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Vipassanā

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Vipassanā (Pāli) or vipaśyanā (वपयना, Sanskrit, Chn. 觀

guān;Tib. , lhaktong; Wyl. lhag mthong) in the Buddhist

tradition means insight into the true nature of reality.[1]

In the Theravadin context, this entails insight into the three

marks of existence, the impermanence and unsatisfactoriness

of everything that exists. In Mahayana contexts, it entails

insight into what is variously described as sunyata, dharmata,

the inseparability of appearance and emptiness, c larity and

emptiness, or bliss and emptiness.[w eb 1]

Vipassana is commonly used as a synonym for vipassana-

meditation, in which anapanasati, mindfulness of breathing, is

used to become aware of the impermanence of everything that

exists. Vipassanā is commonly used as one of two poles for

the categorization of types of Buddhist practice, the otherbeing samatha (Pāli; Sanskrit: śamatha).[citation needed ] This

distinction originates in the earliest interpretations of the Sutta

Pitaka,[2] not in the suttas themselve.[3][a]

Samatha is a focusing, pacifying and calming meditation, common to many traditions in the world, notably

yoga. According to the contemporary Theravada orthodoxy, samatha is used as a preparation for vipassanā,

pacifying the mind and strengthening the concentration in order to allow the work of insight, which leads to

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liberation.

Vipassana-meditation has gained popularity in the west through the modern Buddhist vipassana movement,

modeled after Theravāda Buddhism meditation practices),[4] which employs vipassanā and ānāpāna

meditation as its primary techniques and places emphasis on the teachings of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta.

Contents  [hide]

1 Ethymology

2 Origins

3 Practice

3.1 Theravāda

3.1.1 Mindfulness of breathing

3.1.2 Contemplation of impermanence

3.1.3 Relation with samatha

3.1.4 Stages in the practice

3.1.5 Result3.2 Mahāyāna

3.2.1 Indo-Tibetan tradition

3.2.1.1 Misunderstandings in Tibet

3.2.1.2 Difference between Sutrayana and Tantrayana

3.2.1.3 Pandita versus kusulu

3.2.1.4 Conceptual contemplation versus direct experience

3.2.2 Mahāmudrā and Dzogchen

3.2.2.1 Using a guru3.2.2.2 Relation of śamatha and vipaśyanā

3.2.2.3 Eradicating the kles as

4 Vipassanā movement

5 Scientific studies

6 See also

7 Notes

8 References

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8.1 Book-references

8.2 Web-references

9 Sources

10 External l inks

10.1 History

10.2 Background

10.3 Practice

10.4 Blogs

Ethymology

Vipassanā is a Pali word from the Sanskrit prefix "vi-" and verbal root paś. It is often translated as "insight" 

or "clear-seeing," though, the "in-" prefix may be misleading; "vi" in Indo-Aryan languages is equivalent to

the Latin "dis." The "vi" in vipassanā may then mean to see into, see through or to see 'in a special way'. [5]

Alternatively, the "vi" can function as an intensive, and thus vipassanā may mean "seeing

deeply".[citation needed ]

A synonym for "Vipassanā" is  paccakkha (Pāli; Sanskrit: pratyakṣa), "before the eyes," which refers to

direct experiential perception. Thus, the type of seeing denoted by "vipassanā" is that of direct perception,

as opposed to knowledge derived from reasoning or argument.[citation needed ]

In Tibetan, vipashyana is lhagthong (wylie: lhag mthong). The term "lhag" means "higher", "superior",

"greater"; the term "thong" is "view" or "to see". So together, lhagthong may be rendered into English as

"superior seeing", "great vision" or "supreme wisdom." This may be interpreted as a "superior manner of

seeing", and also as "seeing that which is the essential nature". Its nature is a lucidity - a clarity of mind.[6]

Henepola Gunaratana defined Vipassanā as:

Looking into something with clarity and precision, seeing each component as distinct and

separate, and piercing all the way through so as to perceive the most fundamental reality of

that thing" [7]

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[edit]Origins

In the sutta pitaka the term "vipassana" is hardly mentioned:

If you look directly at the Pali discourses — the earliest extant sources for our knowledge of

the Buddha's teachings — you'll find that although they do use the word samatha to mean

tranquillity, and vipassana to mean clear-seeing, they otherwise confirm none of the received

 wisdom about these terms. Only rarely do they make use of the word vipassana — a sharpcontrast to their frequent use of the word jhana. When they depict the Buddha telling his

disciples to go meditate, they never quote him as saying "go do vipassana," but always "go

do jhana." And they never equate the word vipassana with any mindfulness techniques.[8]

According to Gombrich, the distinction between vipassana and samatha did not originate in the suttas, but

in the interpretation of the suttas.[2] According to Henepola Gunaratana;

The classical source for the distinction between the two vehicles of serenity and insight is the

Visuddhimagga.[w eb 2]

The suttas contain traces of ancient debates about the interpretation of the teachings, and early

classifications and hierarchies. Out of these debates developed the idea that bare insight suffices to reach

liberation, by bare insight alone in the Three marks of existence, namely dukkha, anatta and anicca.[2] This

is in contradiction with the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path, in which the Buddhist path

starts with insight, to be followed by practices to cultivate the mind and reach Nirvana.

The Sthaviravada emphasized sudden insight:

In the Sthaviravada [...] progress in understanding comes all at once, 'insight' (abhisamaya)does not come 'gradually' (successively - anapurva).[9]

The Mahasanghika had the doctrine of ekaksana-citt , "according to which a Buddha knows everything in a

single thought-instant".[10]

The emphasis on insight is also discernible in the Mahayana-tradition, which emphasises prajna:

[T]he very title of of a large corpus of early Mahayana literature, the Prajnaparamita, shows

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that to some extent the historian may extrapolate the trend to extol insight,  prajna, at the

expense of dispassion, viraga, the control of the emotions.[11]

Although Theravada and Mahayana are commonly understood as different streams of Buddhism, their

practice too may reflect emphasis on insight as a common denominator:

In practice and understanding Zen is actually very close to the Theravada Forest Tradition

even though its language and teachings are heavily influenced by Taoism and

Confucianism.[w eb 3][b]

The emphasis on insight is also discernible in the emphasis in Chán on sudden insight[9], though in the

Chán-tradition this insight is to be followed by gradual cultivation.[c]

Practice

Vipassanā meditation differs in the modern Buddhist t raditions and in some nonsectarian forms. It includes

any meditation technique that cultivates insight including contemplation, introspection, observation of bodilysensations, analytic meditation, and observations about lived experience.[citation needed ]

Theravāda 

Vipassanā as practiced in the Theravāda centers on mindfulness of breathing, combined with the

comtemplation of impermanence.

The underlying principle is the investigation of phenomena as they manifest in the Four Foundations of

Mindfulness highlighted in the Satipatthana Sutta:[13][d]

1. kaya (body or breath),

2. vedana (feeling or sensation),

3. citta (mind or consciousness), and

4. dhamma (mind objects).

Mindfulness of breathing

Main articles: Anapanasati and SatiAdd squishpatthana

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Mindfulness of breathing is described throughout the Sutta Pitaka. The Satipatthana Sutta describes it as

going into the forest and sit beneath a tree and then to simply watch the breath, if the breath is long, to

notice that the breath is long, if the breath is short, to notice that the breath is short. [14][15]

Contemplation of impermanence

See also: Sampajañña

By observing the breath one becomes aware of the perpetual changes involved in breathing, and the arisingand passing away of mindfulness.

Contemplating on these perpetual changes one becomes aware of impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and

lack of an inherent, independent essence or self.[citation needed ]

Relation with samatha 

In the Visuddhimagga, 40 meditation objects are being mentioned: 10 kasinas, 10 objects of repulsion, 10

recollections, 4 Brahma-vihara, 4 formless states, perception of disgust of food, and analysis of the four

elements. Anapanasatti can be used for both vipassana and samatha.[16][w eb 4]

Stages in the practice

The Vipassanā practitioner reaches the step where gross bodily sensations (Vedana) dissolve and there is

a subtle flow of sensations throughout the body, which is called bhaṅgānupassanā ñāṇa (Sanskrit:

bhaṅgānupaśyanājñāna), knowledge of dissolution. This is an ongoing process, that continues to reveal

layer upon layer of mental purification.

The Vipassanā yogi or yogini experiences increasing cessation of cravings (attachments) and aversions(fears), and eventually will reach the step of saṅkhārupekkhāñāṇa (Sanskrit: saṃskāropekṣājñāna), strongly

founded knowledge of equanimity of all formations.

In the Theravada tradition, Upekkha or equanimity is a Brahma state. If the state itself, the acts done that

lead to that state, and any cravings are not seen with wisdom, then it does not lead to the attainment of

nibbāna but to a new state. [citation needed ]

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Result

Vipassana-meditation is thought to develop insight into the impermanence of all phenomena, and thereby

lead to a permanent liberation.[11]

Most Theravādin teachers refer to knowledges evolving during practice. The meditator gradually improves his

perception of the three marks of existence. Some steps are described as vipassanā jhānas, or simply as

knowledges.

Mahāyāna 

Mahāyāna vipaśyanā includes mindfulness of breathing and contemplation on Buddhist teachings, but is

clearly combined with samatha-practice, for example in Zen. The Mahayana-tradition emphasizes insight

into sunyata or Buddha-nature.

The Mahāyāna also uses visualizations of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, to train awareness and samatha and

to contemplate Buddhist teachings. Each component of the visualization evokes a particular teaching, and

the practit ioner then contemplates using a visual symbolic representation.The polarity of samatha and vipassana is discernible in the Chinese and Tibetan debates over gradualism or

subitism. Gradualism denotes gradual training after gaining insight into the Buddhist teachings, while

subitism denotes the idea that insight itself is liberation.

Indo-Tibetan tradition

Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism used both deductive investigation, applying premises to experience, and

inductive investigation, drawing conclusions from direct experience, in the practice of vipaśyanā at the level

of sūtrayāna.

Misunderstandings in Tibet

Scholar Leah Zahler explains that there are discrepancies between the Indian tradition and the Tibetan

tradition:

It appears that neither the Gelukpa textbook writers nor modern scholars such as Lati

Rinpoche and Gendun Lodro were in a position to conclude that the first moment of the fifth

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stage of Vasubandhu's system of breath meditation coincides with the attainment of special

insight and that, therefore, the first four stages must be a method for cultivating special insight

[although this is clearly the case].[17]

As she notes, it appears that only the tradition of deductive analysis in vipaśyanā was transmitted to Tibet

in the sūtrayāna context. This tradition is outlined by Kamalaśīla in his three Bhāvanākrama texts

(particularly the second one), following in turn an approach described in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra.[18] One

scholar describes his approach thus:The overall picture painted by Kamalaśīla is that of a kind of serial alternation between

observation and analysis that takes place entirely within the sphere of meditative

concentration" in which the analysis portion consists of Madhyamaka reasonings. [18]

Difference between Sutrayana and Tantrayana 

Contemporary Tibetan scholar Thrangu Rinpoche explains the difference between Sutrayana and

Tantrayana:The approach in the sutras [.. .] is to develop a conceptual understanding of emptiness and

gradually refine that understanding through meditation, which eventually produces a direct

experience of emptiness [...] we are proceeding from a conceptual understanding produced by

analysis and logical inference into a direct experience [...] this takes a great deal of time. . .

 we are essentially taking inferential reasoning as our method or as the path. There is an

alternative [...] which the Buddha taught in the tantras [...] the primary difference between the

sutra approach and the approach of Vajrayana (secret mantra or tantra) is that in the sutra

approach, we take inferential reasoning as our path and in the Vajrayana approach, we takedirect experience as our path. In the Vajrayana we are cultivating simple, direct experience or

"looking." We do this primarily by simply looking directly at our own mind.[19]

Pandita versus kusulu

The difference between insight-meditation and calm-meditation is also a difference in background of the

practitioners. Thrangu Rinpoche further explains,

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In general there are two kinds of meditation: the meditation of the  paṇḍita who is a scholar

and the nonanalytical meditation or direct meditation of the kusulu, or simple yogi [.. .] the

analytical meditation of the paṇḍita occurs when somebody examines and analyzes

something thoroughly until a very clear understanding of it is developed [...] The direct,

nonanalytical meditation is called kusulu meditation in Sanskrit. This was translated as

trömeh in Tibetan, which means "without complication" or being very simple without the

analysis and learning of a great scholar. Instead, the mind is relaxed and without applying

analysis so it just rests in its nature. In the sūtra tradition, there are some nonanalytic

meditations, but mostly this tradition uses analytic meditation.[20]

Conceptual contemplation versus direct experience

In Tibet direct examination of moment-to-moment experience as a means of generating vipaśyanā became

exclusively associated with vajrayāna. When vipaśyanā was generated in a sūtrayāna context, it

necessarily involved conceptual contemplation of points of doctrine. One exception to this dichotomy,

however, was the approach of Kagyu tradition known as sūtra mahāmudrā, which emphasizes "direct,unmediated experience" which "goes beyond verbalization."[21] The vipassanā "experiential forms" approach

advocated in the early suttas and practiced in the Theravāda tradition more closely resembles sūtra

mahāmudrā than it does the conventional Tibetan sūtrayāna vipaśyanā. The only significant difference is

that in the sūtra mahāmudrā tradition practice is general preceded by pointing-out instruction.

As scholar Klaus-Dieter Mathes notes,

 while ordinary vipaśyanā practice [in the Indo-Tibetan sūtrayāna tradition] requires an

analytical or intellectual assessment of emptiness which is mainly based on Madhyamakareasonings, Bkra shis rnam rgyal, for example, starts (!) the presentation of vipaśyanā in his

Phyag rgya chen po’i khrid yig chen mo with the following pith-instruct ions:

"Assume the same body posture as before (i.e., as in śamatha practice) and gaze straight

[ahead] without blinking or shifting. With lucid and non-conceptual śamatha as a basis, one

should keep one’s attention vividly present. In this state look nakedly (rjen lhang gis) into the

mind itself to see what shape, colour etc. it has." [22]

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This approach is sometimes traced to Sahajavajra’s Tattvadaśakaṭīkā, wherein the author distinguishes his

approach to śamatha and vipaśyanā from that featured in the three Bhāvanākrama texts (particularly the

second one) of Kamalaśīla. Sahajavajra notes that whereas in Kamalaśīla's approach vipaśyanā is

"produced on the basis of analysis," in his own "it must be directly meditated upon with a non-analytical

mind."[23]

Mahāmudrā and Dzogchen

Mahāmudrā and Dzogchen use vipaśyanā extensively. This includes using some methods of the otherstraditions but also incorporates different approaches. Like the Mahāyāna they include meditating on

symbolic images as contemplations but place a greater emphasis on this form of meditation. Additionally in

the Vajrayāna (tantric) path, the true nature of mind is pointed out by the guru and the practitioner practices

 with that direct experience as a form of vipaśyanā. Many Kagyupas, in fact, consider Mahāmudrā

(specifically the traditions Jamgon Kongtrul came to characterize as "sutra" and "essence") "not-

specifically-Tantric" following the lead of Gampopa, who "distinguishes [...] a path of direct perception from

a general Mahāyāna path of inferences and a Vajrayāna path of blessing." [24]

Using a guru

Thrangu Rinpoche describes the approach using a guru:[e]

In the Sūtra path one proceeds by examining and analyzing phenomena, using reasoning.

One recognizes that all phenomena lack any true existence and that all appearances are

merely interdependently related and are without any inherent nature. They are empty yet

apparent, apparent yet empty. The path of Mahāmudrā is different in that one proceeds using

the instructions concerning the nature of mind that are given by one's guru. This is calledtaking direct perception or direct experiences as the path. The fruition of śamatha is purity of

mind, a mind undisturbed by false conception or emotional afflictions. The fruition of vipaśyanā

is knowledge ( prajnā) and pure wisdom ( jñāna). Jñāna is called the wisdom of nature of

phenomena and it comes about through the realization of the true nature of phenomena. [25]

Relation of śamatha and vipaśyanā 

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Dzogchen Ponlop Rinpoche clearly charts the developmental relationship of the practice of śamatha and

vipaśyanā:

The ways these two aspects of meditation are practiced is that one begins with the practice of

shamatha; on the basis of that, it becomes possible to practice vipashyana or lhagthong.

Through one's practrice of vipashyana being based on and carried on in the midst of

shamatha, one eventually ends up practicing a unification of shamatha and vipashyana. The

unification leads to a very clear and direct experience of the nature of all things. This brings

one very close to what is called the absolute truth. [26]

This approach appears in some respects reminiscent of the one outlined by the Buddha in early suttas, as

opposed to that of later Theravada thought, where, as characterized by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, samatha and

vipassana are presented as two qualities of mind that should be developed in tandem to master  jhāna.[8]

Eradicating the klesas

Dzogchen Pönlop Rinpoche evokes an extended poetic metaphor from Milarepa to qualify vipaśyanā, as

qualitatively different from śamatha, as having the propensity to "eradicate" klesha (mental defilements):

Insight, or vipashyana (lhagthong), is extremely important because it can eradicate the

mental afflications, whereas tranquility [shamatha] alone cannot. That is why we want to be

able to practice tranquility and insight in a unified manner. This unified practice has three

steps; first, we practice tranquility; then we practice insight; and then we bring the two

together. Doing this will eradicate the cause of samsara (which is mental afflictions), thereby

eradicating the result of samsara (which is suffering). For this reason, it is improper to

become too attached to the delight or pleasure of tranquility, because tranquility alone is notenough. As was said by Lord Milarepa in a song:

"Not being attached to the pool of tranquility

May I generate the flower of insight."[26]

Vipassanā movement

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See also: Vipassana movement and Buddhist modernism

The Vipassana movement, also called the Insight Meditation Movement, refers to a number of

branches of modern Theravāda Buddhism, especially the Thai Forest Tradition and the "New Burmese

Method", which stress insight into the three marks of existence as the main means to attain awakening and

reach Nirvana.

It finds it 's origins in modernist influences[27] on the traditions of Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos and Thailand, and

the innovations and popularisations by Theravāda teachers as Mahasi Sayadaw, Ajahn Chah, and Dipa Ma,as well as nonsectarian derivatives from those traditions such as the movement led by S. N. Goenka (with

his co-teacher wife Illaichi Devi) who studied with teacher Sayagyi U Ba Khin. The Vipassana Movement

includes contemporary American Buddhist teachers such as Joseph Goldstein, Tara Brach, Gil Fronsdal,

Sharon Salzberg, and Jack Kornfield

In the Vipassana Movement, the emphasis is on the Satipatthana Sutta and the use of mindfulness to gain

insight into the impermanence of the self.

Scientific studiesfMRI were used to assess the thickness of the brains of twenty Westerners who had experience with Insight

meditation. It was determined that their brains were thicker in regions of the brain involved with

somatosensory, auditory, visual and interoceptive processing depending upon the amount of time that they'd

spent practicing. The researchers suggest that this may slow cognitive decline typically associated with

aging.[w eb 5]

See alsoĀnāpāna

Atthakavagga and Parayanavagga

Buddhism

Buddhist meditation

Global Vipassana Pagoda

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Jñāna

Jhāna

Meditation

Monastic silence

Samatha

Satipatthana

Tipitaka

Upasana

Notes

a. ^ Brooks: "While many commentaries and translations of the Buddha's Discourses claim the Buddha

taught two practice paths, one called "sham ata" and the other called "vipassana," there is in fact no place in

the suttas where one can definitively claim that."[3]

b. ^ Khantipalo recommends the use of the koan-like question "Who?" to penetrate "this not-self-anture of the

five aggregates": "In Zen Buddhism this technique has been formulated in several koans, such as 'Whodrags this corpse around?'"[12]

c. ^ This "gradual training" is expressed in teachings as the Five ranks of enlightenment, Ten Ox-Herding

Pictures which detail the steps on the Path, The Three mysterious Gates of Linji, and the Four Ways of

Knowing of Hakuin.

d. ^ These phenom ena differ from the khandhas (aggregates) because the citta factor is not connected to any

aggregate, as it is the bas ic mood of the mind-body aggregate, while the dhamma encompasses all mind

objects that are fruits of kamma (i.e., the vinnana, sanna and sankhara aggregates), and also all m ind

objects that are not a fruit of kamma, such as the Four Noble Truths.

e. ^ Mathes states about Thrangu Rinpoche: "It should be noted that he generally considers such m ahāmudrāteachings, or rather the path of di rect cognition, to be Vajrayāna. In other words , he does not claim that they

constitute a third path beyond the Sūtras and Tantras," unlike s ome other past and pres ent Kagyu

masters."[22]

References

k f

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[edit]Book-references

1. ^ Henepola Gunaratana, Mindfulness in plain English, Wisdom Publications, pg 21.

2. ^ a b c Gombrich 1997, p. 96-144.

3. ^ a b Brooks 2006.

4. ^ McMahan.

5. ^ Henepola Gunaratana, Mindfulness in plain English, Wisdom Publications, pg 21.

6. ^ Ray (2004) p.74

7. ^ Henepola Gunaratana, Mindfulness in plain English, Wisdom Publications, pg 21.

8. ^ a b Thaniss aro Bhikkhu Year Unknown.

9. ^ a b Warder 2000, p. 284.

10. ^ Gomez 1991, p. 69.

11. ^ a b Gombrich 1997, p. 133.

12. ^ Khantipalo 1984, p. 71.

13. ^ Ajahn Brahm, Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond: A Meditator's Handbook . Wisdom Publications, 2006,

pages 103-127.

14. ^ Majjhim a Nikaya, Sutta No. 118, Section No. 2, translated from the Pali15. ^ Satipatthana Sutta

16. ^ Schumann 1974.

17. ^ Zahler 108, 113

18. ^ a b "Some Notes on Kamalasila's Understanding of Insight Considered as the Discernment of Reality

(bhūta-pratyavekṣā)", by Martin Adam, Buddhist Studies Review , Vol. 25, No.2, 2008, p 3

19. ^ Pointing out the Dharmakaya by Thrangu Rinpoche. Snow Lion: 2003. ISBN 1-55939-203-7, pg 56

20. ^ The Practice of Tranquillity & Insight: A Guide to Tibetan Buddhist Meditation by Khenchen Thrangu

Rinpoche. Shambhala Publications: 1994. ISBN 0-87773-943-9 pg 91-9321. ^ Mind at Ease: Self-Liberation through Mahamudra Meditation by Traleg Kyabgon. Shambhala

Publications: 2004. ISBN 1-59030-156-0 pg 196

22. ^ a b Mathes 2003, p. 204.

23. ^ Mathes 217

24. ^ Mathes 2003, p. 201.

25. ^ Thrangu Rinpoche, Looking Directly at Mind : The Moonlight of Mahāmudrā

26. ^ a b Ray (2004) p.76

27 ^ M M h 2008

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27. ^ McMahan 2008.

Web-references

1. ^ "Vipas hyana," by Reginald A. Ray. Buddhadharma: The Practitioner's Quarterly , Summer 2004.

2. ^ Henepola Gunaratana, The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation

3. ^ Through the Looking Glass, Essential Buddhism

4. ^ Chanmyay Sayādaw, Ānāpānāsati: Samatha or Vipassanā?

5. ^ Meditation experience is ass ociated with increased cortical thickness by Sara W. Lazar et al. 2005

Sources

Brooks, Jeffrey S. (2006), A Critique of the Abhidhamma and Visuddhimagga

Buswel l, Robert E. JR; Gimello, Robert M. (editors) (1994), Paths to Liberation. The Marga and its

Transformations in Buddhist Thought , Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers

Fronsdal, Gil (1998), Insight Meditation in the United States: Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness. In:

Charles S. Prebish and   Kenneth K. Tanaka, The Faces of Buddhism in America , Chapter 9,

http://www.insightmeditationcenter.org/books-articles/articles/insight-meditation-in-the-united-states-life-liberty-and-the-pursuit-of-happiness/

Glickman, Marshal l (1998), Beyond the Breath: Extraordinary Mindfulness Through Whole-Body Vipassana

Meditation, Tuttle Publishing, ISBN 1-58290-043-4

Gombrich, Richard F. (1997), How Buddhism Began. The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings, New

Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publ ishers Pvt. Ltd.

Khantipalo, Bikkhu (1984), Calm and Insight. A buddhist Manual for Meditators, London and Dublin: Curzon

Press Ltd.

Mathes, Klaus-Dieter (2003), Blending the Sūtras with the Tantras: The influence of Maitrīpa and his circle onthe formation of Sūtra Mahāmudrā in the Kagyu Schools. In: Tibetan Buddhist Li terature and Praxis: Studies in

its Formative Period, 900–1400. Tibetan Studies: Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the International 

 Association for Tibetan Studies, Oxford

McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195183276

Ray, Reginald A. (Ed.) (2004), In the Presence of Masters: Wisdom from 30 Contemporary Tibetan Buddhist 

Teachers, ISBN 1-57062-849-1

Schumann, Hans Wolfgang (1974), Buddhism: an outline of its teachings and schools, Theosophical Pub.

House

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House

Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Year Unknown), One Tool Among Many. The Place of Vipassana in Buddhist Practice

Warder, A.K. (2000), Indian Buddhism, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers

External links

History

Theravāda Spirituality in the West

David Chapman, Theravada reinvents meditation

Background

Insight Meditation Online  From Buddhanet.net

A Honed and Heavy Axe

Mahasi Sayadaw, Satipatthana Vipassana: Criticisms and Replies

Jeffrey S, Brooks, The Fruits (Phala) of the Contemplative Life

Practice

Meditation  From Yellowrobe.com

Vipassana Fellowship Courses in Vipassana Meditation

Vipassana Meditation as taught by S.N. Goenka and his assistant teachers in the tradition of Sayagyi

U Ba Khin at free centers worldwide

Saddhamma Foundation Information about practicing Vipassana meditation.

Blogs

Understanding Vipassana Meditation using the concept of affective judgment from Lesswrong.com

CreaWithin.in, Understanding Dhamma the Vipassana Way 

Buddhism

Buddhism topics

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