History of Marine Protected Areas

8/13/2019 History of Marine Protected Areas

1/36

HISTORY OF MARINE PROTECTEDAREAS: MEASUREMENTS,

MECHANISMS & FUTURE

OPPORTUNITIES

Leonard Sonnenschein, President

World Aquarium & Conservation for theOceans Foundation

Co-Founder, World Ocean Network


2/36

I. HISTORY OF MPAS &BIODIVERSITY EFFECTS


3/36

HISTORY OF OCEAN LIFE & DISCOVERY

In the days of Aristotle, and up to the late

1800s, the ocean was perceived as a limitless

bounty of food.


4/36

H.M.S. Beagle

In 1831, the H.M.S. Beagle did an extensivereview of the living resources of the ocean. Sincethen, continuous measurements have shown adecline of species biodiversity and numbers of

species, especially those that have beenharvested, exposed to excessive pollution, orinconspicuously threatened throughanthropogenic actions. Mechanisms of these

changes include coastal development, runoffpollution, overfishing, and climate changedisturbances.


5/36

H.M.S. Challenger Expedition

The H.M.S. Challenger embarked from Portsmouth, England onDecember 21, 1872 and changed the course of scientific history.Physicists, chemists, and biologists collaborated with expert navigatorsto map the sea. This interdisciplinary spirit has continued to the presentday. During the 4 year journey, the voyages circumnavigated the globe,sounded the ocean bottom to a depth of 26,850 feet, found many new

species, and provided collections for scores of biologists. The ship was equipped with a natural history laboratory, where

specimens were examined, identified, dissected and drawn. TheChallenger expedition produced 50 volumes, most of which describedthe organisms collected from both deep and shallow water. Much ofwhat we understood about world ocean biogeography for the next 75

years stemmed from analyses of collections made on this journey. Thislaboratory and the collections also reflected a deep collaborationbetween natural historians and other ocean specialists such as physicistsand chemists.

http://life.bio.sunysb.edu/marinebio/challenger.html


6/36

Jacques Cousteau

Cousteau brought an awareness of living

ecosystems to modern society.


7/36

WHAT IS A MARINE PROTECTED AREA?

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are zones of

the seas and coasts where wildlife is protected

from damage and disturbance. MPAs are

widely promoted as a means of protecting

biodiversity, achieving more natural

population structures and managing exploited

fish populations.

SOURCE: http://www.loughs-agency.org/fs/doc/IBIS_UoG_PhD_JoClarke_FINALweb.pdf


8/36

HISTORY OF MPAs

The worlds first marine protected area was probably the FortJefferson National Monument in Florida, which covered 18850hectares of sea and 35 hectares of coastal land. Although this sitewas designated in 1935, the main impetus for MPAs came muchlater. The World Congress on National Parks in 1962 was one of the

first international conservation meetings to give the subject specialattention. A follow up meeting in 1982 called for the incorporationof marine, coastal and freshwater sites into the worldwide networkof protected areas (IUCN 1987). More recently, the Caracas ActionPlan (IUCN 1994a), from the IV World Congress on National Parksand Protected Areas in 1992, promoted four objectives:

1. The integration of protected areas into larger planning frameworks.2. Expanding support for protected areas.

3. Strengthening the capacity to manage protected areas.

SOURCE: Marine protected areas past, present and futureSusan Gubbay


9/36

HISTORY OF MPAs

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are now a mainstreammanagement tool for conserving biodiversity and assistingresource management in virtually all the world's oceansand seas. They are increasingly being used not just toprotect threatened habitats, but also to stave off the sorts

of degradation alluded to above. Several international,national, and local level initiatives and mechanisms serve toadvance MPAs as vehicles for promoting the long-termconservation and sustainable use of marine resources andbiodiversity (Agardy et al., 2003). The proliferation of these

protected areas has been astounding - whereas twentyyears ago a scant handful existed, now virtually everycoastal country has implemented at least one MPA.


10/36

MPAs, areas designated for special protection toenhance the management of marine resources,show promise as components of an ecosystem-based approach for conserving the oceans living

assets. However, MPA proposals often raisesignificant controversy, especially the provisionsfor marine reserveszones within an MPAwhere removal or disturbance of resources is

prohibited, sometimes referred to as closed orno-take areas.

Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystem

Committee on the Evaluation, Design, and Monitoring of Marine Reserves and

Protected Areas in the United States, Ocean Studies Board, National ResearchCouncil


11/36

MPA DESIGN

Effective implementation of marine reserves andprotected areas depends on participation by thecommunity of stakeholders in developing themanagement plan. Federal and state agencies will need toprovide resources, expertise, and coordination to

integrate individual MPAs into the frameworks for coastaland marine resource management in order to meet goalsestablished at the state, regional, national, orinternational level. The lead agency will need to firstidentify all stakeholders, both on- and off-site, and then

utilize methods of communication appropriate for varioususer groups.





12/36

IDENTIFYING LOCATIONS

Choice of sites for MPAs should be integrated

into an overall plan for marine area

management that optimizes the level of

protection afforded to the marine ecosystem

as a whole because the success of MPAs

depends on the quality of management in

the surrounding waters.





13/36

DETERMINING SIZE

The optimal size of marine reserves and

protected areas should be determined foreach location by evaluating the conservation

needs and goals, quality and amount ofcritical habitat, levels of resource use,

efficacy of other management tools, andcharacteristics of the species or biological

communities requiring protection.





14/36

DESIGNATING ZONES & DESIGNING

NETWORKS

Zoning should be used as a mechanism for

designating sites within an MPA to provide

the level of protection appropriate for each

management goal.





15/36

MONITORING

The performance of marine reserves should

be evaluated through regular monitoring and

periodic assessments to measure progress

toward management goals and to facilitate

refinements in the design and

implementation of reserves.





16/36

BIODIVERSITY DEFINITION

The variety of life forms: the differentplants, animals and microorganisms, thegenes they contain, and the ecosystems

they form. It is usually considered atthree levels: genetic diversity, speciesdiversity and ecosystem diversity

(From: National Strategy for the Conservation of Australias BiologicalDiversity, Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories, 1996. ISBN 06422 4427 8).

SOURCE: Scientific Principles for Design of Marine Protected Areas in Australia: A Guidance

Statement

University of Queenslands Ecology Centre


17/36

ZONING PLANNING ALLOWS FOR BEST

MPAsBuild Climate-change Resilience

Include areas spanning the natural biophysical gradients andecological processes of the planning region that includehabitats/species sensitive or vulnerable to climate-driven changes(from drivers such as rainfall, storms, sea level, ocean temperature,

ocean currents driving species recruitment, mortality anddistribution patterns). Such areas should provide for resilience toclimate impacts through: providing inherent natural resilience to impacts (eg including areas

that are naturally highly diverse),

being source areas or refugia, with an emphasis on the southern end

of existing ranges, or protecting the critical ecological processes driving biodiversity to

promote connectivity and assist recovery, replenishment and rangeshifts/extension.


Statement



18/36

ZONING

Within multiple-use MPAs, zoning offers the opportunity to maximise conservationbenefits by spatially separating activities that pose different degrees/types ofthreats, including those, such as tourism, that may provide benefits.

Zoning also offers the opportunity for some conservation objectives to be achievedwithin zones of protection lower than high-protection, such as where specific usescan be demonstrated to pose insignificant risk to a conservation feature.

Recognising that the burden of proof should rest with the user to demonstratethat any impacts will be maintained within acceptable levels, zoning should bebased on: The consideration of the threat that specific activities pose and the capacity of MPA

management arrangements to mitigate that threat;

The status of the conservation features potentially affected;

Opportunities to maximise complementarity of reserve areas with human values, activitiesand opportunities (ie to minimise conflict with users);

Consideration of how to efficiently minimise socio-economic costs and maximise socio-economic benefits while simultaneously continuing to deliver conservation outcomes.


Statement



19/36

DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIRST MPA

IN 1977


20/36

II. EFFECTS OF MECHANISMS OFMPAS


21/36

The Causal Link Between MPAs and

Fisheries

The production of fish populations in the MPAmust exceed that in the surrounding area.

Fish production in the MPA must be exported

to adjacent fished areas. The sustained catches of fish in the areas

adjacent to MPAs must increase by an amount

of at least equal to the loss of catch resourceusers suffer as a result of forgone access toMPAs.

SOURCE: Proceedings of the 48

th

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute


22/36

EXAMPLES OF PROCESS UNCERTAINTIES FOR MPAsUncertainty Source Characteristics Impacts on setting targets

Climate change

(e.g., global warming)

Average climate conditions or

cycles may change. Variability and

intensity of stochastic events such

as storms might increase.

Community structure might change

in response.

Might generate non-independence

of MPA and control area. Temporal

and spatial projection of

monitoring might become

restricted.

Species invasions

(e.g., Batillaria attramentaria,

Carcinus maenas, Hymeniacidon

sinapium)

Interaction strengths between

organisms may change. Some

species might be displaced.

Physical habitat structure may be

altered.

Baseline communities will

undergo directional change,

making projection of monitoring

difficult.

Community structure following

invasion will be difficult to predict.

Disease outbreaks

(e.g., withering foot syndrome in

black abalone)

Onset of disease is not

predictable, but effects may be.

Alters mortality schedule of target

population.

Trophic cascades

(e.g., re-introduction of sea otters)

Generates relatively predictable

community changes

Might alter baseline community

and interaction strengths.

Anthropogenic catastrophes

(e.g., oil spills)

Occurrence of particular events are

not predictable, but likelihood of

catastrophes can be calculated

Resets community structure at

different spatial scales

SOURCE: Syms & Carr: Marine Protected Areas: Evaluating MPA effectiveness in an uncertain world

Eff ti t d f t i t i fi h i bj ti


23/36

Effectiveness parameters and sources of uncertainty in fisheries objectives

Effectiveness parameter Predicted change with Protection Uncertainties

Abundance (targeted and bycatch species) Increased abundance of MPA population relative

to

unprotected populations

Recruitment success is variable, density

dependent mortality may regulate abundance

changes

Size structure (targeted and bycatch species) Increase in proportion of

larger individuals in MPA

population relative to


Social inhibition of growth, time lags in growth,

large individuals might be rare

and difficult to precisely count

Larval production (targeted and bycatch species) Increase in larval production in protected areas

relative to


Dispersal distance and dynamics unknown,

source of recruits to MPA and

control areas unknown

MPA population stability

(targeted and bycatch

species)

Decreased temporal

variability of large, mature

individuals and larvalproduction relative to


Degree to which sub-population within MPA can

be replenished by local production unknown

Stock stability

(increased buffering of

environmental fluctuations

by storage effect)

Decreased temporal

variability of recruitment to

exploited populations and

fishery

Degree to which sub-population within MPA

replenishes exploited population unknown

Habitat Persistence of or recovery to a natural state. Natural perturbations, temporal lags in recovery

Fishery yield

(increased benefit to fishery by increased and

less variable larval production, and spillover

effects)

Dampen temporal variability of yield, increased

yield, increase catch and average size of

individuals closer to MPA by spillover

Depends upon stability of MPA population,

extent to which MPA population replenishes

exploited population, and rate of exploitation

(degree of growth and recruitment

overfishing).

Spillover difficult to measure

Genetic diversity Maintain or increase genetic diversity of MPA

populations and stock

Depends on relative contribution of MPA and

exploited populations to recruitment of each



24/36

Sources of Uncertainty that Operate

when Evaluating MPA Effectiveness



25/36

Stakeholder participation enhances compliance because stakeholders are more knowledgeableabout, committed to, and supportive of regulations if they had a say in the process.

Perceptions also affect compliance. Participants who see their contributions as making a differenceand perceive the process as legitimate and fair are more likely to comply with the result.

It may be beneficial for coastal and marine managers to involve the public to a greater extent thanwhat is required by law.

To balance strategic scientific and resource management objectives with the need for improvedstakeholder participation, recognition is growing of the need to combine top-down (i.e.government driven) and bottom-up (i.e. stakeholder-driven) approaches to environmentaldecision making.

Co-management regimes may increase legitimacy and foster community and economicdevelopment while achieving resource management goals, but implementation of such regimesmay require the development of new legal, administrative, and institutional arrangements.

Goals for a participation process should be established early and communicated clearly.

Appropriate process design depends on goals and context. There is no best place to be along theparticipation continuum, and no one process can fit all situations.

Managers need to evaluate what level of participation is appropriate to their situation, given theirstated goals, and plan accordingly.

Different participatory mechanisms lead to different levels of involvement, with some merelyfacilitating information sharing and others providing opportunities for real deliberation.


26/36

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been

shown since 1985 to provide a resource

recovery area and refuge for breeding and

rearing of a plethora of species.


27/36

Marine Protected Areas also can provide

through best-management practices a method

for improving bioproductivity while

maintaining species diversity and numbers.


28/36


29/36

III. FUTURE OF MPAS


30/36

MPAs in the Future

In the future, it will be through management

of MPAs that we will be able to improve our

bioproductivity at the same time preserving

our biodiversity.


31/36

MPAs in the Future

Marine protected areas have become the flagships of marineconservation programmes in many parts of the world. For thepublic and politicians, they are often the most tangible part of amarine conservation programme it is possible to visit a marineprotected area, to see what is being done to promote conservationat the site, and to be a part of its success or failure throughindividual actions. For the conservation manager, they are anopportunity to concentrate effort and resources on protectingmarine wildlife and habitats. Action taken at these sites also makesa contribution to wider conservation efforts. Two very differentexamples of this are their potential as a reservoir for species whichcan seed other areas, and as a good base for marine educationprogrammes. Marine protected areas often get a lot of publicattention and they are at the leading edge of the marineconservation programmes in many countries.

SOURCE: Marine protected areas past, present and future

Susan Gubbay


32/36

MPAs in the Future

Permanent marine protected areas are an essentialelement in the management of coastal resources for manyreasons.

The monetary basis for sustainable management can beachieved if protected areas are developed primarily arounda system to finance MPAs and less on considerations likeoptimal designs for larval transport, geographicuniqueness, pristineness'' or species richness.

Local to national taxes along with serial donor support orboth, combined with taxes on fisheries and tourism, whenpossible, should ensure that some areas receive protective,not paper, management.

SOURCE: T.R. McClanahan, Is there a future for coral reef parks in poor tropical

countries?


33/36


34/36

ECONOMICS OF MPAs

Establishing marine protected areas may initially be costly. One of the potentialcosts of MPAs to local fishers is that they may need to move further from home tocatch fish in legal fishing grounds. In the short term, fishers may needcompensation for loss of fishing grounds, until other livelihood options have beensecured. Studies show that a global network of MPAs covering 2030 per cent ofthe seas would cost between USD 5 and 19 billion to run per year. Such a networkwould require an increased investment in marine conservation by around two

orders of magnitude compared to today. But in the long run, benefits vastly overrule initial costs. Seen in a global

perspective, the cost of a network of MPAs covering 30 per cent of the oceans isestimated at less than global spending on harmful subsidies to fisheries. Such anetwork would help safeguard and increase fish stocks - today worth about USD 80billion yearly. It would also make sense for local fishers who, as fish stocks growand important habitats are restored, may start to harvest bigger and more fish

closer to home. Another positive effect is to ensure the sustained delivery ofmarine ecosystem services (such as reefs providing shoreline protection, andsewage cleansing in mangrove areas), worth an estimated USD 7,000 billion eachyear. And it would help coastal communities by generating between 830,000 and1.1 million full-time jobs in tourism, park monitoring, etc.

SOURCE: WWF, Marine Protected Areas: providing a future for fish and people


35/36

MPA BENEFITS

Provide alternative incomes for local communities and alleviatepoverty

Increase fish catches in surrounding fishing grounds

Protect sensitive habitats from disturbances and damage fromfishing gear, such as bottom trawls

Foster natural age structures in populations, increasing fish catches Provide refuge for species that cannot survive in areas that

continue to be fished

Prevent bycatch of non-target species

Eliminate ghost fishing by lost or discarded gear

Serve as benchmarks of what is an undisturbed, natural ecosystem,that can be used to measure fishery effects in other areas andthereby help to improve fisheries management

SOURCE: WWF, Marine Protected Areas: providing a future for fish and people


36/36

Thank You!

Leonard Sonnenschein, President

World Aquarium & Conservation for the Oceans Foundation

Co-Founder, World Ocean Network

[email protected] North 15thStreet, 2ndFloor

St. Louis, MO 63103 USA
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]

History of Marine Protected Areas

Documents

Transcript of History of Marine Protected Areas