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Kyoto Protocol

Kyoto Protocol

Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change

Kyoto Protocol participation map(commitment period: 201320)

Parties; Annex I & II countries with bindi ng targets

Parties; Developing countries without bindi ng targets*

States not Party to the Protocol

Signatory country with no intention to ratify the treaty, with no binding

targets [1]

Co untries that h ave renou nced the Protocol, with no binding targets* [2]

Parties with no bi nding targets in the second period, whi ch previously

had targets* [3]

*Note: As part of the 2010 Cancn agreements , 76 developed and

developing countries have made voluntary pledges to control their

emissions of greenhouse gases. [4][5]

Signed 11 December 1997 [6]

Location Kyoto

Effective 16 February 2005 [6]

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the international treaty. For the rock band, see Kyoto Protocol (band) .

The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Chan g e (UNFCCC) is an international treaty that sets bindingob ligations on industrialised countries to reduce emissions of greenhousegases . The UNFCCC is an environm ental treaty with the goal of preventing"dangerous" anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) interference of the climatesystem. [10] According to the UNFCC website, t he Protocol "recognises thatdeveloped countries are principly responsible for the curre nt high levels of GHGemissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrialact ivity, and places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities. "" [11] There are 192 parties to theconvention, including 191 stat es (all t he UN memb ers, except Andorra,Canada, South Sudan and the United States) and t he European Union .[12] TheUnited States signed but did not ratify the Protocol and Canada withdrew from itin 2011. [2] The Protocol was adopted by Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997, andentered into force in 2005. [6]

As part of the Kyoto Protocol, many developed countries have agreed to legallybinding limitations/reductions in their emiss ions of greenhouse gases in twoco mmitments periods. The first commitment period ap plies to e missionsbetween 2008-2012, and the s econd commitment period applies to emissionsbetween 2013-2020. The protocol was amended in 2012 to accommodate thesecond commitment period, [13][14][15] but this amendment has (as of January2013) not entered into legal force. [7]

The 37 parties with binding targets in the second commitment period are Australia, the European Union (and its 28 member states ), Belarus, Iceland,Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine. Belarus,Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stat ed that they may withdraw from the Protocolor not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets. [16] Japan,New Zealand, and Russia have participated in Kyoto's first-round but have not

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Condition Ratification by 55 States to the Convention, incorporatingStates included in Annex I which ac counted in total for atleast 55 per cent of the total carbon dioxide emissions f or 1990 of the Parties included in Annex I

Signatories 83 [6]

Parties 192 [6]

Depositary Secretary-General of the United Nations

Languages Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish

Kyoto Protocol at Wikisource

Kyoto Protocol Extension (201220)

Doha Amendment to the KyotoProtocol [7]

Drafted 8 December 2012 [7]

Location Doha , Qatar [7]

Effective not in effect [7]

Condition ratification by 3/4 of the member states

Ratifiers 4[7]

Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol at

Wikisource

taken on new targets in the s econd commitment period. Other developedcountries without second-round targets are Canada (which withdrew from theKyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which has not ratified theProtocol).

International emissions trading allows developed countries to trade their commitments under the Kyoto Protocol. [17] They can trade emissions quotasamong themselves, and can also receive credit for financing emissionsreductions in developing countries. [17] Developed countries may use emissions

trading until late 2014 or 2015 to meet their first-round targets.[18]

Developing countries do not have binding targets under the Kyoto Protocol, but are still committedunder the treaty to reduce their emissions. [19] Actions taken by developed and developing countriesto reduce emissions include support for renewable energy , improving energy efficiency, andreducing deforestation .[20] Under the Protocol, emissions of developing countries are allowed togrow in accordance with their development needs. [21]

The treaty recognizes that developed countries have contributed the most to the anthropogenicbuild-up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (around 77% of emissions between 1750 and 2004), [22]

and that carbon dioxide emissions per person in developing countries (2.9 tonnes in 2010) [23] are,on average, lower than emissions per person in developed countries (10.4 tonnes in 2010). [23]

A number of developed countries have commented that the Kyoto t argets only apply to a smallshare of annual global emissions. [24][25][26][27] Countries with second-round Kyoto targets made up13.4% of annual global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2010. [28] Many developingcountries have emphasized the need for developed countries to have strong, binding emissions

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Kyoto Parties w ith first period (200812) greenhouse gas emissions limitationstargets, and the percentage change in their car bon dioxide emissions fr om fuelcombustion betw een 1990 and 2009. For more detailed country/regioninformation, s ee Kyoto Protocol and gover nment action .

Overview map of states c ommitted to greenhouse gas (GHG) limitations in the

first Kyoto Protocol period (200812): [8]

Dark grey = Annex I Parties w ho have agr eed to reduce their GHG emissionsbelow their individual base year levels (see def inition in this article)

targets. [29][30] At the global scale, existing policies appear to be tooweak to prevent global warming exceeding 2 or 1.5 degrees Celsius,relative to the pre-industrial level. [31]

Contents [hide ]

1 Background

2 Objectives

3 First commi tment period: 200812

4 Flexibility mechanisms

5 Stabilization of GHG concentrations

6 Details of the agreement

7 Ratification process

8 Government action and emiss ions

9 Cost estimates

10 Views on the Protocol

11 Conference of the Parties

12 Amendment and possible s uccessors

13 See also

14 Notes

15 References16 Further reading

17 External links

Background [edit ]

Main artic le: Global warming

See also: global climate model#Projections of future climatechange and Scientific opinion on climate change

The view that human activities are likely responsible for most of theobserved increase in global mean temperature ("global warming")since the mid-20th century is an acc urate reflection of currentscientific thinking. [32][33] Human-induced warming of the climate isexpected to continue throughout the 21st c entury and beyond. [33]

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) haveproduced a range of projections of what the future increase in globalmean temperature might be. [34] The IPCC's projections are "baseline"projections , meaning that they assume no future efforts are made to

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Grey = Annex I Parties w ho have agreed to cap their GHG emissions at their baseyear levelsPale grey = Non-Annex I Parties w ho are not obligated by c aps or Annex I Partiesw ith an emissions cap that allows their emissions to expand above their baseyear levels or countries that have not ratif ied the Kyoto Protocol

For specific emission reduction c ommitments of Annex I Parties, see the sectionof the article on 2012 emission targets and "f lexible mechanisms" .

The European Union as a w hole has in accordance w ith the Kyoto Protocolcommitted itself to an 8% reduction. However , many member s tates (suc h as

Greece, Spain, Ireland and Sw eden) have not committed themselves to anyreduction w hile France has committed itself not to expand its emissions (0%

reduction). [9] As to Greenland: is partly committed through Denmark. Howev er nothing states that Greenland has committed itself to a r eduction tow ardsDenmark.

.time period from the beginning of the 21st century to the end of the21st century. [34][35] The "likely" range (as ass essed to have a greater than 66% probability of being correct, based on the IPCC's expert

judgement) is a projected increased in global mean temperature over the 21st century of between 1.1 and 6.4 C. [34]

The range in temperature projections partly reflects differentprojections of future greenhouse gas emissions. [36]:2224 Differentprojections contain different assumptions of future social and

economic development (e.g., economic growth , population level ,energy policies ), which in turn affects projections of future greenhousegas (GHG) emissions. [36] :2224 The range also reflects uncertainty inthe response of the climate system to past and future GHG emissions(measured by the climate sensitivity ).[36] :2224

Chronology [edit ]See also: History of climate change science

1992 The UN Conference on the Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro. It results in the Framework Convention on ClimateChange ("FCCC" or "UNFCCC") among other agreements.

1995 Parties to the FCCC meet in Berlin (the 1st Conference of Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC) to outline specific t argets on emissions.

1997 In December the parties conclude the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto, Japan, in which they agree to the broad outlines of emissions targets.

2002 Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the FCCC bringing the treaty into effect on 16 February 2005.

Article 2 of the UNFCCC [edit ]Main artic le: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change#Interpreting Artic le 2

Most countries are Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). [37] Article 2 of the Convention states itsultimate objective, which is to stabilize the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere "at a level that would prevent dangerousanthropogenic (i.e., human) interference with the climate sys tem." [38] The natural , technical, and social sciences can provide information ondecisions relating to this objective, e.g., t he possible magnitude and rate of future climate changes. [38] However, the IPCC has also concludedthat the decision of what constitutes "dangerous" interference requires value judgements, which will vary between different regions of theworld. [38] Factors that might affect this decision include the local consequences of climate change impacts, the ability of a particular region toadapt to climate change (adaptive capacity), and the ability of a region to reduce its GHG emissions (mitigative capacity). [38]

Objectives [edit ]

The main aim of the Kyoto Protocol is to contain emiss ions of the main anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national differences in GHG
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Kyoto is intended to cut global emissionsof greenhouse gases .

In order to stabilize the atmospheric

concentration of CO 2, emissionsw orldwide w ould need to bedramatically reduced from their presentlevel. [39]

emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions. [40] The treaty follows the main principlesagreed in the original 1992 UN Framework Convention. [40] According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex IParties who have ratified the treaty must have fulfilled their obligations of greenhouse gas emissionslimitations es tablished for the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period (20082012). These emissionslimitation commitments are listed in Annex B of the Protocol.

The Kyoto Protocol's first round commitments are the first detailed step taken within the UN FrameworkConvention on Climate Change (Gupta et al. , 2007). [41] The Protocol establishes a s tructure of rollingemission reduction commitment periods. It set a timetable starting in 2006 for negotiations to establish

emission reduction commitments for a second commitment period (see Kyoto Protocol#Successor for details). [42] The first period emission reduction commitments expired on 31 December 2012.

The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in theatmosphere at a level that would stop dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate s ystem." [10]

Even if Annex I Parties s ucceed in meeting their first-round commitments, much greater emissionreductions will be required in future to st abilize atmospheric GHG concentrations. [42][43]

For each of the different anthropogenic GHGs, different levels of emissions reductions would be requiredto meet the objective of stabilizing atmospheric concentrations (see United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change#Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations ).[44] Carbon dioxide

(CO 2) is the most important anthropogenic GHG. [45] Stabilizing the concentration of CO 2 in the

atmosphere would ultimately require the effective elimination of anthropogenic CO 2 emissions. [44]

Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:

Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of the Protocol [46] is that itestablished legally binding commitments t o reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for Annex IParties. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of UNFCCCnegotiations leading up to the Protocol. [47][48] :290

Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are required toprepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. Inaddition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utiliz e all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the

clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissionsat home.

Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.

Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.

Compliance. Es tablishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with t he commitments under the Protocol.

First commitment period: 200812 [edit ]

Under the Kyoto Protocol, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community (the European Union -15, made up of 15 states at the time of the Kyoto negotiations) commit themselves to binding targets for GHG emissions. [46] The targets apply to the four greenhouse gases carbon
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dioxide (CO 2), methane (CH 4), nitrous oxide (N2O), sulphur hexafluoride (SF 6), and two groups of gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) andperfluorocarbons (PFCs). [49] The six GHG are translated into CO 2 equivalents in determining reductions in emissions.

[50] These reduction targetsare in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances thatDeplete the Ozone Layer .

Under the Protocol, only the Annex I Parties have committed themselves to national or joint reduction targets (formally called "quantifiedemission limitation and reduction objectives" (QELRO) Article 4.1). [51] Parties t o the Kyoto Protocol not lis ted in Annex I of the Convention (thenon-Annex I Parties) are mostly low-income developing countries, [52] :4 and may participate in the Kyoto Protocol through the Clean DevelopmentMechanism (explained below). [42]

The emissions limitations of Annex I Parties varies between different Parties. [53] Some Parties have emissions limitations reduce below the baseyear level, some have limitations at the base year level (i.e., no permitted increase above the base year level), while others have limitations abovethe base year level.

Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping. [54] Although Belarus and Turkey are listed in the Convention's Annex I, they do not have emissions t argets as they were not Annex I Parties when the Protocol was adopted. [53] Kazakhstan does not have atarget, but has declared that it wishes to become an Annex I Party to the Convention. [53]

For most Parties, 1990 is t he base year for the national GHG inventory and the calculation of the ass igned amount. [57] However, five Parties havean alternative base year: [57]

Bulgaria: 1988;

Hungary: the average of the years 198587;

Poland: 1988;

Romania: 1989;

Slovenia: 1986.

Annex I Parties can use a range of sophisticated "flexibility" mechanisms (see below) to meet their targets. Annex I Parties can achieve their targets by allocating reduced annual allowances to major operators within their borders, or by allowing these operators to exceed their allocations by offsetting any excess through a mechanism that is agreed by all the parties to the UNFCCC, such as by buying emissionallowances from other operators which have excess emissions c redits.

Flexibility mechanisms [edit ]

See also: Economics of climate change mitigation#Kyoto Protocol

The Protocol defines three " flexibility mechanisms " that can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitationcommitments. [58] :402 The flexibility mechanisms are International Emissions Trading (IET), the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and JointImplementation (JI). IET allows Annex I Parties to "t rade" their emissions ( Assigned Amount Units , AAUs, or "allowances" for short). [59]

The economic basis for providing this flexibility is that the marginal cost of reducing (or abating) emissions differs among countries. [17]:660 [60]

"Marginal cost" is the cost of abating the last tonne of CO 2-eq for an Annex I/non-Annex I Party. At the time of the original Kyoto targets, st udies

Annex I countries under the Kyoto Protocol, their 2008-2012 commitments (% of base year) and 1990 emission levels (% of all Annex I

countries) [55][56]

[show]
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suggested that the flexibility mechanisms could reduce the overall ( aggregate ) cost of meeting the targets. [61] Studies also showed that nationallosses in Annex I gross domestic product (GDP) could be reduced by use of the flexibility mechanisms. [61]

The CDM and JI are called "project-based mechanisms," in that they generate emission reductions from projects. The difference between IETand the project-based mechanisms is that IET is based on the sett ing of a quantitative restriction of emiss ions, while the CDM and JI are basedon the idea of "production" of emission reductions. [17] The CDM is designed to encourage production of emission reductions in non-Annex IParties, while JI encourages production of emission reductions in Annex I Parties.

The production of emission reductions generated by the CDM and JI can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limi tationcommitments. [62] The emission reductions produced by the CDM and JI are both measured against a hypothetical baseline of emissions that

would have occurred in the absence of a particular emission reduction project. The emission reductions produced by the CDM are called CertifiedEmission Reductions (CERs); reductions produced by JI are called Emission Reduction Units (ERUs). The reductions are called " credits "because they are emission reductions credited against a hypothetical baseline of emissions. [citation needed ]

Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources andremovals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate a person (called a "designated national authority") tocreate and manage its greenhouse gas inventory . Virtually all of the non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authorityto manage their Kyoto obligations, s pecifically the "CDM process" . This determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditationby the CDM Executive Board.

International Emissions Trading [edit ]Main articles: Emissions trading and Carbon emission trading

A number of emissions trading schemes (ETS) have been, or are planned to be, implemented. [63]:1926

Asia [edit ]

Japan: emissions trading in Tokyo started in 2010. This scheme is run by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government .[63]:24

Europe [edit ]

European Union : the European Union Emissions Trading Sys tem (EU ETS), which st arted in 2005. This is run by the EuropeanCommission .[63]:20

Norway : domestic emissions trading in Norway started in 2005. [63]:21 This was run by the Norwegian Government, which is now a participantin the EU ETS.Switzerland : the Swiss ETS, which runs from 2008 to 2012, to coincide with the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period. [63] :22

United Kingdom:

the UK Emiss ions Trading Scheme , which ran from 200206. This was a scheme run by the UK Government, which is now a participantin the EU ETS. [63] :19

the UK CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme , which started in 2010, and is run by the UK Government. [63]:25

North America [edit ]

Canada: emissions trading in Alberta , Canada, which started in 2007. This is run by the Government of Alberta .[63] :22
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United States:

the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI), which started in 2009. This scheme caps emissions from power generation in ten north-eastern U.S. st ates (Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Mass achusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Islandand Vermont). [63]:24

emissions t rading in California, which is planned to start in 2012. [63] :26

the Western Climate Initiative (WCI), which is planned to st art in 2012. This is a collective ETS agreed between 11 U.S. s tates and Canadianprovinces .[63]:25

Oceania [edit ]

Australia: the New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme (NSW), which started in 2003. This scheme is run by the AustralianState of New South Wales , and has now joined the Alfa Climate Stabilizat ion (ACS). [63]:19

New Zealand : the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme , which s tarted in 2008. [63]:23

Intergovernmental Emissions Trading [edit ]

The design of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) implicitly allows for trade of national Kyoto obligations to occur betweenparticipating countries (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 24). [64] Carbon Trust (2009, pp. 2425) found that other than the trading that occurs as part of theEU ETS, no intergovernmental emiss ions trading had taken place. [64]

One of the environmental problems with IET is the large surplus of allowances that are available. Russia, Ukraine, and the new EU-12 member states (the Kyoto Parties Annex I Economies-in-Transition, abbreviated "EIT": Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Es tonia, Hungary,Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine) [65]:59 have a surplus of allowances, while many OECD countrieshave a deficit. [64]:24 Some of the EITs with a surplus regard it as potential compensation for the trauma of their economic restructuring. [64]:25

When the Kyoto treaty was negotiated, it was recognized that emissions targets for the EITs might lead to them having an excess number of allowances. [66] This excess of allowances were viewed by the EITs as "headroom" to grow their economies. [67] The surplus has, however, alsobeen referred to by some as "hot air," a term which Russia (a country with an estimated surplus of 3.1 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalentallowances) views as "quite offensive." [68]

OECD countries with a deficit could meet their Kyoto commitments by buying allowances from transition countries with a surplus. Unless other commitments were made to reduce the total surplus in allowances, such trade would not actually result in emissions being reduced [64] :25 (seealso the section below on the Green Investment Scheme ).

Green Investment Scheme [edit ]

A Green Investment Scheme (GIS) refers to a plan for achieving environmental benefits from trading surplus allowances (AAUs) under the KyotoProtocol. [69] The Green Investment Scheme (GIS), a mechanism in the framework of International Emissions Trading (IET), is designed toachieve greater flexibility in reaching the targets of the Kyoto Protocol while preserving environmental integrity of IET. However, using the GIS isnot required under the Kyoto Protocol, and there is no official definition of the term. [69]

Under the GIS a Party to the Protocol expecting that the development of its economy will not exhaust its Kyoto quota, can sell the excess of itsKyoto quota units (AAUs) to another Party. The proceeds from the AAU sales s hould be "greened", i.e. channeled to the development andimplementation of the projects either acquiring the greenhouse gases emission reductions (hard greening) or building up the necessaryframework for this process (soft greening). [64] :25
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Trade in AAUs [edit ]

Latvia was one of the front-runners of GISs. World Bank (2011) [70]:53 reported that Latvia has stopped offering AAU sales because of low AAUprices. In 2010, Estonia was the preferred source for AAU buyers, followed by the Czech Republic and Poland. [70]:53

Japan's national policy to meet their Kyoto target includes the purchase of AAUs sold under GISs. [71] In 2010, Japan and Japanese firms werethe main buyers of AAUs. [70]:53 In terms of the international carbon market, trade in AAUs are a small proportion of overall market value. [70]:9 In2010, 97% of trade in the international carbon market was driven by the European Union Emiss ions Trading Sys tem (EU ETS). [70]:9 However,firms regulated under the EU ETS are unable to use AAUs in meeting their emissions caps. [72]

Clean Development Mechanism [edit ]

Between 2001, which was the first year Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects could be registered, and 2012, the end of the first Kyotocommitment period, the CDM is expected to produce some 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2e) in emission reductions.

[73] Mostof these reductions are through renewable energy commercialisation , energy efficiency , and fuel switching (World Bank, 2010, p. 262). By 2012,the largest potential for production of CERs are estimated in China (52% of total CERs) and India (16%). CERs produced in Latin America andthe Caribbean make up 15% of the potential total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region (7%).

Joint Implementation [edit ]

The formal crediting period for Joint Implementation (JI) was aligned with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, and did not st art untilJanuary 2008 (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 20). [64] In November 2008, only 22 JI projects had been officially approved and registered. The totalprojected emission savings from JI by 2012 are about one tenth that of the CDM. Russia accounts for about two-thirds of these savings, with theremainder divided up roughly equally between the Ukraine and the EU's New Member States. Emission savings include cuts in methane, HFC,and N 2O emissions.

Stabilization of GHG concentrations [edit ]

As noted earlier on , the first-round Kyoto emissions limitation commitments are not sufficient to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of GHGs. Stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations will require further emissions reductions after the end of the first-round Kyotocommitment period in 2012. [42][43]

Background [edit ] Analysts have developed scenarios of future changes in GHG emissions that lead to a stabilization in theatmospheric concentrations of GHGs. [76] Climate models suggest that lower stabilization levels areassociated with lower magnitudes of future global warming, while higher stabilization levels areassociated with higher magnitudes of future global warming (see figure opposite). [74]

To achieve stabilization, global GHG emissions must peak, then decline. [77] The lower the desiredstabilization level, the sooner this peak and decline must occur (see figure opposite). [77] For a givenstabilization level, larger emissions reductions in the near term allow for less s tringent emissionsreductions later on. [78] On the other hand, less stringent near term emissions reductions would, for a
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Indicative probabilities of exceedingvarious incr eases in global meantemperature f or diff erent stabilizationlevels of atmospheric GHG

concentrations. [74]

Different targets for stabilization requiredifferent levels of cuts in emissions over

time. [75] Low er stabilization targetsrequire global emissions to be reduced

more sharply in the near- term. [75]

given stabilization level, require more stringent emissions reductions later on. [78]

The first period Kyoto emiss ions limitat ions can be viewed as a first-st ep towards achieving atmosphericstabilization of GHGs. [41] In this sense, the first period Kyoto commitments may affect what futureatmospheric st abilization level c an be achieved. [79]

Relation to temperature targets [edit ] At the 16th Conference of the Parties held in 2010, Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future globalwarming should be limited below 2C relative to the pre-industrial temperature level. [80] One of the

stabilization levels discussed in relation to this temperature target is to hold atmospheric concentrationsof GHGs at 450 parts per million (ppm) CO 2- eq. [81] Stabilization at 450 ppm could be associated with a26 to 78% risk of exceeding the 2C target. [82]

Scenarios assessed by Gupta et al. (2007) [83] suggest that Annex I emissions would need to be 25% to40% below 1990 levels by 2020, and 80% to 95% below 1990 levels by 2050. The only Annex I Parties tohave made voluntary pledges in line with this are Japan (25% below 1990 levels by 2020) and Norway(30-40% below 1990 levels by 2020). [84]

Gupta et al. (2007) [83] also looked at what 450 ppm scenarios projected for non-Annex I Parties. Projections indicated that by 2020, non-Annex Iemissions in several regions ( Latin America , the Middle East , East Asia , and centrally planned Asia ) would need to be substantially reducedbelow "business-as-usual" .[83] "Business-as-usual" are projected non-Annex I emissions in the absence of any new policies to controlemissions. Projections indicated that by 2050, emissions in all non-Annex I regions would need to be substantially reduced below "business-as-usual". [83]

Details of the agreement [edit ]

The agreement is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio deJaneiro in 1992, which did not set any legally binding limitations on emissions or enforcement mechanisms. Only Parties to the UNFCCC canbecome Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third session of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC (COP3) in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan.

National emission targets specified in the Kyoto Protocol exclude international aviation and shipping. Kyoto Parties can use land use , land use

change, and forestry (LULUCF) in meeting their targets. [85] LULUCF activities are also called "sink" activities. Changes in sinks and land usecan have an effect on the climate, [86] and indeed the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Special Report on Land Use, Land-UseChange and Forestry estimates that since 1750 a third of global warming has been caused by land use change. [87] Particular criteria apply tothe definition of forestry under the Kyoto Protocol.

Forest management , cropland management, grazing land management, and revegetation are all eligible LULUCF activities under the Protocol. [88]

Annex I Parties use of forest management in meeting their targets is capped. [88]

Negotiations [edit ]See also: Views on the Kyoto Protocol#Commentaries on negotiations
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Financial commitments [edit ]The Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have to pay billions of dollars, and supply technology to other countries for climate-related studies and projects. The principle was originally agreed in UNFCCC . One such project is The Adaptation Fund "[101]", that hasbeen established by the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change to finance concrete adaptationprojects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.

Implementational provisions [edit ]The protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties COP6 of the UNFCCC, which attempted to resolve

these issues at its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but it was unable to reach an agreement due to disputes between the European Union(who favoured a tougher implementation) and the United States, Canada, Japan and Australia (who wanted the agreement to be less demandingand more flexible).

In 2001, a continuation of the previous meeting (COP6bis) was held in Bonn where the required decisions were adopted. After someconcessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by the European Union ) managed to get the agreement of Japan and Russia by allowing moreuse of carbon dioxide sinks .

COP7 was held from 29 October 2001 through 9 November 2001 in Marrakech to establish the final details of the protocol.

The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP1) was held in Montreal from 28 November to 9 December 2005, along with the 11thconference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11). See United Nations Climate Change Conference .

During COP13 in Bali 36 developed C.G. countries (plus the EU as a party in the European Union ) agreed to a 10% emissions increase for Iceland ; but, since the EU's member st ates each have individual obligations, [102] much larger increases (up to 27%) are allowed for some of theless developed EU countries (see below Kyoto Protocol#Increase in greenhouse gas emission s ince 1990 ).[103] Reduction limitations expire in2013.

Mechanism of compliance [edit ]The protocol defines a mechanism of "compliance" as a "monitoring compliance with the commitments and penalties for non-compliance." [104]

According to Grubb (2003), [105] the explici t consequences of non-compliance of the treaty are weak compared to domestic law. [105] Yet, thecompliance section of the treaty was highly contested in the Marrakesh Accords. [105]

Enforcement [edit ]If the enforcement branch determines that an Annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation, then that country is required tomake up the difference during the second commitment period plus an additional 30%. In addition, that country will be s uspended from makingtransfers under an emissions trading program. [106]

Ratification process [edit ]

The Protocol was adopted by COP 3 of UNFCC on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan . It was opened on 16 March 1998 for signature during oneyear by parties to UNFCCC , when it was signed Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, the Maldives, Samoa, St. Lucia and Switzerland. At t he end of the signature period, 82 countries and the European Community had signed. Ratification (which is required to become a party to the Protocol)
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started on 17 September with ratification of Fiji. Countries that did not sign acceded to the convention, which has the same legal effect. [6]

Article 25 of the Protocol specifies that the Protocol enters into force "on the ninetieth day after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to theConvention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which accounted in total for at least 55% of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Annex I countries, have deposited their inst ruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession." [107]

The EU and its Member States ratified the Protocol in May 2002. [108] Of the two conditions, the "55 parties" clause was reached on 23 May2002 when Iceland ratified the Protocol. [6] The ratification by Russia on 18 November 2004 satisfied the "55%" clause and brought the treaty intoforce, effective 16 February 2005, after the required lapse of 90 days. [109]

On 3 December 2007, Australia ratified the protocol during the first day of the COP13 in Bali.

As of May 2013, 191 countries and one regional economic organization (the EC ) have ratified the agreement, representing over 61.6% of the1990 emissions from Annex I countries. [110] One of the 191 ratifying statesCanadahas denounced the protocol.

U.S. position [edit ]The U.S. signed the Protocol, but did not ratify it. In the US, ratification of the Kyoto Protocol would require the treaty to be approved by both theSenate and Executive branch (i.e., the president) of the US government. Before the Protocol was agreed on, the U.S. Senate passed the Byrd-Hagel Resolution unanimously disapproving of any international agreement that 1) did not require developing countries to make emissionreductions and 2) "would seriously harm the economy of the United States" . [111] Therefore, even though the Clinton administration signed the

treaty, [112] it remained only a symbolic ac t and was never submitted to the Senate for ratification.When George W. Bush was elected U.S. president in 2000, he was asked by U.S. Senator Hagel what his administration's position was onclimate change. Bush replied that he took climate change "very seriously," [113] but that he opposed the Kyoto treaty, because "it exempts 80%of the world, including major population centers such as China and India, from compliance, and would cause serious harm to the USeconomy". [27] Almost all world leaders (e.g., China, Japan, South Africa, Paci fic islands) expressed their disappointment over President Bush'sdecision not to support the treaty. [114]

The U.S. accounted for 36% of emissions in 1990, and without U.S. ratification, only an EU+Russia+Japan+small party coalition could place thetreaty into l egal effect. A deal was reached in the Bonn climate talks (COP-6.5), held in 2001. [115]

Withdrawal of Canada [edit ]Main artic le: Kyoto Protocol and government action#Withdrawal of Canada

See also: Canada and the Kyoto Protocol

In 2011, Canada, Japan and Russia stated t hat they would not take on further Kyoto t argets. [116] The Canadian government announced itswithdrawal -possible at any time three years after ratification- from the Kyoto Protocol on 12 December 2011, effective 15 December 2012. [117]

Canada was commit ted to cutting its greenhouse emissions to 6% below 1990 levels by 2012, but in 2009 emissions were 17% higher than in1990. Environment minister Peter Kent cit ed Canada's liability to "enormous financial penalties" under the treaty unless it withdrew. [116][118] Healso suggested that the recently signed Durban agreement may provide an alternative way forward. [119] Canada's decision received a mixedresponse from representatives of other ratifying countries. [119]

Convention Parties [show]
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Anthropogenic emissions of CO 2-equivalents per year by the 10 largestemitters (the European Union is lumped as a

single area, because of their integratedcarbon trading sc heme). Data sorted basedon 2010 contributions.

China (party, no binding targets)

United States (non-party)

European Union (party, binding targets)

India (party, no binding targets)

Russia (party, binding targets 2008-

2012)

Indonesia art , no bindin tar ets

Other states and territories where the treaty is not applicable [edit ] Andorra, the United States and, following their withdrawal on 15 December 2012, Canada are the only UNFCCC Parties that are not party to theProtocol. Furthermore, the Protocol is not applied to UNFCCC observers Palestine , South Sudan and the Holy See . Although the Kingdom of theNetherlands approved the protocol for the whole Kingdom, it did not deposit an instrument of ratification for Aruba, Curaao, Sint Maarten or theCaribbean Netherlands .[120] The United Kingdom did not extent its ratification to Anguilla, British Virgin Islands, Montserrat, Pitcairn Islands,Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, Turks and Caicos Islands or the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, while Denmarkexcluded application to the Faroe Islands [12]

Government action and emissions [edit ]Main artic le: Kyoto Protocol and government action

See also: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita , List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions , and List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions

Annex I countries [edit ]Total aggregate GHG emissions excluding emissions/removals from land use, land use change andforestry (LULUCF, i.e., c arbon storage in forests and soils ) for all Annex I Parties (see lis t below)including the United States taken together decreased from 19.0 to 17.8 thousand teragrams (Tg,

which is equal to 109 kg) CO 2 equivalent, a decline of 6.0% during the 1990-2008 period.

[121] :3 Several

factors have contributed to this decline. [121] :14 The first is due to the economic restructuring in the Annex I Economies in Transition [121] :14 (the EITs see Intergovernmental Emissions Trading for thelist of EITs). Over the period 1990-1999, emissions fell by 40% in the EITs following the collapse of central planning in the former Soviet Union and east European countries. [122] :25 This led to a massivecontraction of their heavy industry-based economies, with associat ed reductions in their fossil fuelconsumption and emissions. [64]:24

Emissions growth in Annex I Parties have also been limited due to policies and measures(PaMs). [121] :14 In particular, PaMs were strengthened after 2000, helping to enhance energy efficiencyand develop renewable energy sources. [121] :14 Energy use also decreased during the economic cris is

in 2007-2008.[121] :14

Projections [edit ]

UNFCCC (2011) [121] :14 made projections of changes in emissions of the Annex I Parties and theeffectiveness of their PaMs. It was noted that their projections should be interpreted withcaution. [121] :7 For the 39 Annex I Parties, UNFCCC (2011) projected that ex isting PaMs would lead to

annual emissions in 2010 of 17.5 thousand Tg CO 2 eq, exc luding LULUCF, which is a decrease of 6.7% from the 1990 level. [121] :14 Annual emissions in 2020 excluding LULUCF were projected to

reach 18.9 thousand Tg CO 2 eq, which is an increase of 0.6% on the 1990 level. [121] :14
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Brazil (party, no binding targets)

Japan (party, no binding targets)

Congo (DR) (party, no binding targets)

Canada (for mer party, binding targets

2008-2012)

Other countries

UNFCCC (2011) [121] :14 made an estimate of the total effect of implemented and adopted PaMs.Projected savings were estimated relative to a reference (baseline) scenario where PaMs are notimplemented. PaMs were projected to deliver emissions savings relative to baseline of about 1.5

thousand Tg CO 2 eq by 2010, and 2.8 thousand Tg CO 2 eq by 2020. [121] :14 In percentage terms, andusing annual emissions in the y ear 1990 as a reference point, PaMs were projected to deliver at leasta 5.0% reduction relative to baseline by 2010, and a 10.0% reduction relative to baseline in2020. [121] :14 Scenarios reviewed by UNFCCC (2011) [121] :14 still suggested that total Annex I annualemissions would increase out to 2020 (see the preceding paragraph).

Annex I Parties with targets [edit ]

Percentage changes in emissions for Annex I Parties with Kyoto targets [123]

Country/regionKyototarget

2008-2012

Kyototarget

2013-2020

GHGemissions1990-2008including

LULUCF [124][125]

GHGemissions1990-2008excluding

LULUCF [124][126]

CO 2emissionsfrom fuel

combustiononly

1990-2009[127][128]

North America - - - - +20.4

Canada [2][129] -6 - +33.6 +24.1 +20.4

Europe -4.9

European Union -8 -20 [130]

Austria -13 -20 [130] +6.6 +10.8 +12.2

Belgium -7.5 -20 [130] -6.2 -7.1 -6.7

Denmark -21 -20 [130] -6.8 -6.8 -7.2

Finland 0 -20 [130] -35.9 -0.2 +1.1

France 0 -20 [130] -12.7 -5.9 +0.6 [131]

Germany -21 -20 [130] -17.6 -21.4 -21.1

Greece +25 -20 [130] +22.9 +23.1 +28.6

Iceland +10 -20 [130] +19.2 +42.9 +6.2

Ireland +13 -20 [130] +19.9 +23.2 +32.4

Italy -6.5 -20 [130] +0.4 +4.7 -2.0

Luxembourg -28 -20 [130] -9.2 -4.8 -4.4

Netherlands -6 -20 [130] -2.4 -2.4 +13.0
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Norway +1 -16 -32.8 +9.4 +31.9

Portugal +27 -20 [130] +18.3 +32.2 +35.3

Spain +15 -20 [130] +44.0 +42.5 +37.7

Sweden +4 -20 [130] +19.8 -11.3 -20.9

Switzerland -8 -15.8 +6.8 +0.4 +2.5

United Kingdom -12.5 -20 [130] -19.0 -18.5 -15.2

Asia Oceania - - - +12.7

Australia +8 -0.5 +33.1 +31.4 +51.8

Japan -6 - -0.2 +1.0 +2.7

New Zealand 0 - +62.4 +22.7 +34.3

Economies inTransition

- - - -36.2

Bulgaria -8 -20 [130] -45.5 -42.8 -43.7

Croatia -5 -20 [130] -13.7 -0.9 -8.4

Czech Republic -8 -20 [130] -28.7 -27.5 -29.2

Estonia -8 -20 [130] -69.9 -50.9 -59.4

Hungary -8 -20 [130] -38.1 -36.2 -27.8

Latvia -8 -20 [130] -307.9 -55.6 -63.8

Lithuania -8 -20 [130] -69.1 -51.8 -62.6

Poland -6 -20 [130] -34.4 -29.6 -16.2

Romania -8 -20 [130] -53.5 -45.9 -53.1

RussianFederation

0 - -52.8 -32.8 -29.7

SlovakRepublic

-8 -20 [130] -34.4 -33.7 -41.5

Slovenia -8 -20 [130] +5.2 +5.2 +21.2

Ukraine 0 -24 -52.2 -53.9 -62.7

Data given in the table above may not b e fully reflective of a country's progress towards meeting its first-round Kyoto target. The summary below contains more up-to-date information on how close countries are to meeting their first-round targets.

Collectively the group of industrialized countries committed to a Kyoto target, i.e., the Annex Icountries excluding the USA, have a target of reducing their GHG emissions by 4.2% on average for
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CO2 emissions from f uel combustion of Annex I Kyoto Protocol (KP) Parties, 1990-2009. Total Annex I KP emissions areshow n, along with emissions of Annex II KPand Annex I EITs.

the period 2008-2012 relative to the base year, which in most cases i s 1990. [122] :24 According toOlivier et al. (2011), [122] :24 the Kyoto Parties will comfortably exceed their collective target, with aprojected average reduction of 16% for 2008-2012. This projection excludes both LULUCF and creditsgenerated by the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). [122] :24

As noted in the preceding section, between 19901999, there was a large reduction in the emissionsof the EITs. [122] :25 The reduction in the EITs is largely responsible for the total (aggregate) reduction(excluding LULUCF) in emissions of the Annex I countries, exc luding the USA. [122] :25 Emissions of the Annex II countries (Annex I minus the EIT countries) have experienced a limited increase inemissions from 19902006, followed by stabilization and a more marked decrease from 2007onwards. [122] :25 The emissions reductions in the early nineties by the 12 EIT countries who havesince joined the EU, assist the present EU-27 in meeting its collective Kyoto target. [122] :25

Almost all European countries are on track to achieve their first-round Kyoto targets. [132] Spain plans to meet its target by purchasing a largequantity of Kyoto units through the flexibility mechanisms. [132] Australia, [122] :25 Canada [122] :25 (Canada withdrew from the Kyoto treaty in2012), [133] and Italy [132] are not on course to meet their first-round Kyoto targets. In order to meet their targets, these countries would need topurchase emissions credits from other Kyoto countries. [122] :25 As noted in the section on Intergovernmental Emissions Trading , purchasingsurplus credits from the EIT countries would not actually result in total emiss ions being reduced. An alternative would be the purchase of CDMcredits or the use of the voluntary Green Investment Scheme.

In December 2011, Canada's environment minister, Peter Kent , formally announced that Canada would withdraw from the Kyoto accord a day

after the end of the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference (see the section on the withdrawal of Canada ).[133]

Annex I Parties without Kyoto targets [edit ]

Belarus, Malta, and Turkey are Annex I Parties but do not have first-round Kyoto targets. [134] The US has a Kyoto target of a 6% reductionrelative to the 1990 level, but has not ratified the treaty. [122] :25 Emissions in the US have increased 11% since 1990, and according to Olivier et al. (2011), [122] :25 it will be unable to meet its original Kyoto target.

If the US had ratified the Kyoto Protocol, the average percentage reduction in total GHG emissions for the Annex I group would have been a5.2% reduction relative to the base y ear. [122] :26 Including the US in their calculation, Olivier et al. (2011) [122] :26 projected that the Annex Icountries would collectively achieve a 7% reduction relative to the base year, which is lower than the original target of a 5.2% reduction. Thisprojection excludes expected purchases of emissions credits. [122] :26

Non-Annex I [edit ]UNFCCC (2005) compiled and synthesized information reported to it by non-Annex I Parties. [52] Mostnon-Annex I Parties belonged in the low-income group, with very few classified as middle-income. [52]:4

Most Parties included information on policies relating to sustainable development . Sustainabledevelopment priorities mentioned by non-Annex I Parties included poverty alleviation and access to basiceducation and health care. [52] :6 Many non-Annex I Parties are making efforts to amend and update their environmental legislation to include global concerns such as climate change. [52]:7

A few Parties, e.g., South Africa and Iran , s tated their concern over how efforts to reduce emiss ions by
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Annual per capita carbon dioxideemissions (i.e., average emissions per person) f rom fuel combustion between1990-2009 for the Kyoto Annex I andnon-Annex I Parties.

Annual carbon dioxide emissions fromfuel combustion betw een 1990-2009 for the Kyoto Annex I and non-Annex IParties.

Annex I Parties could adversely affect t heir economies. [52]:7 The economies of these countries are highlydependent on income generated from the production, processing, and export of fossil fuels .

Emissions

GHG emissions, excluding land use change and forestry (LUCF), reported by 122 non-Annex I Parties for the year 1994 or the closest year reported, totalled 11.7 billion tonnes (billion = 1,000,000,000) of CO 2-eq. CO 2 was t he largest proportion of emiss ions (63%), followed by methane (26%) and nitrous oxide(N2O) (11%).

The energy sector was the largest source of emissions for 70 Parties, whereas for 45 Parties the

agriculture sector was the largest. Per capita emissions (in tonnes of CO 2-eq, excluding LUCF) averaged2.8 tonnes for the 122 non-Annex I Parties.

The Africa region's aggregate emissions were 1.6 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.4 tonnes.

The Asia and Pacific region's aggregate emissions were 7.9 billion tonnes, with per capita emissionsof 2.6 tonnes.

The Latin America and Caribbean region's aggregate emiss ions were 2 billion tonnes, with per capitaemissions of 4.6 tonnes.

The "other" region includes Albania , Armenia, Azerbaijan , Georgia, Malta, Moldova , and Macedonia . Their aggregate emissions were0.1 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 5.1 tonnes.

Parties reported a high level of uncertainty in LUCF emissions, but in aggregate, there appeared to only be a small difference of 1.7% with andwithout LUCF. With LUCF, emiss ions were 11.9 billion tonnes, without LUCF, total aggregate emissions were 11.7 billion tonnes.

Trends

In several large developing countries and fast growing economies (China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Egypt, and Iran) GHG emissions haveincreased rapidly (PBL, 2009). [135] For example, emissions in China have risen strongly over the 19902005 period, often by more than 10%year. Emiss ions per-capita in non-Annex I countries are st ill, for the most part, much lower than in industrialized countries. Non-Annex Icountries do not have quantitative emission reduction commitments, but they are committ ed to mitigation act ions. China, for example, has had anational policy programme to reduce emissions growth, which included the c losure of old, less efficient c oal-fired power plants.

Cost estimates [edit ]

Barker et al. (2007, p. 79) assessed the literature on cost estimates for the Kyoto Protocol. [136] Due to non-US participation in the Kyoto treaty,costs estimates were found to be much lower than those estimated in the previous IPCC Third Assessment Report . Without US participation,and with full use of the Kyoto flexible mechanisms, costs were estimated at less than 0.05% of Annex B GDP. This compared to earlier estimates of 0.11.1%. Without use of the flexible mechanisms, costs without US participation were estimated at less than 0.1%. Thiscompared to earlier estimates of 0.22%. These cost estimates were viewed as being based on much evidence and high agreement in theliterature.

Views on the Protocol [edit ]
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Main artic le: Views on the Kyoto Protocol

Gupta et al. (2007) assessed the literature on climate change policy. They found that no authoritative assess ments of the UNFCCC or itsProtocol asserted that these agreements had, or will, succeed in solving the climate problem. [41] In these assessments, it was assumed thatthe UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed. The Framework Convention and its Protocol include provisions for future policy actions to betaken.

Gupta et al. (2007) [137] described the Kyoto first-round commitments as "modest," stating that they acted as a constraint on the treaty'seffectiveness. It was suggested that subsequent Kyoto commitments could be made more effective with measures aimed at achieving deeper cuts in emissions, as well as having policies applied to a larger share of global emissions. [137] In 2008, countries with a Kyoto cap made up lessthan one-third of annual global carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion .[138]

World Bank (2010) [139] commented on how the Kyoto Protocol had only had a slight effect on curbing global emissions growth. The treaty wasnegotiated in 1997, but in 2006, energy-related carbon dioxide emissions had grown by 24%. [140] World Bank (2010) also stated that the treatyhad provided only limited financial support to developing countries to assis t t hem in reducing their emissions and adapting to climatechange. [139]

Some of the critic ism of the P rotocol has been based on the idea of climate justic e (Liverman, 2008, p. 14). [48] This has particularly centred onthe balance between the low emissions and high vulnerability of the developing world to climate change, compared to high emissions in thedeveloped world.

Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is "the only game in town," and possibly because they expect that futureemission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions (Aldy et al. ., 2003, p. 9). [141] In 2001, seventeen nationalscience academies stated that ratification of the Protocol represented a "small but essential first step towards stabilising atmosphericconcentrations of greenhouse gases. " [142] Some environmentalists and scientists have criticiz ed the exist ing commitments for being too weak(Grubb, 2000, p. 5). [143]

The United States (under former President George W. Bush ) and Australia (initially , under former Prime Minister John Howard ) did not ratify theKyoto treaty. [144] According to Stern (2006), [144] their decision was based on the lack of quantitative emission commitments for emergingeconomies (see also the 2000 onwards sect ion). Australia, under former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd , has since ratified the treaty, [145][146] whichtook effect in March 2008. [147]

Views on the flexibility mechanisms [edit ]Further information: Flexible Mechanisms#Views on the flexibili ty mechanisms

Another area which has been commented on is the role of the Kyoto flexibility mechanisms emissions trading , Joint Implementation , and theClean Development Mechanism (CDM). [148][149] The flexibility mechanisms have attracted both positive and negative comments. [150][151][152]

As mentioned earlier, a number of Annex I Parties have implemented emissions trading schemes (ETSs) as part of efforts to meet their Kyotocommitments. General commentaries on emissions trading are contained in emissions trading and carbon emission trading . Individual articleson the ETSs contain commentaries on these schemes (see Kyoto Protocol#International Emissions Trading for a list of ETSs).

One of the arguments made in favour of the flexibility mechanisms is that they can reduce the costs incurred by Annex I Parties in meeting their Kyoto commitments. [148] Criticisms of flexibility have, for example, included the ineffectiveness of emissions trading in promoting investment in
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non-fossil energy sources, [153] and adverse impacts of CDM projects on local communities in developing countries. [154]

Conference of the Parties [edit ]

Further information: United Nations Climate Change conference

The official meeting of all states party to the Kyoto Protocol is the Conference of the Parties . It is held every year as part of the United NationsClimate Change conference, which also serves as the formal meeting of UNFCCC. The first Meetings of Parties of the Kyoto Protocol (MOP) washeld in 2005 in conjunction with the eleventh Conferences of parties to UNFCCC. Also parties to the Convention that are not parties to theProtocol can participate in Protocol-related meetings as observers. The first conference was held in 1995 in Berlin, while the 2012 conference

was held in Doha .

Amendment and possible successors [edit ]

Main artic le: PostKyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions

In the non-binding ' Washington Declaration' agreed on 16 February 2007, heads of governments from Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan,Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, Brazil, China , India , Mexico and South Africa agreed in principle on the outline of a successor tothe Kyoto Protocol. They envisaged a global cap-and-trade system that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries , andinitially hoped that it would be in place by 2009. [155][156]

The United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in December 2009 was one of the annual series of UN meetings that followed the

1992 Earth Summit in Rio. In 1997 the talks led to the Kyoto Protocol, and the conference in Copenhagen was considered to be the opportunityto agree a success or to Kyoto that would bring about meaningful carbon cuts. [157][158]

The 2010 Cancn agreements include voluntary pledges made by 76 developed and developing countries to control their emissions of greenhouse gases. [4] In 2010, these 76 countries were collectively responsible for 85% of annual global emissions. [4][5]

By May 2012, the USA, Japan, Russia, and Canada had indicated they would not sign up to a second Kyoto commitment period. [159] InNovember 2012, Australia confirmed it would participate in a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol and New Zealand confirmedthat it would not. [160]

New Zealand's climate minister Tim Groser said the 15-year-old Kyoto Protocol was outdated, and that New Zealand was "ahead of the curve" inlooking for a replacement that would include developing nations. [161] Non-profit environmental organisations such as the World Wildlife Fund

criticis ed New Zealand's decision to pull out. [162]

On 8 December 2012, at the end of the 2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference , an agreement was reached to extend the Protocol to2020 and to set a date of 2015 for the development of a successor document, to be implemented from 2020 (see lede for more information). [163]

The outcome of the Doha talks has received a mixed response, [13][14][15] with small island states critical of the overall package. [14] The Kyotosecond commitment period applies to about 15% of annual global emissions of greenhouse gases. [13][14] Other results of the conference includea timetable for a global agreement to be adopted by 2015 which includes all countries. [164]

See also [edit ]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation#Alternatives_to_the_Kyoto_Protocol_and_successorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kyoto_Protocol&action=edit&section=42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wildlife_Fundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_countryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8%2B5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Kyoto_Protocol_negotiations_on_greenhouse_gas_emissionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kyoto_Protocol&action=edit&section=41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parties_to_the_Convention_that_are_not_parties_to_the_Protocol&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meetings_of_Parties_of_the_Kyoto_Protocol_(MOP)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kyoto_Protocol&action=edit&section=40


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