B)$ E"('%* o)'&$%o" (row$ w&* +%*$%"!$%#e %" o"e 1&3orre*e!$: $e er!e"$&(e o0 $e )r-&" o)'&$%o" 1ore $&" +o)-'e+ %" $&$ er%o+ 5*o1e %*$or%&"* )$ $e 0%()re&$ 3)*$ )"+er & 8)&r$er o0 $e o)'&$%o" &'re&+ - $e '&$e 6;$ !e"$)r7. Te !o"$r&*$ w%$ Fr&"!e %* $e''%"(:ere, $e r)r&' o)'&$%o" re1&%"e+ 0&%r' *$&-'e, *$%'' &-o)$ $o


19/105

T&$ )(e !%$ w&* $e )- o0 E"('%* !o11er!e"o$ o"' &* & 1&3or $r&"*%$ o%"$ 0or "&$%o"&' &"+ %"$er"&$%o"&'$r&+e -)$ &* & )(e !o"*)1er o0 E"('%* ro+)!$*, "o$ 'e&*$ %$* &(r%!)'$)r&' ro+)!e. Te (row$ o0 Lo"+o", %"o$er wor+*, %" &'' k%"+* o0 w&* *$&"+* 0or E"('&"+4* e1er(%"( !&%$&'%*1, %$* %"$e(r&$e+ 1&rke$%"!re&*%"(', &*%"('e, )"%0%e+, &"+ !o1e$%$%#e 1&rke$@ %$* ro+)!$%#e &(r%!)'$)re@ &"+ %$* +%*o**e**e+ o)'&$%o".

Te 'o"(/$er1 !o"*e8)e"!e* o0 $e*e +%*$%"!$%#e &$$er"* *o)'+ -e 0&%r' o-#%o)*. A'$o)( $%* %* "o$ $e '&!e

$o e9'ore $e !o""e!$%o"* -e$wee" &(r&r%&" !&%$&'%*1 &"+ E"('&"+4* *)-*e8)e"$ +e#e'o1e"$ %"$o $e 0%r*$>%"+)*$r%&'%2e+> e!o"o1, *o1e o%"$* &re *e'0/e#%+e"$. W%$o)$ & ro+)!$%#e &(r%!)'$)r&' *e!$or w%! !o)'+*)*$&%" & '&r(e "o"/&(r%!)'$)r&' work0or!e, $e wor'+4* 0%r*$ %"+)*$r%&' !&%$&'%*1 wo)'+ e -ee" )"'%ke' $oe1er(e. W%$o)$ E"('&"+4* &(&r%&" !&%$&'%*1, $ere wo)'+ e -ee" "o +%*o**e**e+ 1&** o-'%(e+ $o *e'' %$*'&-or/ower 0or & w&(e. W%$o)$ $&$ +%*o**e**e+ "o"/&(r&r%&" work 0or!e, $ere wo)'+ e -ee" "o 1&**!o"*)1er 1&rke$ 0or $e !e& e#er+& (oo+**)! &* 0oo+ &"+ $e9$%'e*$&$ +ro#e $e ro!e** o0%"+)*$r%&'%2&$%o" %" E"('&"+. A"+ w%$o)$ %$* (row%"( we&'$, $o(e$er w%$ wo'' "ew 1o$%#&$%o"* 0or !o'o"%&'e9&"*%o"1o$%#&$%o"* +%00ere"$ 0ro1 $e o'+ 0or1* o0 $err%$or%&' &!8)%*%$%o"Br%$%* %1er%&'%*1 wo)'+ e

-ee" & #er +%00ere"$ $%"( $&" $e e"(%"e o0 %"+)*$r%&' !&%$&'%*1 %$ w&* $o -e!o1e. A"+ 5$%* %* "o +o)-$ &1ore !o"$e"$%o)* o%"$7 w%$o)$ E"('%* !&%$&'%*1 $ere wo)'+ ro-&-' e -ee" "o !&%$&'%*$ **$e1 o0 &"k%"+: %$ w&* !o1e$%$%#e re**)re* e1&"&$%"( 0ro1 E"('&"+, e*e!%&'' &" %"+)*$r%&'%2e+ E"('&"+, $&$ !o1e''e+o$er !o)"$r%e* $o ro1o$e $e%r ow" e!o"o1%! +e#e'o1e"$ %" !&%$&'%*$ +%re!$%o"*.

THE LESSONS OF AGRARIAN CAPITALISM

W&$, $e", +oe* &'' $%* $e'' )* &-o)$ $e "&$)re o0 !&%$&'%*1 F%r*$, %$ re1%"+* )* $&$ !&%$&'%*1 %* "o$ &>"&$)r&'> &"+ %"e#%$&-'e !o"*e8)e"!e o0 )1&" "&$)re, or e#e" o0 &(e/o'+ *o!%&' r&!$%!e* '%ke >$r)!k, -&r$er, &"+e9!&"(e.> I$ %* & '&$e &"+ 'o!&'%2e+ ro+)!$ o0 #er *e!%0%! %*$or%!&' !o"+%$%o"*. Te e9&"*%o"&r +r%#e o0!&%$&'%*1, $o $e o%"$ o0 #%r$)&' )"%#er*&'%$ $o+&, %* "o$ $e !o"*e8)e"!e o0 %$* !o"0or1%$ $o )1&" "&$)re or$o *o1e $r&"*%*$or%!&' "&$)r&' '&w* -)$ $e ro+)!$ o0 %$* ow" %*$or%!&'' *e!%0%! %"$er"&' '&w* o0 1o$%o". A"+$o*e '&w* o0 1o$%o" re8)%re+ #&*$ *o!%&' $r&"*0or1&$%o"* &"+ )e&'* $o *e$ $e1 %" $r&%". I$ re8)%re+ &$r&"*0or1&$%o" %" $e )1&" 1e$&-o'%*1 w%$ "&$)re, %" $e ro#%*%o" o0 '%0e4* -&*%! "e!e**%$%e*.

Te *e!o"+ o%"$ %* $&$ !&%$&'%*1 &* 0ro1 $e -e(%""%"( -ee" & +ee' !o"$r&+%!$or 0or!e. We "ee+ o"'!o"*%+er $e 1o*$ o-#%o)* e00e!$* o0 E"('%* &(r&r%&" !&%$&'%*1: o" $e o"e &"+, $e !o"+%$%o"* 0or 1&$er%&'

ro*er%$ e9%*$e+ %" e&r' 1o+er" E"('&"+ &* "owere e'*e@ e$ o" $e o$er &"+, $o*e !o"+%$%o"* were

&!%e#e+ &$ $e !o*$ o0 w%+e*re&+ +%*o**e**%o" &"+ %"$e"*e e9'o%$&$%o". I$ &r+' "ee+* $o -e &++e+ $&$ $e*e"ew !o"+%$%o"* &'*o e*$&-'%*e+ $e 0o)"+&$%o" 0or "ew &"+ 1ore e00e!$%#e 0or1* o0 !o'o"%&' e9&"*%o" &"+%1er%&'%*1, &* we'' &* "ew "ee+* 0or *)! e9&"*%o", %" *e&r! o0 "ew 1&rke$* &"+ re*o)r!e*.

A"+ $e" $ere &re $e !oro''&r%e* o0 >%1ro#e1e"$>: o" $e o"e &"+, ro+)!$%#%$ &"+ $e &-%'%$ $o 0ee+ & #&*$o)'&$%o"@ o" $e o$er &"+, $e *)-or+%"&$%o" o0 &'' o$er !o"*%+er&$%o"* $o $e %1er&$%#e* o0 ro0%$. T%*1e&"*, &1o"( o$er $%"(*, $&$ eo'e wo !o)'+ -e 0e+ &re o0$e" 'e0$ $o *$&r#e. I" 0&!$, %$ 1e&"* $&$ $ere %* %"(e"er&' & (re&$ +%*&r%$ -e$wee" $e ro+)!$%#e !&&!%$%e* o0 !&%$&'%*1 &"+ $e 8)&'%$ o0 '%0e %$ +e'%#er*. Tee$%! o0 >%1ro#e1e"$> %" %$* or%(%"&' *e"*e, %" w%! ro+)!$%o" %* %"*e&r&-'e 0ro1 ro0%$, %* &'*o $e e$%! o0e9'o%$&$%o", o#er$, &"+ o1e'e**"e**.

Te e$%! o0 >%1ro#e1e"$,> o0 ro+)!$%#%$ 0or ro0%$, %* &'*o, o0 !o)r*e, $e e$%! o0 %rre*o"*%-'e '&"+ )*e, 1&+!ow +%*e&*e, &"+ e"#%ro"1e"$&' +e*$r)!$%o". C&%$&'%*1 w&* -or" &$ $e #er !ore o0 )1&" '%0e, %" $e%"$er&!$%o" w%$ "&$)re o" w%! '%0e %$*e'0 +ee"+*. Te $r&"*0or1&$%o" o0 $&$ %"$er&!$%o" - &(r&r%&" !&%$&'%*1re#e&'e+ $e %"ere"$' +e*$r)!$%#e %1)'*e* o0 & **$e1 %" w%! $e #er 0)"+&1e"$&'* o0 e9%*$e"!e &re*)-3e!$e+ $o $e re8)%re1e"$* o0 ro0%$. I" o$er wor+*, %$ re#e&'e+ $e e**e"$%&' *e!re$ o0 !&%$&'%*1.

Te e9&"*%o" o0 !&%$&'%*$ %1er&$%#e* $ro)(o)$ $e wor'+ &* !o"*$&"$' rero+)!e+ *o1e o0 $e e00e!$* $&$%$ &+ &$ $e -e(%""%"( w%$%" %$* !o)"$r o0 or%(%". Te ro!e** o0 +%*o**e**%o", e9$%"!$%o" o0 !)*$o1&r

roer$ r%($*, $e %1o*%$%o" o0 1&rke$ %1er&$%#e*, &"+ e"#%ro"1e"$&' +e*$r)!$%o" &* !o"$%")e+. T&$ ro!e**&* e9$e"+e+ %$* re&! 0ro1 $e re'&$%o"* -e$wee" e9'o%$%"( &"+ e9'o%$e+ !'&**e* $o $e re'&$%o"* -e$wee"%1er%&'%*$ &"+ *)-or+%"&$e !o)"$r%e*. More re!e"$', $e *re&+ o0 1&rke$ %1er&$%#e* &* $&ke" $e 0or1, 0ore9&1'e, o0 !o1e''%"( 5w%$ $e e' o0 %"$er"&$%o"&' !&%$&'%*$ &(e"!%e* '%ke $e Wor'+ B&"k &"+ $eI"$er"&$%o"&' Mo"e$&r F)"+7 0&r1er* %" $e $%r+ wor'+ $o re'&!e *$r&$e(%e* o0 &(r%!)'$)r&' *e'0/*)00%!%e"! w%$*e!%&'%2&$%o" %" !&* !ro* 0or $e ('o-&' 1&rke$. Te +%re e00e!$* o0 $e*e !&"(e* w%'' -e e9'ore+ e'*ewere %"

$%* %**)e.

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B)$ %0 $e +e*$r)!$%#e e00e!$* o0 !&%$&'%*1 e !o"*$&"$' rero+)!e+ $e1*e'#e*, %$* o*%$%#e e00e!$* e "o$-ee" "e&r' &* !o"*%*$e"$. O"!e !&%$&'%*1 w&* e*$&-'%*e+ %" o"e !o)"$r &"+ o"!e %$ -e(&" $o %1o*e %$*%1er&$%#e* o" $e re*$ o0 E)roe &"+ )'$%1&$e' $e wo'e wor'+, %$* +e#e'o1e"$ %" o$er '&!e* !o)'+ "e#er0o''ow $e *&1e !o)r*e %$ &+ %" %$* '&!e o0 or%(%". Te e9%*$e"!e o0 o"e !&%$&'%*$ *o!%e$ $ere&0$er $r&"*0or1e+&'' o$er*, &"+ $e *)-*e8)e"$ e9&"*%o" o0 !&%$&'%*$ %1er&$%#e* !o"*$&"$' !&"(e+ $e !o"+%$%o"* o0 e!o"o1%!+e#e'o1e"$.

We e "ow re&!e+ $e o%"$ were $e +e*$r)!$%#e e00e!$* o0 !&%$&'%*1 &re o)$*$r%%"( %$* 1&$er%&' (&%"*. No$%r+ wor'+ !o)"$r $o+&, 0or e9&1'e, !&" oe $o &!%e#e e#e" $e !o"$r&+%!$or +e#e'o1e"$ $&$ E"('&"+)"+erwe"$. W%$ $e re**)re* o0 !o1e$%$%o", &!!)1)'&$%o", &"+ e9'o%$&$%o" %1o*e+ - o$er 1ore +e#e'oe+!&%$&'%*$ **$e1*, $e &$$e1$ $o &!%e#e 1&$er%&' ro*er%$ &!!or+%"( $o !&%$&'%*$ r%"!%'e* %* %"!re&*%"(''%ke' $o -r%"( w%$ %$ o"' $e "e(&$%#e *%+e o0 $e !&%$&'%*$ !o"$r&+%!$%o", %$* +%*o**e**%o" &"+ +e*$r)!$%o"w%$o)$ %$* 1&$er%&' -e"e0%$*, &$ 'e&*$ 0or $e #&*$ 1&3or%$.

Tere %* &'*o & 1ore (e"er&' 'e**o" $o -e +r&w" 0ro1 $e e9er%e"!e o0 E"('%* &(r&r%&" !&%$&'%*1. O"!e 1&rke$%1er&$%#e* *e$ $e $er1* o0 *o!%&' rero+)!$%o", &'' e!o"o1%! &!$or*-o$ &ror%&$or* &"+ ro+)!er*, e#e" %0$e re$&%" o**e**%o", or %"+ee+ o)$r%($ ow"er*%, o0 $e 1e&"* o0 ro+)!$%o"&re *)-3e!$ $o $e +e1&"+* o0!o1e$%$%o", %"!re&*%"( ro+)!$%#%$, !&%$&' &!!)1)'&$%o", &"+ $e %"$e"*e e9'o%$&$%o" o0 '&-or.

For $&$ 1&$$er, e#e" $e &-*e"!e o0 & +%#%*%o" -e$wee" &ror%&$or* &"+ ro+)!er* %* "o ()&r&"$ee o0 %11)"%$5&"+ $%*, - $e w&, %* w >1&rke$ *o!%&'%*1> %* & !o"$r&+%!$%o" %" $er1*7: o"!e $e 1&rke$ %* e*$&-'%*e+ &* &"e!o"o1%! >+%*!%'%"e> or >re()'&$or,> o"!e e!o"o1%! &!$or* -e!o1e 1&rke$ +ee"+e"$ 0or $e !o"+%$%o"* o0 $e%row" rero+)!$%o", e#e" worker* wo ow" $e 1e&"* o0 ro+)!$%o", %"+%#%+)&'' or !o''e!$%#e', w%'' -e o-'%(e+$o re*o"+ $o $e 1&rke$4* %1er&$%#e*$o !o1e$e &"+ &!!)1)'&$e, $o 'e$ >)"!o1e$%$%#e> e"$err%*e* &"+ $e%rworker* (o $o $e w&'', &"+ $o e9'o%$ $e1*e'#e*.

Te %*$or o0 &(r&r%&" !&%$&'%*1, &"+ e#er$%"( $&$ 0o''owe+ 0ro1 %$, *o)'+ 1&ke %$ !'e&r $&$ were#er1&rke$ %1er&$%#e* re()'&$e $e e!o"o1 &"+ (o#er" *o!%&' rero+)!$%o" $ere w%'' -e "o e*!&e 0ro1e9'o%$&$%o".

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C&$er Two

LIEBIG, MAR, AND THE DE!LETION OF SOIL FERTILITY" RELE#ANCE FOR TODAY$S

AGRICULTURE

JOHN BELLAMY FOSTER, FRED MAGDOFF

D)r%"( $e er%o+ 6?/6; $e +e'e$%o" o0 $e "&$)r&' 0er$%'%$ o0 $e *o%' $ro)( $e 'o** o0 *o%' ")$r%e"$* w&*$e !e"$r&' e!o'o(%!&' !o"!er" o0 !&%$&'%*$ *o!%e$ %" -o$ E)roe &"+ Nor$ A1er%!& 5o"' !o1&r&-'e $o!o"!er"* o#er $e 'o** o0 0ore*$*, $e (row%"( o'')$%o" o0 $e !%$%e*. &"+ $e M&'$)*%&" *e!$er o0o#ero)'&$%o"7. T%* er%o+ *&w $e (row$ o0 >()&"o %1er%&'%*1> &* "&$%o"* *!o)re+ $e ('o-e 0or "&$)r&'0er$%'%2er*@ $e e1er(e"!e o0 1o+er" *o%' *!%e"!e@ $e (r&+)&' %"$ro+)!$%o" o0 *"$e$%! 0er$%'%2er*@ &"+ $e0or1&$%o" o0 r&+%!&' roo*&'* 0or $e +e#e'o1e"$ o0 & *)*$&%"&-'e &(r%!)'$)re, &%1e+ )'$%1&$e' &$ $ee'%1%"&$%o" o0 $e &"$&(o"%*1 -e$wee" $ow" &"+ !o)"$r.

Te !e"$r&' 0%()re %" $%* !r%*%* o0 *o%' 0er$%'%$ w&* $e Ger1&" !e1%*$ J)*$)* #o" L%e-%(. B)$ $e w%+er *o!%&'%1'%!&$%o"* were 1o*$ e"e$r&$%"(' e9&1%"e+ - K&r' M&r9. Te #%ew* o0 L%e-%( &"+ M&r9 o" *o%' 0er$%'%$were $o -e $&ke" ) - '&$er $%"ker*, %"!')+%"( K&r' K&)$*k &"+ V.I. Le"%" w%$%" $e M&r9%*$ $r&+%$%o". S$%'',

- $e 1%+/$we"$%e$ !e"$)r $e ro-'e1 *ee1e+ $o e &-&$e+ +)e $o $e +e#e'o1e"$ o0 & 1&**%#e 0er$%'%2er%"+)*$r &"+ $e %"$e"*%#e &'%!&$%o" o0 *"$e$%! 0er$%'%2er*.

To+&, & (row%"( )"+er*$&"+%"( o0 $e e!o'o(%!&' +&1&(e %"0'%!$e+ - $e re'%&"!e o" *"$e$%! !e1%!&' %")$*,$e *!&'e o0 w%! #&*$' %"!re&*e+ 0o''ow%"( $e Se!o"+ Wor'+ W&r, &* (e"er&$e+ "ew %"$ere*$ %" & *)*$&%"&-'e&(r%!)'$)re %" w%! *o%' ")$r%e"$ !!'%"( '&* & !e"$r&' ro'e. Te "ee+ $o +e#%*e &" e!o'o(%!&'' *o)"+

re'&$%o"*% o0 eo'e $o $e *o%' %* -e%"( re+%*!o#ere+. W&$ 0o''ow* %* & -r%e0 o)$'%"e o0 $e e#o')$%o" o0 $%*%**)e o#er $e '&*$ )"+re+ &"+ 0%0$ e&r*.

LIEBIG AND THE NINETEENTH CENTURY CRISIS OF THE SOIL

I" $e 6* &"+ 6?* %" Br%$&%", &"+ *or$' &0$erw&r+* %" $e o$er +e#e'o%"( !&%$&'%*$ e!o"o1%e* o0 E)roe&"+ Nor$ A1er%!&, !o"!er" o#er $e >wor"/o)$ *o%'> 'e+ $o & e"o1e"&' %"!re&*e %" $e +e1&"+ 0or 0er$%'%2er.Te #&')e o0 -o"e %1or$* $o Br%$&%" %"!re&*e+ 0ro1 6, %" 6? $o ,= %" 6?;. Te 0%r*$ -o&$!&rr%"( Per)#%&" ()&"o 5$e &!!)1)'&$e+ +)"( o0 *e& -%r+*7 &rr%#e+ %" L%#eroo' %" 6?@ - 66 6,; $o"*were %1or$e+, &"+ - 6; *o1e , $o"* &rr%#e+. So +e*er&$e were E)roe&" 0&r1er* %" $%* er%o+ $&$$e r&%+e+ $e N&o'eo"%! -&$$'e0%e'+* 5W&$er'oo, A)*$er'%$27 0or -o"e* $o *re&+ o#er $e%r 0%e'+*.

Te r%*e o0 1o+er" *o%' *!%e"!e w&* !'o*e' !orre'&$e+ w%$ $%* +e1&"+ 0or %"!re&*e+ *o%' 0er$%'%$ $o *)or$

!&%$&'%*$ &(r%!)'$)re. I" 6?; $e Br%$%* A**o!%&$%o" 0or $e A+#&"!e1e"$ o0 S!%e"!e *o'%!%$e+ & work o" $ere'&$%o"*% -e$wee" &(r%!)'$)re &"+ !e1%*$r 0ro1 L%e-%(. Te re*)'$ w&* %* Organic Chemistry in itsApplications to Agriculture and hysiology 567, w%! ro#%+e+ $e 0%r*$ !o"#%"!%"( e9'&"&$%o" o0 $e ro'eo0 *o%' ")$r%e"$*, *)! &* "%$ro(e", o*oro)*, &"+ o$&**%)1, %" $e (row$ o0 '&"$*. I" E"('&"+ L%e-%(4* %+e&*%"0')e"!e+ $e we&'$ '&"+ow"er &"+ &(ro"o1%*$ J. B. L&we*, wo &+ -e()" e9er%1e"$* o" 0er$%'%2er* o" %*

roer$ %" Ro$&1*$e+, o)$*%+e Lo"+o" %" 6?;. I" 6 L&we* %"$ro+)!e+ $e 0%r*$ &r$%0%!%&' 0er$%'%2er, &0$er%"#e"$%"( & 1e&"* o0 1&k%"( o*&$e *o')-'e, &"+ %" 6? e -)%'$ & 0&!$or 0or $e ro+)!$%o" o0 %* "ew>*)ero*&$e*.>

Ne#er$e'e**, $%* $e!"o'o( w&* *'ow $o +%00)*e o)$*%+e o0 Br%$&%". Te 0%r*$ 0&!$or%e* 0or $e ro+)!$%o" o0*)ero*&$e* were %"$ro+)!e+ %" Ger1&" o"' %" 6@ %" $e U"%$e+ S$&$e* o"' &0$er $e C%#%' W&r@ &"+ %"Fr&"!e o"' &0$er $e Fr&"!o/Pr)**%&" W&r. Moreo#er, $e re*)'$* o-$&%"e+ 0ro1 $e &'%!&$%o" o0 & *%"('e")$r%e"$ 5*)! &* o*&$e7 $o $e *o0$, &'$o)( %"%$%&'' ro+)!%"( +r&1&$%! re*)'$*, $e"+e+ $o +%1%"%* r&%+'

&0$er $&$, *%"!e o#er&'' *o%' 0er$%'%$ %* &'w&* '%1%$e+ - $e ")$r%e"$ %" 'e&*$ &-)"+&"!e 5L%e-%(4* L&w o0 $eM%"%1)17.

21
http://moneywatch.bnet.com/search/?qa=John%20Bellamy%20Foster&pub_on=1http://moneywatch.bnet.com/search/?qa=Fred%20Magdoff&pub_on=1http://moneywatch.bnet.com/search/?qa=John%20Bellamy%20Foster&pub_on=1http://moneywatch.bnet.com/search/?qa=Fred%20Magdoff&pub_on=1


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He"!e, L%e-%(4* +%*!o#er%e* &$ 0%r*$ o"' %"$e"*%0%e+ $e *e"*e o0 !r%*%* w%$%" !&%$&'%*$ &(r%!)'$)re, 1&k%"(0&r1er* 1ore &w&re o0 $e +e'e$%o" o0 *o%' 1%"er&'* &"+ $e &)!%$ o0 0er$%'%2er*. T%* !o"$r&+%!$%o" w&*e9er%e"!e+ w%$ &r$%!)'&r &!)%$ %" $e U"%$e+ S$&$e* / e*e!%&'' &1o"( 0&r1er* %" )*$&$e New York &"+ %"$e So)$e&*$er" '&"$&$%o" e!o"o1. B'o!ke+ 0ro1 e&*, e!o"o1%!&' &!!e** $o ()&"o 5w%! w&* %( %" -o$"%$ro(e" &"+ o*&$e*7 - $e Br%$%* 1o"oo' o" Per)#%&" ()&"o *)'%e*, $e U"%$e+ S$&$e* )"+er$ook /0%r*$ )"o00%!%&'' &"+ $e" &* &r$ o0 & +e'%-er&$e *$&$e o'%! / $e %1er%&' &""e9&$%o" o0 &" %*'&"+* $o)($ $o

-e r%! %" $%* "&$)r&' 0er$%'%2er. U"+er $e &)$or%$ o0 w&$ -e!&1e $e G)&"o I*'&"+ A!$, &**e+ - Co"(re** %"6=, U.S. !&%$&'%*$* *e%2e+ "%"e$/0o)r %*'&"+*, ro!k*, &"+ ke* &ro)"+ $e ('o-e -e$wee" 6= &"+ 6 $re'e+ $o Nor$ A1er%!&, &"+ %" %* %"0')e"$%&' work Notes on North America+o!)1e"$e+ $e 'o** o0 "&$)r&' *o%' 0er$%'%$, +e1o"*$r&$%"( %" &r$%!)'&r $e +e'e$e+ !o"+%$%o" o0 $e *o%' %" NewYork &* !o1&re+ $o $e 1ore 0er$%'e 0&r1'&"+* $o $e We*$.

M&" o0 $e*e %**)e* were re0'e!$e+ %" $e work o0 U.S. e!o"o1%*$ He"r C&re, wo $ro)(o)$ $e 6* '&%+*$re** o" $e 0&!$ $&$ 'o"( +%*$&"!e $r&+e &r%*%"( 0ro1 $e *e&r&$%o" o0 $ow" &"+ !o)"$r w&* & 1&3or 0&!$or %"$e "e$ 'o** o0 *o%' ")$r%e"$* &"+ $e (row%"( !r%*%* %" &(r%!)'$)re / & o%"$ '&$er +e#e'oe+ 0)r$er - L%e-%( &"+M&r9.> A * $e wo'e e"er(%e* o0 $e !o)"$r,> C&re wro$e o0 $e U"%$e+ S$&$e* %" %* rinciples o" SocialScience567, >&re (%#e" $o $e e"'&r(e1e"$ o0 $e $r&+er4* ower, %$ %* "o 1&$$er o0 *)rr%*e $&$ %$* eo'e &ree#erwere *ee" e1'oe+ %" 4ro--%"( $e e&r$ o0 %$* !&%$&' *$o!k.4>

Te*e !o"!er"* o0 Nor$ A1er%!&" &(r%!)'$)r%*$* were $r&"*1%$$e+ %" $)r" $o L%e-%(, 1&%"' $ro)( $e work o0C&re. I" %*#etters on Modern Agriculture 56e1%r%!&' &(r%!)'$)re> o0 $e $r&+er(e r%*e $o & >*o'%&$%o" **$e1> %" w%! $e >!o"+%$%o"* o0 $e rero+)!$%o"> o0 $e *o%' were #%o'&$e+. So%'")$r%e"$* were >!&rr%e+ &w& %" ro+)!e e&r &0$er e&r, ro$&$%o" &0$er ro$&$%o".> Bo$ $e oe" **$e1 o0e9'o%$&$%o" o0 A1er%!&" 0&r1%"( &"+ $e *o/!&''e+ >%( 0&r1%"(> o0 E)roe&" &(r%!)'$)re were $)* 0or1* o0>ro--er.> >R&$%o"&' &(r%!)'$)re,> %" !o"$r&*$, wo)'+ (%#e >-&!k $o $e 0%e'+* $e !o"+%$%o"* o0 $e%r 0er$%'%$.>

L%e-%( 'ooke+ 0orw&r+ $o &" e#e"$)&' %"!re&*e %" $e &%'&-%'%$ o0 0er$%'%2er*, -o$ $ro)( +%*!o#er%e* o0 "&$)r&'*o)r!e* &"+ $e ro+)!$%o" o0 *"$e$%! 0er$%'%2er*. Ye$ e "o"e$e'e** (e"er&$e+ w&$ *o%' *!%e"!e %*$or%&" Je&"Bo)'&%"e &* !&''e+ & >(re&$ !&1&%(" $o e!o"o1%2e 0er$%'%2er )*e &"+ $o re!!'e ")$r%$%#e e'e1e"$* o" E)roe&"0&r1*.> I" $%* *e"*e e w&* & >re!)r*or o0 $o+&4* e!o'o(%*$*.> I" %* #etters on the Su$%ect o" the &tili'ation o"the Municipal Sewage Addressed to the #ord Mayor o" #ondon56=7 L%e-%( &r()e+ / -&*e+ o" $e !o"+%$%o" o0

$e T&1e* / $&$ $e $wo ro-'e1* o0 $e o'')$%o" o0 $e !%$%e* w%$ )1&" &"+ &"%1&' e9!re1e"$ &"+ $e+e'e$%o" o0 $e "&$)r&' 0er$%'%$ o0 $e *o%' were !o""e!$e+, &"+ $&$ or(&"%! re!!'%"( $&$ wo)'+ re$)r" ")$r%e"$*$o $e *o%' w&* &" %"+%*e"*&-'e &r$ o0 & r&$%o"&' )r-&"/&(r%!)'$)r&' **$e1.

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MARQ AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

M&r9 re'%e+ e%' o" $e work* o0 L%e-%(, Jo"*$o", &"+ C&re %" %* !r%$%8)e o0 !&%$&'%*$ &(r%!)'$)re.Howe#er, $e roo$ *o)r!e 0or M&r94* !r%$%8)e %" $%* &re& w&* J&1e* A"+er*o", & S!o$$%* &(ro"o1%*$, r&!$%!%"(

0&r1er, &"+ o'%$%!&' e!o"o1%*$ wo w&* & !o"$e1or&r o0 A+&1 S1%$.

I" 6;;; A"+er*o" )-'%*e+ A" E"8)%r %"$o $e N&$)re o0 $e Cor" L&w* %" w%! e %"$ro+)!e+ w&$ w&* $o-e!o1e k"ow" &* $e M&'$)*%&"R%!&r+%&" $eor o0 re"$. I" M&r94* #%ew, A"+er*o"4* or%(%"&' 1o+e' w&* 0&r*)er%or $o $e #&r%&"$ '&$er o00ere+ - $e !'&**%!&' e!o"o1%*$* To1&* M&'$)* &"+ D%+ R%!&r+o *%"!e %$

'&!e+ *$ro"( e1&*%* o" $e o**%-%'%$ o0 !o"$%")%"( &(r%!)'$)r&' %1ro#e1e"$. Re"$, A"+er*o" &r()e+, w&* &!&r(e 0or $e )*e o0 $e 1ore 0er$%'e *o%'. Te 'e&*$ 0er$%'e *o%'* %" !)'$%#&$%o" (e"er&$e+ &" %"!o1e $&$ *%1'!o#ere+ $e !o*$* o0 ro+)!$%o", w%'e $e 1ore 0er$%'e *o%'* re!e%#e+ & >!er$&%" re1%)1 0or &" e9!')*%#e

r%#%'e(e $o !)'$%#&$e $e1@ w%! w%'' -e (re&$er or *1&''er &!!or+%"( $o $e 1ore or 'e** 0er$%'%$ o0 $e *o%'. I$ %*$%* re1%)1 w%! !o"*$%$)$e* w&$ we "ow !&'' re"$@ & 1e+%)1 - 1e&"* o0 w%! $e e9e"!e o0 !)'$%#&$%"(*o%'* o0 #er +%00ere"$ +e(ree* o0 0er$%'%$ 1& -e re+)!e+ $o & er0e!$ e8)&'%$.>

For M&'$)* &"+ R%!&r+o $e *o)r!e o0 $%* +%00ere"$%&' 0er$%'%$ !&1e $o -e *ee" &'1o*$ e"$%re' %" $er1* o0

!o"+%$%o"* o0 "&$)r&' ro+)!$%#%$ %"+ee"+e"$ o0 )1&" -e%"(*. A* R%!&r+o wro$e, re"$ !o)'+ -e +e0%"e+ &* >$&$or$%o" o0 $e ro+)!e o0 $e e&r$, w%! %* &%+ $o $e '&"+'or+ 0or $e )*e o0 $e or%(%"&' &"+ %"+e*$r)!$%-'eower* o0 $e *o%'.> Moreo#er, $e &r()e+ / w%$ $e re*)1e+ -&!k%"( o0 "&$)r&' '&w / $&$ '&"+* $&$ were"&$)r&'' $e 1o*$ 0er$%'e were $e 0%r*$ $o -e -ro)($ %"$o ro+)!$%o", &"+ $&$ r%*%"( re"$ o" $e*e '&"+* &"++%1%"%*%"( &(r%!)'$)r&' ro+)!$%#%$ o#er&'' were $e re*)'$ o0 -r%"(%"( '&"+* o0 1ore &"+ 1ore 1&r(%"&'0er$%'%$ %"$o !)'$%#&$%o", %" re*o"*e $o %"!re&*%"( o)'&$%o" re**)re*.

I" !o"$r&*$, A"+er*o" &+ e&r'%er %"*%*$e+ $&$ !o"$%")&' %1ro#e1e"$ o0 $e *o%', $ro)( 1&")r%"(, +r&%"%"(,&"+ %rr%(&$%"(, w&* o**%-'e &"+ $&$ $e ro+)!$%#%$ o0 $e 'e&*$ 0er$%'e '&"+ !o)'+ r%*e $o & o%"$ $&$ -ro)($ %$1)! !'o*er $o $&$ o0 $e 1o*$ 0er$%'e '&"+@ -)$ &'*o $&$ $e !o"#er*e w&* $r)e, &"+ )1&" -e%"(* !o)'+ +e(r&+e$e *o%'. I$ w&* *)! !&"(e* %" re'&$%#e ro+)!$%#%$ o0 $e *o%', &!!or+%"( $o A"+er*o", $&$ &!!o)"$e+ 0or+%00ere"$%&' re"$ / &"+ "o$ !o"+%$%o"* o0 &-*o')$e 0er$%'%$, &* %" $e '&$er &r()1e"$* o0 M&'$)* &"+ R%!&r+o.

Were (e"er&' 0er$%'%$ ro-'e1* +%+ &r%*e %" &(r%!)'$)re, $%* w&*, 0or A"+er*o", & !o"*e8)e"!e o0 $e 0&%')re $o&+o$ r&$%o"&' &"+ *)*$&%"&-'e &(r%!)'$)r&' r&!$%!e*. Te 0&!$ $&$ $e '&"+ %" E"('&"+ w&* ow"e+ - '&"+e+

ror%e$or* &"+ 0&r1e+ - !&%$&'%*$ $e"&"$ 0&r1er*, e &r()e+, o*e+ o-*$&!'e* $o r&$%o"&' &(r%!)'$)re, *%"!e $e0&r1er $e"+e+ $o o%+ &'' %1ro#e1e"$*, $e 0)'' re$)r" 0or w%! wo)'+ "o$ -e re!e%#e+ +)r%"( $e +)r&$%o" o0$e 'e&*e.

I"A Calm (n!estigation o" the Circumstances that ha!e #ed to the resent Scarcity o" )rain in *ritain 5667,A"+er*o" !o"$e"+e+ $&$ $e +%#%*%o" -e$wee" $ow" &"+ !o)"$r &+ 'e+ $o $e 'o** o0 "&$)r&' *o)r!e* o00er$%'%2er. >E#er er*o" wo &* -)$ e&r+ o0 &(r%!)'$)re,> e wro$e, >k"ow* $&$ &"%1&' 1&")re, we" &'%e+$o $e *o%' $e"+* $o &++ $o %$* 0er$%'%$@ o0 !o)r*e e 1)*$ -e *e"*%-'e $&$ e#er !%r!)1*$&"!e $&$ $e"+* $o +er%#e$e *o%' o0 $&$ 1&")re o)($ $o -e &!!o)"$e+ &" )"e!o"o1%!&' w&*$e %(' +e*er#%"( o0 -'&1e.> I$ w&*

o**%-'e, e &**er$e+, - $e 3)+%!%o)* &'%!&$%o" o0 &"%1&' &"+ )1&" w&*$e* $o *)*$&%" $e >*o%' 0or e#er &0$er,w%$o)$ $e &++%$%o" o0 &" e9$r&"eo)* 1&")re*.> Ye$ Lo"+o", w%$ %$* (&r(&"$)&" w&*$e o0 *)! "&$)r&' *o)r!e*o0 0er$%'%$, >w%! %* +&%' !&rr%e+ $o $e T&1e*, %" %$* &**&(e $o w%! %$ *)-3e!$* $e eo'e %" $e 'ower &r$o0 $e !%$ $o $e 1o*$ o00e"*%#e e00')#%&,> w&* &" %"+%!&$%o" o0 ow 0&r *o!%e$ &+ 1o#e+ 0ro1 & *)*$&%"&-'e&(r%!)'$)r&' e!o"o1. Ar1e+ w%$ $%* !r%$%!&' &"&'*%*, &"+ & %*$or%!&' er*e!$%#e, A"+er*o" *$re")o)*'&$$&!ke+ $e M&'$)*%&" #%ew $&$ $e !r%*%* o0 &(r%!)'$)re &"+ *o!%e$ !o)'+ -e $r&!e+ $o r%*%"( )1&" o)'&$%o"&"+ %$* re**)re* o" & '%1%$e+ *)' o0 '&"+.

M&r94* !r%$%8)e o0 !&%$&'%*$ &(r%!)'$)re +rew )o" -o$ A"+er*o"4* or%(%"&' 0or1)'&$%o" o0 $e !'&**%!&' re"$$eor &"+ L%e-%(4* *o%' !e1%*$r %" or+er $o !o1-&$ $e %"0')e"!e o0 $e M&'$)*%&"/R%!&r+%&" "&$)r&' '&w+o!$r%"e* o0 o#ero)'&$%o" &"+ +%1%"%*%"( &(r%!)'$)r&' ro+)!$%#%$. I" $e 6* &"+ 6* M&r9 *$re**e+ $e

o$e"$%&' 0or >%1ro#e1e"$> %" &(r%!)'$)re %0 r&$%o"&'' or(&"%2e+ $ro)( *)! 1e&"* &* $e &'%!&$%o" o0*"$e$%! 0er$%'%2er*. E#e" %" $e*e e&r' +e!&+e*, owe#er, e %"*%*$e+ $&$ *o%' 0er$%'%$ w&* & %*$or%!&' %**)e, &"+$&$ 0er$%'%$ !o)'+ -o$ %1ro#e &"+ +e!'%"e. Te %rr&$%o"&'%$ o0 !&%$&'%*$ &(r%!)'$)re, e &r()e+, w&* -o)"+ )

w%$ $e wo'e &"$&(o"%*1 o0 $ow" &"+ !o)"$r o)$ o0 w%! -o)r(eo%* *o!%e$ &+ &r%*e".

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