RESUMEN

La historia de la minería y metalurgia en Africa puede ser seguida a través de los sellos emitidos a lo largo deltiempo por los diferentes países africanos. En ellos se muestra que los diamantes, oro, cobre, uranio, fosfatos, bau-xita y otros minerales de interés han sido explotados durante muchos siglos por los nativos utilizando métodos pri-mitivos y posteriormente por los colonizadores europeos que introdujeron las máquinas.

PALABRAS CLAVE: Minería, filatelia, historia, Africa

ABSTRACT

The history of mining and metallurgy in Africa can be readily traced by studying the stamps issued over the yearsby the different African countries. It is shown that diamonds, gold, copper, uranium, phosphate rock, bauxite, andother mineral wealth have been exploited for centuries by the original inhabitants using primitive methods as andthen by the European colonizers who introduced machines.

KEYWORDS: Mining, stamps, history, Africa.

De Re Metallica, 9, 2007 pp. 11-18© Sociedad Española para la Defensa del Patrimonio Geológico y MineroISSN: 1577-9033

HISTORY OF MINING IN AFRICA. A PHILATELIC REVIEW

Fathi Habashi

Department of Mining, Metallurgical, and Materials EngineeringLaval University, Quebec City, Canada G1K 7P4

Fathi.Habashi@arul.ulaval.ca

INTRODUCTION

Before being colonized by the Europeans, the inhabi-tants of Africa have pursued mining of ores and theextraction of metals in a primitive way since ancienttimes. Gold was mined by the ancient Egyptians andmade into magnificent artefacts (Fig. 1). They quarriedgranite (Fig. 2) and other semi-precious stones andmade huge statues (Fig. 3) and vessels (Fig. 4).Botswana the former British colony Bechuanaland insouthern Africa issued in 1980 stamps entitled “EarlyMining”, covering rock breaking (Fig. 5), ore grinding(Fig. 6), ore transport (on oxen) (Fig. 7), ore smeltingFig. (8), and the tools and products of ancient miners(Fig. 9). The stamp showing “ore grinding” is of specialinterest since it records a technology commonly used bythe Africans before the introduction of machines. Alarge granite boulder was tilted back and forth by twomen sitting on a wooden beam fixed on top of the boul-der. This method was apparently quite common that itwas documented by the South African artist Thomas

Baines (1820-1875) who painted this scene that is pre-served at the Port Elizabeth Library in South Africa.Modern mining methods were later introduced by Euro-peans (Figs. 10-13).

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Figure 1

Figure 2

De Re Metallica 9 diciembre 2007 2ª época

India had the monopoly of diamonds until 1723 whenthey were discovered in Brazil and in 1867 in SouthAfrica and then in Siberia. The discovery of diamonds atKimberley in South Africa and the discovery of large golddeposits in the Witwatersrand region of the Transvaal in1886 caused an influx of European, mainly British immi-gration and investment. In addition many blacks fromneighbouring countries also moved into the area to workin the mines. In 1880, Cecil Rhodes (1853 –1902) (Fig.14) launched the De Beers Mining Company after theamalgamation of a number of individual claims. The

Boer reactions to this influx and British political plotsled to the Anglo-Boer Wars of 1880-81 and 1899-1902which resulted in the incorporation of the BoerRepublics of the Transvaal and Orange Free State intothe British Empire. In 1910, the Union of South Africawas formed as a self-governing dominion of the BritishEmpire. Rhodes made a fortune by monopoly of diamondproduction. He was prime minister of Cape Colony from1890 to 1896. He left a part of his fortune to public serv-ice including Rhodes Scholarships.

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Figure 3

Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8

Figure 9Figure 10

Figure 11

Figure 12Figure 13

Figure 14

Figure 4

Figure 5

DIAMONDS

The major suppliers of diamonds in Africa issuedstamps emphasizing this fact:

•Ivory Coast issued in 1972 a stamp showing a dia-mond and a diamond mine (Fig. 15).

•The Kingdom of Lesotho once called Basutoland,issued a stamp entitled “Diamond Mining” whichillustrates miners and a mining machine (Fig. 16)and another entitled “Brown Diamond” (Fig. 17). Onthe occasion of the International Conference onKimberlites in 1973 Losotho issued a stamp showinga worker prospecting for diamond (Fig. 18).

•Sierra Leone issued a stamp in 1961 on the occasionof her independence, showing a man panning fordiamonds (Fig. 19).

•Botswana (Fig. 20), the Republic of Central Africa(Fig. 21), Ghana (Fig. 22), and South-West Africa(now Namibia) (Fig. 23).

•Zaire shows a naturally-occurring diamond and agem cut from it (Fig. 24).

•The Republic of South Africa shows a 530.2 karatdiamond known as Cullinan 1 (Fig. 25) on the occa-sion of the World Diamond Congress; a karat is 200mg.

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Figura 15 Figura 17Figura 16

Figura 18

Figura 20

Figura 21

Figura 22 Figura 23

Figura 24 Figura 25

Figura 19

PRECIOUS STONES

Amethest is exploited in Mozambique (Fig. 26) andKenya (Fig. 27), citrine in Zimbabwe (Fig. 28) andBotswana (Fig. 29), sapphire in Tanzania (Fig. 30) andKenya (Fig. 31), emerald in Uganda (Fig. 32) and Zim-babwe (Fig. 33), beryl in Mozambique (Fig. 34), ruby inKenya (Fig. 35), azurite in South West Africa [Namibia](Fig. 36) and Zimbabwe (Fig. 37), and malachite in Zam-bia (Fig. 38), Uganda (Fig. 39), and Zaire (Fig. 40).

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Figura 26

Figura 27

Figura 28 Figura 29

Figura 30 Figura 31Figura 32

Figura 33 Figura 34 Figura 35

Figura 36 Figura 37

Figura 38 Figura 39Figura 40

GOLD

Present day Ghana was formerly known as Gold Coastbecause of the abundance of gold in the region and itsextensive trade with the Europeans (Fig. 41). She is stilla large producer of gold; a stamp entitled “Gold” show-ing a miner with a pneumatic drill and ingots of gold wasissued on the occasion of 20th anniversary of the UnitedNations Conference on Trade and Development (Fig.42).

Gold was discovered in Swaziland in 1879 (Fig. 43).Stamp mills were introduced there for crushing of oreand amalgamation of gold (Fig. 44). Later cyanidationprocess was introduced (Fig. 45). Witwatersrand inSouth Africa, also known as the Rand, is the most pro-ductive gold-mining district in the world. Surface goldwas discovered in the region in 1884, and active miningoperations began in 1886, the same year in which Johan-nesburg was founded as a gold-mining settlement. Themain gold reef was discovered in the region in 1889, ata depth of 177 m. The tailings of mining operations formheaps in the background, is a typical sight in the city(Fig. 46).

Gold also occurs in Liberia (Fig. 47) and Zimbabwi(Fig. 48). Modern Algeria is also active in gold mining.She showed her gold mine at Tirek-Amesmessa in thesouth of the country on a map and a sample of the ore.Mozambique issued a stamp entitled “Ouro” showing aminer washing gold-containing sand (Fig. 49).

COPPER

Zambia, a large copper producer, issued a stamp enti-tled copper mining showing a miner at work and thealchemists symbol for copper (Fig. 50). Another stampshows a train transporting copper ore (Fig. 51) andanother entitled “Poling a Furnace” showing a workermanipulating a greenwood tree in the anode furnace toremove residual oxygen before casting the molten cop-per in form of anodes for electrolytic refining (Fig. 52).Uganda, another copper producer, issued a stamp in1962 celebrating its independence entitled “CopperMining”. The stamp shows miners drilling the rock to theleft and a copper converter pouring its molten charge tothe right (Fig. 53). A copper converter also appears on a1984 Bophuthatswana stamp (Fig. 54) (one of the nineso-called independent Black Homelands in South Africawith its capital Mafeking, during the Apartheid govern-menet, is now part of the Republic of South Africa afterthe fall of the White Rule).

Botswana issued a stamp on smelting copper-nickelsulfide concentrates (Fig. 55). A copper mine is shownon a 1959 stamp from Rhodesia & Nyasaland, formerBritish colonies (Fig. 56).

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Figura 41

Figura 42

Figura 43Figura 44

Figura 45

Figura 46

Figura 47

Figura 48Figura 49

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URANIUM

South Africa issued a stamp in 1977 entitled “Urani-um Development” to mark 25 years nuclear powerplants; the stamp shows atom symbol (Fig. 57). TheGabon Republic issued a stamp in 1965 showing theoperation at Mounana (Fig. 58). It was there at Oklomine in the Mounana District that the phenomenon ofnatural fission was discovered and also the traces ofnaturally-occurring plutonium.

A stamp entitled “Ra”, i.e., radium, a decay productof uranium, was issued in 1974 by the French TerritoryAfars and Issas (Fig. 59). Known until 1967 as FrenchSomaliland and situated in East Africa at Bab el-Mandab

at the entrance of the Red Sea. Djibouti, the territory’scapital was a free port and the terminus of the French-Ethiopian Railway. The Territory was ethnically andpolitically divided between the majority Issas (Somali)tribe and the minority Afar (Ethiopian) tribe also knownas Danakil. The Issas campaigned for independencewhile the Afar wanted to maintain ties with France.Clashes between the two factions resulted in bloodshedand France changed the name of the Territory to elimi-nate reference to the Somali ethnic group. Conflict,however, continued until the ter-ritory gained its independence in1977 after French occupation forover a century, to become theRepublic of Djibouti.

OTHER METALS

Zimbabwe and South Africa issued stamps showingchromium smelting. Bophuthatswana, a former self-rul-ing African republic in South Africa, famous for its gam-bling casinos in Sun City, issued a series of stamps in1979 entitled “Platinum” showing molten metal pouringfrom a ladle and application of the metal. South Africa

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Figura 50 Figura 51 Figura 52

Figura 53 Figura 54

Figura 55

Figura 56

Figura 57

Figura 58 Figura 59

issued in 1984 a stamp entitled “V” for vanadium show-ing the metal pouring from a furnace and a sample ofthe metal.

Botswana in 1970 recognized its nickel developmentprogram with two stamps on mining at Selebi-Pikwe,one portrayed two nickel miners underground and theother a mine head frame and nickel and copper ingots.In 1984, a stamp illustrating copper-nickel mineral wasalso issued by Botswana. Gold Coast, the present Repub-lic of Ghana issued a stamp in 1948 for its manganesemine (Fig. 60). The Republic of South Africa is also amanganese producer. Tin is produced in Nigeria (Fig. 61)

The Republic of South Africa issued in 1984 a series ofstamps devoted to her mineral and metal industries ofwhich one is for titanium. Namibia, the former Germancolony of South West Africa issued a series of stamps in1991 devoted to her mineral wealth: the Tsumeb cop-per-lead-zinc mine the Rosh Pinah zinc mine, the Vis tinmine, and the Rössing uranium mine. Mauritania haslarge iron deposits in the Zouerate district. A stampshowing mining activity was issued (Fig. 62). SierraLeone shows iron ore production at Marampa on a stampissued in 1956. An Algerian stamp shows the iron oredeposits of its open pit at Djebel Ouenza, a locationmap, and a sample of its ore.

OTHER ORES

Coal has a special place in the mining industry. It isthe largest industrial mineral mined in terms of tonnageand the most dangerous because of the presence ofexplosive and combustible hydrocarbon gases in themines. Many countries have recognized the importanceof coal to their economy and stamps were issued honor-ing the industry. The Kingdom of Swaziland in southernAfrica issued a stamp in 1973 showing the Mpaka coal

mines; the stamp is entitled “Natural Resources. Min-ing”, while Zimbabwe issued a stamp showing moderncoal mining equipment.

Samples of bauxite are shown on stamp from Ghana,the former British colony Gold Coast. The equatorialwest African countries: Guinea (a former French colony)and its neighbor Sierra Leone (a former British colony),possess large deposits of bauxite. The former issued astamp showing charging bauxite in wagons (Fig. 63).Clays are abundant industrial minerals. They are hydrat-ed alumium silicates. Together with limestone they areused in the manufacture of cement. The raw materialsare heated at high temperature in slowly rotating andslightly inclined furnaces known as kilns. Rare crystalsof gypsum known as “Flowers of the Desert” are shownon a South West African stamp.

PHOSPHATE ROCK

North and Central African countries are large produc-ers of phosphate rock. Morocco in 1947, issued a stampmarking the 25th anniversary of the foundation of theindustry; the stamp shows the location of the two minesat Khouribga and Louis Gentil, the port of Safi, andCasablanca where the administration is located (Fig.64). The importance of phosphate for agriculture is indi-cated by fruits and wheat at the lower right corner ofthe stamp. In 1991, the 70th anniversary of the industryis marked on another stamp. The phosphate industry inMorocco is a nationalized industry controlled by theOffice Cherifien du Phosphate. From Central Africa, aSenegalese stamp (1964) depicts the phosphate mine atPallo. Togo issued a series of stamps on the exploitationof the local phosphate deposits in 1964 on the occasionof the 4th anniversary of her independence from Francein 1960.

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Figura 60

Figura 61

Figura 62

Figura 63

Figura 64

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SALT

Salt is the most ancient industrial mineral, it wasalready recovered from sea water and from under-ground mines by the ancient peoples. Many ancienttrade routes have been due to salt localities or saltsprings and battles have been fought for their posses-sion. Salt has at times served for currency, and duringmany centuries in many countries has served as a salary.The word salary comes from Latin for salt. A scene ofmodern salt production are shown on stamps from theformer South West Africa (the present Namibia)1.

CONFERENCES

It is natural that a mining or metallurgy theme isdesigned for a conference dealing with any of these top-ics. For example, when the Seventh CommonwealthMining and Metallurgy Congress was held in1961 inRhodesia and Nyasaland2 a stamp was issued on thisoccasion showing a miner at work underground (Fig. 65),and another showing mine shafts and the processingplant. Morocco issued two stamps in 1987 showing dif-ferent minerals on the occasion of holding the Congresson Mineral Industries in Marrakesh.

EPILOGUE

Postage stamps are important means of communica-tion and many countries have recorded importantevents, honoured worthy individuals, and describedinteresting facts through this medium. Many historicalfacts, sometimes obscure, can be found on stamps;some of these may not be easily located in a history ora science book. Stamps have artistic value, they are cre-ated by artists.

REFERENCE

F. Habashi, D. Hendricker, and C. Gignac, Mining and Metallur-gy on Postage Stamps, Métallurgie Extractive Québec,Sainte-Foy, Québec City, Canada 1999, 350 pages, distrib-uted by Laval University Bookstore “Zone”. E-mail: con-seiller@zone.ul.ca

NOTES

1 Namibia, formerly South-West Africa, was a German colonysince 1884. During World War I, it was occupied by SouthAfrica forces. In terms of the Versailles Treaty it becameunder South Africa administration. All attempts to annex it toSouth Africa during the Apartheid regime was rejected by theUnited Nations. Finally she obtained independence in 1983.

2 Rhodesia, formerly the self-governing colony of SouthernRhodesia, the land that was known to its ruling white popula-tion as Rhodesia and to Africans as Zimbabwe occupies thefertile plateaus and mountain ranges between the Zambeziand Limpopo rivers in southeastern Africa. In 1953 it joinedwith Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) and Nyasaland (nowMalawi) in the so-called Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasa-land, reverting to separate status in 1963 when the Federa-tion was dissolved and its two parteners prepared to claimtheir independence.

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Figura 65