Higher Close Reading 40% Understanding the meaning… These questions test your basic understanding...

Higher Close ReadingHigher Close Reading

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Understanding the meaning…Understanding the meaning…• These questions test your basic understanding of the passage. These questions test your basic understanding of the passage. • You should gather pieces of information from the passage and You should gather pieces of information from the passage and

put these into your own words. put these into your own words. – Simple words can be repeated if there is no obvious alternativeSimple words can be repeated if there is no obvious alternative– Figures of speech should be converted into plain languageFigures of speech should be converted into plain language– Slang should be re-stated formallySlang should be re-stated formally– Archaisms (old-fashioned words) should be converted into standard Archaisms (old-fashioned words) should be converted into standard

EnglishEnglish

• Always check the number of marks available before you write Always check the number of marks available before you write your answer.your answer.

• Two marks may require:Two marks may require:– Four brief pointsFour brief points– Two detailed pointsTwo detailed points

• Pay close attention to the wording of the questions as these Pay close attention to the wording of the questions as these often provide a clear steer. often provide a clear steer.

Understanding the meaning…Understanding the meaning…ExampleExample

• Thinking of Grandpa now, I recall the clouds of Thinking of Grandpa now, I recall the clouds of pungent smoke that he puffed from his favourite pungent smoke that he puffed from his favourite briar, his small shrewd eyes, still very blue, and briar, his small shrewd eyes, still very blue, and the gleaming dome rising from fleecy tufts of the gleaming dome rising from fleecy tufts of white hairwhite hair

• Question – What three characteristics of Question – What three characteristics of Grandpa does the author remember?Grandpa does the author remember? 3 3

marksmarks

• AnswerAnswer• She remembers her grandfather smoked a strong-smelling She remembers her grandfather smoked a strong-smelling

pipe. He also had intelligent blue eyes and a bald head with a pipe. He also had intelligent blue eyes and a bald head with a little fluffy white hair.little fluffy white hair.

• Explanation / MethodExplanation / Method• Understanding of ‘briar’ – shown by using the word ‘pipe’Understanding of ‘briar’ – shown by using the word ‘pipe’• Metaphor ‘gleaming dome’ – simplified to bald headMetaphor ‘gleaming dome’ – simplified to bald head• Understanding of ‘shrewd’ – shown by using the word Understanding of ‘shrewd’ – shown by using the word

‘intelligent’‘intelligent’• ‘‘Grandpa’ is colloquial – more formal term ‘Grandfather’ is usedGrandpa’ is colloquial – more formal term ‘Grandfather’ is used• ‘‘Eyes’ is a common word, no obvious alternatives Eyes’ is a common word, no obvious alternatives

► Thinking of Grandpa now, I recall the clouds of pungent smoke that Thinking of Grandpa now, I recall the clouds of pungent smoke that he puffed from his favourite briar, his small shrewd eyes, still very he puffed from his favourite briar, his small shrewd eyes, still very blue, and the gleaming dome rising from fleecy tufts of white hairblue, and the gleaming dome rising from fleecy tufts of white hair

► Question – What three characteristics of Grandpa does the author Question – What three characteristics of Grandpa does the author

remember?remember? 3 marks3 marks

Context QuestionsContext Questions

• In “Context” questions, you will be asked to In “Context” questions, you will be asked to – explain the meaning of a word or phrase, explain the meaning of a word or phrase, – show how you deduced the meaning from its position in the text show how you deduced the meaning from its position in the text

by by quotingquoting clues in the sentences surrounding the word. You clues in the sentences surrounding the word. You must explain how they help to confirm the meaning.must explain how they help to confirm the meaning.

• If the context question is worth 2 marks, you will If the context question is worth 2 marks, you will generally be awarded 1 mark for getting the meaning generally be awarded 1 mark for getting the meaning right and 1 mark for the quoted piece of evidence with a right and 1 mark for the quoted piece of evidence with a brief explanation. brief explanation.

• It is usually possible and advisable to quote two pieces It is usually possible and advisable to quote two pieces of evidence (essential if the question is worth 3 marks).of evidence (essential if the question is worth 3 marks).

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Context Question ExampleContext Question Example

QuestionQuestion

• Show how the context helped you arrive at Show how the context helped you arrive at the meaning of the word the meaning of the word unsubstantiated.unsubstantiated.

2 marks2 marks

► The rumour that Douglas was a prisoner was The rumour that Douglas was a prisoner was still still unsubstantiated.unsubstantiated. There had been no There had been no witnesses to his bailing out of the plane, and witnesses to his bailing out of the plane, and no solid information could be expected from no solid information could be expected from beyond enemy lines for weeks, perhaps beyond enemy lines for weeks, perhaps even months.even months.

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Context Question ExampleContext Question Example

QuestionQuestion

• Show how the context helped you arrive at the meaning of the word Show how the context helped you arrive at the meaning of the word unsubstantiated.unsubstantiated. 2 marks2 marks

► The rumour that Douglas was a prisoner was still The rumour that Douglas was a prisoner was still unsubstantiated.unsubstantiated. There had been no witnesses to his bailing out There had been no witnesses to his bailing out of the plane, and no solid information could be expected from of the plane, and no solid information could be expected from beyond enemy lines for weeks, perhaps even months.beyond enemy lines for weeks, perhaps even months.

► AnswerAnswer► The word “unsubstantiated” means unconfirmed. (The word “unsubstantiated” means unconfirmed. (1 1

mark) mark) ► The context conveys this: “no witnesses” who could The context conveys this: “no witnesses” who could

say for sure the news was true (say for sure the news was true ( ½ mark ½ mark), and the ), and the phrase “no solid information” also repeats the idea phrase “no solid information” also repeats the idea of there being no firm proof. (of there being no firm proof. (½½ markmark))

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Link QuestionsLink Questions• Link questions test your understanding of Link questions test your understanding of

meaning, and structure of a text. You will be meaning, and structure of a text. You will be asked to show how a sentence provides a “link” in asked to show how a sentence provides a “link” in the progression of ideas. the progression of ideas.

• Usually, the “link” sentence will be at the beginning Usually, the “link” sentence will be at the beginning of a paragraph. Part of the sentence –will refer of a paragraph. Part of the sentence –will refer back to the previous topic and another part of the back to the previous topic and another part of the sentence will introduce the new topic which sentence will introduce the new topic which follows. follows.

• Such questions are usually worth 2 marks, Such questions are usually worth 2 marks, awarded for awarded for – correctly identifying the parts of the sentence that link correctly identifying the parts of the sentence that link

back and forward and back and forward and – the two topics to which they connectthe two topics to which they connect

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Link Question FormulaLink Question Formula

1.1. Quote any key Quote any key conjunctionsconjunctions that feature in that feature in the sentence and note their effect.the sentence and note their effect.

2.2. Quote Quote the part of the link sentence which the part of the link sentence which refers back to the earlier topic refers back to the earlier topic

3.3. Summarise the jist of this earlier topic (own Summarise the jist of this earlier topic (own words)words)

4.4. Quote Quote the part of the link sentence which the part of the link sentence which looks forward to the next topic looks forward to the next topic

5.5. Summarise the jist of this next topic (own Summarise the jist of this next topic (own words)words)

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Link Question ExampleLink Question Example

QuestionQuestion• Show how the third sentence acts as a link in the Show how the third sentence acts as a link in the

argument. argument. 2 marks2 marks

► William Shakespeare is easily the best-known of our William Shakespeare is easily the best-known of our English writers. Virtually every man in the street can English writers. Virtually every man in the street can name some of his plays and his characters, and many name some of his plays and his characters, and many people can also recite lines of his poetry by heart. people can also recite lines of his poetry by heart. However, despite our familiarity with his work, we However, despite our familiarity with his work, we know relatively little of the man himselfknow relatively little of the man himself. We do not . We do not know when or why he became an actor, we know know when or why he became an actor, we know nothing of his life in London, and almost nothing of his nothing of his life in London, and almost nothing of his personal concerns.personal concerns.

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Link Question ExampleLink Question Example

QuestionQuestion

• Show how the third sentence acts as a link in the argument. Show how the third sentence acts as a link in the argument. 2 marks2 marks

► William Shakespeare is easily the best-known of our English writers. William Shakespeare is easily the best-known of our English writers. Virtually every man in the street can name some of his plays and his Virtually every man in the street can name some of his plays and his characters, and many people can also recite lines of his poetry by characters, and many people can also recite lines of his poetry by heart. heart. However, despite our familiarity with his work, we know However, despite our familiarity with his work, we know relatively little of the man himselfrelatively little of the man himself. We do not know when or why he . We do not know when or why he became an actor, we know nothing of his life in London, and almost became an actor, we know nothing of his life in London, and almost nothing of his personal concerns.nothing of his personal concerns.

► AnswerAnswer► The conjunction “however” which begins the sentence suggests The conjunction “however” which begins the sentence suggests

a contrasting idea to follow. a contrasting idea to follow. (1 mark)(1 mark)► The phrase “our familiarity with his work” looks back at the topic The phrase “our familiarity with his work” looks back at the topic

of how widely know Shakespeare’s work is. (of how widely know Shakespeare’s work is. (1 mark) 1 mark) ► The second part of the sentence, “we know relatively little of the The second part of the sentence, “we know relatively little of the

man himself”, introduces the new topic, namely the things that man himself”, introduces the new topic, namely the things that are not known about Shakespeare, and a list of these follows this are not known about Shakespeare, and a list of these follows this “link” sentence.“link” sentence. (1 mark) (1 mark)

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Learning Intention:

• To re-familiarise with imagery

• To understand the steps to answering and imagery question

• To practise imagery questions

• To familiarise with other figures of speech necessary for Higher level.

Figures of SpeechFigures of Speech• Imagery (simile, metaphor, personificationImagery (simile, metaphor, personification) sight) sight• AlliterationAlliteration• OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia• PunPun• HyperboleHyperbole• Litotes (understatement) Litotes (understatement) • Euphemism Euphemism • ParadoxParadox• OxymoronOxymoron• JuxtapositionJuxtaposition• NeologismNeologism• ArchaismArchaism• Cliché Cliché

sound

Overstating understating talking in circles

Contrasts, opposites, contradictions

New, old and overused

Imagery QuestionsImagery Questions• These focus specifically on metaphor, simile These focus specifically on metaphor, simile

and personificationand personification

• Three things to consider with these questions:Three things to consider with these questions:– What is being compared to what? (figurative and

literal)– What qualities are similar between the two?– How does the comparison help you to visualise the

literal thing better and appreciate the writer’s point about it?

Imagery Question ExampleImagery Question Example

• From an extract discussing the disposal of nuclear waste.

• Explain how effective you find the metaphor ‘filthy brew’ (2 marks)

How, then, should the rulers of today warn future generations of the filthy brew that they have buried beneath their feet?

Imagery Question ExampleImagery Question Example

• Steps (Method)Steps (Method)• A store of nuclear waste is being compared to the disgusting concoction in a

witch’s cauldron.• Both are mixtures of unpleasant ingredients which are extremely harmful to

man.• The metaphor helps you appreciate the unpleasant and harmful nature of

the waste.

► How, then, should the rulers of today warn future generations of the filthy brew that they have buried beneath their feet?

► Explain how effective you find the metaphor ‘filthy brew’ (2 marks)

AnswerThe metaphor is very effective as “brew” has connotations of a poisonous concoction in a witch’s cauldron, made of disgusting ingredients. “Filthy” strengthens the sense of its revolting and disgusting nature. The metaphor helps the reader appreciate the unpleasant and harmful nature of the waste and its potential for having evil consequences for man.

Figures of Speech - SoundFigures of Speech - Sound• Alliteration: A series of words in which the same letter is repeated,

usually at the beginning of two or more words in order to create a particular effect.

• He carried a box of books up to the storeroom on the top floor of the building.

• There are three words beginning with “b” here but all of them are simple nouns and there does not appear to be any particular literary effect intended. However, when the travel writer Patrick Leigh-Fermor, describing a town in Holland, talks about the

• clip-clop of clogs on the cobblestones• the alliteration is clearly deliberate: you can almost hear the rhythmical

sound of the wooden shoes on the street.

Figures of Speech - SoundFigures of Speech - Sound• Onomatopoeia is a name given to words which imitate the sound they

are describing. Often used in conjunction with alliteration. As in the above quotation, alliteration helps to create an onomatopoeic effect. This is how D.H. Lawrence describes a snake drinking from a water trough in his poem Snake:

He sipped with his straight mouth,

Softly drank through his straight gums, into his slack long body,

Silently.• The alliteration of the letter “s” (also known as sibilance) creates a

“hissing” effect appropriate to a description of a snake.

Figures of Speech - SoundFigures of Speech - Sound• Pun: a play on words involving words which sound similar but have

different meanings. Usually the intended effect is humour

“Waiter!”

“Yes sir?”

“What’s this supposed to be?”

“It’s bean soup, sir.”

“I don’t care what it’s been. What is it now?”

Figures of Speech Figures of Speech overstating, understating, talking in circlesoverstating, understating, talking in circles

• Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration in order to emphasise the point being made – often for a humorous effect. The television presenter Clive James often uses this technique with great skill. He describes Marlon Brando as “Hollywood’s number one broody outcast” and says that:

• He could order a cheeseburger with fries and make it sound like a challenge to the Establishment.

• Extract from Fame in the Twentieth Century by Clive James


• Litotes is the opposite of hyperbole: deliberate understatement. In My Family and Other Animals, Gerald Durrell writes of his mother:

On Monday morning I found her in the garage being pursued round and round by an irate pelican which she was trying to feed with sardines from a tin.

“I’m glad you’ve come dear,” she panted, “this pelican is a little difficult to handle.”

• As with so many other figures of speech, hyperbole and litotes are not confined to writing but are often used in everyday conversation:

Isn’t there anything to drink? I’m dying of thirst! (Hyperbole)

The teacher wasn’t exactly overjoyed when I told her that I’d left my work at home. (Litotes)


• Euphemism: a way of making an unwelcome truth seem less harsh or unpleasant by dressing it up in inoffensive language. Many euphemisms are connected with the subject of death, e.g. saying “passed away” rather than “died”.

• Euphemisms are equally plentiful in the world of politics. One of the most famous examples came from the 1950s Prime Minister, Sir Anthony Eden, who once said “We are not at war with Egypt. We are in a state of armed conflict.”

Figures of Speech Figures of Speech contrasts, opposites and contradictions

• Paradox: a statement which appears to be a contradiction but which, on closer examination, does contain a truth.

For example, to preserve the peace, prepare for war • This seems to be a contradiction, but it is based on the “deterrent” idea

that if one side builds up its military strength then the enemy will not dare to attack, and thus peace will be maintained.

• The oft-quoted comment by Oscar Wilde is an example of paradox: “Nowadays people know the price of everything, and the value of nothing.”


• Oxymoron: a condensed form of paradox, in which two opposites are place side by side to heighten the effect of contrast.

• Edwin Muir’s poem The Horses ends with horses coming to a group of human survivors of a nuclear war and voluntarily allowing themselves to be used to plough the land: the poet describes their action as:

• “free servitude”.


• Juxtaposition simply means placing side by side. In the example of oxymoron, it could be said that the two opposites are placed in juxtaposition. A writer might deliberately place two sentences beside each other to highlight the contrast between them.

Dustin Hoffman became famous in the sixties in The Graduate playing a nervous young man who suspected that life in America was stacked against him. In the seventies he became more famous still as an even more nervous, slightly less young man, who knew that life in America was stacked against him.

Figures of Speech Figures of Speech new, old and overused

• Neologism: coining of a new word, usually to describe a recent development or invention for which an appropriate term does not exist.

microwave oven, filofax, sky plus, video-conferencing

• Archaism: denotes a word from the past which is no longer in current use, the opposite of neologism.

Arm thyself lightly, mount to horse, keep thy land, aid thy men, hurtle into the press. Thou needest not to strike another, neither to be smitten down.

• A writer may deliberately try to write in an archaic style in an attempt to recapture the feel of a historical period.

• Cliché: an expression which at one time might have been original but has now become overused,

• “in this day and age” or “as white as snow” are clichés and should be “avoided like the plague”

Tone

• Tone does not relate directly to meaning but rather to the way in which something is said. It refers to a particular attitude or feeling conveyed by the writer.

• In speech, the tone of voice used would make the speaker’s feelings clear. In writing, however, you must look at the word choice to find clues to the feeling or attitudes of the author.

Tone Varieties • humorous• flippant• informal and conversational • friendly• effusive• Irony• tongue-in-cheek • satirical • serious• formal, • Ponderous• Emotive

Humorous Tone

• If the writer is being light-hearted, or humorous in a straightforward way, shows the author finds his subject amusing and he hopes his reader will too.

• A light-hearted tone will often include informal and conversational language, (colloquialisms)

Flippant Tone (linked to humour)

• A flippant tone is where the author is showing an irreverent attitude to something normally taken seriously.

• An example is to be found in Philip Larkin’s poem Church Going, where the poet enters a church and describes the altar thus: “some brass and stuff, up at the holy end.”

• Here the use of colloquial and informal expressions conveys his lack of respect.

Conversational Tone

• A conversational tone describes a particularly chatty, friendly tone, as if the writer is confiding in a friend.

• An example is the narrative tone in the opening chapter of Sunset Song by Lewis Grassic Gibbon, where the writer is gossiping to his readers about his characters:

• “Chae…wasn’t the quarrelsome kind except when roused, so he was well-liked, though folk laughed at him. But God knows, who is it they don’t laugh at?”

Effusive or Persuasive

• Effusive tones are often filled with enthusiasm and are frequently used in advertising.

• A list of gushing superlatives would be an example of this.– Excessive or exaggerated praise

Ironic Tone

• Irony is the name given to the figure of speech where an author says the opposite of what he really means.

• This could be purely for humorous effect, but there is often a serious purpose behind irony. An author’s feelings can be expressed more forcefully for being inverted in this way.

Tongue-in-Cheek Tone

• A tongue-in-cheek tone is a form of irony: the writer will sound serious, but there will be a sense of ridicule behind this.

• Euphemism is a common feature of this tone. An example might be the expression “tired and emotional” to mean “drunk” which the satirical magazine Private Eye uses to avoid lawsuits from the prominent people whom it exposes.

Satirical Tone

• A satirical tone is an extreme form of irony, involving a writer being funny in a savage way: he holds a subject up to ridicule in order to attack it.

• This is the tone adopted by George Orwell in Animal Farm, for example, where he satirised Russian Communists by comparing them to pigs. The satirist’s purpose is deeply serious although on the surface he may appear light-hearted.

Irony – Identify the ironic phrases below• The Circumlocution Office was (as everybody knows without being told)

the most important Department under Government. No public business of any kind could possibly be done at any time, without the acquiescence of the Circumlocution Office. If another Gunpowder Plot had been discovered half an hour before the lighting of the match, nobody would have been justified in saving the parliament until there had been half a score of boards, half a bushel of minutes, several sacks of official memoranda, and a family-vault full of ungrammatical correspondence, on the part of the Circumlocution Office.

• This glorious establishment had been early in the field, when the one sublime principle involving the difficult art of governing a country, was first distinctly revealed to statesmen. It had been foremost to study that bright revelation, and to carry its shining influence through the whole of the official proceedings. Whatever was required to be done, the Circumlocution Office was beforehand with all the public departments in the art of perceiving – HOW NOT TO DO IT.

• Through this delicate perception, through the tact with which it invariably seized it, and through the genius with which it always acted on it, the Circumlocution Office had risen to overtop all the public departments…

Serious Tones

• A serious tone is obviously used for serious purposes, on solemn occasions: a funeral speech, for example.

• Look out for formal, or ponderous phrases

Emotive Tones• An emotive tone is used for serious purposes. It aims to stir up

emotions in the reader, by shocking, angering or disturbing them by using words or expressions expressing extreme emotions.

• Example: sports journalist criticising the tension at a Rangers/Celtic match:

• Nowhere else on the planet do footballers perform in front of vast crowds so full of bile, hatred and bigotry. I have yet to find another place on the planet where a sporting occasion includes a ritual singing of some ditty celebrating a distant battle which took place 307 years ago.

• Here the writes uses repetition, and hyperbole: “on the planet”; he uses words expressing extremes: “vast”, and strong emotions: “bile, hatred, bigotry”. He uses so called “loaded” words: for example, “some ditty” implies a sense of contempt.

Identify the ways the writer has used emotive language

• Why Tonya the wicked witch is still running from her past

• She answers the door of her rented house like a fugitive, her eyes nervously scanning the empty street. Tonya Harding cannot disguise the fact that she is a young woman on the run from a notorious past.

• Her probation may have ended six months ago but she is discovering that, although she recently fled her old neighbourhood in Portland, Oregon, the scent of scandal clings to her like cheap perfume.

• Almost four years ago, Harding became the most loathed and vilified sportswoman in the world when she was implicated in the violent plot to cripple Nancy Kerrigan, her American rival for Olympic figure skating glory. It was a crime motivated by monstrous greed and an assault so cowardly that even now, with the next Winter Olympics fast approaching, Americans turn crimson with shame at the mention of her name.

Tonya Example Answers

• ‘wicked witch’ evokes hatred, alliteration adds to the impact, and witch connotes a more than human degree of evil.

• ‘like a fugitive’ , ‘nervously scanning’ and ‘on the run’ create the impression of furtiveness making the reader dislike Tonya. ‘Notorious past’ hints at further wickedness.

• ‘the scent of scandal clings like cheap perfume’ metaphor simile combination, gives the impression that Tonya is common and low class.

Tone Question Steps

• Identify the tone

• Quote words or phrases and punctuation that helped you to identify the tone

• Explain how these conveyed the tone used by the author by referring to the connotations of the words.

• Comment on any figures of speech which re-enforce the tone.

Tone Question 1: Identify the tone and explain how the writer achieves this.

• Hulk goes into action against the heavies, flinging them about in slow motion. Like Bionic Woman, Six Million Dollar Man and Wonderwoman, Hulk does his action numbers at glacial speed. Emitting slow roars of rage, Hulk runs very slowly towards the enemy, who slowly attempt to make their escape. But no matter how slowly they run, Hulk runs more slowly. Slowly he picks them up, gradually bangs their heads together, and with a supreme burst of lethargy throws them through the side of a building.

• Hardly have the bricks floated to the ground before Hulk is changing back into spindly David Banner, with a sad cello weeping on the soundtrack. One thinks of Frankenstein’s monster or the Hunchback of Notre Dame. One thinks of King Kong. One thinks one is being had. Why can’t the soft twit cut the soul-searching and just enjoy his ability to swell up and clobber the foe? But David is in quest of “a way to control the raging spirit that dwells within him.” Since the series could hardly continue if he finds it, presumably he will be a long time on the trail.

Tone Answer 1• Tone is humorous throughout by mocking the

absurd techniques used in the TV show: slow motion to represent action.

• ‘action numbers at glacial speed’, ‘supreme burst of lethargy’ – employs a list of oxymorons to emphasise the ridiculousness:

• ‘heavies’, ‘sad cello weeping on the sound track’, mocking the clichés of the genre

• ‘why can’t the soft twit…’ Uses colloquialisms to express his frustration at the silliness of the plot

• Contrast of his down to earth language: ‘clobber the for’ with the pretentious programme language: ‘in quest of the way to control the raging spirit’

• ‘he will be a long time on trial’ - Ironic final statement

Sentence StructureSentence Structure

►These questions cover the following:These questions cover the following:►Sentence TypesSentence Types►PunctuationPunctuation► InversionInversion►RepetitionRepetition►Climax and Anti-ClimaxClimax and Anti-Climax►AntithesisAntithesis►Long and short sentencesLong and short sentences

Sentence TypesSentence Types

►CommandCommand►Question (and rhetorical questions –Question (and rhetorical questions –

persuasion)persuasion)►ExclamationExclamation►StatementStatement► minor sentence (no verb: creates impact minor sentence (no verb: creates impact

and informality)and informality)

PunctuationPunctuation►Exclamation markExclamation mark►Question markQuestion mark►Comma (lists, of marks complex Comma (lists, of marks complex

sentences with multiple clauses, most sentences with multiple clauses, most subtle form of parenthesis)subtle form of parenthesis)

►Two dashes (parenthesis)Two dashes (parenthesis)►Brackets (informal, marks parenthesis)Brackets (informal, marks parenthesis)

Parenthesis is extra, non-essential, Parenthesis is extra, non-essential, information that is separated in the midst information that is separated in the midst of a sentence by the punctuation above. If of a sentence by the punctuation above. If you remove it from the sentence it will you remove it from the sentence it will still make sense. still make sense.

PunctuationPunctuation

► Inverted commas (indicates titles, spoken Inverted commas (indicates titles, spoken words, quotations and to highlight individual words, quotations and to highlight individual words or phrases)words or phrases)

► Colon (introduces quotation, list or explanation)Colon (introduces quotation, list or explanation)► Semi-colon (separates closely linked clauses, Semi-colon (separates closely linked clauses,

marks balance or contrast in a sentence, marks balance or contrast in a sentence, used used in lists to separate phrases or clauses)in lists to separate phrases or clauses)

► Single dash (works like a colon, creates a Single dash (works like a colon, creates a pause)pause)

InversionInversion►Normal order in a sentence is for the Normal order in a sentence is for the

subject to come first, followed by words subject to come first, followed by words that tell us more about it (the predicate)that tell us more about it (the predicate) Flames leapt up and upFlames leapt up and up

► Inversion is when the this order is Inversion is when the this order is distorteddistorted Up and up leapt the flamesUp and up leapt the flames

►This is the technique of delaying the This is the technique of delaying the subject and it is referred to as inversionsubject and it is referred to as inversion

►Tends to be used in shorter sentences to Tends to be used in shorter sentences to place emphasis on a particular words at place emphasis on a particular words at the start or end of the sentence. the start or end of the sentence.

RepetitionRepetition

►This can be of individual words or This can be of individual words or phrasesphrases

►At Higher level, look out for At Higher level, look out for the openings of sentences being repeated the openings of sentences being repeated The word andThe word and

Climax and Anti-ClimaxClimax and Anti-Climax

►Climax, building up to the most Climax, building up to the most important/dramatic pointimportant/dramatic point

►Anti-climax, building up to an Anti-climax, building up to an expected expected important/dramatic point which either important/dramatic point which either falls flat or does not then feature at all.falls flat or does not then feature at all.

AntithesisAntithesis

►The balance of opposites to create a The balance of opposites to create a contrast:contrast: Those that I fight, I do not hate; those that Those that I fight, I do not hate; those that

I guard, I do not love. I guard, I do not love. Ask not what your country can do for you, Ask not what your country can do for you,

but what you can do for your countrybut what you can do for your country You can take the boy out of Liverpool, but You can take the boy out of Liverpool, but

you can’t take the Liverpool out of the you can’t take the Liverpool out of the boy. boy.

Long and Short SentencesLong and Short Sentences

►Long sentences: often formal, can Long sentences: often formal, can build tension or build up an argumentbuild tension or build up an argument

►Short sentences: informal, used to Short sentences: informal, used to create drama or impactcreate drama or impact

Sentence Structure StepsSentence Structure Steps

►Step One: identify the aspect of Step One: identify the aspect of sentence structure or punctuationsentence structure or punctuation

►Step Two: explain why it has been Step Two: explain why it has been used, linking this to the used, linking this to the contentcontent of the of the passagepassage

►Step Three: relate back to the questionStep Three: relate back to the question

Sentence Structure Question 1Sentence Structure Question 1Identify an aspect of sentence structure and Identify an aspect of sentence structure and explain what the writer achieves by using itexplain what the writer achieves by using it

►Let every nation know, whether it Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and any foe to assure the survival and success of liberty. success of liberty.

Sentence Structure Answer 1Sentence Structure Answer 1

► Repetition of the expressions used in a list Repetition of the expressions used in a list format. The word ‘any is always preceded format. The word ‘any is always preceded by a verb and followed by noun. This adds by a verb and followed by noun. This adds momentum to the speech and helps it to momentum to the speech and helps it to sound convincing. sound convincing.

► A climax is used as the statements are A climax is used as the statements are placed in ascending order building to the placed in ascending order building to the most important point about defending the most important point about defending the rights of the individuals in the country. rights of the individuals in the country.

► Antithesis is used relating to the Antithesis is used relating to the statements of ‘support’ and ‘oppose’, and statements of ‘support’ and ‘oppose’, and ‘friend’ and ‘foe’ to indicate how dedicated ‘friend’ and ‘foe’ to indicate how dedicated to the cause the speaker is. to the cause the speaker is.

Sentence Structure Question 2Sentence Structure Question 2 Identify an aspect of sentence structure and Identify an aspect of sentence structure and explain what the writer achieves by using itexplain what the writer achieves by using it►The second and the third day passed, The second and the third day passed,

and still my tormentor came not. and still my tormentor came not. Once again I breathed as a free man. Once again I breathed as a free man. The monster, in terror, had fled the The monster, in terror, had fled the premises for ever! I should behold it premises for ever! I should behold it no more! My happiness was supreme!no more! My happiness was supreme!

Sentence Structure Answer 2Sentence Structure Answer 2► Series of exclamations, aiming to show the Series of exclamations, aiming to show the

relief that the speaker is feeling at having relief that the speaker is feeling at having been left alonebeen left alone

► Inversion is used to delay the revelation that Inversion is used to delay the revelation that the tormentor had not been back: the tormentor had not been back: ‘tormentor came not’, thus emphasising the ‘tormentor came not’, thus emphasising the relief. relief.

► Parenthesis is used ‘in terror’ showing that Parenthesis is used ‘in terror’ showing that actually the creature itself had left in a state actually the creature itself had left in a state that shows it would be unlikely for it to that shows it would be unlikely for it to return. return.

Higher Close Reading 40% Understanding the meaning… These questions test your basic understanding...

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