The Dark Ages

Charlemagne (742 - 814)

Leader of the Franks

Unifier

Conversion to Christianity

Monastery schools

Book of Kells

Human copymachines

Medieval Warm Period

Evidence

Vikings and Vinland

Population Boom

0

2,000,000

4,000,000

6,000,000

8,000,000

10,000,000

12,000,000

1086 1348

Population

Britain

Japan

Agricultural Revolution

Ox -> horse

2-field to 3-fieldcrop rotation

New tools

Need for more land

Deforestation

WatermillsAnd windmills

The Crusades

European expansionExcess young lords

The Crusades - Legacy

Stimulated interestin exotic goods/information

New military technology

Decline of feudalism

Birth of European Universities

Population boom-> urban migration

Growth of guilds

Classic revival (obtained from

Arab world)

Christian World View

Aristotelian Christianity

Albertus Magnus(~1200 -1280)

Science/religioncoexistence

Bishop of Regensburg

Aristotelian

Albertus Magnus

Futurist or Occultist?

Astrology

Alchemy

“Box of Secrets”

Roger Grosseteste(1168 - 1253)

Bishop of Lincoln

Translated Greek, Hebrew, Arabic---> Latin

Milky Way

Universe - point source

Roger Bacon(1214 - 1294)

Grosseteste student

Lens experiment:telescope?

Elixir = salvation?

Roger Bacon

Gunpowder

Ornithopter

Ships w/out rowersCarriages w/out horsesBridges w/out supports

Black Death

1346 - 1350

Seaports andtrade centers first

Yersinia Pestis

Legacy of the Black Death

Death art Cemeteries & Pest houses Quarantine Latin->vernacular Anti-Semitism Laborers, women Sheep

Renaissance in Italy

Why Italy?

Growth of Cities

Flourishing Commerce,Banking

Merchant Class

Home of Classics

Renaissance Architecture

Brunelleschi’s Duomo

Michelangelo’s Campidoglio

Gothic Architecture

Notre Dame (Paris)

Chartres Cathedral

Renaissance Architecture

Proportion

Realistic art

Harmony & Balance

Brunelleschi

Dome of Santa Mariadel Fiore

Renaissance Art

Divine ProportionLuca Pacioli

Da Vinci

Vitruvian Man

Realism in anatomy

Incorporation of Divine Proportion

Renaissance Art

Titian

Attention to detail

Realistic portrayal of anatomy

Renaissance Art

Use of perspective

Botticelli

Da Vinci

Da Vinci Technology

Reformation

South -> Northworldly secular

Individualism

Questioning established order

Calendar Reform

Julian calendar(Julius Caesar 46 BC)

Error in year length = 11 minutes

Calendar Reform

Pope Gregory XIII

Gregorian calendarskipped from Oct 4to Oct 15, 1582

Gregorian Calendar

Adoption1582: Catholic countries

1752: British isles

1917: Russia

1926: Turkey

Copernicus(1473 - 1543)

Catholic cleric

Studied math,canon law & mmedicine

Failure of Ptolemaic system

Moon’s size should vary

No symmetryor order

Copernican Model

Heliocentricvs.geocentric

De revolutionibusorbium caelestium

The Scientific Revolution

Increased Travel

Universities

Translations

Printing Press

Chaos in Christendom

Hermeticism

Hermes Trismegistus

Alchemy

Astrology

Tycho Brahe(1546 - 1601)

Discovered comet, Supernova

Tychonic Model

compromise

Johannes Kepler(1571 - 1630)

Brahe’s assistant

Cast horoscopes

Pythagorean?

Mysterium Cosmographicum(1596)

Planetary orbitsfit within Platonicsolids

Harmonices Mundi

Kepler attemptedto link planetary orbitswith musical progressions(Pythagorean?)

Kepler’s Laws

1) Planetary orbits are ellipses2) Equal areas in equal time3) (period)2 = (distance)3

Leonard & Thomas Digges

“PerspectiveGlasses”

“ .. discovered Things farre off”

Infinite Universe

PopularizedCopericanism

Giordano Bruno(1548 - 1600)

Copericanand Hermeticist

Inquisition

Hans Lippershey

Patent 1608

Galileo Galilei(1564 - 1642)

Improved upon Lippershey’s model

Looked to the skies

Sunspots

Surface of the Moon

Milky Way & Nebulae

Jupiter’s Moons

“Medicean planets”

Venus’ phases

Venus’ phases

Galileo and Physical Science

Pendulumequal L -> same period

Free Fall

t = 1 s

t = 2 s

t = 3 s

Projectiles

Why did cannonballs fall to the ground?

Galilean Inventions

Pendulum clock

Jovilabe

Galilean Inventions

Thermoscope

pulley

Dialogue Concerning Two World SystemsSagredo

Simplicio

Salviati

“Eppur si Muove”

Medieval Medicine

Bloodletting

Astrology

humors

Paracelsus(1493 - 1554)

>> Celsus

Theophrastus PhillipusAureolus BombastusVon Hohenheim

Nature = Vital force

Paracelsus

Grosse Wundartzung

Different disease = different medicine

Treat with analogues, not opposites

Vesalius(1514 - 1564)

Andre WeseleCrabbe

Anatomistrevised Galen

Fabric of the Human Body

Exhibitions

Anatomy of Dr. Tulp (Rembrandt)

Resurrection Men

Used Executed

criminals

OR

Graverobbing

Students of Vesalius

Gabriele Fallopi

Fabricius

Malpighi

Harvey & Blood Circulation

Heart as a pump

One waysystems

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

Microscopy

Robert Hooke(1635 - 1703) Micrographia

(1665)

Compoundmicroscope

Micrographia

Hooke’s Fossils

Surveyor of London(Christopher Wren)

“I think it will be evident that it could not come from the Flood of Noah since the duration that which was but about two hundred natural days, or half an year, could not afford time enough for the production and perfection of so many and so great and full grown Shells . . . besides the quantity and thickness of the Beds of Sand with which they are many times found mixed, do argue that there must needs be a much longer time of the Seas residence above the same . . .”

Hooke’s Law

F = -kx

= naturalfrequency

Balance springclock

Robert Boyle(1627 - 1691)

Nobleman

1st chemist?

Boyle’s Law 1

Volume ≈ pressure

Nature of Air

Air pump (1660)

Sceptical Chymist

Attempt to apply scientific method to alchemy

Francis Bacon(1561 - 1626)

“Novum Organon”

New AtlantisInductive vs. Deductive

René Descartes(1596- 1650)

Cartesian coordinates

“Cogito ergo sum”

Celestial vortices

Vortex -> Gravity

3 types of elements:luminoustransparentopaque

Descartes & Leibniz

Descartes Leibniz

“extended bodies” “single substances”

constantly changing

“All the parts of every living body are full of other living beings”

Isaac Newton(1642 - 1727)

“If I have seen further it is only by standing on the shoulders of Giants”

-letter to Robert Hooke (1676)

The Wonder Year (1666)

Plague outbreak (1665)

Cambridge University closed

Light Spectrum

Sunlight -> rainbow spectrum

Use of prism to“split” light

Reflecting Telescope (1668 -71)

Alternative Designs

Gregory

Cassegrain

Comet of 1680

Nov 1680 toward the sun

By December, away

One comet or two?

Flamsteed and Halley Court astronomer

at Royal Observatory

Halley cataloguedof Southern skies

Inverse Square Laws

Christiaan Huygens (Wren, Hooke)

1

Force = (distance)2

Newton’s Laws of Motion

1) Inertia & Force

2) Force = Mass x Acceleration

3) Equal & Opposite Actions

Differential Calculus

F = m x a

d(velocity)F = dt

“Fluxions”

Leibniz

“Infinitesimals” 1684

calculator

Newton’s Cannon

Gravity

Mutually attractive

G -- universalgravitational constant

Inverse square

Tides

Tidal Variations

Halley’s Comet

Recognized recurring cometaryvisits

44 BC, 531, 1106 1531, 1682

Predicted return 1758/9

Newton’s Chymistry

Mysterioussymbols

Biblical Numerology

Calculated the date of theApocalypse

Clockmaker God

Deism

Calendar reform

Need for timekeeping

Giovanni Cassini(1625 - 1712)

Discovered Saturn’smoons and ringdivision

Timekeeping withjovilabe

Ole Rømer (1644 - 1710)

Measured speed of light (225,000 km/s)by observingeclipse of Jupiter’s moon

Advances in Cartography

Mercatorprojection(1587)

Mercator Projection

Artificially enlargesland massesnearer to the poles

Greenland vs Africa

Antarctica?

The Problem of Longitude

Latitude: based onidentifiable startingpoints:

EquatorNorth & South Pole

John Harrison

1714£20,000 prize for:

"for such person or persons as shall discover the Longitude.”

Newton: “superiorclock”

Harrison’s timepiece

“H1”

By 1762, accurate to 5 seconds (H4)

Carl Linnaeus(1707 - 1778)

Swedish botanist

Extensive field work

Linnaeus’ catalogue

Hierarchical system

Where do Humans Belong?

Mythical animals

James Ussher(1581 - 1656)

Creation: 4004 BC

Anders Celsius (1701 -1744)

Centigrade“SwedishThermometer”

Sea level

Georges Cuvier(1769 – 1832)

Classified fossils:meat eater vs.plant eater

Pterodactyl

Each rock layer: fossil era

Stratigraphy

100,000 vs. 4000 years

Catastrophism

“All of these facts, consistent among themselves, and not opposed by any report, seem to me to prove the existence of a world previous to ours, destroyed by some kind of catastrophe.” -- Cuvier

Jean-Baptiste LaMarck(1744 – 1829)

Biologisthe further redefinedanimal classes

Environment produces change in animals

Life structured in an orderly manner“pouvoir de la vie”

No extinction: change in form

Uniformitarianism

Gradual change

no abrupt crises

Example:Grand Canyon

James Hutton(1726 – 1797)

“Theory of the Earth with Proofs” -- 1795

Fossils on mountaintops?

Oyster Club

Joseph Black

David Hume

Adam Smith

How Long does this Take?

Age of the Earth?

1000’s?

100000’s?

Millions?

Jean Fourier (1768 – 1830)

Fourier transform

Napoleon advisor

Studied heat flow

Cooling of the Earth

100 million years?

Comte de Buffon(Georges Louis LeClerc (1707 – 1788)

Histoire Naturelle

Comet impactedsun Earth

50,000 years of cooling

Legacies of the Scientific Revolution

(re)birth of science

Career scientists

Societies andpublications

Political Revolutions

American

French

Societal Changes

Rural -> Urban

Labor savingdevices

Factories:mechanizationof textiles

Island of Coal

Newton as inspiration

Coal plentiful

Dangers of Coal Mining

Cave – in

Floods

Air quality

Health effects

Thomas Newcomen(1664 – 1729)

Piston – drivenengine

Steam produced byBurning cheap coal

Wasted heat, fuel

James Watt(1736 – 1819)

New design 1769

3x efficiency

Separate steamcondenser

Steam technology

Transportationlocomotivessteamships

Trade

Experimental Science

Systematic

New instrumentand their applications

Scientific Method