Marine protected areas and Fisheries

8/3/2019 Marine protected areas and Fisheries

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FISHERIES MANAGEMENTFISHERIES MANAGEMENT

4. Marine protected areas and sheries4. Marine protected areas and sheries

FAO

TECHNICALGUIDELINES FOR

RESPONSIBLEFISHERIES

4

ISSN 1020-5292

Suppl. 4


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Cover illustration: Emanuela DAntoni


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The designations employed and the presentation of material in this

information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever

on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city

or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers orboundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers,

whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have

been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar

nature that are not mentioned.

ISBN 978-92-5-106790-1

All rights reserved. FAO encourages reproduction and dissemination of

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queries concerning rights and licences, should be addressed by e-mail [email protected] or to the Chief, Publishing Policy and Support Branch,

Office of Knowledge Exchange, Research and Extension, FAO,

Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy.

FAO 2011


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iii

PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT

T

Marine Protected Areas and Fisheries Management:

Review of Issues and Considerations1

The Guidelines on

Fisheries management

1


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iv

FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries

ABSTRACT


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v

CONTENTS

Introduction 1 1

Part 1 What are MPAs and what do they do? 7

9

2. Fisheries management and the ecosystem approach 3

s

s

3. Biological and ecological effects of MPAs

9


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vi

1

s

s

4. Social and economic impact: the human dimensionsof MPAs 51 s 1

s

s

s

s

s

s

PART 2 Planning and implementing MPAs 63

5. Legal, institutional and policy frameworks for MPAs 65

s

6. The MPA planning process 85 s


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vii

s

7. MPA implementation 107

s

1

s

s

1

s

8. Information for MPAs 129

s


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viii

s

1

s

s

9. Lessons learned and future directions 149 1

s 1

MPAs and MPA networks in the high seas 157

What amount of marine protected area is 65

and MPAs 169

1

73

Glossary 179

References 187


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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

CAR

CBD

CCRF

COFI

CORALI

CPUE EA

EAF

EEZ

ESD

GFCM

GIS

GPS

ICM, ICZM, ICAM ICRAN

IMO

IPOA

ISA

IUCN

LMMA

MARPOL

MCS

MPA

MSY

NAFO

NEAFC

NGO

NOAA

PES PPP

PSSA

RFB


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RFMO/A

RRA/PRA

SEAFDEC

SEAFO

SLED

SPR

TAC

TURFs

UNCED

UNCLOS

UNEP

UNESCO

UNFSA

VME

VMS

WCPA

WWF

WSSD

WSSD-POI


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PREFACE

T


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Kevern Cochrane


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BACKGROUND


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Fisheries Management


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1

INTRODUCTION

T

GUIDELINES ON MARINE PROTECTED AREAS IN THE CONTEXT

OF FISHERIES

the use of diverse approaches and tools, including the ecosystem approach,

information, including representative networks by 2012 and time/area closures

for the protection of nursery grounds and periods, proper coastal land use

and watershed planning and the integration of marine and coastal area

management into key sectors.


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2

PURPOSE AND TARGET AUDIENCE

is


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3Introduction

STRUCTURE OF THE GUIDELINES

Part 1

Part 2


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4


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5Introduction

Box 1

Recmmended reading

The Guidelines provide information on MPAs in a sheries context and discuss

how the targets of sheries management and biodiversity conservation can be

bridged. Other guidelines and documents provide information and background

on related issues, including sheries management and MPAs for biodiversity

conservation.

FAo dcuments

The FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries series, supportingimplementation of the CCRF, includes the following volumes with relevance to

the context of MPAs and the present Guidelines:

Fisheries management (FAO, 1997).

The ecosystem approach to sheries (FAO, 2003a).

The human dimensions of the ecosystem approach to sheries (FAO,

2009a).

In addition, there are several supporting FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture

Technical Papers:

A shery managers guidebook: management measures and their

application (FAO, 2002).

A shery managers guidebook, 2nd ed. (Cochrane and Garcia, 2009).

The ecosystem approach to sheries: issues, terminology, principles,

institutional foundations, implementation and outlook (FAO, 2003b).

Human dimensions of the ecosystem approach to sheries: an overview of

context, tools and methods (FAO, 2008b).

As part of the preparation of the present Guidelines, an expert workshop was

held and the proceedings published as:

Report and documentation of the Expert Workshop on Marine Protected

Areas and Fisheries Management: review of issues and considerations

(FAO, 2007a).

Dcuments by ther rganizatins

A number of excellent documents and guidelines on MPAs are available from

international or regional organizations and non-governmental organizations

(NGOs):

Establishing resilient marine protected area networks: making it happen(IUCN-WCPA, 2008).


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6

(Box 1 cont.)


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PART 1

What are MPAs

and what do they do?


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9

1. MPA DEFINITION AND CONTEXT

T

While the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries does not refer explicitly

to MPAs, their use is implied in the recommendation for management measures

including closed areas, seasons and reserved zones to minimize waste,

species, in particular endangered species. The FAO technical guidelines for

1.1 WHAT IS AN MPA?

any marine geographical area that is

afforded greater protection than the surrounding waters for biodiversity

MPA


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10

IUCN categories of protected areas

Category Description

Sources:


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11

BOX 2

Any area of the intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its

features, which has been reserved by law or other effective

means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment (Kelleher,

1999).1

and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve

the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem

services and cultural values (Dudley, 2008).

within or adjacent to the marine environment, together with its

cultural features, which has been reserved by legislation or other

effective means, including custom, with the effect that its marine

or coastal biodiversity enjoys a higher level of protection than its

surroundings


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12

BOX 3

In Brazil

In the Philippines

In Senegal

In the United States of America


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13

1.2 WHAT ARE THE PRIMARY REASONS FOR ESTABLISHING MPAs?

Sources:

(Box 3 cont.)

FIGURE 1

Source:


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14


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15


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1.3 WHAT ARE THE RISKS OF MPAs?


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1.4 WHAT IS AN MPA NETWORK?


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18

comprehensiveness adequacy

representativeness

1.5 WHY DO WE NEED MPA NETWORKS?


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19

FIGURE 2

Protecting different life stages through network connectivity


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21

KEY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS No. 1

With a view to facilitating understanding of the purpose of MPAs and MPA

networks and their effects, the meaning and characteristics of this conservation

spite of its popularity and frequent use in international fora, there is no universal

according to local needs and circumstances.


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23

2. FISHERIES MANAGEMENT AND THE

I

management shall promote maintenance of the quality, diversity and

wider ecosystem considerations into account.

2.1 WHAT IS FISHERIES MANAGEMENT?


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25

11

2.2 WHAT IS THE ECOSYSTEM APPROACH TO FISHERIES?

11


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26

2.3 WHAT ABOUT THE PRECAUTIONARY APPROACH?


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FIGURE 3

Source:


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28

2.4 HOW ARE MPAs AND OTHER SPATIAL MANAGEMENT TOOLS USED

IN FISHERIES MANAGEMENT?


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29

2.5 IN WHAT SITUATIONS ARE MPAs USEFUL AS A FISHERIES

MANAGEMENT TOOL?


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BOX 4

Source:


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31

BOX 5

in Chile

Government authorities monitor that the provisions of the management plan

Source:


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Minimizing bycatch

Protecting habitat and biodiversity

Buffering against uncertainty


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Delegating management responsibilities or tasks

Protecting traditional and cultural use rights and practices


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Protecting and enhancing local livelihoods

2.6 HOW CAN MPAs BE USED TO BRIDGE FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION?


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MPAs and MPA networks can constitute an important management tool, especially

objectives. However, there are many management options in addition to MPAs

that may produce better effects. The management context needs to be understood

and combinations of appropriate measures implemented accordingly.


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39

3. BIOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS

OF MPAs IN A FISHERIES CONTEXT

T

management measures should be adopted for the long-term sustainability of

the productive capacity of the resources, and measures should be taken to

aquatic ecosystems and protect habitats from negative outcomes.

3.1 WHAT ARE THE KEY FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE EFFECTS

OF AN MPA OR MPA NETWORK?

The location


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40

The sizenumbertotal area

The nature of protection

the movement ofanimals

activities outside the MPA


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41

3.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO FISH AND THEIR ECOSYSTEMS WITHIN MPAs?

BOX 6

Effects on biomass

Source:


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Preserving genetic diversity


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Effects on habitats and biodiversity


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BOX 7

Georges Bank

trawling on the Great Barrier Reef

Sources:Collie et al.et al.


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FIGURE 4

Average increases in densities, biomass, organism size and species

diversity inside reserves

3.3 HOW DO MPAs AFFECT FISHERY PRODUCTION OUTSIDE THEIR

BOUNDARIES AND CAN THEY CONTROL FISH MORTALITY?

Source:et al.


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Palinurus elephas)

et al.


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BOX 8

Apo Island Marine Reserve in the

west coast of Hawaii

Sources:et al.et al.


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3.4 WHAT HAPPENS IN MPA NETWORKS WITH REGARD TO

SUSTAINING FISH POPULATIONS AND SUPPORTING FISHING YIELDS?


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3.5 HOW DO MPAs WORK AS A HEDGE AGAINST UNCERTAINTY?

et al.

et al.


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MPAs and MPA networks have biological and ecological effects both within and

conventional measures.


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51

4. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT: THE HUMAN

DIMENSIONS OF MPAs

T

management and biodiversity conservation decisions should take relevant

economic and social factors into consideration and recognize the important

food security.

MPAs?


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ESTABLISHING MPAs

COMMUNITIES?


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53Social and economic impact: the human dimensions of MPAs


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DESIGNATING MPAs IN A POVERTY CONTEXT?


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4.4 HOW ARE MPAs PERCEIVED BY FISHERS AND OTHER

STAKEHOLDERS?


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BOX 9

Impacts of MPAs on livelihoods the Hangberg case study, South Africa


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4.5 HOW ARE MPAs LIKELY TO AFFECT FISHERS! BEHAVIOUR,

FISHING EFFORT AND FISHING CAPACITY?

Source:Sowman et al.

(Box 9 cont.)


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BOX 10

Source:


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BOX 11

Modeling effort displacement from marine protected areas

Source:


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4.6 WHAT ARE THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ADVANTAGES OF MPA

NETWORKS OVER SINGLE MPAs?

4.7 WHY ARE THE HUMAN DIMENSIONS OF MPAs SO IMPORTANT?


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MPAs and MPA networks have social and economic impacts affecting different

stakeholder groups in different ways. Successful MPA planning and implementation

react to the MPA designation and its management rules and regulations. To be

successful, it is crucial to take both the environmental and human dimensions into

account when planning and implementing MPAs and MPA networks.


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PART 2

Planning and implementing MPAs


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5. LEGAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY

FRAMEWORKS FOR MPAs

T

The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries prescribes that states should

ensure that appropriate policy, legal and institutional frameworks are in place

5.1 WHY ARE APPROPRIATE LEGAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY

FRAMEWORKS IMPORTANT FOR MPAs?


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66

5.2 WHAT ARE THE MAIN INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORKS

RELEVANT TO MPAs?


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67Legal, institutional and policy frameworks for MPAs


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68

BOX 12

International instruments relevant to biodiversity conservation,

Hard law:

Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United

Soft law:


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(Box 12 cont.)

5.3 WHAT CAN BE DONE TO ADDRESS PROBLEMS IN NATIONAL

LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS?


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BOX 13

In Senegal

In the Philippines

Sources:et al.,


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BOX 14

The establishment of national coordinating mechanisms for MPAs:

In Belize

In

tangata

whenua

tangata whenua


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Source:

(Box 14 cont.)


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BOX 15

Indicators of good legislation and legislative processes for MPAsa

Source:a

5.4 WHAT ARE THE KEY POLICY FRAMEWORK CONSIDERATIONS

AND HOW DO MPAS RELATE TO BROADER SPATIAL MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIES?


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BOX 16

What are marine spatial management frameworks?

Sources:


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5.5 WHAT ARE THE INSTITUTIONAL REQUIREMENTS AT THE LEVEL

OF INDIVIDUAL MPAs?


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BOX 17

Source:


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5.6 WHAT ABOUT MPAs IN TRANSBOUNDARY AND INTERNATIONAL

WATERS?


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BOX 18

Benguela Current Commission

Sources:et al.

5.7 WHAT IS THE INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL SITUATION FOR MPAs IN

INTERNATIONAL WATERS?


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Planning and implementation of MPAs and MPA networks must be supported

by appropriate legal, institutional and policy structures, including cross-sectoral

coordination mechanisms and provisions for stakeholder participation. Most

conservation or sustainable use of natural resources. However, these existing

of MPAs with multiple objectives and should be revisited as required. Policy

coherence and the use of marine spatial management frameworks are important


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6. THE MPA PLANNING PROCESS

T

and ecosystem objectives should be translated into management actions and

Decision-making processes should be transparent and should include

stakeholder participation.

6.1 WHAT ARE THE MAIN ENTRY POINTS FOR MPAs INTO FISHERIES

AND EAF MANAGEMENT?


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6.2 HOW DO MPAs RELATE TO OVERARCHING NATIONAL OR

SECTORAL POLICY GOALS AND DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES?


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87The MPA planning process

6.3 WHAT IS THE PROCESS FOR PLANNING AN MPA?

6.4 WHEN AND HOW SHOULD STAKEHOLDERS BE INVOLVED IN MPA

PLANNING?


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FIGURE 5

Common steps of an MPA planning process


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BOX 19

MPA planning and implementation in the Philippines

bantay

dagat

Sources:


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FIGURE 6

Sources:


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BOX 20

the Phu Quoc case study

Source:


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6.5 HOW ARE THE ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED BY MPAs IDENTIFIED

6.6 WHAT IS A VISION AND WHAT ARE USEFUL MPA GOALS AND

OBJECTIVES?


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BOX 21

Tools for analysis and prioritization

hierarchal or problem tree

analysis

assessments

impact reviews

Source:


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BOX 22

MPAs should contribute to some of the following goals.

Biological/ecological goals:

Social and economic goals:

Governance goals:

Source:


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BOX 23

Goals and objectives of the Prince Edward Islands MPAin South Africa

(Dissostichus eleginoides)

Source:


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6.7 HOW ARE THE OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVES FOR AN MPA SET?

S

M

A

R

T


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6.8 WHAT ARE THE KEY MPA DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS?

How is the site for an MPA selected?


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BOX 24

Outline of zoning provisions in the Great Barrier Reef

Source:


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How much is enough area for MPAs?


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What needs to be protected and what are the main threats?

whatlife stage or stages should be protected?

What percentage of the total potential production or biomass at eachlife stage needs to be protected?

What other management measures are already in place to protect thislife stage?

how much additional PPP isrequired, above that offered by existing management measures, to

achieve the percentage of protection required for this life stage?


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how much of the total area

of occurrence of the species or community needs to be protected by

an MPA or network of MPAs?

Is the life stage (or community) distributed evenly across the area?

MPAs?


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What are the main governance systems available for MPAs?


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de jure

6.9 WHAT IS AN MPA MANAGEMENT PLAN?

FIGURE 7

Source:


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Planning of MPAs and MPA networks should be done through integrated and

participatory decision-making processes, based on good governance principles.

framework of the overall policy framework and overarching goals.

Development of a vision and overall goals and objectives:

Design of MPA:

Preparation of management plan:


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7. MPA IMPLEMENTATION

T

The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries urges states to ensure that

conservation and management. Decision-making processes should be

transparent and resource users involved in implementation processes.

7.1 WHAT ADMINISTRATIVE ARRANGEMENTS ARE NEEDED FOR MPA

IMPLEMENTATION?


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109MPA implementation

7.2 WHAT ARE THE KEY CONSIDERATIONS WHEN DRAFTING RULES

AND REGULATIONS FOR MPAs?

7.3 WHAT ABOUT COMPLIANCE WITH AND ENFORCEMENT OF MPA

MANAGEMENT RULES AND REGULATIONS?


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CONTEXT OF MPA IMPLEMENTATION?


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BOX 25

Alternative livelihoods in Samoa

Source:

7.5 WHY ARE INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION IMPORTANT IN

MPA IMPLEMENTATION?


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BOX 26

Discovery phase (understanding the complexity of livelihoods and their

relationship with natural resources, the wider economy and society, and

developing a vision)

Direction phase (understanding and analysing the opportunities for achieving

the visions developed during the discovery phase)

Doing (developing people!s capabilities and adaptive capacity, together with

networks to support the plans for sustainable livelihood development)


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Sources:

(Box 26 cont.)


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7.6 WHAT RESOLUTION MECHANISMS ARE AVAILABLE IN THE CASE

OF CONFLICT IN IMPLEMENTING MPAs?


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7.7 HOW ARE MPAs MONITORED AND WHAT IS MANAGEMENT

EFFECTIVENESS?

et al.et al.


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BOX 27

Saint Lucia, the Caribbean

Source:

biological and ecological effects


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socio-economic and distributional

effects

et al.


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BOX 28

et al

Relativechangeineffort

Relativeeffort

a) Density outside MPA/density inside MPA

b) Density ratio

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.20.20

-0.2

-0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2

1.6

1.4

1.2

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0

Figure 1.


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Sourceet al.

7.8 WHAT IS ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF MPA

IMPLEMENTATION?

(Box 28 cont.)


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Adaptive management


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SUSTAINABLE RESOURCING FOR MPAs BE ADDRESSED?


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BOX 29

Payment for environmental services

Source:


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Successful MPA and MPA network management requires comprehensive

and the chosen governance approach and management system.

The MPA management plan should include details of these structures and

management. Provisions are needed for staff and general administration, and the

following implementation and administrative functions should be covered:

Rules and regulations:

Compliance and enforcement:

Other implementation mechanisms:

Communication:

Management effectiveness and monitoring systems:


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Political commitment and sustainable resourcing:


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8. INFORMATION FOR MPAs

I

The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries states that conservation and

evidence available, also taking into account traditional knowledge of the

resources and their habitat, as well as relevant environmental, social and

economic factors. The absence of adequate information should not be a reason

8.1 WHAT IS THE BASIC INFORMATION NEEDED FOR MPA PLANNING

AND IMPLEMENTATION AND HOW IT IS IT GENERALLY COLLECTED?


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130

Biological and ecological assessment:

Social assessment:

Financial and economic assessment:

Institutional and governance assessment:


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131Information for MPAs


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132

BOX 30

Traditional ecological knowledge, local knowledgeand indigenous knowledge

Sources:

8.2 WHAT BIOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION AND DATA

COLLECTION ARE NEEDED FOR MPA?


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8.3 WHAT SOCIAL INFORMATION ON COASTAL COMMUNITIES

IS REQUIRED FOR MPAs?

et al.,


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8.4 WHAT ARE THE KEY MPA FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC

INFORMATION NEEDS?


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BOX 31

Participatory information collection methodsand human dimension tools

Asset mapping

Social mapping

to draw maps illustrating their human relationships and their

Institutional analysisis the investigation of how formal and informal rules

Social impact assessment (SIA)


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Participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E) involves the

(Box 31 cont.)


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138


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8.5 WHAT INFORMATION IS NEEDED TO UNDERTAKE AN

INSTITUTIONAL ASSESSMENT FOR MPAs?


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140

8.6 WHAT KNOWLEDGE AND INFORMATION ARE NEEDED TO DESIGN

AN MPA NETWORK?

per se,


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8.7 HOW CAN TOOLS SUCH AS GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

SYSTEMS, SCENARIO DEVELOPMENT AND MODELLING HELP MPA

PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION?


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GIS,

BOX 32

Geographic information systems


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Scenario development82

Modelling

WHEN PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTING MPAs?


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144

et al.

et al.

BOX 33

Source:


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8.9 IS THERE A NEED FOR MORE RESEARCH ON MPAs?


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146


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As part of MPA and MPA network planning and implementation, information needs

governance aspects of the MPA. Assessments should also identify existing and

potential problems, needs and opportunities relevant to the MPA and its planning

and implementation processes. Multidisciplinary information and analyses are

required.


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148


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149

9. LESSONS LEARNED AND FUTURE

DIRECTIONS

M

9.1 WHAT ARE THE KEY LESSONS ON MPAS AND FISHERIES?


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150


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151Lessons learned and future directions

9.2 WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF MPAs?

MPAs and opportunities in an increasingly integrated world

Integrated marine spatial management:


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Decentralization policies and co-management:

MPA networks:

Sustainability of MPAs:

Research and new technologies:


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Competition for resources: The

Legal, institutional and policy frameworks:

Ocean governance:

High seas management:

Food security and poverty reduction:


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154

Social buy-in and compliance:

Climate change:

Large MPAs:


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157

ANNEX 1

MPAs AND MPA NETWORKS IN THE HIGH SEAS

T

1

GOVERNANCE REGIMES FOR THE HIGH SEAS AND AREAS BEYONDNATIONAL JURISDICTION

1


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in situ


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159Annex 1 MPAs and MPA networks in the high seas

BOX 34

Additional international instruments relevant to biodiversity

Hard law:

Soft law:


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FIGURE 8

Competence areas of RFMO/As


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Spatial management measures in the high seas


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162

Future prospects for MPAs in the high seas


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164

Source:

BOX 36

benthic protected areas

Source:


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ANNEX 2

WHAT AMOUNT OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAIS NEEDED TO SUSTAIN FISH POPULATIONS?

T

SPAWNING PER RECRUIT AND MOBILITY

1

1


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EXPORT OF EGGS AND LARVAE


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Annex 2 What amount of marine protected area is needed to sustain

et al.


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ANNEX 3

MODELS USED FOR FISHERIES MANAGEMENTAND MPAs

M

MODELLING THE EFFECTS OF MPAs ON FISH MORTALITY


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1

management

Risk assessment

1


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171MPAs

Risk management


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173

ANNEX 4

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

C

SOURCES OF CONFLICT


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TYPOLOGY OF CONFLICTS

Data and facts:

Needs and interests:

Values:

Relationships:

THE CONCEPT OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT


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CONFLICT ASSESSMENT

Stage in the project cycle:

Legal and institutional context:

Accommodation

Withdrawal

Force


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Compromise

Consensus

APPROACHES TO CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Conciliation or arbitration

Negotiation

Mediation


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Multistakeholder analysis

consensus-building.

SELECTING AN APPROACH


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FURTHER READING


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179

GLOSSARY

Source:

Benthic

inter alia

Source:

Bycatch

Source:

Ecosystem

Source:


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180

Source:

Source:

Ecosystem services

Source:

Source:

Fishery

Source:


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181Glossary

Fisheries management measures

Source:

Fisheries refugia

Source:

Fishing capacity

Source:

Fishing effort

Source:

Fish mortality

Source:


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Fish population

Source:

Source:

Governance

Source:

High seas

The


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183Glossary

Source:

Integrated management

Source:

Livelihood

Source:

Source:

Monitoring


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184

Control Surveillance

Source:

Source:

Reference point

Source:

Resilience

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