How does Arctic ice affect shipping and navigation and how

may this change in the future?

Bullers Wood School, Chislehurst,

KentWill this image be an increasingly common sight in the waters of the Arctic….?

Discussion topics:

• Ice in the Arctic• Ice and navigation• The impact of the seasons on the sea–ice• Current shipping and navigation in the Arctic • What would the benefits of less sea-ice be?• Different opinions about shipping and

navigation in the Arctic

Ice in the Arctic• The ‘Arctic’ consists of the

Arctic ocean and the land area surrounding it including parts of the Russia, Canada, Greenland and Norway

• For much of the year the Arctic Ocean is covered with sea-ice

• Ice comes in different shapes and sizes – the indigenous people have around 80 terms for the ice!!!

Arctic Ice facts and formation (1)• Average Arctic ice thickness is over 2 metres, but

it varies….– Newly formed ice: few millimetres – Older ice: over 10 metres– Canadian Archipelago ice: 6 – 8 metres

• In the winter salt water freezes at -1.8 degrees Celsius

• The frozen seawater floats freely in the ocean, moved by wind and water currents. It is called drift ice

• Large chunks of drift ice are called ice floes – and can measure up to 9.7 kilometres across

• When drift ice joins together it’s called pack ice

Arctic Ice facts and formation (2)• Sea ice has different stages of development,

related to thickness and age. By age there are two distinctions: first year ice, and multiyear ice. – First year ice: thicker than 30 centimetres but

melts in the summer season – Multiyear ice: survives the summer melt, reforms

and gains in thickness: 2 to 4 meters thick

• 2 early forming types of ice are:– ‘Pancake ice’– ‘Grease ice’

Pancake Ice• Pancake ice is called this because it consists of

round pieces of ice which can be quite thick• Each piece of ice looks like a pancake

• The pancakes are formed by:• flat but hard pieces of ice break off• These ice pieces are made round by the action of

turbulent, high energy waves

Grease Ice• Grease ice is very thin and quite soupy• It is formed by ice crystals being blown out of

the water and being clumped together• The reason it is called grease ice is because its

consistency resembles oil slicks

Some of the 80 types of ice…Greenlandic/Kalaallit English1. Siku Sea ice2. Aakkarneq Current formed sea ice3. Qilliliaq Sea ice, with no snow

on it4. Sikuliaq Sea ice – thin ice5. Maniillat Uneven, pack ice6. Tuaaq Sea ice connected with

land7. Siku Ice on a lake8. Nutarmeq Thin ice formed in a

closed crack9. Iluliaq Ice berg10.Sikup qaava Ice expanse

The future of Arctic Ice…

According to a NASA report (2006) about multi-year ice:

“long term we find a reduction of between 6.4% and 7.8% per decade” (Dr Nghiem)

(Data determined using the scatterometer on Nasa's Quikscat satellite)

How does ice stop shipping?• Ice – particularly pack ice - stops shipping by building up in the

Arctic winter months, making it impassable for ships• As a result, The Northern sea-route and North West Passage, both

connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans is only passable during the Summer months

• However there may be large lumps of ice lurking beneath the waters surface

• These lumps are potentially problematic if one makes contact with the hull (bottom) of the ship…..• There could be a torn hull, • The propeller may get damaged• The ship may sink (we have all seen the film ‘Titanic’)• all the cargo will get scattered and any crew may drown• great loss in financial terms

What impact do the seasons have on sea ice?• During the winter months the Arctic is tilted away from the Sun and therefore receives little heat, light or radiation

• This means sea-ice builds up in the colder months, as the temperature is below the freezing point of water

• In the Arctic Summer the area is subjected to 24 hour daylight, causing the sea-ice to break apart and melt

• Global Warming has meant the melting of sea-ice has increased due to the increase of the atmospheric temperature

Annual Growth and Retreat of the Polar Ice packs.

How do the seasons affect Shipping in the Arctic?

• Between late June / early July and early August the North Pole is titled towards the Sun

• During this summer period, the Arctic is constantly being bathed in the Sun’s heat, causing the ice to melt and the seas to flow more freely

• As a result, between August and early October, ships could potentially pass through the Arctic Ocean because most hidden ice has melted leaving a safer route – largely ice free

• However, as yet, the ice free period is not long enough to make use of the Arctic for commercial shipping a realistic financial option

Current Navigation and Shipping in the Arctic

• Despite the dangers, shipping and navigation does happen in the Arctic Ocean. Even in Winter months!!

• Shipping is assisted by:– Ice-breakers– Ice-navigators

Ice-Breakers• Ice-breaker ships are used to

break the ice in the Arctic so that ships can get through the Arctic safely

• Icebreaker features:– They are very heavy– They have sloping bows– The bow is heavily re-inforced– They are very powerful

• The icebreaker's bow passes over and on top of the ice at speed

• The bow then forces down heavily on the ice, breaking it up

• As the ice-breaker moves forward, this leaves an ice free channel through the ice-pack

Ice Navigators• Ice navigators work on ice breakers or on ice class

ships• They help and advise the captain when they are

crossing through the Arctic • Their information comes from maps and satellites,

such as Radarsat – 1 and MODIS • When an Ice Navigator is on the ship there are many

things they have to endure such as:• Hypothermia• Stress• Darkness• Frostbite• Ice on the ship

Current Navigation in the Arctic

• There are 2 shipping routes through the Arctic which connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans:– The Northwest passage through the Canadian

archipelago– The Northern Sea route which follows the

coastline of Norway, Russia and Japan

• Both routes enter the Pacific Ocean through the Bering Straits

The Northern Sea Route• The Northern Sea route provides more economic benefit than

the North west passage• It is an easier and shorter route• It also provides access to oil fields in the Arctic• The Northern sea route is ice free for 8 weeks but with ice-

breaker assistance, ice-strengthened vessels can sail during winter

• The route is used primarily by Russia who also claim jurisdiction over the waters

The Northwest Passage• The passage is ‘open’ from July to October• But it is navigable for ships for only 4 – 6 weeks each summer• 2007: clear of ice for first time since records began (30 years ago)

according to the European Space Agency• Currently Canada claims full rights over the parts of the route that

pass through its territory• This is disputed by the EU and the USA who argue that it should be

an international strait

What would be the benefits of less sea ice?

• Between 1972 and 1990 the ice extent in the summer prevented major commercial use of either 2 routes through the Arctic

• The projected ice extent in 2030 would allow much greater use of the Arctic ocean

• Commercial activities:– Container shipping– Oil and gas exploration– Tourism

Container shipping (1)• Economies and consumers in Europe and North America depend on

goods made in Asia – especially China• The majority of goods found on the UK high street were made in Asia. • They are shipped from production sites in Asia to markets in North

America and Europe in containers.• WE rely on the transport of containers

Container shipping (2)• Using containers on large vessels makes the transport

cost per item much cheaper due to economies of scale

• However, the economic and environmental cost of transport increases with increased distance and delays to the transit…..

Container shipping route• Containers are currently shipped from Asia to Europe via

Singapore, the Indian Ocean, the Suez Canal and the Mediterranean Sea

• This general route is followed by all container shipping companies

The Suez Canal and the Northern Sea Route

• The Northern Sea Route goes to the North of Eurasia through the Arctic and South to Europe

• This would save time and resources• The Suez Canal Route is longer and there

are potential delays in congested Asian ports and the Suez canal

A New route option? (1)• Using the Northern sea route

would reduce journey lengths by 10 days. (from North Asia to Northwestern Europe)

• Ships currently travel 12840 miles from Japan to Europe via the Suez Canal but if they use the northern sea route it would be 5570 miles.

• A reduction of 7270 miles(source: Jerome Varny, “Container shipping on the Northern sea-route”)

A New Route option? (2)

• Commercial use of the Northern sea route or Northwest Passage might be a very tiny benefit of global warming.

• Reduced distance means reduced fuel consumption• Billions of dollars in transportation costs could be saved each year,

potentially making goods in shops cheaper for consumers• Reduced fuel useage means less fossil fuels are being burnt to create

energy.• In turn this reduces the amount of CO2 being released into our

atmosphere, potentially reducing the contribution of shipping to the enhanced greenhouse effect

Oil and Gas supply benefits? (1)• With the increase in Global Warming the Arctic Sea Ice

is melting in greater quantities• This means that there is easier access to the sea-bed

below• Russia has staked a claim on the sea-bed beneath the

ice possibly due to the potential of oil / gas reserves• Russia was so keen to stake their claim that a Russian

submarine was in fact able to break through under the ice to plant a flag 2 miles beneath the surface of the ice.

Oil and Gas Supply benefits? (2)• The dark patches

on the map show oil/gas reserves.

• In the Arctic sea ice and surrounding area there is 90 billion barrels of oil

• This is enough to supply the world for three years at current consumption rates

• This would be a massive benefit for the world because known reserves are running out

• Oil produced in Alaska could move quickly by ship to eastern North American and European markets.

• The vast mineral resources of the Canadian North will be much easier and economical to develop.

• This opportunity for fast and cheap shipping between the Atlantic and Pacific is one of just a very small number of benefits that global warming might produce.

Oil and Gas Supply benefits? (3)

Tourism Benefits? • Tourism may increase in the

Arctic because : – bigger ships can now travel round the

Arctic, meaning more people– There will be more ports to stop off at

to make the tourist’s trip more exciting

– The tourists will have a chance to see the Arctic wildlife in their natural habitat.

• However, with less sea ice there is a smaller area of ice habitat for animals

• This change to the natural ecosystem may mean that fewer tourists will want to visit

Opinions about increased use of the Arctic for shipping

Arctic Council• an expected increase in shipping threatens to:

• introduce invasive species, • harm existing marine wildlife through collisions• lead to damaging oil spills

• Seabirds and polar bear and seal pups are particularly sensitive to oil and can quickly die of hypothermia if it gets into their feathers or fur

• Whales, as well as walruses and seals, can have a harder time communicating, foraging and avoiding prey in noisy waters.

“the Arctic marine environment is especially vulnerable to potential impacts from marine activity,”

Opinions about increased use of the Arctic for shipping

• Pablo Clemente-Colón (chief scientist at the National Ice Centre): the open water in the passages over Russia, particularly, remains clotted with thick, dangerous floes and can also close up in a matter of hours.

• Insurance companies will be reluctant to insure large commercial vessels due to the ice related risks

• Container shipping companies will still prefer the longer Suez canal route due to the existing infrastructure (ports etc) and the difficulties of replicating them in the Arctic

Our Opinion……• At present the potential ice risks will make

commercial shipping use of the Arctic too dangerous (we don’t want another Titanic!!)

• The environmental risks of shipping are too great to make use of the Arctic for shipping on a regular basis

• We need to protect rare species of wildlife such as:– Polar bears– Walruses

• Exploitation of oil and gas reserves will lead to much environmental degradation

Our Opinion…….

• Use of the Arctic could create lots of geo-political conflict over the use of resources

• However, it does seem inevitable that the Arctic ocean will become increasingly used as global warming results in less sea-ice….

• Therefore it MUST be controlled by a global organisation