ROBErJ. GAMMSrON

How AdministratorsSupport Peer Coaching

"Sbe bas nineteen years' teachingexperience I bahe six. Who am I tomake suggstions?"

ust as athletic coaches instruct,train, and tutor players, teachersin peer coaching situations in-

struct, train, and tutor one another.Administrators can focus this collegialinteraction on teachers' individualprofessional development, on improv-ing school culture, and, ultimately, onenhancing school effectiveness. Thefirst task is to select an appropriatecoaching model---I will discuss tech-nical, collegial, and challenge coach-ing here-and then to actively supportthe coaching process.

Technical CoachingTechnical coaching helps teacherstransfer training to classroom practice,while deepening collegiality, increas-ing professional dialogue, and givingteachers a shared vocabulary to talkabout their craft. The approachassumes that objective feedback givenin a nonthreatening and supportiveclimate can improve teaching per-formance. Technical coaching gener-ally follows staff development work-shops in specific teaching methods;the model pairs consultants withteachers or teachers with one another.

The technical coaching modelgrows out of the work of Joyce andShowers (1983). Teachers given tech-nical coaching generally will (1)practice new strategies more fre-quently and develop greater skill, (2)use the new strategies more appropri-ately, (3) retain knowledge about andskill with the new strategies for longerperiods of time, (4) teach the new

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Coaching can enhance professional developmentand school culture when administrators select amodel appropriate to school goals and take stepsto show that they value and support it.

strategies to their students, and (5)understand their purposes and usesmore clearly (Showers 1985).

The positive effects of technicalcoaching are not without their price,however. With only a moderatelydifficult teaching strategy, teachersmay require from 20 to 30 hours ofinstruction in its theorn, 15 to 20demonstrations using it with differentstudents and subjects, and an addi-tional 10 to 15 coaching sessions toattain higher-level skills (Shalaway1985). These hours add up in costs forconsultant time and released time.

There are also less tangible coststo consider Teachers in one district.which uses both technical andcollegial models, report that certain

, I ! il .. :__ , technical coaching practices tend to"r ·- ii |inhibit collegialit. and professional

dialogue. For example, teachers fre-quentlv use clinical assessment formsto record the presence or absence ofspecific behaviors and the degree ofthoroughness with which thev areperformed (Showers 1985). To thequestion, "Did the teacher state thepurpose of the game?" the observer-coach of a concept attainment lessonmight circle the term (thboroughly,partiallh, missing, not needed) thatbest describes the teacher's behavior.To complete the assessment form theobserver must evaluate the adequacyof a teacher's decisions.

Because technical coaching givesthe observer an evaluative function.there is a tendency for teachers to giveeach other "advice' or "constructivecriticism." The requirement to evalu-ate also tends to intimidate noviceswho are working with veteran teach-ers. "Who am I to tell her what to do?"

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or "It was awkward observing mydepartment head" are typical com-ments Some teachers find that thetechnical model puts them on thedefensive. For a very few teachers itrecalls old wounds, and they may takeout their hurts on their colleagues. Incontrast, suspension of judgment incollegial coaching helps teachers toestablish open professional inter-change more quickly.

Colleg CoachingThe major goals of collegial coachingare to refine teaching practices,deepen collegiality, increase pro-fessional dialogue, and to helpteachers to think more deeply abouttheir work. The model assumes thatteachers acquire and deepen career-long habits of self-initiated reflectionabout their teaching when they haveopportunities to develop and practicethese skills. The long-range goal isself-coaching for continuous, self-perpetuating improvements in teach-ing.

Collegial coaching, most oftenconducted by pairs of teachers,

concentrates on areas the observedteacher wishes to learn more about.The observed teacher's priority, ratherthan an instructional method presentedin an inservice workshop, determinesthe coaching focus. The peer coachroutinely gathers classroom data about

"Technical coaching... assumes thatobjective feedbackgiven in anonthreateningand supportiveclimate canimprove teachingperformance."

the teacher's priority (giving directions,for example), evidence of studentlearning, and the teacher's instructionaldecisions and behavior. The coach helpsthe observed teacher analyze andinterpret it, and encourages the teacherto make applications to future teachingFor example, in the concept attainmentlesson cited earlier, the technical coachmade judgments about the teacher'sperformance. The collegial coach, incontrast, helps the teacher analyze andjudge how his or her decisions affectstudent learning

Cogitie coaghig, straies designedto enhance teachers' perceptions, think-ing and instructional decisions, is oneexample of this approach In cognitivecoaching, teaching is viewed as a highlyprofessional activity requiring a reper-toire of specialized techniques and theexercise of judgment about whenteachers should apply them. Coaches aretrained to facilitate the thinking pro-cesses that underlie those judgments.This model, developed for use byadministrators coaching (not evaluating)teachers, has been adopted by teachers

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interested in peer coaching (Costa andGarmston 1985).

Although all coaching positivelyaffects teachers' self-concep, work envi-roment, and professional commitmentcoeial and challenge coaching prob-ably do this better than techical models.Most teachers lack opportunities forprofessional dialogue and are incrediblyisolated from one another. DeSanctisand Blumberg (1979), for example,found that teachers in one New Yorkhigh school engaged in only twominutes' talk about their work eachday. Simply increasing the work-relatedcommunication between peers en-hances teachers' professional self-con-cept

Collegial coaching is a good choicefor administrators wishing to affectsdiool culture. Collegial coaching cre-ates open professional dialogue, andhelps teachers feel "efficacious," a qualitythe Rand Corporation found in themid-70s to be the variable mostsignificantly related to successful schoolsChallenge coaching often grows fromenvironments in which these dynamicsare present When teachers' professionaldialogue increases, the school systemitself becomes capable of change.According to Saphier and King (1985),school culture is the product of 12.school norms interacting with the centralvalues of the school. Of these 12, at least5 can be influenced by coaching:collegiality, experimentation, tangiblesupport, reaching out to the knowledgebases about teaching, and honest, opencommunication. Saphier and King arguethat if these norms are strong, instrucmtionwill be significant, continuous, andwidespread But if these norms are weak,improvements will be infrequent,random, and slow. If collegial coachingstrengthens these norms, what are thecosts?

Training is the largest single cost forschools using collegial coaching. Aneffective training-for-coaing programtrains teachers before they coach andprovides follow-up training while thecoaching program is under way. Atraining program should help teachersrefine coaching skills and identifypractices that impede moement towardcollegiality.

Collegial coaching also has certainpersonal costs. When the goals are

long-range, such as improving schoolculture, adminisators pay in patience.A new superinendet in a small disictlearned that his teachers hardly knewone another professionally, so heintroduced a collegial coaching pro-gran He knew from previous experi-ence that he would see maor ciangesin the school culture within three yeasWhile he waits, he will continuallymonitor practices that support his goalsfor the district

Challenge coaching helps teams ofteachers resolve persistent problems ininstructional design or delivery. Theterm ca/llenge refers to resolving aproblematic state. The model asumnesthat team problem-solving efforts bythose responsible for carrying outinstruction can produce insightul prac-tical improvements. Since trust, col-kgiality, and norms supporting problemsolving in professional dialogue areprerequisite conditions, challenge coach-ing often evolvs fom other coachingapproaches. Challenge coaching differsfrom technical and collegial models intwo ways: in its process and in itsproducts.

Challenge processes start with theidentification of a persistent problem orwith a desired goal. Challenge coachingis done in small groups; technical andcollegial coaching are most often donein pairs. Unlike technical and collegialpractices, nonteachers like aides,librarians, or administrators are some-times included in challenge teams fortheir special perceptions, expertise,or potential role in a solution.

Third-grade teachers, for example,are concerned about the enormousamount of instructional time devotedto teaching regrouping in subtractionalgorithms. Is it possible to cutinstructional time, perhaps even inhalf? Two third-grade teachers, asecond-grade teacher, a classroomaide, and a math specialist plan a wayto introduce, teach, and monitor theeffects of teaching "additive sub-traction," a fresh approach in whichtraditional concepts in regroupingneed not be taught. They meet toconceptualize, plan an approach, andconstruct some lessons. One mem-bers of the group teaches the lessons

"Suspension ofjldgment incollegial coachinghelps teachers toestablish openprofessionalinterchangemore quickly."

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El"Challenge coaching... assunmesthat teamproblem-solvingefforts by thoseresponsible forcarrying outinstructioncan produceinsightrul, pacticalimprovements."

while several others collect data forlater evaluation. If the new proceduresare successful, the teachers will adoptthe team's product as a new way toteach subtraction.

In another example, teachers in ascience department meet about atypically difficult concept for students.later, each will teach, observe another'swork and monitor student reaction tothe common lesson. As they incorporatenew ways to aid student understandingthey will have redesigned the iessorn

In yet anther example, high schoolteachers want to increase the cognitivedifficulty of student assignments withoutthe accompanying negative effects ofincreases in student anxiety: negotiationfor grading leniency, requests forprocedures to reduce cognitive com-plexity, and blocked thinking. Fiveteachers from different disciplines joinin an educational version of the "skunkworks" (product development) pro-cesses reported by Peters and VWatermanin In Serhb of Excellence. They describewhat students would be doing differentlyin each of their classes if they reachedthe desired goal. They identify theinternal resources (knowledge, skill,attitude) students would need. Theybrainstorm instructional approaches.Each commits to a personal plan. Theyimplement, meet, share, revise, andimplement again. Their products, whichmay be adopted by other teachers, arenew teaching procedures across thedisciplines in which students routinelyengage in more higher-order thinkingthan before.

Whether coaching follows a technical,collegial, or challenge model, it brings afresh and important strategy to staffdevelopment Bruce Joyce, Judith WarrenLittle, Tom Bird, Beverly Showers, andothers have stressed the idea that peoplemaster new skills best when they areplaced in coaching situations (McREL1985). Thus, from the perspectives ofboth teaching mastery and schoolculture, coaching helps make schoolsmore effective. To ensure that thepositive effects of coaching develop andendure, administrators need a supportstrategy.

Adm id9Wabe Suportfor Peer CoadhingAdministrators develop and maintain

peer coaching in their schools in fiveways. The most critical action is (1)selecting a coaching model most likelyto produce the outcomes the schooldeems impotant Thereafter, administra-tors support peer coaching by (2)demonstrating that they value it, (3)providing a focus for coaching activity,(4) providing training for coaches, and(5) modeling positive coaching be-haviors.

1. Selecig a cadbing model. Fig-ure 1 illustrates the major distinctionsbetween coaching models. To choosebetween technical and collegial coach-ing, administrators must identify theoutcomes they want to achieve and theresources they are willing to commit

TLchnical coaching is most effectivefor transferring teacher training toclassroom application, but it requires ahigh number of costly classroomobservations.

Collegial coaching is most effectivefor promoting self-initiating, auton-omous teacher thought and improvingschool culture, but training coaches isthe major cost of this approach.

Challenge coaching is most effectiveto solve instructional problems butusually requires prior experience withone of the other models. Additionally,challenge coaching is usually done by asubset of the staff with high interpersonaland problem-solving skills, and not withan entire faculty Often principals involvetheir staffs in selecting the mostappropriate coaching model.

2. Dnonatig udue. Administra-tors demonstrate that they value peercoaching by (a) providing resources, (b)structuring coaching teams, (c) acknowl-edging coaching practices, and (d)devoting staff meetings to coachingtopics.

Resources. One high school in anIllinois district regularly provides sub-stitutes for teachers who want to observea colleague. Teachers feel recognizedand acknowledged as professionals bythe board and administrators. Morale isstrong Teachers moved from uncertaintyand some isolated cynicism two yearsago to enthusiastic support for theprogram.

Other school leaders provide differ-ent resources. An Alaska district giveseach school a substantial peercoachingbudget. A California district places a

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rotating substitute specializing in think-ing skills in classrooms to releaseteacher-coaches. Another district givesteachers faculty meeting time to practicepeer coaching skills and helps teacherswork out self-releasing patterns. Forexample, one teacher could take his anda colleague's class to physical education(or to the library, or to view a film),while the released teachers peer coach.The teachers would then hold aconference at lunch or after school.Sometimes a department head orspecialist teacher takes a class so teacherscan observe one another.

One iunior high gives personalpreparation credits to teachers whospend a certain amount of time peercoaching. Later in the year, teachers canexchange the credits for a personal leaveday.

Structure. By structuring coachingteams across departments or gradelevels, administrators make faculty mem-bers more aware of their commonresources and problems. This is aneffective strategy for improvingschoolwide understanding and culture,particularly in systems where someprograms appear to be less highly valuedthan others.

In one system, for example, anindustrial arts teacher observed thatother teachers tended to denigrate hisdepartment. "None of our kids getacademic honors; none of our kids goto Ivy league schools; none of our kidsget their name in the school newspaper."Prior to the coaching program, teachersassumed that the industrial arts programwas not as valuable as academicprograms. A coaching team composedof an industrial arts teacher, an Englishteacher, a home economics teacher, anda counselor caused teacher attitudestoward the industrial arts program, andteacher, to change.

Although teachers usually prefer tostructure their own coaching teams,some administrators make the assign-ments. Since teachers will interpretadministrator values through the way inwhich peer coaching teams are formedprincipals should explain their approachto teachers.

Acknow geen. Administratorsalso show that they value teachers'coaching work in personal ways: askinga teacher to explain the program tovisitors, sending a personal note, ordiscussing teachers' roles in a schoolnewsletter.

Meetings. Some principals inviteteachers to share coaching ideas infaculty meetings. Still others allowteachers to use time that wouldotherwise be devoted to all-schoolmeetings to discuss coaching. Suchscheduling adaptations illustrate thatwhat a staff talks about in meetings (not

"By structuringcoaching teamsacross departmentsor grade levels,administrators makefaculty membersmore aware of theircommon resourcesand problems."

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II"The coach providingmegiative feedbackgives descriptivereports and asksnonjudgmentalquestions that causethe teacher toanalyze and evaluateinstructionaldecisions."

what is on agendas) is the best indicatorof what is valued in the school.

3. F g a jbas Adminisratorssupport peer coaching programs bygiving teachers a structure for gatheringdata and providing feedback by arget-ing a particular instructional conten andby ensuring frequency of coaching.Providing a coaching focus is essentialto program success.

Providing a structure helps theteacher being observed control theobservation; thus, it eliminates theanxiety teachers feel about having acolleague judge their work For example,if you come into my classroom, I shouldhave the right to say, "I want you to lookat my wait time, or the ratio andsequence of higher- and lower-levelquestions that I use with students, or myproximity with kids. Additionaly, hereare some ways that you might gather thisdata for me."

It is especially helpful for beginningcoaches to structure a narrow observa-tional focus for gathering and reportingdata Although technical coaching modelsoften use clinical assessment forms tomaintain a specific focus, teachers usingcollegial and challenge models selecttheir own focus, agreeing betweenthemselves what data colleStion tech-niques will be most useful andcomfortable for the host teacher. Inchallenge coaching teachers use theproblem they are working on as theobservation focus

After the data are collected, theinformation may be communicated tothe observed teacher through one ofthree feedback styles: mediative, tech-nical, and evaluative.

The coach providing maedate feed-bab gives descriptive reports and asksnonjudgmental questions that cause theteacher to analyze and evaluate instruc-tional decisions. In addition, the coachhas the teacher propose alternativeteaching behaviors. The technique is thatof the athletic coach who asks the playerto analyze plays on video playbacks andthen to set personal goals. In the sameway, the coach helps the teacher analyzeteaching strategies after the lesson isover, and then to set goals that willimprove personal performance for thenext lesson In giving ta±irfbeaa dtthe coach tells the teacher which of theplanned teaching behaviors were or

were not used in the lesson. Frequently,when teachers first apply a new teachingskill, they have difficulty in monitoringtheir own behavior and observingstudent reactions at the same time. Infact, the normal stress associated withbeing observed may preclude easy recallof what did or did not happen in alesson. A coach who can observe andgive specific feedback regarding thepresence or omission of teachingstrategies can be very useful. In practice,however, technical coaches rarely giveteachers only data; some evaluationseems to creep into most technicalcoahing

&Eakrad fbas* can and shouldbe avoided in technical coaching.'Teachers can make the distinctionbetween evaluative feedback and givingdescriptive data about a lesson It's thedifference between saying 'Your classwas out of control," and describing asituation about which a teacher canmake cause-and-effect inferences: 'Whenyou turned your back to write theexamples on the board students beganto talk"

Content can also focus coaching.Some staffs set schoolwide, grade, ordepartment-level goals to improvecertain teaching skills. For example,teachers might work on skills ofresponding nonjudgmentally, gettingstudents to offer and test theories, andcausing students to reflect about theirown thinking processes. A teachingstrategy-cooperative learning, writingacross the curriculum, synectics-alsocan provide a content focus for coaching

Finally, an administrator focuses thecoaching process by establishing expecta-tions for frequency. In coaching, moreis better. In fact, Joyce and Showers(1982) offer the opinion that a "bestpattern" is teacher-pairs collaboratively

"In coaching,more is better."

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coaching one another each week Overthe long term, they indicate that 10 to15 coached practice sessions aredesirable for teahers to reach a highlevel of skill in learning a moderatelycomplex teaching activity. No simpleformulas exist, however, for the numberof collegial coahing sessions requiredto change teacher norms about pro-feLsional discourse, or the number ofchallenge coaching sessions needed tochange attitudes about team collabora-tive problem solving

Whatever the focus mechanism, thekey to teacher satisfaction and learningand to program success is teacher

Technical CoachingMajor * Accomplish transfer of trainingGoals 0 Establish common vocabulary

* Increase collegiality andprofessional dialogue

Observer * Checks presence, absence, degreePractices of teaching behaviors

* Makes value judgments* Establishes several observations,

postconference cycles on the sametopic

Skills 0 Observation and data collection ofspecific teaching methodology

* Feedback, reinforcement,conferencing skills

Major * Teachers will improve teachingPremise performance provided objective

data is given in a nonthreateningand supportive climate

SpecialResources

0 Training in teaching methodologies

ownership of the process. If anadministraor unilaterally were to deter-mine a focus, the likelihood of teacherownership would be slight. Whenteachers help to choose a focus,however, their commitment to programsuccess itreases accordingly (Bermanand Mdaughin 1975, Garmston 1985,and Liebeman and Miller 1981).

Pride Traning in CoadingTraining in caching is essential and is afourth critical way administrators sup-port peer coaching A litle training is notenough.

Collegial Coaching* Refine teaching practices* Stimulate self-initiating,

autonomous teacher thought* Improve school culture* Increase collegiality and

professional dialogue

* Clarifies in a preconference learningobjectives, teaching strategies, andobserver role

* Helps teachers recall, analyze, andevaluate teaching decisions

* Enables teacher to make valuejudgments

* Enables teacher to selectpreconference, observation,postconference topics

* Observation and data collection ofsuccess indicators, teacherbehaviors, and special area aboutwhich teacher requests data

* Facilitating, in-depth conferencing

* Teachers will acquire career-longhabits of self-initiated reflection andimprovement provided opportunityto develop skills in doing so.

* Training in coaching* Models from administrators,

department chairs, faculty meetings

"The key to teachersatisfaction andlearning and toprogram success isteacher ownershipof the process."

Challenge Coaching* Develop solutions to persistent

instructional problems* Conduct action research* Promote instructional improvements

to other teachers

* Envisions a desired state or definesa problem (challenge)

* Plans action research* Develops, conducts, and tests

solution approaches* Evaluates and recommends adoption

for self or others

* Interpersonal communications,problem solving, and planning

* Observation, data collection,analysis, evaluation, and synthesis

* Problem-solving efforts by thoseresponsible for carrying outinstruction can produce insightful,practical improvements ininstructional design and delivery

* Norms of collegiality andprofessional dialogue

* Release time for planning and groupobservations

* Access to literature or specialists

Fig. 1. Major Distinctions Between Technical, Collegial, and Challenge Coaching

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MI"A teaching strategy-cooperativelearning, writingacross thecurriculum,synectics-alsocan providea content focusfor coaching."

Good training uses the bestavailable information about adultlearning provides teachers with theory,information, and demonstrations; ad-dresses teachers' concerns aboutgiving and receiving feedback; andhelps teachers develop and refinespecific coaching skills. Follow-upworkshops can help teachers refineand monitor coaching practices andsolve problems that tend to come up.During each actual coaching session,coaching teams also evaluate theirown processes.

Good training also provides richpractice in a specific coaching model.In cognitive coaching, for example,coaches are taught to ask cause-effectquestions, respond nonjudgmentally,and offer ideas in ways that leave theobserved teacher in control of thesituation.

Model Desirable BehaviorsTeachers watch the walk more thanthey listen to the talk. Administratorswho model their willingness to beobserved and to receive feedbackcommunicate two powerful messagesto teachers: they value the coachingprocess, and they are willing to risktheir own vulnerability as they learn.

Principals often model their open-ness to feedback by routinely askingstaff to evaluate faculty meetings: Whatdid teachers like about the meeting?What do teachers wish there had beenmore or less of, or done differently?Some principals use surveys to learnhow teachers perceive their per-formance; then they report theresponses at faculty meetings andcommunicate their plans for self-improvement.

Administrators also model by theirwillingness to coach and be coachedby shadowing another principal. Inthe shadowing program developed atFar West Labs, for example, oneprincipal follows a colleague through-out a portion of the day, takes heldnotes, and then interviews the princi-pal about decisions, activities, andbehaviors. The observed principaldiscusses how his or her daily actionsrelate to professed goals and prioritiesfor the school.

It is essential, however, thatprincipals and assistant principalscontinue to distinguish between theirwork with teachers as coaches andtheir work as evaluators (Costa andGarmston 1986). They can effectivelyperform both functions if threeconditions are met: (1) teachers knowwhen principals are supervising themand when they are evaluating them,(2) the principals' behaviors arecongruent with the function they areperforming, and (3) trust exists in therelationship.

Administrators want teachers torespond to feedback about theirteaching, to strive for self-awareness,to monitor and evaluate their deci-sions, and to improve themselvesprofessionally. By modeling thesebehaviors themselves, administratorstake a giant step toward supportingteacher attainment of these goals.0

References

Berman, T, and M Mclaughlin. FederalPrograms Supporting EducationalChange Santa Monica, Calif: RandCorporation, 1975

Costa, A., and R Garmston. "Supervisionfor Intelligent Teaching." EducationalLeadership 42, 5 (February 1985): 70-80

Costa, A., and R Garmston. ''SomeDistinctions Between Supervision andEvaluation." In Better Teaching ThroughInstructional Supervision Policy andPractice, edited by K. A. Tye and ACosta. Sacramento, Calif: CaliforniaSchool Boards Association, 1986.

DeSanctis, M., and A Blumberg "AnExploratory Study into the Nature ofTeacher Interactions with Other Adultsin the Schools." Paper presented at theAnnual Meeting of the AmericanEducational Research Association, SanFrancisco, 1979

Garmston, Robert. "Are leachers Motivatedto Teach Thinking?" In DevelopingMinds: A Resource Book for TeachingThinking, edited by A L CostaAlexandria, Va: Association for Super-vision and Curriculum Development,1985

Joyce, B., and B. Showers Power in StaffDevelopment Through Research onTraining. Alexandria, Va: Associationfor Supervision and Curriculum Devel-opment, 1983

Lieberman, A., and L. Miller. "Synthesis ofResearch on Improving Schools" Educa-tiona leadership 38 (April 1981 ) 583

McREL. What's Notewuorty on Beginningthe School Year, Time Management,Discipline, Expectations, Motivation,Instruction, and Coaching Washington,D.C.: National Institute of Education.1985

Peters, T, and R. Waterman In Search ofExcellence: Lessons from America'sBest-Run Companies. New York: Harperand Row, 1982.

Saphier, John, and Matthew King. "GoodSeeds Grow in Strong Cultures."Educational Leadership (March 1985):67

Shalaway, Linda. "Peer Coaching . . DoesIt Work?" R & D Notes, National Instituteof Education (September 1985): 6-7.

Showers, Beverly "Teachers CoachingTeachers." Educational Leadership 42(April 1985): 43-48.

Robert J. Garmston is Associate Pro-fessor of Education, Department ofEducational Administration, California StateUniversity, 6000 J Street, Sacramento, CA95828

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Copyright © 1987 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. All rights reserved.